3 Dof Thermodynamics Table

Thermodynamics 1
Cherish Qualls, Ph.D. | www.stemcourseprep.com | Copyright 2017 – STEM Course Prep

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Chapter 1
Fundamental terms:
___________________________ - whatever we want to study
___________________________ - everything external to the system
___________________________ - distinguishes the system from the surroundings
Two Kinds of Systems:
___________________________- system that always has the same matter
• No mass transfer across the boundary
___________________________ - special type of closed system that doesn’t interact with

surroundings
___________________________ - region in space through which mass may flow
• Mass may cross the boundary of a control volume
Selecting the System Boundary

Boundary of the system should be defined to allow for convenience in analysis
1.
2.
THERMODYNAMICS 1 WWW.STEMCOURSEPREP.COM COPYRIGHT 2017

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Describing Systems and Their Behavior
____________________________________ - deals with overall behavior
• Look at effects that can be measured by pressure gages, etc.

• “Classical Thermodynamics”
____________________________________ - “Statistical Thermodynamics”
• Used in applications: lasers, high speed gas flow, etc.
Property, State & Process

1. __________________________ - macroscopic characteristic such as mass, volume, energy,
pressure, and temperature
• A numerical value can be assigned at a given time
• Don’t need knowledge of past history
2. _________________________ - condition of a system as described by its properties
3. _______________________ - when any of the properties change in the system, the system’s
state changes. The system has undergone a ____________________.
• Going from one state to another
4. __________________________________ - system is steady state if none of the properties change
with time
Extensive & Intensive Properties
2 Classes of Thermodynamic Properties:

___________________________________________- value for an overall system is the sum of its
values for the parts into which it is divided
• Mass, volume, energy are extensive
• Can change with time but not position
__________________________________________ - may vary from point to point within a system at

any moment
• Not additive

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• Values are independent of the size of the system

• Pressure, temperature, specific volume are intensive
Equilibrium
• In thermo, there are several types of equilibrium that must be reached
o Mechanical, thermal, phase and chemical equilibrium
• When a system is isolated, it doesn’t interact with surroundings
o State can change because of internal spontaneous events as intensive properties
like temperature and pressure tend towards uniform values
o At ____________________________________________________ when all such
changes cease
• At equilibrium:
o Temperature is uniform throughout system
o Pressure considered uniform as long as gravity effects are negligible
Units
____________________ - quantity adopted as a standard of measurement
• Examples: meter, foot, miles, km, etc. are units of length
Two systems: SI and English
SI (metric) English
Quantity Units Symbols Units Symbols
Example 1
Perform the following unit conversions
a) 1 L to in3

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b) 304 kPa to lbf⁄in2
Specific Volume
• Macroscopic viewpoint: matter is considered to be distributed continuously throughout a
region
• At any point, the ______________________ is defined as:
o Units:
 SI
 English
• Specific volume:

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• Specific volume is preferred for analysis when dealing with gases with small density values
Pressure
• Consider a small area A passing through a point in a fluid at rest
Pressure Measurement
• Manometers/barometers measure pressure in terms of a column of liquid like mercury
Manometer

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Barometer
Pressure Units/Gage Pressure
• Pressure used in thermodynamic relations: ____________________________________________

• Pressure devices often indicate the ________________________ between the absolute pressure
of a system and the ____________________pressure

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Temperature
• When all changes are complete (no more volume changes), the thermal interaction is over
o Two blocks are in thermal equilibrium
• Physical property that determines thermal equilibrium: __________________________________
• ________________________________________________: when two objects are int hermal

equilibrium with a third object, then they are all in thermal equilibrium
Temperature Scales
1. _________________________________________: unit is K
• SI unit system
• Lowest possible value = zero
• Absolute temperature scale
2. ________________________________________ : unit is °R
• English unit system
• Lowest possible value = zero
• Absolute temperature scale
Temperature Conversions

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Example 2
The specific volume of 5 kg of water vapor at 1.5 MPa, 440 °C is 0.2160 m3/kg. Find:
a) the volume in m3 of the water vapor

b) the amount of water vapor present in moles
c) the # of molecules

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Example 3
A vertical piston-cylinder assembly containing a gas is placed on a hot plate. The piston initially
rests on the stops. With the onset of heating, the gas pressure increases. At what pressure, in bar,
does the piston start rising?
Moran, Shapiro, Boettner, Bailey [2014] Fundamentals of Engineering

Thermodynamics, John Wiley & Sons

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Chapter 2
Work & Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy

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Units of Energy
• Work
o SI - N ∙ m or Joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ
o English - ft ∙ lbf, Btu
• Kinetic and potential energy have same units as work
Conservation of Energy in Mechanics

• If the only force acting is due to gravity then the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
remains constant
Example 4
An object whose weight is 100 lbf experiences a decrease in kinetic energy of 500 ft ∙ lbf and an
increase in potential energy of 1500 ft ∙ lbf. Initial velocity is 40 ft/s and initial height is 30 ft.
Find:
a) V2
b) h2

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Understanding Work
• Previously we looked at mechanical work:
• Thermo deals with phenomena outside of mechanics

o Need a broader interpretation of work
Thermodynamic Description of Work

• Consider having a weight. Work is done if a system has the capability to raise the weight
o Work is a means for transferring energy
Sign Convention of Work

W>0
W<0
• The directions of work are also shown with arrows on figures
Power
• Power �Ẇ � = rate of energy transfer by work
• Units
o SI: J⁄s or Watt, W
o English: ft ∙ lbf⁄s , Btu⁄h , hp

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Expansion/Compression Work
• Consider a closed system with a piston cylinder assembly. One end filled with a gas, gas
expands.

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Example 5
CO2 gas within a piston cylinder assembly undergoes a process from a state where P1 = 5 lbf⁄in2 ,
∀1 = 2.5ft 3 to a state where P2 = 20 lbf⁄in2 , ∀2 = 0.5ft 3 . The relationship between pressure and
volume is given by P = 23.75 − 7.5∀, where ∀ is in ft 3 and P is in lbf⁄in2 . Determine the work for
the process, in Btu.

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Example 6
A gas contained within a piston cylinder assembly undergoes three processes in series:
Process 1-2: constant volume from P1 = 1 bar, ∀1 = 4m3 to state 2 P2 = 2 bar
Process 2-3: compression to ∀3 = 2m3 , during which the pressure-volume relationship is

p∀= constant
Process 3-4: constant pressure to state 4 where ∀= 1m3
Sketch the processes in series on 𝑃𝑃 − ∀ coordinates and evaluate the work of each process in kJ.

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Broaden Our Understanding of Energy

• Will have kinetic, potential, and internal energy
o Internal energy accounts for all other energy changes
• Look at step 1 to step 2 of a process:
Energy Transfer by Heat

• Energy transfers by heat induced as a result of temperature differences between the system
and its surroundings
• Energy transfers only occur in the direction of decreasing temperature
o Hot to cold
Sign Convention & Notation for Heat Transfer

• Q = amount of energy transferred across the boundary of a system in a heat interaction
with the system’s surroundings
Q>0
Q<0
• Arrows show direction of heat transfer on figures

• Rate of heat transfer => Q̇
• _____________________________ - have an adiabatic process if a system undergoes a

process with no heat transfer

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Energy Balance
• Energy in a closed system can only be changed in two ways:
o Work
o Heat
• Energy is conserved -> First Law of Thermodynamics
o Energy of a closed system increases or decreases by an amount equal to the net
amount of energy transferred across its boundary
Time Rate Form of Energy Balance

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Polytropic Process
• 𝑊𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑∀ can be used to find work of idealized processes
o P term in integrand is the pressure of the entire quantity of gas, not just the
pressure at the piston face
o Can be described by
o Describe a polytropic process

o n usually given
Example 7
Closed system of m = 10kg undergoes a process during which there is energy transfer by work from
the system of 0.147 kJ/kg, an elevation decrease of 50 m, and an increase in velocity from 15 m/s to
30 m/s. The specific internal energy decreases by 5 kJ/kg and g = 9.7 m/s 2. Determine the heat
transfer for the process in kJ.

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Example 8
Piston-cylinder assembly undergoes 2 processes, A and B, between the same end states, 1 and 2,
where P1 = 1 bar, ∀1 = 1m3 , U1 = 400 kJ, P2 = 10 bar, ∀2 = 0.1 m3 , U2 = 450 kJ.
Process A: constant-volume process from state 1 to a pressure of 10 bar, followed by

constant-pressure process to state 2
Process B: process from 1 to 2 during which p∀= constant
Kinetic and potential effects are ignored. For each process, A and B:
a) sketch the process on p − ∀ coordinates

b) evaluate work (kJ)
c) evaluate heat transfer (kJ)

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Energy Analysis of Cycles

• __________________________________________________- sequence of processes that
begins and ends at the same state
o Properties at start and end of the cycle are the same
• ______________________________________ - delivers a net transfer of energy by work
• ___________________________________________ - describes performance of system

undergoing a power cycle
o Extent to which energy added by heat is converted to a net work output

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Refrigeration & Heat Pump Cycles

• Consider: refrigerator at home
o Heat moved from inside the refrigerator (heat source) to warmer air of kitchen
(heat sink)
o Work required to make this happen

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Example 9
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three
processes:
Process 1-2: Compression with p∀= constant, from P1 = 1 bar, ∀1 = 2m3 to ∀2 =

0.2 m3 , U2 − U1 = 100 kJ
Process 2-3: Constant volume to P3 = P1
Process 3-1: Constant pressure & adiabatic process
Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Determine the net work of the cycle (in kJ) and the
heat transfer for process 2-3 (in kJ). Is this a power cycle or refrigeration cycle?

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Chapter 3 Evaluating Properties
• ___________________________________ in a physical structure:

o Matter is all solid, or all liquid, or all gas
• _________________________: a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both

chemical composition and physical structure
• Can have more than one phase at a time
o Example: ice water -> 2 phases -> ice is a solid, water is a liquid
• ____________________________________: substance that’s uniform and invariable in

chemical composition
o Can exist in more than one phase – chemical composition must be the same for
each phase
P – v – T Relation
• Systems of commonly encountered pure substances: _________________________________

o Substances commonly found in tables
o Pressure determined as a function of T and v ->
• P-v-T surface: graph of the P = P(T, v) relationship

o Solid, liquid, vapor -> single phase regions
o 2-phase regions -> liquid vapor, solid vapor, solid liquid
o Triple line: 3 phases can exist in equilibrium here
• ____________________________________________: a state at which a phase change begins

or ends
• ___________________________________: dome shaped region composed of the two-phase

liquid vapor state
• ___________________________________ leads to:
o Tc = critical temperature
o Pc = critical pressure
o Maximum temperature and pressure at which liquid and vapor phases can coexist
o Critical values available in tables

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• _________________________________________: temperature at which a phase change

takes place at a given pressure
• _________________________________________: pressure at which a phase change occurs

at a given temperature
Phase Change
Consider water at 20℃ (68℉) that’s slowly heated while pressure is kept constant at 1.014 bar (14.7
psi)
1. Before heating
2. Heating to 100℃

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3. Continued heating


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• If process is reversed by cooling under same pressure, water will return to compressed
liquid by following same path
• In above example pressure was fixed at 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
o If pressure was increased, boiling would occur at a higher temperature
o Boiling temp depends on pressure -> if pressure is fixed, then boiling point is fixed
• ____________________________________: amount of energy to melt a solid or vaporize a

liquid
• __________________________________________________: amount of energy released

during melting = amount of energy released during freezing (@ 1 atm = 333.7 kJ⁄kg)
Steam Tables

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Example
Find properties associated with compressed liquid water at 10 MPa and T = 220℃.
Linear Interpolation
• must interpolate if needed data isn’t in tables
Example
Find specific internal energy for superheated water vapor at P = 0.035 MPa and T = 100℃.
Saturation Tables

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• Use these tables to find properties for 2 phase liquid-vapor mixture
• Total volume:
• Get specific volume by dividing by mass:
• Use a T-v or P-v diagram to help with selecting tables

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Example 10
For H2O determine the specified property at the indicated state. Locate the state on a T-v diagram.
a) T = 140℃, v = 0.5 m3 ⁄kg. Find P, in bar.
b) P = 30MPa, T = 100℃. Find v, in m3 ⁄kg.
c) P = 10MPa, T = 485℃. Find v, in m3 ⁄kg.
d) T = 80℃, x = 0.75. Find v, in m3 ⁄kg.

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Example 11

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Example 12
A closed rigid tank whose ∀= 1.5m3 contains Refrigerant 134a, initially a two phase liquid-vapor
mixture at 10℃. The refrigerant is heated to a final state where is 50℃ and quality is 100%. Locate
the initial and final states on a T-v diagram. Determine mass of vapor present at initial and final
states, in kg.

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Example 13
For H2O, locate each of the following states on sketches of the P-v and T-v diagrams.
a) T = 120 ℃, P = 5 bar
b) T = 120 ℃, v = 0.6 m3 ⁄kg
c) T = 120 ℃, P = 1 bar
Evaluating Specific Internal Energy & Enthalpy
• Sum that frequently appears in equations:
• __________________________ is the term for the sum
• Specific enthalpy (h)
• Find u and h in tables

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Specific Heat
• __________________________________________ : amount of heat required to raise

temperature of a unit mass of substance up 1 degree
• Specific heat units:
• Specific heat ratio
• There is no general relationship between specific heat and Q
Example 14
A rigid insulated tank with a paddle wheel is filled with H2O, initially a 2-phase liquid-vapor
mixture at 20 lbf/in2 , consisting of 0.07 lb of saturated liquid and 0.07 lb of saturated vapor. The
tank contents are stirred by the paddle wheel until all of the water is saturated vapor at a pressure
greater than 20 lbf/in2 . Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Determine:
a) Volume occupied, inft 3

b) Initial temperature, in ℉
c) Final pressure, in lbf⁄in2
d) Work, in Btu

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Property Approximation
Methods of approximation:
1. Approximations for liquids using the saturated liquid data

• Find approximations for v, u, and h
• Compressed liquid table shows little change in u and v with pressure at a fixed
temperature
 Use liquid-vapor mixture table as approximation for compressed liquid
• Works for any substance
2. Incompressible Substance Model
• __________________________________________ : one in which ρ (or v) doesn’t change,

u only varies with temperature
• For incompressible substances:

o Use c instead

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Generalized Compressibility Chart

Compressibility Factor ->
• If pressure is small relative to critical pressure:
• Z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same TR , PR -> Principle of
Corresponding States
• Curve fitting data leads to generalized compressibility chart

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Example 15
For air at 200 K, 132 bar find Z.
• When PR is small, Z= 1
• If Pv = RT can describe a gas then specific internal energy depends only on temperature.
• To verify ideal gas model works for a gas, find Z on compressibility chart
o Z should be 1
Internal Energy, Enthalpy & Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

• If gas obeys ideal gas law

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Example 16
Find volume (m3 ) occupied by 2 kg of H2O at 100 bar, 400 ℃ using
a) Compressibility chart
b) Steam tables
Compare the results.

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Example 17
Butane in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes isothermal compression at 173 ℃ from P1 =
1.9 MPa to P2 = 2.5 MPa. Find work in kJ⁄kg. Use compressibility data to solve.

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Polytropic Process Relations

• Recall P∀n = constant or Pv n = constant where n is a constant
• Polytropic process between 2 states:
• If ideal gas applies to gas Pv = RT
Example 18
CO2 is contained in a piston-cylinder assembly, initially at 6 bar and 400 K, undergoes an
expansion to a final temperature of 298 K, during which 𝑃𝑃∀1.2 = constant. Assuming an ideal gas
model, find:
a) Final pressure, in bar

b) Work, in kJ⁄kg
c) Heat transfer, in kJ⁄kg

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Chapter 4 – Control Volume Analysis Using Energy

Conservation of Mass
Consider a control volume with mass flowing
in at the inlet and flowing out at the exit
Conservation of mass:
Time rate form:
For several inlets/exits:

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One Dimensional Flow:
• Flow is normal to the boundary where mass enters/exits

• Velocity, density are uniform with position over inlet/exit areas
Steady-State – properties do not change with _________________
Example 19
Air exits a turbine at 200 kPa and 150 ℃ with a volumetric flow rate of 7000 Liters⁄s. Modeling air
as an ideal gas, determine the mass flow rate, in kg⁄s.

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Example 20
A mixing tank initially contains 2000 lb of liquid H2O. The tank is fitted with two inlet pipes, one
delivering hot water at a mass flow rate of 0.8 lb⁄s and the other delivering cold water at a mass
flow rate of 1.2 lb⁄s. Water exits through a single exit pipe at a mass flow rate of 2.5 lb⁄s.
Determine the amount of water, in lb, in the tank after 30 minutes.


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Example 21
Steam at 80 bar, 440 ℃ enters a turbine operating at steady-state with a volumetric flow rate of
236 m3 ⁄min. 20% of the entering mass flow exits through a diameter of 0.25 m at 60 bar, 400 ℃.
The rest exits through a diameter of 1.5 m with a P = 0.7 bar and a quality of 90%. Find velocity at
each exit duct, in m⁄s.


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Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume
Evaluating Work
• If matter flows across CV boundary, work is done.
• Separate work into two pieces
o Work associated with fluid pressure as mass is introduced at inlets and removed at
exits
o All other work (rotational shafts, electrical devices, etc.) -> Ẇ CV
• Recall Ẇ = F� ∙ V�
• If F� is written in terms of pressure at exit:

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• For flowing matter, the rate at which work is done by the normal force due to pressure is:
o At the exit:
o At the inlet:

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Steady-State
All properties are unchanged with __________________.
Example 22
Air at 600 kPa, 330 K enters a well-insulated, horizontal pipe having a diameter of 1.2 cm and exits
at 120 kPa, 300 K. Applying the ideal gas model for air, determine at steady state:
a) Inlet and exit velocities, in m⁄s

b) Mass flow rate, in kg⁄s

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Example 23
Steam enters a turbine operating at steady state at 700℉ and 450 lbf⁄in2 and leaves as a saturated
vapor at 1.2 lbf⁄in2 . The turbine develops 12,000 hp and heat transfer from the turbine to the
surroundings occurs at a rate of 2 × 106 Btu⁄h. Ignore kinetic and potential energy effects. Find
the volumetric flow rate of the steam at the inlet, in ft 3 ⁄s.

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Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzle:
• Has varying cross sectional area
• Velocity of gas/liquid ___________________________ in the direction of flow
Diffuser:
• Cross sectional area varies
• Velocity is ________________________________ in direction of flow
Only work involved with nozzles/diffusers is flow work. Potential energy effects are usually
neglected.

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Example 24
Air with a mass flow of 2.3 kg⁄s enters a horizontal nozzle operating at steady state at
450 K, 350 kPa, and a velocity of 3 m⁄s. At the exit, the temperature is 300K and the velocity is
460 m⁄s. Using the ideal gas model for air with constant 𝑐𝑐𝑃𝑃 = 1.011 kJ⁄kg ∙ K, find:
a) Area at the inlet, in m2

b) Heat transfer between the nozzle and surroundings, in kW.

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Turbines
__________________________ develops power as a result of gas or liquid passing through a set of

blades. Blades are attached to a shaft that can freely rotate.
• Ignoring kinetic and potential energy effects
Example 25
Steam at 1800 lbf⁄in2 and 1100℉ enters a turbine operating at steady-state. 20% of the entering
mass flow is extracted at 600 lbf⁄in2 and 500℉. The rest of the steam exits as saturated vapor at
1 lbf⁄in2 . The turbine develops a power output of 6.8 × 106 Btu⁄h. Heat transfer from the turbine
to the surroundings occurs at a rate of 5 × 104 Btu⁄h. Neglect kinetic and potential energy effects.
Find the mass flow rate of the steam entering the turbine, in lb⁄s.


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Compressors & Pumps

• Work is done on substances flowing through them to change the state of the substance
o Substance =
 Gas -> compressor
 Liquid -> pump
• ________________________ is required to operate compressors/pumps
Example 26
Refrigerant 134a enters an insulated compressor operating at steady-state. Refrigerant enters as
saturated vapor at −20 ℃. Mass flow rate is 1.2 kg⁄s. Refrigerant exits at 7 bar, 70 ℃. Ignore
kinetic and potential energy effects. Find the volumetric flow rates at the inlet and exit. Also find
the power input to the compressor in kW.

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Heat Exchangers
• Devices that allow heat from a fluid to pass to a second fluid without the two fluids coming
into direct contact
• Kinetic and potential energy effects are usually ignored
Example 27
Refrigerant 134a enters a condenser operating at steady state at 70 lbf⁄in2 , 160℉ and is condensed
to saturated liquid at 60 lbf⁄in2 on the outside of tubes through which cooling water flows. In
passing through the tubes, the cooling water increases in temperature by 20 ℉ and experiences no
significant pressure drop. Cooling water is modeled as incompressible with v = 0.0161 ft 3 ⁄lb and
c = 1 Btu⁄lb ∙ °R. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 3100 lb⁄h. Neglect kinetic and potential
energy effects, as well as any heat transfer from outside of the condenser. Find:
a) Volumetric flow rate of cooling water, in gal⁄min

b) Rate of heat transfer, in Btu⁄h, to cooling water from the condensing refrigerant

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Throttling Devices
• Achieve a reduction in pressure by introducing a restriction into a line where a fluid flows
• Examples: porous media, partially opened valve, etc.
Example 28
Ammonia enters the expansion valve of a refrigeration system at a pressure of 10 bar and a
temperature of 24 ℃ and exits at 1 bar. What is the quality of the refrigerant exiting the valve?

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Example 29
Separate streams of air and water flow through the compressor and heat exchanger arrangement
shown below. Steady-state operating data are provided on the figure. Heat transfer with the
surroundings can be neglected, as can all kinetic and potential energy effects. The air is modeled as
an ideal gas. Determine
a) The total power required by both compressors, in kW

b) The mass flow rate of the water, in kg/s


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Chapter 5 - Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Conservation of energy at work

• Conservation of energy also satisfied if air from the surroundings flows into the tank and
returns the pressure in the tank to Pi .
1. Is that physically possible? _____________
 Would need an external mechanism to make it happen
• Just because something satisfies conservation of mass/energy equations doesn’t mean it’s
possible
• 2nd law of thermo is used to distinguish between processes that are possible and those that
aren’t
• 2nd law and its deductions used for:
1. Predicting the direction of a process
2. Establishing conditions for equilibrium
3. Determining theoretical performance of cycles, etc.

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4. Evaluating qualitatively the factors that result in best theoretical performance

5. Defining a temperature scale that’s independent of the properties of any thermometric
substance
6. Finding ways to evaluate u and h
• 3 Alternative statements for the 2nd law of thermos

1. Clausius statement
2. Kelvin-Planck statement
3. Entropy statement (Chapter 6)
Clausius Statement
It’s impossible for any system to operate in such a way that the sole result would be an energy transfer
by heat from a cooler body to a hotter body
• Cooler bodies can’t warm up hotter bodies

• Would need external mechanisms to make it happen
Kelvin-Planck Statement
• ______________________________________________ - system that always stays at a

constant temperature even though heat is added/removed by heat transfer
It’s impossible for any system to operate in a __________________________________________ and

deliver a net amount of energy by work to its surroundings while receiving energy by heat transfer
from a single thermal reservoir
• Says can’t transfer work to surroundings -> work can’t be positive

• Doesn’t say that there can’t be transfer to the system or that work can’t be zero
Irreversible and Reversible Processes

• Can determine the best theoretical performance
o Idealized processes are used to evaluate best performance
o Must distinguish between the ideal processes and the actual processes that have
irreversibilities

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• _________________________________________ - system and all parts of its surroundings

can’t be restored to their respective initial states after process has occurred
o All actual processes are irreversible
• _________________________________________ - has no irreversibilities

o System and surroundings can return to their initial states
• Examples of irreversibilities:
o Unrestricted expansion of a liquid or gas to lower pressure
o Spontaneous chemical reactions
o Friction – sliding and fluid
o Inelastic deformation
o Internal irreversibilities -> occur in the system
o External irreversibilities -> occur in the surroundings
Power Cycles with 2 Reservoirs

• System undergoing a power cycle with 2 thermal reservoirs (one hot, one cold) has the
_____________________________________ of:

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3 conclusions from Kelvin-Planck:
1. For _______ system undergoing a power cycle between 2 reservoirs only a portion
of heat transfer 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 can be obtained as work
 The rest is discharged to the cold reservoir
 _______________________________________________ < 100%
Next 2 conclusions are ________________________________________________
2. Thermal efficiency of an irreversible power cycle is __________________________
than the efficiency of a ___________________________ power cycle operating

within the same reservoirs
3. _____________ reversible power cycles operating between the same two reservoirs
have the same thermal efficiency
2nd Law & Refrigeration/Heat Pump Cycles
• Applying Kelvin Planck:

1. For a refrigeration effect to occur a net work input is required
• Coefficient of performance is _______________________

2. Coefficient of performance for an irreversible refrigeration cycle is
___________________________than a reversible refrigeration cycle operating between

the same two reservoirs

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Kelvin Temperature Scales

• Kelvin temperature scale is defined so that:
 Two temperatures on Kelvin scale are in the same ratio as the values of the heat
transfer absorbed and rejected
Max Performance Equations

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Example 30
The data listed below are claimed for a power cycle operating between hot and cold reservoirs at
1500 K and 450 K, respectively. For each case, determine if the cycle operates reversibly,
irreversibly, or is it impossible.
a) Q H = 600 kJ, Wcycle = 300 kJ, Q C = 300 kJ
b) Wcycle = 280 kJ, Q H = 400 kJ, Q C = 120 kJ
c) Q H = 700 kJ, Wcycle = 300 kJ, Q C = 500 kJ
d) Q H = 800 kJ, Wcycle = 600 kJ, Q C = 200 kJ

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Example 31
A power cycle receives 1000 Btu by heat transfer from a reservoir at 1000℉ and discharges energy
by heat transfer to a reservoir at 300℉. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is 75% of that for a
reversible power cycle operating between the same reservoirs.
a) For the actual cycle, determine the thermal efficiency and the energy discharged to the
cold reservoir, in Btu
b) Repeat for the reversible power cycle

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Carnot Cycle
• Can be used to see how efficient an engine could be
• Involves a system undergoing a series of 4 internally reversible processes
o 2 ________________________________ and 2 ____________________________
Process 1-2:
Process 2-3:
Process 3-4:
Process 4-1:

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Application of Carnot Cycle

P a g e | 68
• Thermal efficiency
• Reverse Carnot cycle -> Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
o Magnitudes of energy transfers will be the same but energy transfers are in
opposite direction
Example 32
1.5 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 of water within a piston-cylinder assembly execute a Carnot power cycle. During isothermal
expansion, the water is heated at 500℉ from saturated liquid to saturated vapor. The vapor then
expands adiabatically to a temperature of 100℉ and a quality of 70.38%.
a) Sketch the cycle on a p-v diagram

b) Evaluate work and heat transfer for each process, in Btu
c) Evaluate thermal efficiency

P a g e | 69

P a g e | 70

P a g e | 71
Clausius Inequality
____________________________________________ - can’t transfer heat from a cooler body to a

hotter body
• Allows user to see if there are irreversibilities in the system

• Inequality applicable to any cycle without regard to body from which the cycle receives
energy by heat transfer or to which the cycle rejects energy by heat transfer
Example 33
A system executes a power cycle while receiving 1000 kJ by heat transfer at a temperature of 500 K
and discharging energy by heat transfer at a temp of 300 K. Determine 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 if the thermal
efficiency is (a) 100 %, (b) 40 %, (c) 25 %

P a g e | 72
Chapter 6 – Entropy
Consider two internally ___________________________ cycles:
• Remember a quantity is a _______________________ if and only if its change in value

between 2 states is independent of the process
• Integral above represents change in a property-> _____________________________
• Think of entropy as a measure of _________________________. Entropy of a substance:
 ___________________________ in the solid phase
 ____________________________ in the gas phase

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• Change in entropy can be:
• Entropy of a 2 phase liquid vapor mixture:
T dS Equation
Consider compressible system undergoing an internally reversible process, neglect KE, PE

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Entropy Change of an Incompressible System

Incompressible ->
Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas

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P a g e | 76
Example 34
1 kg of H2O contained in a piston-cylinder assembly, initially at 160 ℃, 150 kPa undergoes an
isothermal compression process to saturated liquid. For the process, W = −471.5 kJ. Determine:
a) Heat transfer, in kJ
b) Change in entropy in kJ⁄K

P a g e | 77
Example 35
5 kg of nitrogen undergoes a process from P1 = 5 bar, T1 = 400K to P2 = 2 bar, T2 = 500K.
Assuming an ideal gas, find the change in entropy in kJ⁄K, with:
a) Constant specific heat evaluated at 450 K

b) Variable specific heats

P a g e | 78
Entropy Change in Internally, Reversible Process of Closed Systems

• Entropy transfer accompanies heat transfer
• If system receives energy by heat transfer then system gets _______________________ in

entropy
• If system has energy removed by heat transfer then system has ________________________
in entropy
• Entropy remains ___________________________ in an ______________________________,
____________________________________________________ process
• ____________________________________________ = __________________________
entropy process
o Adiabatic & reversible
• Energy transfer by heat to a closed system
o System represented as an _____________________ on a T-dS diagram

P a g e | 79
Example 36
H2O in a piston assembly, initially at 10 lbf⁄in2 , 500 ℉, undergoes an internally reversible process
to 80 lbf⁄in2 , 800 ℉ during which the temperature varies linearly with entropy. Determine work
and heat transfer in Btu⁄lb. Neglect KE and PE effects.

P a g e | 80
Entropy Balance for Closed Systems
Entropy Rate Balance

P a g e | 81
Example 37
A system consisting of 10 lb of air contained within a closed, rigid tank is initially at 1 atm and
600°R. Energy is transferred to the system by heat transfer from a thermal reservoir at 900°R until
the temperature of the air is 800°R. During the process, the temperature of the system boundary
where the heat transfer occurs is 900°R. Using the ideal gas model, determine the amount of
energy transfer by heat, in Btu, ant the amount of entropy produced, in Btu⁄°R.

P a g e | 82
Entropy and Control Volumes
Example 38
Air as an ideal gas flows through the turbine and heat exchanger arrangement. Steady-state data is
given. Stray heat transfer and kinetic and potential energy can be ignored. Find:
a) Temperature T3 , in K
b) Power output of 2nd turbine, in kW
c) Rates of entropy production (kW/K) for turbine 1 and heat exchanger
d) Rank components in order of inefficiency


P a g e | 83

P a g e | 84
Isentropic Processes
• Constant entropy = _____________________________
• Ideal gas
• For ideal gas with constant specific heats

P a g e | 85
Example 39
Argon in a piston-cylinder assembly is compressed isentropically from state 1, where P1 =
150 kPa, T1 = 35 ℃ to state 2, where P2 = 300 kPa. Assuming ideal gas model with k = 1.67, find
a) T2 in ℃
b) Work in kJ per kg of Argon

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Thermodynamics 1

Cherish Qualls, Ph.D. | www.stemcourseprep.com | Copyright 2017 – STEM Course Prep

___________________________ - whatever we want to study

___________________________ - everything external to the system

___________________________ - distinguishes the system from the surroundings

Two Kinds of Systems:

___________________________- system that always has the same matter

• No mass transfer across the boundary

___________________________ - special type of closed system that doesn’t interact with

___________________________ - region in space through which mass may flow

• Mass may cross the boundary of a control volume

Selecting the System Boundary

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Describing Systems and Their Behavior

____________________________________ - deals with overall behavior

• Look at effects that can be measured by pressure gages, etc.

____________________________________ - “Statistical Thermodynamics”

• Used in applications: lasers, high speed gas flow, etc.

Property, State & Process

Extensive & Intensive Properties

2 Classes of Thermodynamic Properties:

__________________________________________ - may vary from point to point within a system at

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• Values are independent of the size of the system

• Examples: meter, foot, miles, km, etc. are units of length

Two systems: SI and English

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b) 304 kPa to lbf⁄in2

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Pressure Units/Gage Pressure

• Pressure used in thermodynamic relations: ____________________________________________

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• ________________________________________________: when two objects are int hermal

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a) the volume in m3 of the water vapor

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Moran, Shapiro, Boettner, Bailey [2014] Fundamentals of Engineering

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Conservation of Energy in Mechanics

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• Thermo deals with phenomena outside of mechanics

Thermodynamic Description of Work

Sign Convention of Work

• The directions of work are also shown with arrows on figures

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Process 1-2: constant volume from P1 = 1 bar, ∀1 = 4m3 to state 2 P2 = 2 bar

Process 2-3: compression to ∀3 = 2m3 , during which the pressure-volume relationship is

Process 3-4: constant pressure to state 4 where ∀= 1m3

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Broaden Our Understanding of Energy

Energy Transfer by Heat

Sign Convention & Notation for Heat Transfer

• Arrows show direction of heat transfer on figures

• _____________________________ - have an adiabatic process if a system undergoes a

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Time Rate Form of Energy Balance

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o Describe a polytropic process

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