AOTP

VOLUME 3
UPDATE

Opiate trafficking
along the early stages
of the Balkan route

KAHRAMANMARAS BATMAN SIIRT VAN

ADIYAMAN DIYARBAKIR
SIRNAK AZARBAYJAN-E-SHARQI ARDABIL
MARDIN
OSMANIYE
TURKEY SANLIURFA
HAKKÂRI
ADANA GAZIANTEP
IÇEL DAHUK GILAN

KILIS AZARBAYJAN-E-GHARBI

HATAY AL HASAKAH ZANJAN

HALAB
ARBIL
NINAWÁ QAZVIN
AR RAQQAH
IDLIB IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)
AL LADHIQIYAH KORDESTAN
AS SULAYMANIYAH HAMADAN
AT TA'MIM
DAYR AZ ZAWR
HAMAH
TARTUS
SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

MARKAZI
KERMANSHAH
SALAH AD DIN
HIMS
LEBANON
DIYALÁ
IRAQ
RIF DIMASHQ
DIMASHQ
BAGHDAD LORESTAN
AL ANBAR
AL QUNAYTIRAH ILAM
DAR'A ESFAHAN
AS SUWAYDA'
ISRAEL BABIL WASIT
KARBALA'

WEST JORDAN
BANK
AL QADISIYAH MAYSAN
KHUZESTAN

JORDAN DHI QAR

Heroin seizures (kg) Reported by official sources AN NAJAF

January 2015 – June 2019 Reported by media sources

Provinces of main transit AL BASRAH
≤1 area for the opiate trade AL MUTHANNÁ

2 - 10 Opiates trafficking route

11 - 100 Airport
KUWAIT
101 - 1,000 Railroad SAUDI ARABIA
Road
1,001 - 9,000

Research DECEMBER 2019

AOTP

About the AOTP Update Tablet of Conents

About the Afghan Opiate Trade Project
The opiates produced in Afghanistan continue to pose
a threat to public health, governance and security in the
region and beyond at global level. Trafficked to almost
every continent worldwide, in 2018 the opiate economy in
Afghanistan was valued at between $1.2 and US$2.2 billion
and was worth between 6 and 11 per cent of Afghanistan’s
GDP, exceeding the value of the country’s officially recorded
licit exports of goods and services. To address the need for
systematic monitoring, comprehensive and consolidated
analytical information about the multidimensional threat
of the global illicit trade in Afghan opiates, the UNODC
Afghan Opiate Trade Project (AOTP) was established in
2008. The project has produced a number of regional and
global threat assessment reports and has been collaborating
extensively with numerous national and regional policy
making bodies and law enforcement agencies to provide
the international community with a better understanding
of the threat posed by the opiates produced in Afghanistan.
About the AOTP Update
The AOTP Update series is designed to provide brief,
regular reporting on emerging patterns and trends of the
global situation pertaining to Afghan opiates. Given the
speed at which changes in the illicit opiate markets occur,
it is important to have a simple sustainable mechanism for
regular information sharing.
Opiate trafficking along the early stages
of the Balkan route 3
Introduction 3
Methodology  3
Historical context 3
Morphine seizures 6
Opium seizures 6
Acetic Anhydride seizures in Turkey 7
Turkey and opiate trafficking through 7
the Caucasus region 
Purity of seized heroin  8
Iraq and Syria emerging as a potential 8
opiate trafficking hub?
Illicit opium production in Iraq 10
Heroin seizures in Iraq 10
Seizures close to Turkey-Syrian border 10
Trafficking from Turkey to Eastern Europe and 10
the Balkans
Open questions 12
Increasing level of morphine seizures 12
outside Afghanistan
Opiate cases 14
UNODC regional groupings
for the purpose of this report: 14

UNODC acknowledges the financial contribution of the United States of America for this issue.
UNODC Research and Trend Analysis Branch (RAB) reiterates its appreciation and gratitude to UNODC field
offices, Member States and partner agencies for the data and information that provide the basis of this publication.

AOTP values feedback on this publication. If you have comments or would like to contribute information that could
be considered for future publications, please contact:
Afghan Opiate Trade Project (AOTP),
Programme Development and Management Unit (PDMU),
Research and Trend Analysis Branch (RAB),
Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs (DPA),
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
PO Box 500, 1400 Vienna, Austria.

Information on the Afghan Opiate Trade Project and its research products can be found via
the internet at https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/aotp.html.
Disclaimer
This publication has not been formally edited. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or
policies of UNODC or contributory organizations, nor does it imply any endorsement.
Suggested citation: UNODC, Global AOTP Research Update Volume 3, December 2019.

2

Opiate trafficking along the early stages
of the Balkan route
Introduction
Afghanistan continues to be the major
global source of opium production.
While heroin is primarily produced in
Afghanistan, it is possible that heroin
production also takes place outside
Afghanistan1. The opiates produced
in Afghanistan are trafficked to every
region of the world except Latin Amer-
ica. The Balkan route continues to play
a major role in supplying opiates to the
markets in Islamic Republic of Iran,
Turkey, Caucasus region, part of the
Middle East and Europe.
This Short Update is intended to
provide an update on the latest devel-
opments in the early stages of the
Balkan route from Afghanistan to
Turkey, including latest developments
in Iraq, Syria and selected countries in
Europe related to the Afghan opiate
trade.
Methodology
The data and information used in this
report come from primary and second-
ary sources. Meetings were held with
relevant law enforcement officials
in the field. The information from
primary sources is supplemented by
secondary sources such as the Annual
Report Questionnaires (ARQ), Indi-
vidual Drug Seizures (IDS), the
UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform
(DMP), reports published by national
and international organizations, the
UNODC World Drug Report and
other relevant reports.
Historical context
The Balkan route via Turkey and the
Islamic Republic of Iran, the dominant
heroin trafficking route to Europe,
has been used for decades2. However,
the sources of heroin for the Balkan
route have changed over the past 40
years.3 During the 1980s, most of the
1 EUROPOL and EMCDDA “EU Drug
Markets Report: A Strategic Analysis”, 2013,
pages 27-28 AND UNODC / Government
of Afghanistan, “Afghanistan Opium Survey
Report 2018”, page 42.
2 UNODC World Drug Report 2017, Executive
Summary, page 18.
3 The Opium Economy in Afghanistan: An
Fig. 1: Opium Production in Afghanistan, 1980-2000
7,000
6,000
5,000
Metric Tons
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
1980
1981
1982
Source: UNODC The Opium Economy in Afghanistan: An International Problem, 2003.
heroin consumed in Europe appears
to have been trafficked from South
East Asia (mainly Myanmar and
Lao PDR), with the share of Afghan
opium in global opium production
standing at around 30 percent in the
mid-1980s. During the early 1990s,
with an increase in the production of
opium, Afghanistan started to emerge
as the main source of illicit opium and
heroin in the world. In 2003, most of
the European countries reported that
between 80 to 90 percent of the opiate
that entered their territory could be
traced back to Afghanistan4. The
increases in Afghan opium production
coincided with unrest and civil war in
Afghanistan and research shows that
the opium trade was used as a funding
source for several groups involved in
the civil war5, 6. In 2001, the Taliban
regime banned opium cultivation,
but subsequently opium production
in Afghanistan gradually increased to
International Problem”, 2003, (https://www.
unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
afg_opium_economy_2003.pdf )
4 UNODC “The Opium Economy in Afghani-
stan: An International Problem”, 2003, (https://
www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
afg_opium_economy_2003.pdf ), page 33
5 “Bandits, Borderlands and Opium Wars:
Afghan State-building Viewed from the
Margins”, Danish Institute for Interna-
tional Studies, Working Paper 2009:26,
page 12 (https://www.econstor.eu/bit-
stream/10419/44703/1/615075703.pdf )
6 “How Opium Profits the Taliban”, United
States Institute of Peace, 2009.
VOLUME 3
Other countries
Aghanistan
79%
52% 70%
41%
31%
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
reach 82 percent of global opium pro-
duction in 20187.
At the beginning of the 1990s, paral-
lel to the civil war in Afghanistan, the
Yugoslav wars started in South East
Europe, lasting for about a decade.
Conditions of political instability,
social disorder, and economic chaos
created a favourable environment for
the expansion and development of
corrupt and criminal practices and
the emergence of criminal groups
involved in a range of illicit trades,
including drug trafficking. By the end
of 2001, the wars in the Balkans had
ended but organized crime remained a
profitable business for well-connected
Balkan criminal networks, which were
partly also built on the large diasporas
in other parts of Europe8 9. In paral-
lel to the civil wars and instability in
both South East Europe and Afghan-
istan, the Balkan route increased in
importance for drug traffickers. The
final destination of the majority of
the heroin trafficked via the Balkan
route is Europe (excluding Russian
Federation).
The last (2009-2012) UNODC
7 UNODC World Drug Report 2019, Booklet 2,
page 44.
8 “Mafia Links between the Balkans and Scan-
dinavia. State of Affairs”, Albertini, M. The
Romanian Journal for Baltic and Nordic Stud-
ies, V.4, Issue 2, 2012, pages 111-150.
9 UNODC “The Illicit Drug Trade Through
South-Eastern Europe”, 2014.
3
AOTP
Map 1: Main heroin seizure amounts and locations in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Iran,
Turkey and Iraq, January 2015-June 2019
ROMANIA
Black Sea
BULGARIA
TURKEY
SYRIAN ARAB
Mediterranean Sea CYPRUS
LEBANON
Heroin seizures (kg)
January 2015 - June 2019
≤ 10 ISRAEL
JORDAN
11 - 100
101 - 1,000
> 1,000
Reported by official sources
EGYPT
Reported by media sources
Road Red Sea
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The
dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
Source: UNODC Drugs Monitoring Platform (http://drugsmonitoring.unodc-roca.org/) and Individual Drug Seizures (IDS) reported by
the Member States and open sources.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted
line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
estimates of the volume of heroin
trafficked via the Balkan route used
a demand-based approach, based on
the estimated heroin consumption
in West and Central Europe. While
these estimates do not account for
the recent increased production in
Afghanistan, they provide the order
of magnitude of the quantities that
may transit in the Balkan route. They
suggest that between 2009-2012, on
an annual basis on average 155 tons
of illicit opiates in pure heroin equiva-
lents entered the Islamic Republic of
Iran10 and that between 42.3 and 59.1
tons of illicit opiates were trafficked
from the Islamic Republic of Iran to
Turkey11. Over the period 2009-2012,
UNODC estimates suggest that on an
annual basis 170 tons of pure heroin
equivalent (consumption plus seizures)
were trafficked from Afghanistan to
the Balkan route12. Over the same
period, 111 tons of Afghan opiates
(expressed in pure heroin equivalents)
were estimated to have been consumed
each year in the Islamic Republic of
10 UNODC “Drug Money: the illicit proceeds of
opiates trafficked on the Balkan route”, 2015,
page 11.
11 UNODC “Drug Money: the illicit proceeds of
opiates trafficked on the Balkan route”, 2015,
page 11.
12 UNODC “Drug Money: the illicit proceeds of
opiates trafficked on the Balkan route”, 2015,
page 25.
4
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
GEORGIA Caspian Sea
ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN
REPUBLIC
IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)
IRAQ
KUWAIT
Pe
rs
ia
n
G
ul
BAHRAIN
f
SAUDI ARABIA
QATAR
Iran, Turkey, the Balkan route coun-
tries and West and Central Europe.
This included 52 tons of opiates con-
sumed in the Islamic Republic of
Iran, 0.7 tons in Turkey, 4 tons in the
South-Eastern Europe and 55 tons per
year in the West and Central European
consumer countries.13
Current estimates suggest that there
may have been some 1.7 million opiate
users in West and Central Europe in
2017.14 Available indicators suggest
that overall heroin consumption and
prevalence rate in main European mar-
kets may have been stable at a relatively
low level during the years 2009-2015
compared to the periods 2003-2008
and 2016-2017 which showed higher
prevalence rate15.
Heroin entry and exit points from
Iran to Turkey
Heroin enters the Islamic Republic
of Iran directly from Afghanistan
or via Pakistan. In 2010, around 65
percent of the heroin entering the
Islamic Republic of Iran was reported
to have been trafficked via the
Afghanistan–Pakistan route and the
13 UNODC “Drug Money: the illicit proceeds of
opiates trafficked on the Balkan route”, 2015,
page 28.
14 UNODC World Drug Report 2019 and previ-
ous years.
15 UNODC World Drug Report 2019, booklet 3,
page 21.
KAZAKHSTAN
UZBEKISTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
TURKMENISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
CHINA
Jammu and
Kashmir
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
INDIA
UNITED
ARAB
EMIRATES Gulf of Oman
OMAN
rest, 35 percent, trafficked directly via
Afghanistan–Islamic Republic of Iran
borders16. Over the period 2010-2017,
the Islamic Republic of Iran reported
that, on average on an annual basis, 73
percent of heroin entered Iran via Paki-
stan (Afghanistan–Pakistan–Islamic
Republic of Iran) and 27 percent
directly from Afghanistan17.
The provincial seizures of opiates in
the Islamic Republic of Iran in 2017
show that most opiate was seized in the
Sistan va Baluch­istan province, bor-
dering Pakistan’s Baluchistan province
and Afghanistan’s Nimroz province (a
province which also has a high Baluch
tribal popu­lation). In 2017, the prov-
ince with the second highest amount
of opiate seizures was Kerman, which
borders Sistan va Baluchistan.
The map 1 indicates the loca­tion of
heroin seizures made in Afghanistan,
the Islamic Republic of Iran, Paki-
stan, Turkey and Iraq between 2015
and 2019 as recorded in the UNODC
Drug Monitoring Platform.
Such seizure data indicate that heroin
enters the Islamic Republic of Iran
mostly by land and mainly from
southern Afghanistan (i.e. Helmand,
Nimroz and Kandahar provinces) and
16 UNODC “The Global Afghan Opiate Trade: A
Threat Assessment”, 2011, page 39.
17 ARQs 2010-2017 of Islamic Republic of Iran.
 VOLUME 3

Map 2: Opiate seizures and possible entry and exit points for production levels in Afghanistan,
opiates in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Islamic Republic of the relationship between trends in
Iran, 2015-2019 opium production in Afghanistan
Black Sea GEORGIA
RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
KAZAKHSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN and heroin seizures in Turkey is not
KARS ARMENIA UZBEKISTAN
always linear. Changes in seizures can
AZERBAIJAN
reflect a number of different devel-
ERZURUM

ERZINCAN
SIVAS AGRi TURKMENISTAN
TURKEY Caspian Sea
opments, including changes in law
MUS
ELAZiG BITLIS TAJIKISTAN
DIYARBAKIR
VAN
AZARBAYJAN-

enforcement priorities or changes in

HAKKÂRI GOLESTAN
SANLiURFA MARDIN E-SHARQI
GILAN
AZARBAYJAN-
E-GHARBI BALKH

SYRIAN
KORDESTAN
ZANJAN QAZVIN MAZANDARAN

SEMNAN
KHORASAN-E RAZAVI
FARYAB

BADGHIS
drug trafficking practices and routes.
In the case of Turkey, however, there is
ARAB REPUBLIC QOM BAMYAN
KERMANSHAH
MARKAZI GHOR

HERAT DAYKUNDI

IRAQ ILAM
LORESTAN ESFAHAN
IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF) AFGHANISTAN
GHAZNI
a clear relationship between increases
in production in Afghanistan and
JORDAN YAZD KHORASAN-E JANUBI
FARAH ZABUL

KHUZESTAN
NIMROZ
KANDAHAR
HELMAND

increases in opiates seized in Turkey

KERMAN

FARS

Opiates seizures (kg)

KUWAIT
in the following year.20
As shown in Figure 2, increases in
BALOCHISTAN
Pe

January 2015 - June 2019 SISTAN VA BALUCHESTAN

rs

HORMOZGAN
ia
n

≤ 100
G

PAKISTAN

heroin seizures in Turkey are visible

ul
f

101 - 500 SINDH

BAHRAIN
SAUDI ARABIA

in the year after opium production

501 - 1,000 QATAR
1,001 - 10,000 Gulf of Oman

> 10,000 UNITED ARAB

EMIRATES increased in Afghanistan, while the
Opiates trafficking route OMAN

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
reverse is true for decreases. However,
Source: UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform and information provided by the national there have been occasions where the
authorities and open sources..
change in the level of seizures has
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official
endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. lagged more than a year21: for instance,
the decrease in opium production in
Afghanistan after 2007, which at the
Fig. 2: Changes in heroin seizures in Turkey and opium production time was the record year for produc-
in Afghanistan, with a one-year time lag on data reported
from Turkey (Year 2000 = 1) tion, was not reflected in reduced
3.5 heroin seizures in Turkey until 2009.
3 Heroin is mainly trafficked by land
from the Islamic Republic of Iran to
2.5
Turkey. Some Drug Trafficking Organ­
2 isations (DTOs) use rather creative
1.5 and/or sophisticated concealment
1 methods to traffic heroin to Turkey and
via Turkey to Europe: for example, on
0.5
23 January 2019, 1.5 tons22 of heroin
0 (which is a historical individual heroin
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018

seizure record in Turkey) was seized

Heroin seizures in Turkey (index, t-1) hidden inside marble blocks in a truck
Potential opium production in Afghanistan (index) coming from the Islamic Republic of
Iran. On 5 December 2018, another
Note: The figure shows changes in production relative to the year 2000, which has the value 1. The
time series for Turkey is shifted by one year, the value of Turkey presented for the year 2000 is the index large heroin seizure of 1.2 tons23 was
value of the year 2001. This highlights the correlation between opium production in Afghanistan and
heroin seizures in Turkey in the following year. made from a truck that entered east-
ern Turkey from the Islamic Republic
Source: Turkey ARQs 2000-2017, Turkish National Police (2018), and MCN/UNODC
Opium Surveys 2000-2018. of Iran with heroin hidden inside the
meat and other organs of animals24.
The Turkish National Police employs
that the routes are: via the Pakistan across the Islamic Republic of Iran,
province of Balochistan to the Iranian the majority of the heroin trafficked
20 Opium production estimates and reported
province of Sistan va Baluchistan; into Turkey enters the country mainly amounts of heroin seizures of the same year
directly via the Afghan province of through Hakkari, Van, Agri and Igdir have a correlation coefficient (Pearson) of
0.66. With a one-year time lag of heroin sei-
Nimroz to the Iranian province of provinces18. zures, the correlation coefficient increases to
Sistan va Baluchistan; directly via the In 2018, Turkey reportedly seized a 0.76.
21 “Amped in Ankara: The drug trade and drug
Afghan province of Herat to the Ira- record level of 18.5 tons of heroin19. policy in Turkey from the 1950’s through today”,
nian province of Khorassan-e Razavi; While this coincides with high opium Chengiz, M. The Brookings Institution, 2016,
page 3.
and, to a lesser extent, via the Farah
18 Meeting with Turkish Narcotics Police, 22 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
province of Afghanistan to the Ira-
Ankara, April 2019. 23 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
nian province of Khorassan-e Janubi. 19 Preliminary figures reported by the Turkish 24 Information provided by the Turkish National
Following the trafficking of heroin National Police to UNODC. Police, February 2019.

5
AOTP

several methods to profile vehicles Fig. 3: Morphine seizures in Turkey, 1990-2018 (kg)
crossing the border from the Islamic
Republic of Iran. In addition to 9,000
Morphine seizure
physical barriers and a large law 8,000
enforcement network, other security 7,000
measures have also been put in place. 6,000
For example, the Gendarmerie of 5,000
the Turkish Republic has rolled-out
4,000
an automatic number plate recogni-
tion (ANPR) system, each linked to 3,000

the Jandarma surveillance databases 2,000

(part of the Jandarma Integrated 1,000
Communications and Information 0

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
System-JEMUS)25. In 2018, out of the
total heroin seized in Turkey, 537 kg
(3 percent) was made by Turkish Cus- Source: Turkey ARQ and Turkish Narcotics Police.
toms26. Although this figure may look
low, it is broadly in line with global
patterns. In 2015, for example, only Fig. 4: Opium seizures in Turkey, 2013-2018 (kg)
7 percent of the total heroin seizures
were made by customs organizations 1,000
Opium seizure 934
worldwide27. 900

In 2016, Turkey reported the possibil- 800

ity of some heroin trafficking to Turkey 700 709

via the Makran Coast, the Red Sea and
the Mediterranean – i.e. via the South-
ern Route - using small boats to make
landfall in Turkey from larger ships,
and for onward trafficking of heroin,
by land to Europe28. In part this may
be a response to increased security and
disruption to traditional land-based
trafficking through Turkey and along
the Balkan Route. It could also be an
indication of the increasing use of
maritime trafficking due to limited
barriers as compared to overland traf-
ficking routes, as well as the increase in
border protection and control at differ-
ent borders along the Balkan route and
particularly between Islamic Republic
of Iran and Turkey 29, 30.
25 “The International Association of Gendarmaries
and Police Forces with Military Status” http://
www.fiep.org/member-forces/turkish-gendar-
merie/
26 Meeting with Turkish Customs, Ankara, Feb-
ruary 2019.
27 “Illicit Trade Report, 2015” World Customs
Organization (WCO), http://www.wcoomd.
org/-/media/wco/public/global/pdf/topics/
enforcement-and-compliance/activities-and-
programmes/illicit-trade-report/itr_2015_
en.pdf?db=web
28 Turkey ARQ 2016.
29 UNODC “Global Study on the smuggling of
migrants” 2018.
30 https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/wall-set-
to-improve-security-along-turkey-iranian-
border-21485
600
500
400
300
211
200
160
100
0
2013 2014
Source: Turkey ARQ and Turkish Narcotics Police.
Morphine seizures
In 2018, Turkey reported total seizures
of 354 kg of morphine31, the highest
amount seized since 2007 (the high-
est ever seized amount dates back to
2002 with 7,889 kg). During the late
1990s and early 2000s, large quanti-
ties of morphine were seized in Turkey,
pointing to the possible presence of
heroin labs in the country. Amongst
other factors, improved Turkish law
enforcement activity during the
2000s32 may have reduced the number
of labs in Turkey, subsequently reduc-
ing the amount of morphine trafficked
into the country. According to the
Turkish National Police33, there are
31 Preliminary figures reported by the Turkish
National Police, 2018.
32 “Amped in Ankara: The Drug trade and drug
policy in Turkey from the 1950’s through today”,
Chengiz, M. The Brookings Institution, 2016.
33 Meeting with Turkish Narcotics Police,
Ankara, April 2019.
586
337
2015 2016 2017 2018
currently some active heroin labs in
the Iraq–Iran–Turkey border area but
the capacity of these labs seems to be
limited. However, the possible pres-
ence of labs in this area might account
for continued small-scale morphine
trafficking.
Opium seizures
Based on the quantities seized, Turkey
is not considered an important tran-
sit country for opium trafficking.
Although in recent years Turkey has
seen an increase in opium seizures, the
amounts remain small, amounting to
less than a ton of opium annually. In
2018, Turkish drug law enforcement
agencies reported a total of 709 kg of
opium seized, a 25 percent decrease
compared to the peak of 934 kg in
201734. Opium arrives in Turkey from
34 Turkey ARQs 2013-2017 and meeting with
Turkish National Police, Ankara, February

6
 VOLUME 3

Table 1: Significant heroin seizures in the Caucasus region and Eastern Europe, 2014-2019

LOCATION NATIONALITY
AMOUNT LAST
YEAR DESTINATION OF ARRESTED
OF SEIZURES (KG) DEPARTURE LOCATION
PERSON
2013 Georgia 116 Armenia Europe
Turkish &
Armenia 850 I.R. of Iran Georgia- Europe
2014 Georgian
Georgia 2530 Azerbaijan Turkey Georgian
Bulgaria 42 Georgia Europe Turkish
2015
Romania 333 Azerbaijan, Turkey, Ukraine Europe NA
2016 Azerbaijan 500 I.R. of Iran Belgium Belarussian
2017 Armenia 105 I.R. of Iran Georgia- Europe Turkish
Azerbaijan 515 Middle East Europe NA

Nakhchivan Autonomous
Azerbaijan 105 Turkey NA
2018 Republic

Azerbaijan 260 I.R. of Iran NA Azerbaijani

Azerbaijan 108 I.R. of Iran Turkey NA
Azerbaijan 933 I.R. of Iran Ukraine Azerbaijani
2019
Azerbaijan 304 I.R. of Iran Ukraine Ukranian
Source: UNODC DMP, Container Control Programme (CCP), official and open source reports.

the Islamic Republic of Iran and is
either consumed by opium users based
in Turkey35 or, far less commonly, fur-
ther shipped on to Europe via land
transportation. Opium seizures could
point to the existence of heroin ma-
nufacturing; however, it seems more
likely that with the flow of refugees to
Turkey and further to Europe, which
started as early as 2015, this is an indi-
cation of opium consumption by the
refugee community in Turkey and in
Europe. While research studies on this
topic provide a mixed picture, some
studies have found that refugees may
continue patterns of drug use brought
from their home countries and some-
times intensify them36.
Acetic Anhydride seizures
in Turkey
Turkish Narcotics Police have also
reported that in recent years several
Acetic Anhydride37 (AA) seizures
2019.
35 Meeting with Turkish National Police, Ankara
February 2019.
36 P. Lemmens, H. Dupont , I. Roosen,
Migrants, asylum seekers and refugees: an over-
view of the literature relating to drug use and
access to services, EMCDDA, 2017.
37 Acetic Anhydride is the main precursor used
in the conversion of morphine to heroin,
although Acetyl Chloride or a mix of Acetic
have been made en-route from
Turkey to Iraq and Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran, destined for Afghanistan,
suggesting a reverse flow of heroin pre-
cursors through the country and wider
region38. In May 2017, media reported
a seizure of 210 kg of AA in the town
of Baskale in Van province of Turkey,
close to the border with the Islamic
Republic of Iran39. In May 2019, a sei-
zure of 65 kg of AA was reported in
the media in the Turkish city of Yuk-
sekova in Hakkari province, situated
on the border with the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran and Iraq40. The origin and
destination of both seizures are not
reported. For 2018, Turkey reported
total seizures of over 38,000 kg of AA
which shows an increase of over 60
percent compared to 2017 (23,000
kg)41, suggesting that the country was
a major transit point for the trafficking
of precursors, and this is unlikely to
have changed since then.
acid and Acetic Anhydride may also be used.
38 Meeting with Turkish National Police, Ankara,
April 2019.
39 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
40 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
41 Turkey ARQ 2017 and 2018.
Turkey and opiate
trafficking through the
Caucasus region
In recent years, a number of key dis-
ruptive events have occurred along
parts of the Balkan route, which may
have affected parts of the traditional
route and led to DTOs seeking new
routes and methods to traffic opiates
to the Balkans and beyond.
In 2016, a series of events happened
in Turkey affecting its security threats
and border security: there was a failed
military coup attempt and an increased
flow of refugees entering Europe as spill
over of the conflicts in Syria and Iraq,
causing Turkey to improve its border
security42 . These events coincided
with a short-term decrease in heroin
seizures in Turkey (from 12.5 tons in
2014 to 5.5 tons in 2016) indicating
a possible trafficking route change,
which was discussed in more detail in
previous AOTP research43. The heroin
seizures, however, increased again in
Turkey in 2017 (17.7 tons) and 2018
(18.5 tons) respectively. Around 2016,
42 UNODC “Global Study on the smuggling of
migrants” 2018.
43 UNODC, “Heroin seizures and opiate traffick-
ing through the Caucasus route”, AOTP Short
Update Vol.2, 2019.

7
AOTP

Map 3: Reported entry and exit points for opiates in Iraq and purity of up to 60 to 70%.48 49 Finally,
location of heroin seizures in Iraq, Islamic Republic of Iran while regular purity data for heroin
and Turkey, 2015-2019 seized along the Caucasus region have
ADANA
KAHRAMANMARAS
ADIYAMAN
TURKEY
DIYARBAKIR

MARDIN
BATMAN SIIRT

SIRNAK
VAN

HAKKÂRI
AZARBAYJAN-E-SHARQI
ARDABIL
not been reported to UNODC, a 2016
seizure of 178 kg heroin in Georgia
OSMANIYE GAZIANTEP
IÇEL SANLIURFA DAHUK GILAN

KILIS AZARBAYJAN-E-GHARBI

HATAY
HALAB
AL HASAKAH

ARBIL
ZANJAN had a purity of 52 percent50.
NINAWÁ KORDESTAN QAZVIN

Combining all reports of purity that

AR RAQQAH
IDLIB AS SULAYMANIYAH IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)
AL LADHIQIYAH
HAMADAN
AT TA'MIM

have been reported, it appears that

HAMAH DAYR AZ ZAWR

TARTUS
SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

MARKAZI

there is a wide range of different heroin

KERMANSHAH
SALAH AD DIN
HIMS
LEBANON
DIYALÁ

DIMASHQ
RIF DIMASHQ AL ANBAR
IRAQ

BAGHDAD
LORESTAN
qualities trafficked from Afghanistan
AL QUNAYTIRAH

ISRAEL
DAR'A
AS SUWAYDA'
BABIL WASIT
ILAM
ESFAHAN to destination markets. Seizures with
WEST
BANK
JORDAN
KARBALA'

very high purity (e.g. the Combined

Maritime Forces found shipments with
AL QADISIYAH MAYSAN
KHUZESTAN

purities of up to 83 per cent between

DHI QAR
AN NAJAF
Heroin seizures (kg) Reported by official sources

2012 and 2014 in the Indian Ocean)

January 2015 - June 2019 Reported by media sources
AL BASRAH
≤1 Provinces of main transit AL MUTHANNÁ
area for the opiate trade
2 - 10

11 - 100
Opiates trafficking route indicate that there are laboratories
KUWAIT

that manage to produce high quality

Airport
101 - 1,000 SAUDI ARABIA
Railroad

heroin, which is then cut closer to des-

1,001 - 9,000
Road

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status
of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Source: UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform, IDS and ARQ reported to UNODC, inter- tination markets to increase volume
views with official authorities, and open source reports. and thus the profitability of the prod-
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official
endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
uct. However, there is in parallel a
large number of reports on heroin of
low quality, which may be destined
the Balkan route began to be supplied High quality heroin is predominantly for markets closer to the source. More
through another sub-trajectory, that found close to the source and at whole- research and more data in better gran-
passes through the Caucasus region sale trade level. At later stages of the ularity are needed to better understand
(Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) and supply chain, at retail level, heroin is how the wide range of purities can be
then onwards to Europe, including via adulterated to increase its volume and interpreted to make conclusions on
the Ukraine, Bulgaria and Romania. thus its sales value. After adding cutting trafficking routes and manufacturing
As early as 2014, the countries of the agents, heroin needs to be consumed and trafficking practices of DTOs.
Southern Caucasus began to report within approximately 3-5 months46.
major seizures of heroin. In Azerbaijan, Iraq and Syria emerging
In recent years, the average typical as a potential opiate
total heroin seizures increased from 80 wholesale purity of heroin in Turkey
kg in 2015 to 1,186 kg in 2016. Geor- trafficking hub?
was reported at around 50 per cent,
gia started to report increased levels of ranging from between 28 to 90 per- There is a variety of licit and illicit
seizures between 2013 and 2016, while cent in 2017 and from 0.14 to 78.9 goods smuggling through Iraq-Iran
after 2016 heroin seizures started to in 201847. Purity levels in Afghanistan border,51 and reports indicate there
decrease in Georgia. The Caucasus present a wide range of values, too. are dozens of illegal border crossing
route may still be a trajectory, albeit The DEA reported an average purity points along the porous Iraq-Iran
one that bypasses Turkey44. A recent of bulk seizures (reflecting export qual- border that are used for smuggling52.
seizure made in Germany from Kyr- ity) of highly-refined Afghan heroin Reports indicate that the opiate trade
gyzstan has revealed yet another route of 76 per cent (based on 25 samples to and through Iraq started to increase
for Afghan heroin to reach Europe collected over four years). The aver- as early as 200353.
bypassing the traditional Balkan route age purity of crude heroin base seized
and Turkey45. in Afghanistan was about 60 per cent 48 Meeting with the CNPA Lab, Kabul, August
2019.
Purity of seized heroin (based on 21 samples over four years). 49 For calculating the production of heroin of
DEA also received over 230 other export quality, UNODC and the Government
Heroin base is hardly ever pure. At of Afghanistan use a range of purities from 50
samples of heroin from Afghanistan
all stages of the conversion process to 70 per cent.
that were deemed to be “sham” or
impurities remain in the product and 50 “The nexus of conflict and illicit drug traffick-
“junk” samples. These samples were ing, Syria and wider region”, The Global Initia-
increase its volume. Heroin of higher tive Against Transnational Organized Crime,
not included in the averages presented.
purity is easier to traffic, which is one 2016, page 27.
CNPA Afghanistan reported purity
of the reasons why traffickers make 51 “Sanctions and smuggling - Iraqi Kurdistan and
levels being mostly around 50 per Iran’s border economies”, The Global Initiative
efforts to obtain high-purity products. Against Transnational Organized Crime, April
cent with some seizures having higher 2019.
52 “Sanctions and smuggling - Iraqi Kurdistan and
44 UNODC, “Heroin seizures and opiate traffick- Iran’s border economies”, The Global Initiative
ing through the Caucasus route”, AOTP Short 46 UNODC “The Global Afghan Opiate Trade”, Against Transnational Organized Crime, April
Update Vol.2, 2019. 2011. 2019.
45 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform. 47 Turkey ARQs 2018 and previous years. 53 Communication with Iraqi government offi-

8

Table 2: Summary of Iraqi media reports of heroin seizures 2018 and 2019
DATE QUANTITY
17th June 2019 48.7 kg
13th May 2019 45 kg
13th May 2019 880 g
March 2019 100 g
November 2018 31 kg
13th October 2018 50 kg
3rd November 2018 7.2 kg
4th July 2018 29.5 kg
May 2018 36 kg
27th April 50 kg
30th April 2018 12 kg
Sources: UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform through open sources.
As Iraq, and subsequently Syria, lost
the ability to effectively police their
international borders, DTOs have
started to use these countries as alter-
native routes for opiate trafficking54.
Reports indicate that DTOs used the
route Iran, Iraq, Syria and Georgia to
smuggle contraband to Turkey55. The
same route, confirmed through the
seizures reported to UNODC DMP
and Iraqi media reports56, may pos-
sibly have been used for trafficking of
opiates from Afghanistan to supply
the market along the Balkan route.
According to Iraqi media reports,
the Iraqi provinces of Basrah, Diyala,
Erbil, Sulaymaniyah are reported
points of entry and transit for opiates
entering Iraq which maybe for local
consumption and for onward traf-
ficking to Turkey, Syria and Europe57.
cials, Vienna, 2019.
54 “Amped in Ankara: The Drug trade and drug
policy in Turkey from the 1950’s through today”,
Chengiz, M. The Brookings Institution, 2016,
page 4.
55 “Turkish report of anti-smuggling and organ-
ized crime 2012”, Turkish National Police,
page 17.
56 https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/
b7ca431a-7b9e-4470-b5c6-89b1a86e0a26
57 https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/
bf144ca7-9883-459a-8db0-b02d0a1bd45d
9 9
LOCATION
Haji Omaran, Erbil province
Acre, at the Iraq- Kuwait border
Shorebak border between Iraq
and Iran
Soran, Erbil Province
Choman town, Erbil Province
Duhok, Kurdish Autonomous
Region
Soran District, Erbil Province
Duhok province, Rovia sub-district
Soran District, Erbil Province
Kurdish Autonomous Region
Near Haji Omaran, Erbil Province
Turkish National Police reported a
seizure of 852 kg heroin in March
2012 destined to the Netherlands
with the DTOs having connections
in Iran, Iraq, Germany and the Neth-
erlands58. In 2013, in two different
operations conducted by Turkish
National Police that resulted in seizure
of 266 kg of heroin, the consignment
had departed from Northern Iraq and
entered Turkey through Habur Border
Gate into Turkey59. Afghan opiates are
trafficked to Iraq mainly through the
Islamic Republic of Iran and are con-
sumed locally in Iraq or destined for
markets in the Middle East, Turkey or
Europe, in part feeding markets along
the Balkan Route. The ARQ reports
from Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Ger-
many, Jordan, Syrian Arab Republic
and Turkey have reported Iraq as
departure/transit point for heroin and
hashish seized in their territories over
the last years60.
Although data from Iraqi officials is
58 “Turkish report of anti-smuggling and organ-
ized crime 2012”, Turkish National Police,
page 31.
59 “Report on fight against organized crime
and anti-smuggling, 2013”, Turkish National
Police, page 6.
60 ARQ reports 2010-2019.
VOLUME 3
REMARKS
Three traffickers arrested
One Iranian trafficker arrested
50 g of methamphetamine (locally
referred to as Shisha) also seized
The consignment was trafficked from
Iran to Iraq through the mountainous
border between the two countries
Two traffickers arrested
Heroin departed Iran and was to be
trafficked to Syria via Turkey and Iraq.
The heroin was to be trafficked to
Jordan via Iraq, Turkey and Syria
limited, media reports also gave insight
into the smuggling of opiates from the
Islamic Republic of Iran to Iraq. In
2018, local media reported that Iraqi
police had dismantled six DTOs in
Baghdad, Basrah, Al-Nasiriya and
Anbar61.
In terms of trafficking between Iraq
and the Islamic Republic of Iran,
due to decades long sanctions on
Iran, the smuggling of a range of licit
consumable items as well as illegal
contraband such as cigarettes, alcohol,
and precursors from Iraq to Iran has
been a profitable business. This busi-
ness appears to have flourished again
recently, following the enactment of
new economic sanctions against the
Islamic Republic of Iran62. Although
Iraq and the Islamic Republic of Iran
have recently signed agreements to
strengthen the control of their mutual
border, due to the current vulnerabili-
ties this route could also be used for
trafficking of opiates from the Islamic
61 https://diyaruna.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_di/
features/2018/11/12/feature-01
62 UK Home Office “Country Policy and Infor-
mation Note, Iran: Smugglers” August 2019
and “Sanctions and smuggling–Iraqi Kurdistan
and Iran’s border economies” Global Initiative
Against Organised Crime, April 2016.
AOTP
Republic of Iran to Iraq, as well as
reverse trafficking of precursor ship-
ments with Afghanistan as the final
destination.
Opiates are trafficked into Iraq from
multiple entry points along the Iran-
Iraq border. There are possibly two
main opiate trafficking routes from
the Islamic Republic of Iran to Iraq:
either via Basrah Province in the south,
which borders Kuwait, or through
the Iranian province of Kermanshah
into northern Iraq, particularly Erbil
province. Due to a lack of detailed
reporting, defining the internal traf-
ficking routes in Iraq requires further
research.
Illicit opium production
in Iraq
In addition to opiate trafficking, the
cultivation of illicit opium poppy may
also be occurring in Iraq. A recent
International Narcotics Control Board
report highlighted emerging illicit
opium poppy cultivation in Iraq.63
Due to the dry climate in Iraq, cul-
tivation of opium is possibly limited
mostly to parts along the Euphrates
river. Illicit cultivation in Iraq brings
an additional challenge in countering
narcotics in the Middle East region
and along the Balkan route. Due to
its political and economic situation,
proximity to Afghanistan and the
availability of cheap labour, Iraq is
potentially vulnerable to large illicit
drug cultivation and production, as
has happened in some other post-
conflict environments.
Heroin seizures in Iraq
Heroin seizures in Iraq that are offi-
cially reported to UNODC are very
limited and most of the reported drug
seizures are of cannabis. However,
media reports have referenced sev-
eral heroin seizures in Iraq in recent
years which indicate that there is some
heroin trafficking in Iraq. According
to Turkish National Police, there is
indeed some trafficking via Iraq to
Turkey and then on to other regional
countries64. Many of the heroin sei-
zures occur in the Kurdish regions of
63 International Narcotics Control Board,
“Annual Report 2018” 2018.
64 Meeting with Turkish National Police, Ankara,
February 2019.
10
northern Iraq, although some have
also been reported from southern
Iraq. Basrah police officials reported to
media sources that around 80 percent
of drugs entering the province come
via the Islamic Republic of Iran and
that, in 2018, 187 drug-smuggling
related offenses were recorded by the
Iraqi Border Crossing Authorities in
that province65. As of June 2019, Iraqi
media had reported a total of 94.6 kg
of heroin having transited Iran and
being seized, mostly in Erbil Prov-
ince. The year before, media reports
had indicated 179.7 kg of heroin being
seized, including a 50 kg seizure that
was destined for Syria, via Turkey,
and a 12 kg heroin seizure that was to
be trafficked to Jordan from Iraq, via
Turkey and Syria. In June 2018, 159
kg of heroin was seized in the Ahwaz
province of the Islamic Republic of
Iran, close to Iran-Iraq border and
near the Iraqi city of Basrah.66
Seizures close to
Turkey-Syrian border
As with Iraq, Syria remains vulner-
able to a range of illicit activities.
No recent opiate seizures have been
reported within Syrian territory but
the capacity of the authorities to
effectively tackle trafficking activity
or record opiate seizures may be lim-
ited. In May 2017, 102 kg of heroin
was seized in Kilis, Turkey close to the
border with Syria with source and des-
tination unknown67. As early as 2010,
the Turkish National Police reported
Syria as a transit country for the traf-
ficking of Afghan-originated heroin to
West and Central Europe and Latin
America-originating cocaine to Turk-
ish consumption markets, as well as
hashish and synthetic drugs originated
from the Middle East68. In particular,
Syria has been identified as a country
involved in the trafficking of captagon
for more than a decade69. In recent
years there were indications that the
65 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-drugs/
crystal-meth-and-crowded-jails-problems-
mount-in-iraqi-oil-city-idUSKCN1RL13V
66 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
67 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform.
68 Turkish National Police Annual Report 2010.
69 “The nexus of conflict and illicit drug traffick-
ing, Syria and wider region”, The Global Initia-
tive Against Transnational Organized Crime,
2016.
territory of Syria was used by some
criminal groups for trafficking of opi-
ates originating in Afghanistan (i.e.
heroin manufactured in Afghanistan
and possibly Afghan opiates manu-
factured into heroin in surrounding
countries) and of opiates originating
in Lebanon70. It is, however, cur-
rently not possible to assess to what
extent Syria is used as a transit route
for trafficking of Afghan opiates for
subsequent trafficking to Turkey and
further shipments along the Balkan
route or Middle East.
There have been allegations in the
media and in other sources that with
the start of the civil war in Syria, some
of the funding for the operations of
armed groups in the conflict came
from drug trafficking71 72, but there is
no clear evidence on direct funding.
With the available information it is
not possible to assess if drug trafficking
has been a notable source for conflict
groups and if so, what proportion
would come from opiate trafficking
relative to other types of drugs (for
example cannabis or synthetic drugs).
Trafficking from Turkey
to Eastern Europe and
the Balkans
The map4 indicates the location of
the reported heroin seizures between
2015 and mid-2019 in selected coun-
tries along the Balkan route. Heroin
seizures can be seen in all South East
European countries, which indicates
that drug traffickers use multiple land
routes to traffic heroin to the main
heroin consuming countries in West
and Central Europe.
Heroin seizures were reported on the
coasts of Albania, Montenegro, Croa-
tia, Greece and Slovenia. This could
indicate that heroin is not only traf-
ficked to West and Central Europe via
land-based methods but also by sea-
based methods.
Differences in amounts seized can have
various reasons. In its 2015 report on
70 ARQs provided by Syria, Jordan, Israel and
Turkey in recent years.
71 “The nexus of conflict and illicit drug traffick-
ing, Syria and wider region”, The Global Initia-
tive Against Transnational Organized Crime,
2016.
72 UNODC World Drug Report 2019, booklet
4, page 53.
 VOLUME 3

Map 4: Heroin seizures in selected countries along the Balkan Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Spain,
route, 2015-mid2019 United Kingdom). These countries
SLOVAKIA UKRAINE seized together on average 3.8 tons
of heroin per year (527 kg on average
REPUBLIC OF
MOLDOVA
AUSTRIA

HUNGARY per country) over the period 2015-

ROMANIA
2017 with lowest (279 kg) reported
from Germany and highest (852 kg)
SLOVENIA
CROATIA

reported from France.

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
In 2017, a total of around 1.3 tons of
heroin was seized by South East Euro-
SERBIA

Heroin seizures (kg)

ITALY
January 2015 - June 2019
MONTENEGRO BULGARIA
Black Sea
pean (SEE) countries except Turkey
≤1
Adriatic Sea (which, in 2017, seized over 17 tons).
Apart from in 2000 and 2014, the
2 - 10
NORTH MACEDONIA
11 - 100
TURKEY
101 - 500

> 500 ITALY

total amount of heroin seized annually
by the SEE countries except Turkey
ALBANIA
Reported by official sources

Reported by media sources GREECE

Road Ionian Sea Aegean Sea has been between 700 and 2700 kg. In
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
2017, over 80 percent (697 kg) of the
Source: UNODC Drugs Monitoring Platform reported through official and open sources.
total amount of heroin seized in SEE
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorse-
ment or acceptance by the United Nations. was reported by Bulgaria. The highest
level of seizures in Bulgaria may be
the Balkan route,73 UNODC found East European countries (Albania, a reflection of higher level of control
that countries closer to the source, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, and higher supply. For the same year,
with higher levels of wholesale (tran- Croatia, Montenegro, North Mace- the total amount of reported heroin
sit) trade, tend to achieve higher donia, Romania and Serbia) have seized in Albania, Bosnia and Herze-
interception rates than countries with been rather low. These countries seized govina, Croatia, Montenegro, North
a relatively larger use (retail) market, together 865 kilograms per year over Macedonia, Romania and Serbia was
because shipments tend to be made in the 2015-2017 period (122 kg on only 187 kg.
large consignments when trafficked at average per country). Annual average Since the peak in 2014, opiate seizures
the international level. With current seizures of heroin ranged from under declined in SEE, albeit remaining
data, this picture is confirmed. 10 kg in North Macedonia to close stable over the 2015-2017 period.
Compared to heroin seizures reported to 500 kg in Bulgaria between 2015 This is part of a broader downward
by the Islamic Republic of Iran (annual and 2017. trend from the approximately 8000 kg
average of 20.3 tons between 2015- The picture is somewhat different reported as seized in 2004. In the main
2017 or Turkey annual average of in the major markets of West and markets of West and Central Europe
10.5), heroin seizures in eight South Central Europe (France, Germany, the total heroin seized has increased
from 3,832 kg in 2016 to 4,908 kg in
2017. It is unclear why heroin seizures
Fig. 5: Officially reported heroin seizures (kg) in SEE countries, in West and Central Europe increased
2000-2017
while those in South East Europe
2,500
decreased over the same period. The
increase in West and Central Europe
2,000
can be explained, at least partially, by
1,500 the previous year record high produc-
tion in Afghanistan. The decrease in
1,000 South East Europe may reflect in this
circumstance, the emergence of routes
500 outside of the Balkans and/or the fact
that law enforcement in South East
0
Europe may have not been able to cope
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017

with the increased supply.

Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria
Croatia Montenegro North Macedonia
Romania Serbia

Source: Officially reported seizures to UNODC by Member States through ARQ.

73 UNODC “Drug Money: the illicit proceeds of

opiates trafficked on the Balkan route”, 2015,
p. 39.

11
AOTP

Fig. 6: Officially reported heroin seizures in selected countries of of morphine from Turkey and Bul-
West and Central Europe, 2000-2017 garia onwards into Europe. In 2017,
10,000
Bulgaria reported a seizure of 221 kg
9,000 morphine, the highest seizure reported
8,000 to UNDOC since 1986 when the
7,000 country reported a seizure of 52 kg
6,000 morphine77. In the same year Aus-
5,000 tria also reported a seizure of 15 kg
4,000 morphine which is the highest ever
3,000 morphine seizure it has reported to
2,000 UNODC. In 2016, Italy also reported
1,000 a seizure of 10 kg morphine. The exis-
0
tence of heroin labs, even on a small
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
scale, along the Balkan route could pos-
France Germany Greece Italy
sibly explain the reason for morphine
Netherlands Spain United Kingdom trafficking from Turkey to Europe, and
over the last years selected countries
Source: Officially reported seizures to UNODC by Member States through ARQ.
in Europe have reported dismantling
heroin labs, albeit labs with a possibly
Open questions countries further along the Southern limited heroin production capacity.
and Balkan routes. When converted to This reporting on illicit heroin labs
Increasing level of heroin, morphine gains some 30 per has come from Greece – which has
morphine seizures outside cent in weight due to two additional consistently reported the highest num-
Afghanistan “acetyl groups” that are added in the bers of heroin labs dismantled, (on
In 2017, a record level of morphine process.75 If the 22 tons of morphine average seven labs annually between
(86 tons) was seized in Afghanistan, that have been seized in 2017 outside 2012-2018) – Albania, Spain and
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan had been converted Czechia. No other countries along the
of Iran. These three countries world- into heroin, this alone would have Balkan route have reported disman-
wide account for almost all morphine yielded 29 tons of heroin of unknown tling heroin labs.
seizures (98.5 percent of the total in purity. The potential (global) produc- The 2013 EU Drug Markets Report
2017). In 2017, morphine seizures tion of heroin of export quality from indicated the possibility of heroin pro-
increased most remarkably in Afghani- Afghan opium was estimated to be duction outside Afghanistan, possibly
stan (from 47 tons in 2016 to 63 tons 550-900 tons in 2017. 76 in the Islamic Republic of Iran and
in 2017), and to a lesser extent in the There is limited reporting of seizures Pakistan78, as well as in Europe. Among
Islamic Republic of Iran (from 11 to
15 tons) and in Pakistan (from 6.6
Fig. 7: Officially reported opium, morphine and heroin seizures
to 7.3 tons). In 2018, a further rise in Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran,
in morphine seizures to 21 tons was 2007-2017
reported by the Islamic Republic of 90,000 800,000
Iran however seizure reports from
Illicit morphine (kg) and heroin (kg)

80,000 700,000
Afghanistan indicates a decline of mor-
phine seizure (17.5 tons) in 201874. 70,000 600,000
60,000
Opium (kg)

Morphine seizures have been vola- 500,000

tile over the past decade and strong 50,000
400,000
increases and peaks have been mostly 40,000
300,000
driven by large scale seizures within 30,000
Afghanistan. Morphine is used to 20,000 200,000
produce heroin, which explains the 10,000 100,000
large seizures reported in Afghani-
0 0
stan. But the reasons behind the large
2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

volume of seized morphine trafficked

from Afghanistan to Pakistan and Heroin Illicit morphine Opium
the Islamic Republic of Iran remains
Source: Officially reported seizures to UNODC by Member States.
unclear. One possibility is heroin
production in these two countries or 75 For a detailed description of the conversion 2017 – Challenges to sustainable develop-
rates from opium to heroin see UNODC/ ment, peace and security”.
MCN “Afghanistan opium survey 2014 – 77 Bulgarian ARQ.
74 Counter Narcotics Police of Afghanistan Cultivation and production”. 78 EUROPOL and EMCDDA “EU Drug Markets
(CNPA). 76 MCN/UNODC “Afghanistan opium survey Report: A Strategic Analysis”, 2013, pages 27-28.

12
 VOLUME 3

Afghanistan’s immediate neighbours, Fig. 8: Officially reported morphine seizures in Afghanistan,

India has also reported morphine sei- Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, 2007-2017,
zures, with 2017 seizures (449 kg) by country
showing a sharp increase compared 70,000
to 2016 (29 kg). There is local opium
poppy cultivation in India and in 2017 60,000
India also reported dismantling one 50,000

Moprhine (kg)
heroin lab, suggesting that small scale
heroin production may also take place 40,000
in India. However, it is not clear if 30,000
the opium used for this manufactur-
ing comes from Afghanistan or India. 20,000

Seizure data indicated that in 2017, 10,000

some 48 – 56 per cent of the Afghan
0
opium harvest was converted into
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
heroin or morphine within Afghan-
istan and that the reminder was Afghanistan Iran (Islamic Republic of) Pakistan
exported unprocessed. There is thus
evidence that not all the opium is pro- Source: Officially reported seizures to UNODC by Member States.
cessed into heroin or morphine within
Afghanistan. It is, however, not clear
if major quantities of heroin available Fig. 9: Reported number of heroin labs dismantled in Europe,
outside Afghanistan are refined from 2012-2018
morphine outside Afghanistan. More 16
intelligence information is needed
14
from countries outside Afghanistan
to shed light on this question.
Number of labs dismantled

12
Understanding if and eventually to 10
what extent there is substantial heroin
manufacturing outside Afghanistan 8
(made of opium cultivated in Afghani- 6
stan) would help to better target supply
reduction interventions in terms of 4

opiate interception, laboratory detec- 2

tion and precursor control. There are
0
many factors that DTOs may consider
2012 2011 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
when deciding the best business model
for the logistics of heroin manufac- Czechia Germany Greece Spain

turing. The conditions that determine

these factors change across countries Source: ARQs reported to UNODC by Member States.
and include issues such has level of
law enforcement control, proximity to
trafficking routes, corruptive practices
and financial costs related to precur-
sors, equipment and labour.
There are also other on-going changes
in opiate trafficking with the emer-
gence of new trajectories along the
Balkan route and maritime traffick-
ing of heroin along the southern route.
Data gaps in several parts of the world
make it difficult to draw clear con-
clusions about what is driving these
changes along the Balkan route.

13
 AOTP

Selected major opiate seizure cases UNODC regional groupings for the
2018 to 20191 purpose of this report:
AUGUST 2019. 1,297 kg of heroin seized from a con-
OPIATE CASES

SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE (SEE). Albania, Bosnia

tainer ship, the MV Gibraltar, in south-eastern England and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montene-
which was en route to Antwerp, Belgium after it docked gro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey.
at the port of Felixstowe. Drugs were concealed among
a cover load of towels and bathrobes. EASTERN EUROPE. Belarus, the Republic of Mol-
JUNE 2019. Iraqi law enforcement seized 48 kg of dova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine.
heroin in Haji Omaran area close to Iran-Iraq border.
WEST AND CENTRAL EUROPE. Andorra, Austria,
MAY 2019. German customs authorities seized 670
Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
kg of heroin in Frankfurt (Oder) concealed inside a
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lith-
truck with Georgian registration number and a Turkish
uania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway,
driver. The heroin had departed Iran and passed through
Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkey and Poland2.
Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
MAY 2019. Kurdish security forces seized 45 kg of
heroin in Acre.
APRIL 2019. Bulgarian law enforcement seized 288
kg of heroin at Kapitan Andreevo border crossing point
(BCP) with Turkey. The heroin was found concealed
inside the cargo of textile dyeing machine, transported
by Iranian registered lorry.
APRIL 2019. Turkish law enforcement seized 79 kg of
heroin in Nurdagi district of Gaziantep province, close
to the Turkish- Syrian border.
FEBRUARY 2019. Iranian law enforcement seized 388
kg of opium in Khuzestan province, bordering Iraq.
JANUARY 2019. Turkish law enforcement seized 1,535
kg of heroin in Ashkale district of Erzurum province.
JANUARY 2019. Turkish law enforcement seized
454 kg of heroin at the Kapikule border crossing point
between Turkey and Bulgaria in the province of Edirne.
JANUARY 2019. Turkish law enforcement seized 850
kg of heroin during an operation in Istanbul.
DECEMBER 2018. Turkish law enforcement seized
1,271 kg of heroin on the Erzurum-Erzincan highway,
headed towards Istanbul.
NOVEMBER 2018. Iraq law enforcement seized 31
kg of heroin in the city of Soran, Erbil Governorate.
SEPTEMBER 2018. Bulgarian Customs officers seized
712 kg of heroin - the biggest ever opiate seizure in the
country. Heroin was concealed among the legal cargo
of construction materials shipped from Iran to Western
Europe by two Iranian lorries travelling together.3.
OCTOBER 2018. Italian customs authorities seized
270 kg of heroin in the port of Genoa. Heroin bags
were hidden inside a container that departed the Islamic
Republic of Iran. The final destination of the heroin was
the Netherlands (source: UNODC Drug Monitoring
Platform).

1 UNODC Drug Monitoring Platform, unless otherwise specified.

2 German Customs Authorities reported to UNODC.
3 Bulgarian National Customs Agency reported to UNODC.

14
15
In this issue
Afghanistan continues to be the major global source of opium production. While heroin is primarily produced
in Afghanistan, it is possible that heroin production also takes place outside Afghanistan. The opiates produced
in Afghanistan are trafficked to every region of the world except Latin America.The Balkan route continues
to play a major role in supplying opiates to the markets in Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and Europe.

This Short Update is intended to provide an update on the latest developments in the early stages of the
Balkan route from Afghanistan to Turkey, including latest developments in Iraq and Syria related to the
Afghan opiate trade.

Recent AOTP publications

The illicit drug trade AOTP Update Afghan opiate AOTP Update
through South- Volume 2 trafficking along the Volume 1
Eastern Europe Northern route

Contact details:
Afghan Opiate Trade Project (AOTP),
Programme Development and Management Unit (PDMU),
Research and Trend Analysis Branch (RAB),
Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs (DPA),
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
PO Box 500, 1400 Vienna, Austria.
1400 Vienna
Austria.