THE USE OF WILD EDIBLE PLANTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL

ANATOLIA (TURKEY)1
YUNUS DOGAN, SULEYMAN BASLAR, GUNGOR AY, HASAN HUSEYIN MERT

Dogan, Yunus (Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, 35150,
Buca-Izmir, Turkey; e-mail yunus.dogan@deu.edu.tr), Suleyman Baslar (Dokuz Eylul Univer-
sity, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, 35150, Buca-Izmir, Turkey), Gungor Ay
(Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Science-Art, Department of Biology, Muradiye-Manisa,
Turkey), and Hasan Huseyin Mert (Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Education, Department
of Biology, 35150, Buca-Izmir, Turkey). THE USE OF WILD EDIBLE PLANTS IN WESTERN AND
CENTRAL ANATOLIA (TURKEY). Economic Botany 58(4):684–690, 2004. In this study, 121 wild
edible plants used as food in Anatolia were surveyed to determine the plant parts used and
their detailed preparation methods. The results of this study show that the plants may be boiled,
fried in fat, and eaten raw or as rolled vegetables. They may also be consumed as pickles,
fruits, sweets and spices, and drunk as cold and hot drinks. Thirty species (8 genera) were
identified as belonging to the Lamiaceae family, 15 species (15 genera) belong to the Asteraceae
family, 13 species (5 genera) belong to the Rosaceae family, 8 species (7 genera) belong to
the Brassicaceae family, 6 species (3 genera) belong to the Orchidaceae family and 5 species
(5 genera) belong to the Apiaceae family. The genera represented by the highest number of
species in the study are as follows: Sideritis L. is represented by 13 species, Origanum L. by
7 species, Rubus L. by 5 species, Thymus L. by 4 species and Rumex L. by 4 species.
Key Words: Anatolia, edible plants, ethnobotany, wild plants.

In terms of its flora, Turkey, with its ten thou-
sand-odd species, is one of the richest countries
in Europe and the Middle East due to its climate
and geographical position. In this area of the
world, wild edible plants have been used as a
source of food from ancient times onward. Al-
though wild species are known to have played
an important role in the regional economy of
other areas of the world, edible plant species
may have different uses in different countries as
well as in different areas of the same country.
The medicinal uses and nutritional properties
of wild species are frequently mentioned in stud-
ies that deal primarily with the identification and
classification of wild edibles (Bonet and Vallès
2002; Etkin 1996; Pieroni et al. 2002; Ranhotra
et al. 1998). As Etkin (1994) noted, diet surveys
tend to ignore wild plants in favor of the culti-
vated ones—and this is a methodological defi-
ciency. This author, as well as Arnason et al.
(1981) and Pieroni (2000), have pointed out that
there is a strong relationship between food and
1 Received 08 August 2003; accepted 15 December
2004.
medicine, so that in many cases the food use of
a plant is not separable from its medicinal ac-
tion.
It is known that wild plants are richer in min-
erals compared to cultivated ones. The study of
the nutrient composition of such plants has be-
come common in different parts of the world
(Doughty 1979). For example, in Jordan large
numbers of wild edible plants are widely dis-
tributed throughout the country and consumed
in various ways. Many of these plants are nutri-
tionally important because of their high vitamin,
mineral and fiber contents (Tukan et al. 1998).
Previous studies demonstrate the importance of
edible wild plants as food sources throughout
West Africa, especially in areas susceptible to
drought (Smith et al. 1996). Commonly con-
sumed species of edible wild barks, fruits, nuts,
seeds, and tubers were analyzed for protein, fat,
carbohydrate and minerals (Lockett et al. 2000).
A number of studies (Becker 1983; Cook et al.
1998; Kim et al. 1997; Salih et al. 1991; Smith
et al. 1996) have reported the nutrient content of
wild plant foods of the Western Sahel, including
essential amino acids, fatty acids, metals and

Economic Botany 58(4) pp. 684–690. 2004

q 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
2004] DOGAN ET AL.: USE OF WILD PLANTS IN ANATOLIA
trace minerals, ascorbic acids and fat-soluble
substances, such as vitamin E and b-carotene,
the precursor of vitamin A. Studies on the nu-
tritive value of some of the wild edible plants of
the Middle East have also been conducted (Pel-
let and Shadarevian 1970). Vegetables are re-
ported to be high in oxalate content (Takruri
1995), and dark green leafy vegetables are re-
ported to be particularly high in vitamin A pre-
cursor (Tukan et al. 1998).
There are not many studies on the usage of
wild plants as food. Traditionally, plants have
been used as food in many ways for centuries.
In Jordan, wild edible plants are either eaten
raw, boiled, fried in oil or baked to be served as
dishes such as stew, stuffed and rolled vegeta-
bles, or as cold or hot drinks for certain occa-
sions and seasons. The use of such plants is
common in Mediterranean cuisine in general
(Testolin et al. 1991). Wild edible plants are
very important for the people of Turkey. They
are sought after, as the taste is different from that
of cultivated ones. Plants are collected and are
either consumed directly or sold to consumers
in markets.
Wild food plants are of great importance to
the Anatolian people. The traditional knowledge
of these species, which has been handed down
from one generation to the next, faces extinction
and degeneration in modern times. Therefore, it
is important to preserve as much of this folk
knowledge as possible in written form. Hope-
fully, such knowledge may someday constitute
the special heritage of the people of Anatolia to
the world.
METHODS
This study was carried out between 1999 and
2002 to determine the wild plants used as food
by village people in Anatolia. During that time,
information was obtained from middle aged and
older people, most of whom were women. For
each plant, 3–20 people were interviewed. Our
data was collected from the following 17 local-
ities: Izmir, Manisa, Denizli, Mugla, Aydin,
Canakkale, Balikesir, Bursa, Burdur, Mersin,
Ankara, Antalya, Istanbul, Konya, Sivas, Tokat
and Trabzon.
The taxonomic determination of the material
was carried out according to Davis (1965–1988)
and Guner et al. (2001). We recorded the plant
parts used by the locals and their methods of
food preparation and usage. Armed with the
685
above knowledge, we were able to recreate and
sample many of the wild food dishes that we
had learned about during the course of our field
work. The determined plants, their families, the
parts used, and the purpose of consumption are
presented in Table 1, with names of the families
in alphabetical order.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At the end of our four year study, we deter-
mined that the number of plants considered as
wild edible plants in the research field is 121:
Among these 30 species (8 genera) belong to the
Lamiaceae family, 15 species (15 genera) belong
to the Asteraceae family, 13 species (5 genera)
belong to the Rosaceae family, 8 species (7 gen-
era) belong to the Brassicaceae family, 6 species
(3 genera) belong to the Orchidaceae family and
5 species (5 genera) belong to the Apiaceae fam-
ily (Table 1). The genera represented by the
highest number of species in the study are as
follows: Sideritis L. is represented by 13 species,
Origanum L. by 7 species, Rubus L. by 5 spe-
cies, Thymus L. by 4 species, and Rumex L. by
4 species.
The edible parts of plants are given in Table
1. It was observed that the preparation methods
and usage of the plants were not the same for
all areas studied. However, some of the major
culinary uses of the wild species are as follows:
Raw consumption: Some plants, such as Ta-
raxacum officinale Web., Cardaria draba (L.)
Desv. and Campanula trachelium L., can be
consumed raw and some without any prelimi-
nary preparation other than trimming and clean-
ing. They are used as an appetizer, and for fla-
voring, as well as for snacks at picnics and in
travels.
Green salads: Some plants, such as Lactuca
serriola L., Cichorium intybus L. and Tragopo-
gon porrifolius L., are consumed as fresh salad.
A dressing consisting of olive oil and lemon
juice is typically added to salads. Some plants,
like Anethum graveolens L., Thymus sp., and
Mentha aquatica L., are used in salads as pleas-
ant fragrant flavors. Some of these salads are
reported to have some digestive properties (Qub-
aisi 1993).
Boiling: Whole or some parts of plants, such
as Eryngium campestre L., Scolymus hispanicus
L., T. officinale, and Raphanus raphanistrum L.,
are consumed by boiling. They are usually
cooked until very tender and their leaves are
686 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

TABLE 1. THE USE OF WILD EDIBLE PLANTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL ANATOLIA.
Species Family Plant part Use

Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthaceae shoot and leaf stew, meal, pie, salad
Pistasia terebinthus L. Anacardiaceae leaf fruit pickle fruit
P. lentiscus L. Anacardiaceae secretion jam
Rhus coriaria L. Anacardiaceae seed spice
Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae aboveground salad, seasoning, raw
Daucus carota L. Apiaceae shoot and leaf meal, pancake, stew
Echinophora tenuifolia L. Apiaceae shoot, flower, leaf soup, seasoning, drinking
Eryngium campestre L. Apiaceae shoot and leaf pie, stew
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae aboveground meal, roasted, pilaf
Arum maculatum L. Araceae leaf stuffed, meal, roasted, sweet
Achillea nobilis L. Asteraceae aboveground hot drink
Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae aboveground meal, salad
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae leaf meal, stuffed
Scolymus hispanicus L. Asteraceae root stew, meal
Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae leaf roasted
Gundelia tournefortii L. Asteraceae leaf roasted, salad, pickle
Lactuca serriola L. Asteraceae leaf salad
Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae flower hot drink
Anthemis tinctoria L. Asteraceae flower hot drink
Onopordum tauricum Willd. Asteraceae stem salad
Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae leaf roasted, meal, pie, salad
Taraxacum officinale Web. Asteraceae leaf salad, raw, stew, pancake,
meal, cold drink (flower)
Tragopogon porrifolius L. Asteraceae shoot and leaf salad, stew with yogurt
Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae leaf stuffed
Senecio vulgaris L. Asteraceae aboveground stew
Anchusa azurea Mill. Boraginaceae leaf and branch roasted
Echium italicum L. Boraginaceae leaf roasted
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik Brassicaceae aboveground meal, roasted, soup, salad
Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. Brassicaceae shoot and leaf raw, salad
Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Brassicaceae aboveground roasted, salad
Raphanus raphanistrum L. Brassicaceae shoot and leaf roasted, salad, meal,
stuffed, stew, soup
Sinapis arvensis L. Brassicaceae aboveground roasted with egg
S. alba L. Brassicaceae aboveground roasted with egg
Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. Brassicaceae shoot and leaf salad
Thlaspi perfoliatum L. Brassicaceae aboveground meal, salad, pie
Ceratonia siliqua L. Caesalpinaceae fruit fruit, jam, marmalade
Cercis siliquastrum L. Caesalpinaceae flower raw
Campanula trachelium L Campanulaceae root, shoot raw
C. glomerata L. Campanulaceae root, shoot raw
Capparis ovata Desf. Capparaceae flowers bud pickle
C. spinosa L. Capparaceae flowers bud pickle
Silene vulgaris (Moench.) Garcke Caryophyllaceae aboveground stew
Chenopodium polyspermum L. Chenopodiaceae aboveground roasted
Cornus mas L. Cornaceae fruit raw, marmalade, cold drink
Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae tuber together with chopped cu-
cumber and garlic
Tamus communis L. Dioscoreaceae aboveground roasted, pie
Arbutus unedo L. Ericaceae fruit fruit
Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae leaf soup, roasted
Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae leaf soup, meal
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae root cold drink
Prosopis farcta (Banks & Soland.) Fabaceae fruit capsule jam
JF Macbr.
2004] DOGAN ET AL.: USE OF WILD PLANTS IN ANATOLIA 687

TABLE 1. CONTINUED.
Species Family Plant part Use

Galega officinalis L. Fabaceae aboveground stew

Fumaria officinalis L. Fumariaceae leaf roasted, salad, pie, Turkish
delight
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Herit. Geraniaceae leaf roasted, meal, pie
Geranium dissectum L. Geraniaceae leaf meal, pie, roasted with yo-
gurt
Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae aboveground meal
Mentha aquatica L. Lamiaceae aboveground pie, soup, roasted, salad
Salvia officinalis L. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
Stachys recta L. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. lavandulifolia Vahl Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
Sideritis stricta Boiss. & Heldr. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. condensata Boiss. & Heldr. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S.pisidica Boiss. & Heldr. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. syriaca L. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. tmolea P. H. Davis Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. trojana Bornm. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. arguta Boiss. & Heldr. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. argyrea P.H. Davis Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. congesta P.H. Davis & Hub.-Mor Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. hispida P.H. Davis Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. leptoclada O. Schwarz & P. H. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
Davis
S. libanotica Labill. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
S. perfoliata L. Lamiaceae aboveground hot drink
Thymus bornmuelleri Velen. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
T. longicaulis C. Presl Lamiaceae aboveground spice
T. praecox Opiz. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
T. sipyleus Boiss. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
Origanum onites L. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
O. majorana L. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
O. micranthum Vogel Lamiaceae aboveground spice
O. minutiflorum O. Schwarz & P.H. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
Davis
O. sipyleum L. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
O. syriacum L. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
O. vulgare L. Lamiaceae aboveground spice
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae aboveground seasoning in meal with
meat
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae leaf seasoning in meal with
meat
Ornithogalum narbonense L. Liliaceae aboveground meal
Smilax aspera L. Liliaceae shoot meal, pickle, roasted
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae aboveground pancake, meal, roasted,
stuffed
Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae seed raw
Ophrys attica (Boiss. & Orph) Soó Orchidaceae tuber sahlep (hot drink with milk)
O. fusca Link Orchidaceae tuber sahlep
Orchis anatolica Boiss. Orchidaceae tuber sahlep
O. purpurea Hudson. Orchidaceae tuber sahlep
Dactylorhiza iberica (Bieb. ex Orchidaceae tuber sahlep
Willd.) Soó
D. umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski Orchidaceae tuber sahlep
688 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

TABLE 1. CONTINUED.
Species Family Plant part Use

Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae aboveground meal, roasted, pie, salad,

cold drink
Pinus pinea L. Pinaceae seed helva, cold drink
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae leaf stuffed, pie, salad
Polygonum cognatum Meissn. Polygonaceae aboveground meal, round and flat bread
Rumex crispus L. Polygonaceae leaf stuffed, pie, soup, meal, sal-
ad, roasted
R. patientia L. Polygonaceae leaf stuffed, pie, soup, meal, sal-
ad, roasted
R. acetaosella L. Polygonaceae leaf stuffed, pie, soup, meal, sal-
ad, roasted
R. obtusifolius L. Polygonaceae leaf stuffed, pie, soup, meal, sal-
ad, roasted
Portulaca oleraceae L. Portulacaceae aboveground salad, soup, meal, stew with
yogurt
Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae leaf meal
Rubus ideaus L. Rosaceae fruit fruit, jam
R. canescens DC. Rosaceae fruit fruit, jam
R. sanctus Schreber Rosaceae fruit fruit, jam
R. discolor Weihe & Nees Rosaceae fruit seasoning
R. saxatilis L. Rosaceae fruit hot drink
Rosa canina L. Rosaceae fruit fruit, jam, hot drink
Mespilus germanica L. Rosaceae fruit fruit
Crataegus aronia (L.) Bosc. ex DC. Rosaceae fruit fruit
C. orientalis Pallas ex Bieb. Rosaceae fruit fruit
C. tanacetifolia (Lam.) Pers. Rosaceae fruit fruit
Pyrus elaeagnifolia Pallas Rosaceae fruit fruit
P. communis L. Rosaceae fruit fruit
P. amygdaliformis Vill. Rosaceae fruit fruit
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae leaf, fruit, shoot meal, pie, jam, stew with
and leaf yogurt
Urtica urens L. Urticaceae aboveground pie, meal, roasted, salad,
soup

completely wilted. Yogurt, crushed garlic, or
lemon juice is added to the boiled plant. A com-
bination of yogurt with vegetables is common in
many Middle Eastern countries (Ottogalli and
Testolin 1991). Such dishes are eaten as an ap-
petizer or mezza (Packard and McWilliams
1993).
Stuffed: Plants such as Arum maculatum L.,
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., Malva sylvestris L.
and Plantago lanceolata L., are filled with rice
or bulgur (pounded and boiled wheat) and eaten
after boiling.
Roasted: Species such as Foeniculum vulgare
Mill., A. maculatum, Artemisia absinthium L.,
Tamus communis L. and Anchusa azurea Mill.,
are sliced thinly, fried, then eaten either by add-
ing egg, and black pepper and chili for flavour,
or by adding yogurt with crushed garlic for fla-
vour.
Soup: Species such as Echinophora tenuifolia
L., Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik, M.
aquatica and Urtica urens L. are sliced thinly,
then oil, flour, rice, bulgur and water, and some-
times milk are added to prepare soup. As fla-
vorings, egg is treated with lemon, or vinegar,
and spices like peppermint, black pepper, Thy-
mus sp., and red pepper are added.
Main dish: Plants such as Amaranthus retro-
flexus L., F. vulgare, C. intybus and C. arvense
are cooked with onion, tomato paste, oil, meat,
mushroom, chicken and water. Again as flavor-
ings, spices like peppermint, Thymus sp., black
pepper, and red pepper are added.
Pie: Plants such as E. campestre, T. officinale,
2004] DOGAN ET AL.: USE OF WILD PLANTS IN ANATOLIA
Geranium dissectum L., A. retroflexus and Son-
chus oleraceus L. are thinly sliced and put in
yufka (a very thin layer of dough) with oil,
cheese, mince meat, potatoes, aubergine, and
parsley, then cooked on a tinplate. The most
popular product is the turnover, known in sev-
eral Middle Eastern countries as fatayer (Pellet
and Shadarevian 1970). It is prepared by rolling
a piece of yeast-leavened flatbread dough (flour
mixed with water, the cut into small balls) to a
round shape. A filling, consisting mainly of wild
plants (vegetables), chopped onion, and pepper,
is placed in the center. The sides of the dough
are turned over the top and sealed, then baked.
Vegetables used for filling not only improve the
nutritional quality but also import a desirable
sour flavor to the final product (Tukan et al.
1998).
Yogurt: In Anatolia, crushed garlic is gener-
ally put into yogurt and added to various dishes
as sauce. Also, some species, such as Solanum
nigrum L., Cyperus esculentus L. and Portulaca
oleraceae L., are sliced thinly and added to wa-
tered yogurt and consumed as cacik (prepared
by mixing yogurt together with chopped cucum-
ber, crushed garlic, water, salt, and sprinkling a
bit of olive oil and dried, crumbled mint on the
mixture).
Seasonings and spices: Some parts of species,
such as Pistacia terebinthus L. fruit, M. aqua-
tica, Pinus pinea L. seed, Origanum sp. and
Thymus sp. etc., are used as seasonings and spic-
es in dishes for flavoring, both in fresh or dry
form. Dried seeds of Rhus coriaria L. are used
for seasoning. Many of these plants are used as
spices in many other regions of the world (Bryce
1979). Fresh and dried leaves of wild Origanum
sp. and Thymus sp. are used as appetizers and
condiments.
Pickle: Fruits of some plants, like Capparis
ovata Desf., C. spinosa L., Smilax aspera L., P.
terebinthus and Gundelia tournefortii L., are
treated with vinegar, or lemon with salt, and
used as a garnish.
Dessert: Some plants such as Cornus mas L.
are boiled and syrup is added. Some species like
A. maculatum, Prosopis farcta (Banks & So-
land.) JF Macbr., some Rubus sp., C. aurantium
and Ceratonia siliqua L., are boiled with sugar
and consumed as jam and marmalade. Seeds of
P. pinea are added to helva (a Turkish and ori-
ental sweet, prepared in many varieties with oil,
various cereals and syrup).
689
Hot and cold drinks: Some species like Pa-
paver rhoeas L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and C.
mas, are boiled and then sweetened with sugar
and drunk with the addition of cinnamon, P. pi-
nea seeds, lemon and orange peels. Wild plants
are used to prepare both hot and cold drinks. The
fresh or dried plant is used in a manner similar
to that reported by Gunaidi (1992). Tubers of
some orchid species like Orchis anatolica Boiss.
and Ophrys attica (Boiss. & Orph.) Soó, are
crushed and boiled with milk. It is drunk as sa-
lep (a hot winter drink). Some species like Mat-
ricaria chamomilla L., some Sideritis sp. and
Salvia officinalis L., are either boiled, or left in
hot water and consumed as tea after sweetening
with sugar. For hot drinks, leaves or flowers are
used; boiling water is added and the mixture is
then allowed to infuse for 5–10 minutes. Hot
drinks prepared from Sideritis sp. and S. officin-
alis, are also common in different parts of the
world (Qudama 1985).
Fruit: Fruits of species like Mespilus german-
ica L., Rubus saxatilis L., Arbutus unedo L., and
Pyrus communis L., are consumed, similar to
raw-like fruits of cultivated plants.
Couplan (1995) calculated that approximately
10% of the European wild flora has been used
for food purposes. Usage of wild edible plants
as food is also quite common in Turkey. It has
become a tradition. Accordingly, the number of
edible plants of Turkey is quite high, since Turk-
ish flora is very rich in terms of the number of
taxa.
We determined that similar plants are used
differently in many parts of Anatolia. Some dif-
ferences, as well as similarities, are observed in
the preparation of the plants. We feel that the
knowledge handed down through generations
about wild edible plants, which are important as
a food source, should be studied and presented
for the use of all humanity.
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