Investigation of recycled concrete as coarse aggregate in concrete

mixing

by

WU MAN I

Final Year Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement of the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

2014 / 2015

Faculty of Science and Technology

University of Macau

DECLARATION
I declare that the project report here submitted is original except for the source

materials explicitly acknowledged and that this report as a whole, or any part of this

report has not been previously and concurrently submitted for any other degree or

award at the University of Macau or other institutions.

I also acknowledge that I am aware of the Rules on Handling Student Academic

Dishonesty and the Regulations of the Student Discipline of the University of Macau.

Signature : ____________________
Name : WU MAN I
Student ID : D-B1-2828-1
Date : _ 17th April, 2015

APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

This project report entitled “Investigation of recycled concrete as coarse aggregate

in concrete mixing” was prepared by Wu Man I in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering at the

University of Macau.

Endorsed by,

Signature : ____________________________

Supervisor : Dr. Ao Ieong, Tai Man

Signature : ____________________________

Supervisor : Dr. Ng, Iok Tong

Signature : ____________________________

Examiner : Dr. Lok, Man Hoi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author
 ABSTRACT

As the concrete wastes are increasing in Macau, the capacity of landfill for

construction demolition waste is not enough. This study investigated the use of

recycled concrete as 100% replacement of coarse aggregate in the production of new

concrete in order to solve the landfill problem.

In this study, 4 batches of concretes were mixed. 100% replacement was used in 3 of

the batches with different water/cement ratio. Fresh concrete tests were carried out

immediately after concrete mixing and the hardened concrete tests were carried out at
the 28th day. The Slump test was carried out to evaluate the workability of the

concrete. Compressive strength tests were carried out for both the concrete cubes and

the concrete cylinder for all the batches. Mechanical strain gauge was used to measure

the displacement of the cylinder and the results were used to evaluate the elastic

modulus of the concrete.

Results from the experimental program show that the workability decreases as the

replacement of natural coarse aggregate increase from 0% to 100% recycled concrete

aggregate replacement. It also decreases as the water/cement ratio decreases. The

highest maximum applied stress is occurred with the use of 0.41 water/cement ratio.

The compressive strength of 100% is higher than 0% replacement.

LIST OF TERMINOLOGY

Recycled aggregate (RA) – may refer to different kind of materials to replace the

natural aggregate

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) – the recycled concrete replacement of natural

coarse aggregate

Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) – In this study, it refer to the concrete which the

natural coarse aggregate is replaced by recycled concrete.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...........................................................................................................II

APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION...............................................................................III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................IV

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................V

LIST OF TERMINOLOGY.........................................................................................VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................VII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................1

1.1 Background...........................................................................................................1

1.2 Objectives.............................................................................................................2

1.3 Scope of Work......................................................................................................2

1.4 Limitations of the Study........................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................4

2.1 Previous Studies on Recycling Demolition Wastes:.............................................6

 2.2 Summary of the Literature Review.....................................................................16

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM.............................................................18

3.1 Mixing Design (BRE Method)............................................................................20

3.2 Preparation of Aggregate....................................................................................23

3.3 Concrete Mixing (BS 1881)................................................................................28

3.4 Slump Test (BS 1881: Part 102).........................................................................29

3.5 Making test cubes from fresh concrete (BS 1881: Part 108)..............................30

3.6 Curing of the Testing Specimens (BS 1881: Part 111).......................................31

3.7 Compressive Strength Test (BS 1881: Part 116)................................................32

3.7 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test (BS 812-110:1990 ).............................36

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................38

4.1 Data and Graphs of the Tests..............................................................................38

4.1.1 Results – slump test......................................................................................38

4.1.2 Results – compressive strength test (concrete cube)....................................40

4.1.3 Results – compressive strength test (concrete cylinder)..............................42

4.2 Summary of Tests Results..................................................................................46

4.3 Discussion of the Tests Results...........................................................................47

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................52

5.1 Conclusion..........................................................................................................52

5.2 Recommendations...............................................................................................53

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................55

APPENDIX..................................................................................................................57
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
In the recent years, there are many construction activities being carried out in Macau.

The demand of concrete is getting more and more. According to the information from

the department of the Public Administration of Macau, Statistics and Census Service

(DSEC), the consumptions of concrete are increasing from 2005 (DSEC). From 2005

to 2013, the total consumptions of concrete are over 8 million m3 (DSEC). It means

that there is about 1 million m3 of concrete being used each year. Most of the

materials used to make concrete are from other places. It is also known that all these

kinds of materials will be exhaustible. At the meantime, people produce lots of

construction and demolition waste. The Macao Environmental Protection Bureau

(DSPA) claimed that since 2006, there is about 2.25 million m3 construction and

demolition waste generated and goes to the landfill of construction and demolition

wastes located in Taipa every year. As the capacity of the landfill is limited, it will be

running out one day. Recycling of construction and demolition waste would be a

possible solution to deal with this problem.

The use of concrete is common in most countries. Since the life time of concrete

construction is various, concrete buildings can be demolished for many reasons. Then

construction and demolition waste will be generated. This construction and demolition

waste may contain concrete, wood from constructions, bricks, asphalt, gypsum etc.
The method of recycling construction and demolition waste is to reuse them as a part

of the replacement of the materials required in producing fresh concrete. This will be a

benefit to the landfill since less construction and demolition waste goes to the landfill.

This will also be a benefit to the environment because fewer raw materials are used.

In this project, recycling concrete as a part of replacement of coarse aggregate in

producing new concrete for roadwork is investigated. Some factors that can affect the

quality of concrete in concrete mixing are water/cement ratio, types of ingredients and

mix proportions.

1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this study are to investigate the strength of the concrete that the

natural aggregate is replaced by 100% recycled concrete aggregate, whether it can be

applied in road works or pavement reconstructions, and are also to investigate the

effects on the recycled aggregate concrete.

1.3 Scope of Work

There will be 3 batches of concrete with different water/cement ratio and 100%

recycled concrete aggregate replacement of the natural coarse aggregate. This will be

compared to the original batch of the concrete. Aggregate crushing value test, slump

test, compressive strength test for the cubes and the cylinders will be performed. The

displacement of the cylinders during compression will also be observed in order to

determine the elastic modulus of the concrete.

The recycled concrete used to produce new concrete are collected from road works or

pavement reconstruction projects in Macau and the recycled concrete supplier claimed

that the strength of those recycled concrete are mixed with B25 and B30 .

1.4 Limitations of the Study

Since producing concretes for testing at the 28 th day is time consuming, one of the

limitations of this study is the time period of the study. The other limitations are the

equipment and the man power in this study. By considering these limitations, the

scope of work is also being limited.

 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Concrete standard in different countries/cities and different mixing methods:

Since there are different required compressive strengths of concrete pavement in

different countries and cities, some standards are found and shown below.

According to the (Department) Decree 42/97/M in Macao, the water/cement ratio has

limited up to 0.65 for pure concrete. And the required compressive strength of the

concrete pavement is no less than 40 MPa; In Hong Kong, it is 45 MPa for the

pavement carrying vehicles and 30 MPa for the pavement carrying bicycle. In China,

it is about 30-40Mpa.

According to the standard in UK, the required compressive strength of the concrete

pavement is no less than 32 MPa and the maximum water/cement ratio is 0.55 for

C32/40 concrete.

According to the standard in Australia, the required compressive strength of the

concrete pavement is no less than 25 MPa.

In Japan, there is large range of the required compressive strength of concrete. For

ordinary concrete, the range can be varying from 18MPa to 45MPa.

The following table summarizes the required compressive strength in different places

which has mentioned above.

Table 1 – The required compressive strength of concrete pavement in different places

 Countries / Cities: Required compressive strength (MPa)
Macau 20-40
Hong Kong 45
China 30-40
United Kingdom 32
Australia 25
Japan 45
* The compressive strength is measured by cylinder.

Usage of recycled construction and demolition wastes:

Recycled aggregate had been used in the construction of the Hong Kong Wetland

Park to prepare for about 14300 m3 of concrete (Chi-Sun Poon, 2006; Dixon Chan,

2006).

According to the FHWA State of the Practice National Review (U.S. Department of

Transportation, 2004), there are some states in U.S.A. experience on recycling

concrete aggregate. In Texas, recycled concrete aggregate are used as base materials.

And the consumption of recycled concrete aggregate is reached to 60%. In Virginia,

compacting recycled concrete aggregate is being recommend to replace base or sub-

base materials. This also allows the recycled concrete aggregate which is generated

during the construction to be used in repairing the highways. In Michigan, recycled

concrete aggregate can be used as coarse aggregate in Portland cement concrete for

curb and gutter, valley gutter, sidewalk, concrete barriers, driveways, temporary

pavement, interchange ramps and shoulders. It can also be used as coarse aggregate in

hot mix asphalt and as dense-graded aggregate for base course, surface course,
shoulders, approaches and patching. During the 1980’s, the use of recycled concrete

aggregate is getting more and more. In California, concrete waste from the pavement

of highways and streets is reused as aggregate base. The mixture of recycled concrete

aggregate and recycled asphalt pavement are allowed for aggregate base according to

The California Department of Transportation’s specification. The base material can be

chosen freely concerning the economics for each construction. (U.S. Department of

Transportation, 2004)

2.1 Previous Studies on Recycling Demolition Wastes:

Concrete is used worldwide for development, including building; roadwork etc. As the

use of concrete getting more and more, old building may be demolished and roadwork

may also be renewed; people then realized that it will be a problem if there is no ways

to deal with the construction and demolition wastes. For the concern of construction

and demolition waste in the world, many studies on recycling the construction and

demolition waste have been carried out.

In 2002, a temporary recycling facility is used to producing recycled aggregate in

different size in order to meet the requirement for different uses in constructions. An

investigation of using crushed brick and tile aggregate as a 20wt. % replacement of

fine aggregate was conducted. Three mix proportions are used for two different
mixing methods, conventional method and double mixing method. In conventional

method, after the aggregate and cement were added into the pan mixer, mixing of

materials started to mix for about 2 minutes. Then water will be added and mixed for

two more minutes; In double mixing method, the coarse aggregate and the fine

aggregate was mixed for 1 minute at the beginning, then half of the required water

will be poured in and mixed for one more minute, thirdly, mixed for one more minute

with the cement added, finally the rest of the required water was poured and mixed for

90 seconds. All of the gradients are the same except the fine aggregate in the mixing

design. It shows that: using double mixing method will result a half value of initial

slump compare to the original slump, greater value of compressive strength and

slightly smaller value of density of the concrete than using conventional method. This

means that using double mixing method can improve the compressive strength. The

compressive strength will be smaller when crushed bricks and tile aggregate replacing

part of the natural fine aggregate. The modulus of elasticity of concrete will be lower

when part of the natural fine aggregate was replaced. (Poon & Chan, 2006)

There is another paper investigate the properties of the properties of the concrete made

with recycled concrete aggregate sources from 16 different locations in the use of

three mixture design methods. The three mixture design methods are using varying
amounts of direct volume aggregate replacement, direct weight replacement, and

equivalent mortar replacement (Figure 2.1). It is found that the compressive strength

and elastic modulus are similar by using these three different methods but the

workability will be reduced when using the equivalent mortar replacement methods.

The results show that using DVR method (direct volume aggregate replacement

method) will have similar slump as the conventional concrete. Use of DWR method

(direct weight replacement method) will decrease the slump but the concrete was still

easily placed and finished in the cylinder molds. But the use of EMR method

(equivalent mortar replacement method) reduced slump value a lot. (Knaack &

Kurama, 2013)

Figure 2.1 – Concrete mixture design methods: (a) NA concrete mixture; (b) DWR

mixture with R = 100%; (c) EMR mixture with R =20% (maximum allowed for

mixtures with NA-PG target by workability limit); and (d) DVR mixture with R

=100%. (Knaack & Kurama, 2013)

Considering different proportion of replacement in mixing concrete, there is a paper

comparing the concrete made by 20%, 50% and 100% recycled concrete aggregate

replacement. By using the same water/cement ratio, keep all the other condition the

same except the replacement of coarse aggregate. Then the result shows that: the use

of RCA will cause the loss of compressive strength (Figure 2.2), the higher the

replacement, the higher the loss. It is even higher when mixed aggregate are used. It is

suggested to control the water/cement ratio in order to result a better compressive

strength. It also gives the limit of the percentage of recycled aggregate replacement

and the corresponding compressive strength in different countries. For non-structural

concretes, different types of recycled aggregate can be used if there are no other

requirements. It also mentions that the increasing in cement content will decrease the

water/cement ratio in order to increase the compressive strength so that total loss of

compressive strength can be lower. And this will directly give the extra financial cost

in producing recycled concrete. (Agrela et al. 2013)

Figure 2.2 – Relationship between conventional and recycled concretes’ compressive

strength (100% coarse recycled concrete aggregate) (Agrela et al. 2013)

For the durability of recycled aggregate concrete, a research has been carried out to

analyze the physical and durability properties of them. In the research, there are total

24 concrete mixtures and the properties of them are being investigated at day 28, 180

and 365. It has been investigate the influences on the concretes under different

water/cement ratio. Recycled concretes with 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% of recycled

concrete aggregate replacement are investigated in the study. The results represent that

for the same water/ cement ratio, density will be decrease if the recycled aggregate is

used. There will be 5% difference in recycled concrete comparing to the normal

concrete if there are 20% more recycled aggregate being used. It also points out that

the compressive strength in the early beginning will have greater effect if the recycled
aggregate is used for different water/cement ratio. But the recycled concrete after long

time period will have higher strength if lower water/cement ratio is preferred. The

durability will be lower if same water/cement ratio is used for both recycled concrete

and conventional concrete as the porosity of recycled aggregate is higher. (Thomas et

al. 2013)

There is another resource investigate the effects of splitting tensile strength, modulus

of elasticity etc. since those effects may be changed with different conditions. It has

also mentioned that the compressive strength and workability of recycled concrete

may be obtained to a same level as the conventional concrete by adjusting the

water/cement ratio. By comparing the conventional concrete and recycled aggregate

concrete, the result shows that even though 100% replacement of recycled aggregate

is used, the compressive strength and the slumps can result a similar values to the

conventional by adjusting the water/cement ratio. It is important to adjust the

proportion of replacement and the water/cement ratio when producing recycled

concrete because different of them can result different physical properties. The

properties of the coarse aggregate replacement are more likely to affect the modulus of

elasticity and the splitting tensile strength. The values of the modulus of elasticity of

recycled aggregate concrete will be 19% lower than the conventional concrete; there is
no great difference on the splitting tensile strength between the use of recycled

aggregate and the natural aggregate. Fracture energy will be 32% lower for the

recycled concrete than the conventional concrete. (Butler, 2013)

The key factors that will affect the compressive strength will be the water/cement

ratio and also the replacement ratio. It is pointed out that a general replacement ratio

not greater than 30% will not significantly affect the compressive strength if the

water/cement ratio keeps in the same. In the view of loss of workability, replacement

ratio should not be greater 50%. If the recycled concrete aggregate is generated from

pure concrete, there will not be any effect on compressive strength but on workability.

From the given result, it proves that the effective water/cement ratio and also the

replacement ratio are the main factors that will cause the compressive strength

changes. The higher replacement ratio will result a higher variability of compressive

strength values by comparing the replacement ratios of 100%, 50% and 20%. (Ulloa,

2013)

There is similar conclusion of the compressive strength. The concrete samples were

tested at day 5, 7, 14 and 21 days. The control samples are 100% and 50% recycled

aggregate replacement. The results show that with 100% replacement, the maximum
compressive stress and density will be the lowest; with 50% replacement, the

compressive stress and density also decrease compare to the conventional concrete,

but it is higher than the one with 100% replacement. (Richardson et al. 2010)

There is another paper investigates the influence of type and replacement level in nine

recycled aggregate concretes and represent the result by water absorption. There are

three types of recycled aggregates being tested. 2 recycled coarse aggregates with

1.9% water absorption and the other is 6.2%. The other type is recycled fine

aggregates with 5.4% water absorption. The result of the test shows that if the relative

water absorption of aggregates increases; the rate of slump loss will be increase the

total amount and rate of bleeding of fresh recycled aggregate concrete will be

decrease; the relative compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete will

decreased by comparing to the natural aggregate concrete. (Yang et al. 2008)

Jitender Sharma and Sandeep Singla summarized the differences between natural

aggregates and recycled concrete aggregates, the applications of recycled aggregate

such as the used in pile bedding and landscape materials etc. Some past studies was

reviewed and pointed out that recycled concrete aggregate has rougher surface than

natural aggregate, and it is angular and elongated but the natural aggregate is rounded.
The conclusions of the study supported that the higher the water/cement ratio, the

smaller the elastic modulus of the concrete. (Sharma & Singla, 2014)

Holtza and Eighmy claimed that recycled materials such as reclaimed asphalt

pavement and reclaimed concrete aggregates can be mainly used as granular bases,

concrete pavements, embankments or fills, controlled low-strength materials for pipe

bedding and landscaping in the highway environment. The rates of recycling materials

(coal fly ash, coal bottom ash, steel slag etc.) used or produced in Europe and the

United States were presented. An importance is mentioned that the crushed concrete is

81 percent used and produced in Denmark. (Holtza and Eighmy, 2000)

There is a research that is investigated the mechanical performance of the concrete

made with recycled concrete aggregate in different percentage of the replacement of

natural coarse aggregate. Finally, it is concluded that there is negative influence on the

cement particles’ hydration because of the higher porosity of recycled concrete

aggregate for a short curing periods in dry environments. If it is in the same curing

condition but long period, the continuity of the cement’s hydration reactions may be

risked because of the higher porosity of the recycled concrete aggregate. (Amorim et

al. 2012)

In another research, concrete cubes were produced by recycled concrete aggregates

replacement of natural coarse aggregate. The recycled concrete was generated from

site-tested concrete specimen after the 28th day compression test and was crushed in to

the required size for the use of replacing natural coarse aggregate. It shows that the

concrete made by recycled concrete aggregate from site-tested concrete results good

quality. The compressive strength can be higher in recycled aggregate concrete than

conventional concrete. The slump of the fresh concrete made by recycled concrete

aggregate can also be improved if saturated surface dry condition of the aggregate is

applied. (Yong & Teo, 2009)

The mechanical properties such as the compressive strength and elastic modulus are

investigated in another paper. There were total 3 proportions of recycled concrete

aggregate replacement with different water/cement ratios for different target strength

in the experiment of the research. It concluded that the performance of recycled

aggregate concrete is slightly lower than the concrete made with natural coarse

aggregate. There is no major effect on the compressive strength if the percentage of

recycled concrete aggregate replacement is less than 30%. As the proportions of the

replacement increase, the lower the strength should be. (Limbachiya et al. 2012)

2.2 Summary of the Literature Review

The review of literatures above can be concluded with the following points:
(1) For the same water/cement ratio, the use of recycled aggregate to replace parts of

coarse aggregate or fine aggregate will decrease the compressive strength of concrete.

(2) Double mixing method can reduce the total loss of compressive strength in the use

of recycled aggregates since it can improve the compressive strength of the new

concrete.

(3) Double mixing method can also decrease the initial slump value to the half of the

concrete produced by natural aggregate.

(4) The common proportion of replacing recycled aggregate as coarse or fine

aggregate is about 20% of natural aggregate.

(5) The higher the proportion of the replacing recycled aggregate, the more of the loss

in compressive strength.

(6) The compressive strength in low water/cement ratio will be higher after a long

time period; within a short time period, there will be greater effect on the compressive

strength if different water/cement ratio being used.

(7) The durability of recycled concrete with same water/cement ratio to the

conventional concrete will be lower because of the higher porosity.

(8) In order to produce the recycled concrete with same compressive strength and

slump value as the conventional concrete, it can be achieved by adjusting the

water/cement ratio.

(9) The properties of recycled aggregate will lower the modulus of elasticity and the
fracture energy.

Since there is no recycled concrete used in Macao, recycling concrete aggregate as

part of the replacement of coarse aggregate can be a beginning of recycled concrete

because there will not be too much treatment on the recycled aggregate.
 CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

In this study, recycled concrete will be used as 100% replacement of natural coarse

aggregate. Since lots of road works and pavement reconstructions are carried out in

Macau, one of the applications of the concrete made by recycled concrete aggregate

will be the use in road works. Some concrete suppliers in Macau are interviewed and

pointed out that the grade of the concrete used for road work varies from B25 to B50.

Therefore, the design compressive strength will be B50 which is the same as C40 at

28th days.

According to the Building Research Establishment (BRE) method (Marsh, 1997), the

water/cement ratio which was worked out for the design compressive strength of

40MPa at 28th days is 0.44. In the summary of the Literature Review, the compressive

strength of the recycled aggregate concrete is smaller than the concrete made by

natural coarse aggregate. In order to increase the strength of the recycled aggregate

concrete, water/cement ratio was decided to decrease from 0.44 to 0.41 and 0.41 to

0.38. These 0.03 decreases will result the increases of 5 MPa in the compressive

strength base on the BRE method. Finally, there are 4 batches of concretes produced

in the concrete mixing. The difference of the batches is shown in Table 3.1. There is

another study which investigates the performance of the concrete made by 50%

recycled concrete aggregate replacement of natural coarse aggregate by the other year
4 student, Ayumi Wong, some information are also obtained in Table 3.1.

Table 3. 1 – The information for different batches

Batch water/cement ratio % replacement

1 0.44 100%
2* 0.44 50%
3** 0.44 0%
4 0.41 100%
5* 0.41 50%
6 0.38 100%
7* 0.38 50%
* The work and data of these batches provided later are from Ayumi Wong

**This batch was done in corporation with Ayumi Wong

For each of the batch, 3 cubes and 1 cylinder were produced. The slump test was

carried out in order to determine the workability of the fresh concrete. The

compressive strength test was carried out for 3 cubes and 1 cylinder. Mechanical strain

gauge was also used to determine the displacement of the cylinder so that the elastic

modulus of the concrete can be determined. An aggregate crushing value test was

carried so that the resistance of the recycled concrete aggregate can also be

determined.

In the following sections, the procedures of preparations of materials and the tests

which carried out in this study will be mentioned.

3.1 Mixing Design (BRE Method)

As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, C40 is the highest required
compressive strength of concrete pavement in Macau. 40 N/mm2 is considered as the

design strength in this study.

The following is the calculation of the water/cement ratio for the design compressive

strength of C40 concrete.

Characteristic strength: 40 N/mm2 at 28 days

Standard deviation: no data --> 8 N/mm2
Margin:

M =k × s (3.1)
where M = the margin, k = a value appropriate to the percentage defectives permitted

below the characteristic strength*, s = the standard deviation (Figure 3 in Appendix)

M = 1.64 x 8 = 13 N/mm2
Target mean strength:

f m=f c + M (3.2)
where fm = the target mean strength, fc = the specified characteristic strength,

M = the margin, fm = 40 + 13 = 53 N/mm2

Estimated compressive strength (fcu) = 49 N/mm2 (Figure 5 in Appendix)
Free-water/cement ratio: 0.44 (Figure 4 in Appendix)
Maximum free-water/cement ratio: 0.65**
* For 5% defectives k = 1.64

** limited by Macau code

The water/cement ratio is the smaller of Free-water/cement ratio and the Maximum

free-water cement ratio. Finally, water/cement ratio of 0.44 is used in this study.

For the mixing design with water/cement ratio equals to 0.44, with the assumptions of

slump is 60-180 mm and Vebe time is 0-3s. The contents of the materials used in
concrete mixing are calculated and shown below.

Water content = 225 Kg/m3

Cement Content = 225 / 0.44 = 511.36 Kg/m3
Relative density of aggregate = 2700 Kg/m3
Concrete density = 2387 Kg/m3
Total aggregate content = 2387 – 225 – 511.36 = 1650.64 Kg/m3
Grading of sand: Percentage passing 600 μm sieve = 55 %
Proportion of sand = 40 %
Sand content = 1650.64 x 40% = 660.25 Kg/m3
Coarse aggregate content = 1650.64 – 660.25 = 900.39 Kg/m3
For the calculation, some values are found from Figure 3 to Figure 8 in the Appendix.

After calculating the contents of materials used in 1 m 3, required volume of the

concrete mixes is calculated (Table 3.2).

Table 3. 2 - Required volume of concrete mixing for 1 batch

Volume (m3) No. of sample Total Vol. (m3)

Cube 0.003375 3 0.01013
Cylinder 0.005301438 1 0.00530
Sum 0.01543
10% more materials should be prepared according to the BS 1881.

Total vol. = 0.01543 * 1.1 = 0.01670 m3

Required quantity of:

Water = 225 x 0.01670 = 3.8180 kg

Cement = 511.36 x 0.01670 = 8.6774 kg
Fine aggregate = 660.25 x 0.01670 = 11.2039 kg
Coarse aggregate = 900.39 x 0.01670 = 16.8059 kg

These amounts of materials required are for the batches with 0.44 water/cement ratio.
The difference between the batches of 0% and 100% recycled concrete aggregate

replacement is the use of recycled concrete as the coarse aggregate. The mixing

designs for water/cement ratio 0.41 and 0.38 are shown in Figure 11 in the Appendix.

3.2 Preparation of Aggregate

Coarse aggregate:

In the experiment, natural coarse aggregate (NCA) and recycled concrete aggregate

(RCA) were used. The difference of the preparation between NCA and RCA is shown

in step 1 in the procedures below because the recycled concretes supplied by local

construction company were not small enough to use in the concrete mixing. After the

delivering the recycled concrete to the laboratory, recycled concretes were crushed by

hammer manually.

Procedures of preparing coarse aggregates:

1. The recycled concrete was crushed into smaller pieces which can pass the

sieve with aperture 20 mm by hammer.

2. Then the recycled concrete was sieved by using the size of 20 mm, 14 mm

and 10 mm sieves. The size of recycle concrete between 10 mm to 20 mm

was used as coarse aggregate in the experiment. Some recycled concrete

between 10 to 14 mm was kept and it was used for the aggregate crushing

value test.
3. The recycled concrete aggregate was sieved until the required amount for
 the experiment is enough.
4. The recycled concrete aggregate were washed and air dried.
5. The weight required was measured in each batch and the required amount

of coarse aggregate was put in different container which was labeled.

6. Saturated Surface Dry condition is provided for the coarse aggregate

(both of the natural coarse aggregate and the recycled concrete aggregate)

before the experiment.

Fine aggregate:

Since the concrete strength will be affected by many factors, the grading of the fine

aggregate will be one of the factors. Therefore, the grading of fine aggregate was

control in the experiment.

Procedures of preparing fine aggregates:

1. Sieve analysis of the sand was carried out. The sieve with aperture 5.0 mm,

2 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 μm, 300 μm and 150 μm will be used.
2. According to the data recorded (Figure 2 in Appendix), the type of the

grading sand is distinguished.

3. According to the limits of different type of fine aggregate (Figure 1 in

Appendix), the percentages of mass passing test sieve were decided. The

percentages of mass passing and used were calculated and the required

amount (Figure 3 in Appendix) of the materials was calculated.

4. The sand was sieved until the required amount is enough for the

experiment.
5. The weight required in each batch was measured and put in different

container which was labeled.

Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.6 shows that the sands were sieved to different size in order to

control the grading of the fine aggregate used in the experiment.

Figure 3. 1 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 5 mm sieve

 Figure 3. 2 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 2 mm sieve

Figure 3. 3 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 1.18 mm sieve

Figure 3. 4 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 600 μm sieve

Figure 3. 5 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 300 μm sieve

 Figure 3. 6 – The sieved fine aggregate retaining on the 150 μm sieve

3.3 Concrete Mixing (BS 1881)

After preparing all the materials required in the mixing, concrete mixing was started.

Procedures for concrete mixing:

1. Coarse aggregates were put into the mixing machine, then a little bit of

water which is from the batch calculation was added into the machine. The

rotation was started for a while and stopped.

2. Fine aggregates were put into the mixing machine, then a little bit of water

which is from the batch calculation was added into the machine too. The

rotation was started for a while and stopped.

3. The rest of water and all of the cement were poured into the mixing

machine. The mixing was started.

4. The time of mixing was kept for 3 minutes, then the mixing was rested for
 3 minutes, finally the mixing was continued for 2 minutes, then the mixing

was stopped.

3.4 Slump Test (BS 1881: Part 102)

In order to test the workability of the fresh concrete, slump test will be carried out

immediately after mixing the concrete.

Procedures for slump test:

1. The moulds were being cleaned.

2. The footpieces were stepped on by one person who held the tamping rod for

stroking the fresh concrete layers.

3. The mould was filled in three layers of approximately equal depth right after

the concrete mixing stopped.

4. Between the fillings of each layer, each layer was rod with 25 strokes of the

tamping rod throughout its depth.

5. The mould was raised carefully in vertical direction.
6. The slump was determined immediately by measuring the difference

between the height of the mould and the highest point of the specimen being

tested.

3.5 Making test cubes from fresh concrete (BS 1881: Part 108)
Procedures for making the concrete cubes:

1. The moulds were placed on a rigid horizontal surface and filled with fresh

concrete.
2. The mould was filled in three layers of approximately equal 50 mm. between

the fillings of each layer, each layer was rod with 35 strokes of the tamping
 rod throughout its depth.
3. After the strokes were finished for three layers, the moulds were put on the

compacting table (Figure 3.7).

4. Finally, the moulds were moved from the compacting table to the rigid

horizontal ground and the top layer was smooth it level with the top of the

mould by using a plasterer’s float. The outside of the mould was wiped

clean.

Figure 3. 7 – The moulds were on the compacting table

3.6 Curing of the Testing Specimens (BS 1881: Part 111)

Since the water content is an important factor which will affect the compressive
strength of the testing concrete, curing should be performed to prevent the loss of

moisture from concrete. The concrete specimen will be more resistant to cracking

from shrinkage after curing.

Procedures of curing:

1. After the specimens were made, the specimens were stored in a place free

from vibration and were covered with polyethylene and wet towels in order

to prevent the loss of moisture.

2. The specimens were demoulded on the next day.
3. Each specimen was marked clearly with the batch numbers.
4. All the specimens to be tested were stored in the curing tank.

3.7 Compressive Strength Test (BS 1881: Part 116)

In this test, compressive strength of the cubes and also the cylinders were determined

to investigate the effect of using recycled concrete aggregate in concrete. The elastic

modulus was also found out from the results of the displacement when the cylinders

were compressed. The elastic modulus is used in the design of the concrete structures

which is related to the requirements of ultimate and serviceability limit states.

Procedures for testing concrete cubes:

1. The testing specimen was placed in the testing machine. All testing-machine

bearing surfaces were ensured to be wiped clean and that any loose grit or

other extraneous material is removed from the surfaces of the cube which

will be in contact with the platens. The better surface was chosen to be
 tested.
2. The specimen was centered carefully on the lower platen (Figure 3.8) and the

load was ensured to be applied to two opposite cast faces of the specimen.
3. Without shock, The load was applied and increased continuously at a

nominal rate within the range 0.2 N/ (mm 2×s) to 0.4 N/(mm2×s) until no

greater load can be sustained.

4. The maximum load applied to the specimen was recorded, after this value

was divided by the corresponding section area, the compressive strength of

the specimen was reported.

Figure 3. 8 - The concrete cube was centered on the lower platen

Procedures for testing concrete cylinders:

1. A mechanical strain gauge was set on the cylinder.

2. The testing specimen was placed in the testing machine. All testing-machine

bearing surfaces were ensured to be wiped clean and that any loose grit or

other extraneous material is removed from the top and the bottom surface of

the cylinder.
3. The specimen was centered carefully on the lower platen (Figure 3.9) and the

load was ensured to be applied to two opposite cast faces of the specimen.
4. Without shock, The load was applied and increased continuously at a

nominal rate within the range 0.2 N/ (mm 2×s) to 0.4 N/ (mm2×s) until no

greater load can be sustained.

5. The maximum load applied to the specimen and the displacement of the

specimen was recorded.

 Figure 3. 9 –The concrete cylinder was centered on the lower platen

3.7 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test (BS 812-110:1990 )

ACV test will be carried out as a standard of the selection of recycle concrete

aggregate. It is a relative measurement of the resistance of the recycled concrete

aggregate.

Procedures of ACV test:

1. The graded aggregates were prepared after sieving and drying. The mass of

material will be recorded after cooling down.

2. The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the baseplate and the
 test specimen is added in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer

was rod with 25 strokes of the tamping rod and dropping from a height

approximately 50 mm above the surface of the aggregate. The surface of the

aggregate was leveled and the plunger was inserted.

3. The apparatus were placed, with the test specimen prepared as described in the

procedures of preparing of coarse aggregates and the plunger was in position,

between the platens of the testing machine and it was loaded at as uniform a

rate as possible so that the required force of 400 kN is reached in 10 min ± 30

s.
4. The load was released and the crushed material was removed by holding the

cylinder over a clean tray and the outside of the cylinder was hammered with

the rubber mallet until the particles were sufficiently disturbed on to the tray.

Any particles adhering to the inside of the cylinder were transferred, to the

baseplate and the underside of the plunger, to the tray by a stiff bristle brush.

The tray and the aggregate were weighed and recorded. The mass of aggregate

used was marked as M1.

5. The tested aggregate was sieved with the 2.36 mm test sieve on the tray until

no further significant amount is passed during a further period of 1 min. The

masses of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve were weighed and

recorded as M2 and M3 respectively to the nearest gram.

6. Procedure 2 to 5 will be repeated with a second test specimen.
 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Data and Graphs of the Tests

After all the tests were performed, data were collected and results were calculated.

These will be shown in this section.

4.1.1 Results – slump test

The slump test was carried out immediately after finishing the concrete mixing. The

results of the slump test are shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 – Observation results of slump test

Slump Trial (mm) water/cement

Batch average (mm)
1 2 3 ratio
1 80 65 60 68.3 0.44
2 100 85 67.5 84.2 0.44
3 82.5 102.5 82.5 89.2 0.44
4 60.5 48 37.5 48.7 0.41
5 35 37.5 42.5 38.3 0.41
6 55 30 30 38.3 0.38
7 55 55 25 45.0 0.38

Figure 4.1 shows an overall trend that the higher the percentage of recycled concrete

aggregate replacement of natural coarse aggregate, the smaller the values of the slump

will be. Figure 4.2 shows that the overall trend is the higher the water/cement ratio,

the higher the slump will be for both 100% and 50% recycled concrete aggregate

replacement.
 100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Slump (mm) 50.00
0.44
40.00 0.41
30.00 0.38
20.00
10.00
0.00
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Replacement of natural coarse aggregate

Figure 4. 1 – Slump value for each batch

90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Slump (mm)

50.00
40.00 100%
30.00 50%
20.00
10.00
0.00
0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.4 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.45
Water/cement ratio

Figure 4.2 - Slump value of different water/cement ratio

4.1.2 Results – compressive strength test (concrete cube)

In the compressive strength test for concrete cube, the data obtained from the

experiment were the maximum applied force. In this case, the force should be
converted to loading as shown in equation 4.1.

Maximumapplied force ( kN )
Ultimate compressive strength ( MPa )= (4.1)
Section Area ÷1000

Eg. In batch 1,

1382.67
Ultimate compressive strength ( MPa )= =61.45(MPa)
( 150× 150 ) ÷ 1000

The raw data of the maximum applied force, the calculated average of maximum

applied force and the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete cube for each

batch are shown in Table 4.2. Figure 4.3 was plotted with the data in Table 4.2 and it

shows that the ultimate compressive strength is the lowest when there is no

replacement for 0.44 water/cement ratio. The ultimate compressive strength of the

concrete made with 0.38 water/cement ratio is the middle one. All the results of

different water/cement ratio gives a trend that the ultimate compressive strength

decreases if higher percentage of recycled concrete aggregate replacement is used in

the range of 50% to 100% replacement.

Table 4.2 – The results from compressive strength test (concrete cube)

Batch Cube Maximum applied Ultimate compressive

Average (kN)
Number Number force (kN) strength (MPa)
 1 1412
1 2 1366 1382.67 61.45
3 1370
1 1488
2 2 1400 1458.67 64.83
3 1488
1 1351
3 2 1244 1286.67 57.19
3 1265
1 1406
4 2 1589 1519.33 67.53
3 1563
1 1683
5 2 1622 1656.67 73.63
3 1665
1 1306
6 2 1426 1432.67 63.67
3 1566
1 1676
7 2 1702 1636.33 72.73
3 1531

80.00
Ultimate compressive strength (MPa)

70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
0.44
30.00 0.41
0.38
20.00
10.00
0.00
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Replacement of natural coarse aggregate

Figure 4.3 – The Ultimate compressive strength of each batch (cube)

4.1.3 Results – compressive strength test (concrete cylinder)
In the compressive strength test for concrete cylinder, the data obtained from the

experiment were the maximum applied force (shown in Table 4.3) and the

displacement during compression (shown in Appendix). The ultimate compressive

strength calculated by equation 4.1 is shown in Table 4.3. Figure 4.4 was plotted with

the data in Table 4.3. Since there was only one concrete cylinder produced for each

batch, the reliability of the results is low.

Eg. In batch 1,

645
Ultimate compressive strength( MPa)= =36.5 (MPa)
( π × 752 ) ÷ 1000

Table 4.3 – The results from compressive strength test (concrete cylinder)

Maximum applied Maximum applied

Batch
force (kN) load (kN)

1 645 36.50
2 692 39.16
3 637 36.05
4 535 30.27
5 520 29.43
6 575 32.54
7 733 41.48
 45.00

Ultimate compressive strength (MPa)

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00 0.44
0.41
15.00
0.38
10.00
5.00
0.00
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Replacement of natural coarse aggregate

Figure 4.4 – The Ultimate compressive strength vs. the % replacement (cylinder)

It shows that the concrete with 0% replacement of 0.44 water/cement ratio results the

lowest maximum applied load in cylinder test. For the water/cement ratio of 0.44 and

0.38, the strength concrete with 100% replacement is lower than the one with 50%.

But for 0.41, the one with 50% is lower than 100%. Figure 4.4 shows more clearly

that the strength of the concrete will not directly proportional to the water/cement

ratio.

The results in Table 4.4 is calculated by equation 4.2

∆L
E= (4.2)
L

The raw data from the Figure X in Appendix is measured in the unit of 2 x 10-3 mm.

Table 4.4 – The results from compressive strength test (measured by dial gauge)
Stress Calculated Strain (mm/mm)
(MPa) Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4 Cylinder 5 Cylinder 6 Cylinder 7
0.00 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
2.83 0.000053 0.000097 0.000080 0.000067 0.000070 0.000077 0.000060
5.66 0.000137 0.000177 0.000163 0.000150 0.000147 0.000153 0.000140
8.49 0.000220 0.000273 0.000257 0.000220 0.000227 0.000213 0.000227
11.32 0.000347 0.000377 0.000370 0.000343 0.000307 0.000293 0.000310
14.15 0.000477 0.000487 0.000480 0.000493 0.000387 0.000373 0.000393
16.98 0.000627 0.000617 0.000580 0.000573 0.000480 0.000473 0.000473
19.81 0.000807 0.000733 0.000727 0.000670 0.000493 0.000593 0.000543
22.64 0.000897 0.000857 0.000833 0.000760 0.000537 0.000687 0.000000
25.46 0.000953 0.001000 0.000893 0.000820 0.000560 0.000780 0.000560
28.29 0.000957 0.001130 0.000973 0.000860 --- 0.000873 0.000620
31.12 0.001077 0.001270 0.001087 --- --- 0.000980 0.000707
33.95 0.001193 0.001420 0.001273 --- --- --- 0.000780
36.78 --- 0.001623 --- --- --- --- 0.000887
39.61 --- --- --- --- --- --- 0.001047

Table 4.5 – The results obtained from the stress vs. strain graphs

Batch E (MPa)* water/cement ratio % replacement

1 27839 0.44 100%
2 24703 0.44 50%
3 28109 0.44 0%
4 30960 0.41 100%
5 40251 0.41 50%
6 33130 0.38 100%
7 40856 0.38 50%
* These values of Elastic modulus are found out from Figure 12 to Figure 18 in

Appendix.
Figure 4.5 shows that the concrete with 0% replacement of 0.44 water/cement ratio

results the highest elastic modulus.

45000
40000
35000
Elastic modulus, E (MPa)

30000
25000
20000 0.44
0.41
15000
0.38
10000
5000
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Replacement of natural coarse aggregate

Figure 4.5 – The Elastic modulus of each batch vs. the percentage of replacement

Figure 4.6 shows that the higher the water/cement ratio, the lower the elastic modulus

for both 100% and 50% replacement. But the elastic modulus of 50% replacement of

0.44 water/cement ratio suddenly decreases a lot.

 45000
40000
35000

Elastic modulus, E (MPa)

30000
25000
20000 100%
15000 50%
10000
5000
0
0.37 0.38 0.39 0.4 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.45
Water/Cement Ratio

Figure 4. 6 – The elastic modulus of each batch vs. the w/c ratio

4.14 Results – aggregate crushing value test

4.2 Summary of Tests Results

From the results and graphs in section 4.1, the highest slump results from 0.44

water/cement ratio. The higher of the percentage of replacement of natural coarse

aggregate, the lower the slump should be.

Both cylinder tests and cube tests show that the concrete strength is the smallest when

there is no replacement of natural aggregate if the water/cement ratio is 0.44. Since

there is not enough test specimens so that other results of 0.41 and 0.38 water/cement

ratio cannot be compared with the concrete which is no replacement. But the results

show that they have the similar trend: as the percentage of replacement increase from

50% to 100%, the compressive strength is decreasing. But the results of the concrete
with 0.41 water/cement ratio shows an extremely difference between cube test and

cylinder test. The strength of 0.41 water/cement ratio is the highest in cube test but it

is the smallest in cylinder test.

4.3 Discussion of the Tests Results

In this study, cement, water and sand are well controlled in the tests. The differences

between each batch are the water/cement ratio, the quantity of different size of coarse

aggregate (both natural coarse aggregate and recycled concrete aggregate) and the

mould (cube and cylinder) used.

Since lower value of water/cement ratios were used, the fresh concretes were easy to

dry after the mixing since the proportion of the amount of water is low in the concrete

mixing. The values of the slump were affected.

One possible reason that the strength of concrete cylinder of batch 4 and batch 5 is

decrease is that the moulds of them used is not well designed, there was some

problems when removing the concrete cylinders from the moulds. In the process of

removing them, hammer was used and the vibration may affect the results in the test.

The possible reason that the concrete with recycled concrete aggregate replacement

results higher strength is the surface of the recycled concrete aggregate. Since there

were mortar and the surface of the mortar is rough, this may increase the strength

between the bonding of aggregate and the cement.

Other reason that may increase the strength of concrete with recycled concrete

aggregate replacement is the holes of the recycled concrete aggregate. The more the

holes, the higher the porosity of the aggregate and the strength of the concrete may

decrease. In Figure 4.11, the recycled concrete aggregate is on the left hand side and

the right hand side is natural coarse aggregate. It shows that there are more holes in

recycled concrete aggregate. Figure 4.12 shows that there are many such recycled

concrete aggregate in our samples. The porosity of the concrete was also high because

there were many holes that can observed on the surfaced of the concrete (Figure 4.13).

Figure 4.7 – A recycled concrete aggregate and a natural coarse aggregate

 Figure 4.8– Some recycled concrete aggregates

Figure 4.9 – The surface of one of the test specimen

At the same time, a reason that may decrease the strength of the concrete is the

powder on the recycled aggregate surface. Since more powder on the surface which

means that more fine particles in the mixing and the fineness modulus will be smaller.

This means requiring more mixing water at the same consistency. The increase of the

amount of water in the original mixing content, this may decrease the compressive

strength of concrete. Figure 4.12 shows that there are still some powders on the

recycled concrete aggregate surface and left on the hand when it is taught by hand

after washing and drying.

Figure 4.10 – The recycled concrete aggregate after washing and drying
The proportion of the size of the coarse aggregate may also affect the strength of the

concrete. Although the range of the size of coarse aggregate is 10 to 20 mm, if there

were large amount of 20 mm coarse aggregate in one of the batch, large amount of 10

mm coarse aggregate in the other batch, the strength of the concrete must be affect

since the surface area of the aggregate is different.

 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
The use of recycled concrete aggregate will have benefit on dealing with construction

and demolition waste in Macau. In this study, some findings that related to the use of

recycled concrete aggregate can be concluded from the tests:

1. The slump of the concrete decreases if the higher the percentage recycled concrete

aggregate replacement is used. This may due to the higher porosity in the use of more

recycled concrete aggregate. This may be due to angular shape and more rough

texture surface of the RCA.

2. The compressive strength of the concrete produced by 100% recycled concrete

aggregate replacement of natural coarse aggregate is higher than one of the

conventional concrete if the water/cement ratios are the same.

3. By comparing the compressive strength of the concrete made of different

percentage of recycled concrete aggregate replacement, both of the 50% and the 100%

replacement results higher compressive strength than the conventional concrete.

4. The compressive strength has minor differences if higher percentage of recycled

concrete aggregate replacement is used from the range of 50% to 100%.

5. The elastic modulus of the concrete decreases as the percentage of the recycled

concrete aggregate replacement increase. (FROM WHERE TO WHERE???)

6.ACV test?
6. In the range of the 50% and 100% replacement, he relation between the workability,

compressive strength and the elastic modulus of concrete is observed that the higher

the workability, the smaller the compressive strength and elastic modulus.

5.2 Recommendations
Since there is many constrains in this study such as, time constrain, equipment

constrain, man power constrain etc., the reliability of the data is affected. In order to

improve the reliability of the tests, more specimens should be tested, especially the

numbers of the concrete cylinders because there is only one cylinder for each batch in

this study. The proportion of the size of the coarse aggregate used should also be well-

controlled so that fewer factors will affect the strength of the concrete.

In this study, the mixing of concrete was carried out on a whole day and the tests are

also carried out on day only, this is better to do it this way if other similar study is

carried out. Since some conditions such as temperature or humidity can be controlled

when mixing or testing.

In the use of recycled concrete aggregate, the shape is also one of the factors which

are affecting the physical behavior of the concrete. It is suggested to control the used

of different shape of recycled concrete aggregate if time is enough.

As the compressive strength of the concrete made with 100% recycled concrete

aggregate replacement is higher than the one with 0% replacement, the water/cement
ratio can be higher for the future studies so that the workability of the fresh concrete

can be higher whereas the strength will not be affected.

REFERENCES

Book:
Agrela F., Alaejos P. and DE JUAN M. S., (2013), Properties of concrete with

recycled aggregates, Woodhead Publishing Limited, United Kingdom.

Marsh, B.K., (1997), Design of normal concrete mixes, 2nd ed, Building research

establishment Ltd., London.

Journal, conference paper and newspaper:

Amorim P., Brito J., Evangelista L., (2012), “Concrete made with coarse concrete

aggregate: influence of curing on durability”, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 109, No.

M20, pp. 195-204.

Butler L., West J.S., Tighe S.L., (2013), “Effect of recycled concrete coarse aggregate

from multiple sources on the hardened properties of concrete with equivalent

compressive strength”, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 47, pp. 1292-1301.

Holtz K., Eighmy T.T., (2000), “Scanning European advances in the use of recycled

materials in highway construction”, Public Roads, Vol. 64, No. 1, pp. 34-40.

Knaack A.M., Kurama Y.C., (2013), “Design of concrete mixtures with recycled

concrete aggregates”, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 110, No. M43, pp.483-493.

Limbachiya M., Meddah M.S. and Ouchagour Y., (2012), “Performance of

portland/silica fume cement concrete produced with recycled concrete aggregate”.

ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 109, No. M10, pp. 91-100.

Poon C.S., Chan D., (2007), “The use of recycled aggregate in concrete in Hong
Kong”, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 50, pp. 293-305.

Richardson A., Allain P. and Veuille M., (2010), “Concrete with crushed, graded and

washed recycled construction demolition waste as a coarse aggregate replacement”,

Structural Survey, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 142-148.

Sharma J., Singla S., (2014), “Study of recycled concrete aggregates”, International

Journal Of Engineering Trends Anad Technology (IJETT), Vol. 13, No 3, pp. 123-125.

Thomas C., Setién J., Polanco J.A., Alaejos P. and Sánchez de Juan M., (2013),

“Durability of recycled aggregate concrete”, Construction and Building Materials,

Vol. 40, pp. 1054-1065.

Ulloa V.A., García-Taengua E., Pelufo M.J., Domingo A. and Serna P., (2013), “New

views on effect of recycled aggregates on concrete compressive strength”, ACI

Materials Journal, Vol. 110, No. M63, pp. 687-696.

Yang K.H., Chung H.S. and Ashour A.F., (2008), “Influence of type and replacement

level of recycled aggregates on concrete properties”, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 105,

No. M34, pp. 289-296.

Yong P.C. and Teo D.C.L., (2009), “Utilisation of recycled aggregate as coarse

aggregate in concrete”, UNIMAS E-Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol.1, issue 1.

Standards:

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1983) BS 1881: Testing concrete. London:

British Standards Institute.

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1983) BS 1881-102: Testing concrete -

method for determination of slump. London: British Standards Institute.

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1983) BS 1881-108: Testing concrete -

method for making test cubes from fresh concrete. London: British Standards Institute.

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1983) BS 1881-111: Testing concrete - method

of normal curing of test specimens. London: British Standards Institute.

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1983) BS 1881-116: Testing concrete -

Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes. London: British

Standards Institute.

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (1990) BS 812-110: Testing aggregates –

methods for determination of aggregate crushing value (ACV). London: British

Standards Institute.

APPENDIX
 Figure 1 – Grading of fine aggregates

Figure 2 – The results of sieve analysis of the fine aggregate

Figure 3 – The proportion of different size of fine aggregate used

 Figure 4 – Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength

Figure 5 – Relationship between compressive strength and free-water/cement ratio

 Figure 6 – Approximate compressive strengths of concrete mixes made with a free-

water/cement ratio of 0.5

Figure 7 – Approximate free-water contents (kg/m3) required to give various levels of

workability
 Figure 8 – Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete

Figure 9 – Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage

passing a 600 μm sieve

Figure 10 – Mixing design for 100% replacement of coarse aggregate

40.00

35.00

30.00 f(x) = 27838.81 x

25.00
Stress, σ (MPa)

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 11 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 1

 40.00
f(x) = 24703.38 x
35.00

30.00

25.00
Stress, σ (MPa)
20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 12 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 2

40.00

35.00
f(x) = 2.52 x
30.00

25.00
Stress, σ (MPa)

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.000012.000014.000016.0000
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 13 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 3

 30.00
f(x) = 2.46 x
25.00

20.00
Stress, σ (MPa)
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.000012.000014.000016.0000
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 14 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 4

30.00
f(x) = 2.43 x
25.00

20.00
Stress, σ (MPa)

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.000012.000014.000016.0000
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 15 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 5

 35.00
f(x) = 2.49 x
30.00

25.00

Stress, σ (MPa) 20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.000012.000014.000016.0000
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 16 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 6

45.00
40.00 f(x) = 40855.89 x

35.00
30.00
Stress,σ (MPa)

25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012
Strain, ε (mm/mm)

Figure 17 - Stress vs. Strain Curve of Batch 7

Figure 18 – Raw data of the displacement of the cylinder for each batch