Article

Journal of Educational Computing

A Design Model for Research

0(0) 1–22
! The Author(s) 2019
Using Virtual Reality Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
in Behavioral Skills DOI: 10.1177/0735633119854030
journals.sagepub.com/home/jec
Training

Ünal Çakiroğlu1 and Seyfullah Gökoğlu2

Abstract
This study suggests a design model for developing virtual reality (VR)-based learning
environments which can be used for basic behavioral skills training. VR-Based Fire
Safety Training Environment (VR-FST) was designed considering the principles of the
persuasive technology. Following the suggested model, VR-FST was setup by integrat-
ing head-mounted display and joysticks on the Second Life. Evaluations through
participants’ perspectives indicated that the VR-FST environment designed through
the proposed model framework can provide high presence and the participants who
use the environment perceived the VR-FST as realistic. The results indicate that the
learning environments based on the VR-FST model can improve fire safety behavioral
skills. It is thought that behavioral skills including danger can be safely delivered by
employing the behavioral skills training approach, especially for young children.
Current limitations and future refinements as well as suggestions for practitioners
and researchers are also included.

Keywords
behavioral skills training, virtual reality, persuasive technology, presence, design
model

1
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Fatih Faculty of Education, Trabzon
University, Trabzon, Turkey
2
Department of Computer Technologies, Cide Rıfat Ilgaz Vocational School, Kastamonu University,
Kastamonu, Turkey
Corresponding Author:
Ünal Çakiroğlu, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Fatih Faculty of
Education, Trabzon University, Söğütlü, Akçaabat, Trabzon 61335, Turkey.
Email: cakiroglu@ktu.edu.tr
2 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

Introduction
The advent of virtual reality (VR) technology in the recent decade has driven the
growth of its use in various educational contexts of the institutes over the world.
As pedagogical approaches for learning-centered education continue to spread
around the world, innovative technological approaches that offer more experi-
ential learning opportunities are increasingly gaining value (The New Media
Consortium, 2017). One of the approaches emerged in this direction is VR.
VR is defined as computer-generated three-dimensional (3D) simulations of a
real world in which users can sense and interact this simulation environment
with the special devices worn on their body (Ausburn & Ausburn, 2004; Chuah,
Chen, & Teh, 2008; Freina & Ott, 2015; Negut, Matu, Sava, & David, 2016;
Serrano, Baños, & Botella, 2016). Visuals in VR environments can be presented
as a dynamic reflection of the objects in the real world and can be controlled
with various devices (Stull, 2009).
Two types of VR approaches are generally used as the reflection of the real
world in the training processes: immersive VR and nonimmersive VR. The con-
cept of immersive is stated as the experience of sense of being in a context of a
task without being conscious of the time as if it were in the real world (Bailenson
et al., 2008). Nonimmersive or desktop VR is defined as 3D visuals created with
multimedia tools on the computers and can be explored interactively using typ-
ical input devices such as monitor, keyboard, or mouse (Chen, Toh, & Fauzy,
2004; Gazit, Yair, & Chen, 2006). 3D games and simulations are basic examples
of nonimmersive VR. In the immersive VR approach, participants experience an
intense feeling about their location in the virtual environment (Adams, 2004)
and they feel psychologically as they are in this environment (Blascovich &
Bailenson, 2006). Room-sized 3D displays, CAVE and head-mounted displays
(HMDs) are the technologies used in virtual reality training implementations.
The sense of presence and immerse allow users to move around in the environ-
ment, feeling like they are part of the virtual environment (Passing, David, &
Eshel-Kedmi, 2016). Thus, high level of perceived reality and interactivity pro-
vided by the VR environments is important to create positive learning outcomes
in the training of different skills (Bulu, 2012; Huang, Liaw, & Lai, 2016;
Minocha & Reeves, 2010). In this respect, users can perceive the virtual envir-
onments as if they were in the real world and the systems for VR-based training
generally focus on to provide associations with the skills to be developed and
affordances of the systems.

The Use of Virtual Reality in Skills Training

In VR-based learning environments, learning experiences in skills training via
learning by doing approach can be provided similar to the real-life situations
(Huang, Rauch, & Liaw, 2010). In this framework, the prior studies of skills
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 3

training are somewhat limited in some areas for a variety of reasons such as time
problem (Roussou, 2004), physical accessibility (Detlefsen, 2014), ethical
problems (Liu, 2014), and especially life-threatening (Williams-Bell, Kapralos,
Hogue, Murphy, & Weckman, 2015). A wider lense of VR technology can
remedy some of the limitations in such contexts.
Researchers argue that VR is especially useful for educational scenarios
with life-threatening and inaccessible situations (Freina & Ott, 2015;
Stansfield, Shawver, Rogers, & Hightower, 1995). VR-based training enables
more meaningful and permanent learning of some information presented
only with written texts or simple models and motivates participants to apply
them repeatedly in a safe way for specific danger situations (Kinateder
et al., 2014). In this regard, it is promising to carry out skills development
training for emergency scenarios based on virtual reality (Smith & Ericson,
2009).
In skills training, a demonstration of desired behavior is provided first, and
then the similar behavior is expected to be exhibited by the trainees. This method
suffices to acquire most behavioral skills, but it is insufficient to acquire the skills
for situations that are life-threatening and have no opportunity to practice
repeatedly. In this kind of training for life-threatening situations, generally a
theoretical transfer of knowledge is provided rather than experiencing behav-
ioral skills (Chittaro & Ranon, 2009). Researchers also point out that the sense
of reality cannot be adequately experienced by the participants since sufficient
realistic practice environments cannot be created in the presentation-based train-
ing. In this case, it is not possible to learn when, where, and how to perform the
behaviors for the skills in the training. In this context, it can be considered that
the use of the VR approach can support the development of the behavioral skills
in the training for such situations. Hence, the level of perceived reality of
VR environments for skills training is in relation with nature of the behaviors
and reactions that users exhibit.
In the VR environments, it is important for the users to perceive the envir-
onment as realistic and to be more convinced that they are acting in the real
environment. Various perspectives based on the persuasiveness that the experi-
ences of the users are real.

Persuasiveness in VR Environments
By increasing the level of immersion of the VR environment, the presence can be
enhanced and the users can be convinced that they are in the environment. This
suggests a significant relationship between perceived reality level and persuasion
of the VR environment. In order to convince users that such systems are
expected to offer more real-life sensing experience, principles of persuasive tech-
nology (PT) have been put forward (Fogg, 2003).
4 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

PT is defined as an interdisciplinary technology designed to change the atti-

tudes or behaviors of individuals through persuasion and social influence within
a specific purpose (Fogg, 2003). PT has the potential to motivate individuals to
take responsibility in the learning process and to perform specific learning tasks
using the developed materials (Fogg, 2003). The approach is used in a wide
range of devices, from mobile devices to computers, video games to VR tech-
nology. Computer-assisted persuasive applications are used by instructional
designers in order to motivate learners in the process of acquiring new know-
ledge and skills. In addition, attitude, behavior, motivation, and adaptation
which are important components of the learning-teaching process may be
improved via implementations of PT (Ersoy, 2014). The PT field is generally
designed through captology approach. Figure 1 shows the scope of the
captology.
Captology is a newly coined word that describes the study of computers as
PT. Fogg (2009) suggests eight steps in terms of effectiveness in design processes
for PT. These steps are as follows: (1) to choose a simple behavior to target,
(2) to choose a receptive audience, (3) to find what is preventing the target
behavior, (4) to choose an appropriate technology channel, (5) to find relevant
examples of PT, (6) to imitate successful examples, (7) to test & iterate quickly,
and (8) to expand on success.
Taking the potential of captology, VR technology can be used for persuasive
purposes. The relationship between VR and PT is summarized in Table 1.

PT-Based VR Environments Development Model

Considering the relationships in Table 1, Kuechler and Vaishnavi (2008) propose
a four-stage model for the development of VR-based learning environments. The
relevant model consists of the process of awareness of problem, suggestion,
development, evaluating, and conclusion. The relevant model and design process
is shown in Table 2.
In Figure 2, the model developed by Yusoff et al. (2011) is schematized as a
result of the integration of the persuasive design principles proposed by Fogg
(2009) on the research design proposed by Kuechler and Vaishnavi (2008).

- web sites - behavior change

- mobile phones
captology

- attitude change
- PDAs - motivation
- video games - change in worldview
- applications - adaptation
- VR

Figure 1. PT field.
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 5

Table 1. Relationships Between VR and PT (Yusoff, Zulkifli, & Mohamed, 2011).

Persuasive technology Virtual reality

They can make it easier for people to
do things by making things easier,
either by giving people shortcuts to
annoying processes or by reminding
them that it is time to exercise.
They can provide an experience,
allowing people to explore the
cause-and-effect relationships.
They can create relationships, either
with other people or with the
program.
VR for learning can be meant of enhancing,
motivating, and stimulating learners’
understanding of certain events, especially
those for which the traditional notion of
instructional learning has proven inappro-
priate or difficult.
VR offers the possibility to recreate the real
world as it is or to create completely new
worlds, providing experiences that can help
people in understanding concepts as well as
learning to perform specific tasks, where
the task can be repeated as often as
required and in a safe environment.
Relationship with VRs as an educational tool,
or any other media immersion should allow
a student to actively become part of
learning and reviewing process.

Table 2. Design Approach Using PT in VR Environments (Kuechler & Vaishnavi, 2008).

Process Tasks

Awareness of problem Factors that affect the participants’ efficiently sharing of infor-
mation and identification of student needs are detected.
Suggestion The first prototype is designed in line with the needs of the
participants and the organization.
Development Prototypes are designed and developed according to the level
of knowledge of the participants before the final solution is
established and put into practice.
Evaluation The effectiveness of the proposed solution is measured with a
case study design.
Conclusion The results of the research are presented.

In the awareness of problem, researchers need to analyze current practices,

developments, current situation, and problems related to the field. In the section
of choose a simple behavior to target, the basic behavior patterns are expected to
be exhibited during the training aimed at the intended achievement are deter-
mined. During the choose a receptive audience section, the appropriate age
range for skill training is determined and the participants’ ability to use VR
6 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

AWARENESS OF PROBLEM
Identify current learning method

1) Choose a simple behavior 2) Choose a receptive 3) Find what is preventing

to target audience the target behavior

SUGGESTION
Storyboarding

4) Choose an appropriate 5) Find relevant examples of 6) Imitate successful

technology channel PT examples

DEVELOPMENT
Virtual Environment Authoring

Authoring
Scene definition

Pre-
Object modeling
Optional database conversation
Virtual environment authoring
Authoring

Add interactivity
Package application
Authoring

Testing & Debugging

Post-

Deliver final application to expert

EVALUATION
Expert and User Evaluation

7) Test & iterate quickly

CONCLUSION
Final specific research result
8) Expand on success

Figure 2. Design model proposed by Yusoff et al. (2011).

technology is considered. In the process of finding what is preventing the target

behavior, it is revealed by investigating situations and limitations that prevent or
limit the intended skills to be acquired.
In the suggestion stage, proposals for the design to be formed in accordance
with the determined target behaviors, participants, and the objectives of the
research are determined and the first prototypes are designed. In the choose
an appropriate technology channel, the most appropriate VR technologies for
the training should be identified and the effect that each property of the design
should be determined. Successful PT examples for skill training are investigated
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 7

in the process of finding relevant examples of PT. In the imitate successful

examples stage, similar implementations of the previous examples are developed.
In the development stage, prototypes are set up according to the knowledge
and skill levels of the participants before the final design are put into practice.
This stage is important to reveal the actions related to the implementation in
the virtual environment. During object modeling, geometric and behavioral
modeling is made for the elements to be developed in the VR environment.
The optional database conversation stage is optionally performed depending
on the storage and hosting of the 3D geometric model files generated by the
platform. The virtual environment authoring is a process that combines all
the 3D models required for the predesigned and application environment.
In the adding interactivity phase, the necessary features for users to interact
with the environment are integrated into the system. In the package application,
the development process is converted into a package program by compiling
the files and materials for the completed software. During the testing and debug-
ging stage, error checking is performed before the prototype is presented to
the end user. In the process of delivering the final application to expert, the
developed environment is submitted to the expert opinion and final evaluations
are made.
The purpose of the evaluation stage is to examine the use of the application as
an instructional material by users and experts. During the test & iterate quickly
stage, the developed VR application is tested repeatedly by users. In the conclu-
sion stage, the usability status of the developed VR environment to acquire
relevant skills is revealed within the data obtained from the applications. In
the expand on success stage, dissemination of achievement from practice is
focused. But, if persuasive design principles are to be applied to a project, the
application of seven steps is sufficient. The final stage has been added to encour-
age researchers to apply the results obtained in different situations and with
participants (Fogg, 2009).

VR-Based Skills Training

VR has significant potential for skill training, such as enhancing personal safety
skills through serious game-based trainings and simulators (Backlund,
Engstrom, Hammar, Johannesson, & Lebram, 2007), providing self-learning
methods (Chittaro & Ranon 2009), and experiencing realistic experiences in
high-risk safety training (Smith & Ericson, 2009). The use of VR in training is
generally focused in the social life skills, emotional and social adaptation skills,
development of hand skills for surgical training, and various behavioral skills for
fire safety. In recent years, VR-based simulators and learning environments for
skills training are increasingly being used in the training of traffic, first aid,
surgical training, safety training, fire safety, and so on (Backlund et al., 2007;
Clancy, Rucklidge, & Owen, 2006; Tate, Silbert, & King, 1997).
8 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

In one of the VR implementations, Park et al. (2011) applied the social skills
training approach in a VR-based form in order to acquire various social skills
for mentally handicapped individuals. As a result of the hypothesis that the VR
can be used in rehabilitation studies, it has emerged that the individuals using
VR technology show more improvement than those using the traditional method
in the context of social skills such as communication and initiative. The research
indicated that the traditional social skills training can be used to scaffold the
account of the advantages of VR to increase motivation and to spread the
acquired skills. In another study, Ip et al. (2018) in the process of teaching
emotional control and relaxation strategies for various social situations exam-
ined the effect of VR on the development of emotional and social adjustment
skills of individuals with autism. As a result, VR-based skill training was found
to improve the positive emotional control, emotional expression, and social–
emotional interaction skills of children with autism.
VR is also used to teach procedural knowledge in the field of surgical edu-
cation and to develop hand skills. With VR-based surgical training systems,
surgeons can improve their hand skill levels and learn various procedures
before practicing on patients (Aggarwal et al., 2007; Kühnapfel, Çakmak, &
Maaß, 2000; Larsen et al., 2009). In another study, VR is also used to gain
the correct behavioral skills in a safe and controlled environment to the
miners. The research carried out in this direction reveals that the VR can be
used in the field of mining to gain a variety of behavioral skills in control of
explosive work area, removal of old explosives, measurement of methane level,
adjustment of retaining belts, and preparation of explosives (Grabowski &
Jankowski, 2015).
One of the important areas of the use of VR technology in the context of skills
training is fire safety. Various VR-based simulators have been designed in order
to teach the correct behavioral skills for fire safety (Cha, Han, Lee, & Choi,
2012; DeChamplain et al., 2012; Julien & Shaw, 2003; Smith & Ericson, 2009;
Xu, Lu, Guan, Chen, & Ren, 2014). In a VR-based fire safety simulator devel-
oped by Julien and Shaw (2003), users can navigate through the environment,
view a fire house from different angles, navigate firefighters, monitor realization
of given commands, and monitor realistic fire and smoke movements actions.
With the simulators, firefighters tried to gain the necessary orientation skills in
order to be able to extinguish the flames in a way that would cause the fire-
fighters and the fire house the least damage in the event of a fire. DeChamplain
et al. (2012) have developed a highly interactive game-based ‘‘Blaze’’ application
to increase awareness of home fires. With this application, participants are able
to experience problem-solving skills in a realistic environment and under stress
without exposure to such dangerous situations. In another study, Smith and
Ericson (2009) have used the immersive VR to learn about children’s fire hazards
and try to improve their escape skills. Using CAVE technology, the applications
were firstly carried out for children to identify home fire hazards in a simulated
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 9

virtual environment and then to move away from the environment safely.
Cha et al. (2012) found that VR-based simulators contributed to develop
skills for fire safety knowledge and skill levels of inexperienced firefighters in
firefighting activities such as evacuation and rescue in highway tunnels. In
another research, Xu et al. (2014) modeled a metro station and elementary
school based on smoke hazard on the basis of VR. In the developed environ-
ment, training was provided on how to reliably provide users with safe ways to
escape and evacuate. The results showed that such VR-based simulators
are useful to learn the evacuation and rescue procedures of individuals and
firefighters in a fire.

Aim of the Study

While prior work provides compelling evidence that VR-based learning envir-
onments for fire safety are useful, there is still a need for a framework that
addresses components such as VR technology, the perception of reality, and
the presentation of skills in the virtual environments. In this research, a VR
model developed for fire safety training and student evaluations regarding this
application are presented. Thus, the design process of the VR-FST environment
developed for basic skills training on fire safety through the model framework
presented by Yusoff et al. (2011).

VR-Based Fire Safety Training Environment (VR-FST)

In this study, the design process of the VR-FST environment is developed by
following the framework presented by Yusoff et al. (2011). VR-FST has been
developed to provide basic behavioral skills for fire safety to young children.
VR-FST was created by integrating HMD into Second Life (SL) environment.
Participants’ navigation in the environment is provided using a joystick.
Following the framework depicted in Figure 2, the development process of the
model VR-FST environment is presented.

Awareness of problem. A significant risk group among individuals exposed to fire

is children. Children remain unprotected during the fire and generally expect
help from an adult without knowing how to behave. However, this help is not
always possible and the fire can result in injury or death. When the causes of
death-related injuries of children are examined, fire and related burns occur in
the third cause of death of children between 1 and 14 years (Fingerhut, Cox, &
Warner, 1998). When the causes of deaths related to injuries of children aged 5
to 9 are listed, it is seen that fire hazard is among the top 10 reasons (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). In this context, it is important to
increase the knowledge, skills, and experience of children about fire safety and
fire protection independent from adults in order to reduce the risk. Fire safety
10 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

training for children is generally carried out by school teachers with colorful
brochures, videos, and presentations but not sufficiently effective (Carroll,
Miltenberger, & O’Neill, 1992). Studies show that children trained in this way
cannot keep themselves safe enough in a real danger (Beck & Miltenberber 2009;
Himle, Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004). Hence, the given training
and events do not go beyond the theoretical presentations and simple exercises
where the participants are usually audience. Considering these trainings as insuf-
ficient to gain the relevant security skills, a fire safety training platform with safe,
realistic, low cost, and repeatable features is found necessary to establish.

Choose a simple behavior to target. It is emphasized that 70% of the fire-

related injuries and 80% of the fire-related injuries occur during the residence
fires, even though the residence fires have a rate of 23% in all types of fires
(Karter, 2011). In this direction, current research focuses on the achievement of
safe behavioral skills for residential fires from fire varieties. There is no specific
form for safety behaviors in fires because of reasons such as residential fires are
different, residences are made up of different structures, and different construc-
tion materials are used. But, the resources about the residential fires propose the
general requirements and suggestions for basic behaviors. To define simple
behaviors to the target, the forms of behaviors in this study were determined
as a result of the studies conducted by examining such resources.

Choose a receptive audience. Participants of this study consisted of children in

the 9 to 11 age-group. The studies emphasize that children in this age-group are
particularly at risk for fire-related injuries and causes of death (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2011; Fingerhut et al., 1998). On the other
hand, an attention has been paid to Fogg (2009) as an appropriate target audi-
ence in the framework of PT that participants are able to use VR technology.

Find what is preventing the target behavior. Fire drills are held regularly every
year in schools by fire departments. In these drills, first, what to do in case of a
real fire is explained theoretically and then practical training is carried out. The
practice generally begins with the fire alarm, evacuation of the building, anima-
tion of the representative rescue scenario, and extinguishing a representative fire
by firefighters. After the fire drills, it is assumed that the children have acquired
the relevant skills; however, the children often cannot exhibit the skills. The
reasons for not exhibiting the behaviors that are focused at this stage in the
working design are generally neglected. With lack of the behavioral skills, chil-
dren are often vulnerable during the fire and await help from adults and spe-
cialists. In fact, help and intervention may sometimes be delayed and sometimes
they are impossible. Increasing the knowledge, skills, and experience of children
in protecting them from fire safety and fire protection will be beneficial in pre-
venting negative results. Thus, it is thought that these once-yearly and more
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 11

theoretically conducted drills do not adequately provide children with relevant

behavioral skills for residential fires.

Suggestion. At this stage, storyboards were prepared in which the design of the
learning environment to be developed in the research process and the fire safety
training to be given over this environment are characterized. On the storyboards,
participants’ and instructors’ roles in the training are defined on VR-FST and
the suggested behaviors are presented.

Choose an appropriate technology channel. At this stage, VR has been selected

as an appropriate technology in terms of facilitating the learning the topics or
situations that are difficult to learn by traditional methods. The technology has
also motivating and encouraging potentials for learners in the learning process.
Table 1 indicates these relationships including the affordances of VR and PT.
Scenarios are needed in virtual reality applications to meet some basic require-
ments, such as participation in sensory experimentation, attracting attention,
and providing perceptions of VR as real experience, in terms of achieving the
intent of the intervention realized (Silva, Donat, Rigoli, de Oliveira, &
Kristensen, 2016). These scenarios can be created on 3D virtual worlds such
as SL, ActiveWorlds, and OpenSimulator. These virtual worlds are created with
the integration of immersive technologies such as HMDs in which users are able
to experience an interactive and high level of presence. In this research, SL was
preferred as an infrastructure for VR technology. An HMD was used to allow
participants to view the SL as it immersive.

Find relevant examples of PT. At this stage, it is recommended to investigate

successful PT examples for intervention to be carried out (Fogg, 2009). Taking
the SL environment as the application platform, appropriate examples of the
application aimed to be realized on this environment in this stage. The images of
the application examples examined are presented in Figure 3.

Imitate successful examples. The previous fire safety and fire protection appli-
cations on SL indicate that they are mostly applied as a simulation to train
professional firefighters. Professional teams, as well as individual users, can
act as firefighters by participating in these environments and intervene in the
fire which are generally occur in places such as schools or shopping centers. This
research focuses on house designs that children can encounter in everyday life, as
it is intended to apply for residential fires. House samples and fire conditions
created by fire and smoke effects were investigated. The scenes from examples
developed are shown in Figure 4.

Development. The development stage is divided into three substages, preauthor-

ing, authoring, and postauthoring. In the preauthoring, scene definition,
12 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

Figure 3. Application visuals samples.

Figure 4. Sample application visuals.

object modeling, and optional database conversation steps for the devel-
opment of the virtual environment are included. In the authoring, there are
sections for the virtual environment authoring, adding interactivity, package
application, and testing and debugging. In the postauthoring, the final version
of the application is presented to an expert and necessary improvements are
carried out.
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 13

Scene definition. At this stage, the design to be created using storyboards

and the actions to be performed have been visualized. Four different applica-
tion scenes were designed for the VR-FST environment. The first scene provides
participants practical experience. After giving some information about using
the VR-FST, participants can learn their roles and become able to use the
VR-FST effectively through their avatars. In this scene, participants’ skills for
using HMD and joystick are enhanced. In the second scene, participants
were taken to another home designed on VR-FST. Before the application
of behavioral skills training (BST), participants could observe and record for
their natural behaviors in case they encounter a residence fire created by using
fire and smoke effects. In the third scene, participants were taken to a home
environment and skills training as basic fire safety were taught to them by an
expert. During this training, a fire effect was created in a house environment
where the participant and expert are in. In the fourth scene, the participants
was taken to a different home environment and faced with another fire situ-
ation again. In this scene, participants observed the behaviors related to the
relevant fire situation. Participants were guided to show appropriate behavior
by intervening and giving feedback when they could not exhibit the expected
behavior.

Object modeling. In this stage, two different modeling methods are used:
geometric and behavioral modeling. Buildings and fire effects in the VR-FST
environment are created by using geometric modeling. The Marketplace in SL
contains home designs and fire and smoke effects created by other users. During
the design of VR-FST, available designs and effects in Marketplace were used.
In the framework of behavioral modeling, behaviors and actions of avatars in
the environment are modeled. Avatars in SL can be used without any movement
modeling and the walking and speaking actions of the avatars are automatically
modeled by the SL.

Optional database conversation. SL can store the designs and effects created
on it in a special database for each user under the title of Inventory. Created
models can be accessed from the Inventory and used repeatedly. Because of this
feature of the SL, there is no need to use a database structure.

Virtual environment authoring. In this study, the models created for the
VR-FST were placed on a special area on the SL called SandBox. These areas
are used for experimental purposes, allowing design, modeling, and implemen-
tation in these areas. Before the implementations, the house in the Inventory of
the SL was placed in the SandBox area by drag-and-drop. For the avatars that
will represent users in the environment, it is enough for the users to log in to the
SL and teleport to the related SandBox region.
14 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

Adding interactivity. The interaction of the avatars representing the users on

the SL with the environment and the navigation actions in the environment
are predesigned in software. Users do not need to add software interaction fea-
tures as these actions and interactions was provided naturally after they log in to
the SL.

Package application. In this study, the media and materials used are stored in
the Inventory of the SL. The design and effects can be transferred to the virtual
environment by drag-and-drop from the Inventory and can be created repeat-
edly without any additional intervention. SL did not need to convert the
VR-FST application to a packaged format since the active user automatically
saves the last location into his or her database and the desired design can be
performed quickly and easily.

Testing and debugging. Designs and effects to be used in the VR-FST have
been investigated through the drag-and-drop method in the Inventory several
times on the media and encountering any problems at all times. It has been
determined that the effects and materials to be used as a result of the tests carried
out will operate stably without any errors.

Deliver final application to expert. In this study, the developed VR-FST appli-
cation was presented to two experts in the field of Computer and Instructional
Technologies and an expert firefighter.

Evaluation. The usability of the VR-FST environment to provide basic fire safety
skills was evaluated with a pilot study. The pilot study was conducted with six
children aged 9 to 11 years. Since the participants were so young, required per-
missions were obtained from their parents prior to the study. Participants were
taught with fire safety training for residential fires by a firefighter avatar in the
VR-FST environment. After the training, several tasks such as exploring and
finding an object hiding in a home designed on VR-FST and they were requested
to complete these tasks using HMD and joystick. While they were working on
the tasks they encountered fire and smoke effects. During the study, the behav-
ioral skills of children in VR-FST were observed. The realistic perception level of
the environment was evaluated according to the data obtained from the ques-
tionnaire. Images related to the training and implementation are presented in
Figure 5.

Test & iterate quickly. In the pilot study, the VR-FST was tested by the par-
ticipants and the expert firefighter several times.

Results. At this last stage, the usability of the VR-FST to provide basic fire safety
skills has been put forward in the framework of the data obtained from the pilot
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 15

Figure 5. Training and implementations visuals.

Figure 6. PQ Scores.

study. At the end of the pilot study, a Turkish version of the presence question-
naire (PQ) developed by Witmer, Jerome, and Singer (2005) was carried out to
determine the level of presence felt by the VR-FST environment. The data are
used to determine whether the VR-FST is a valid and reliable application for
teaching basic fire safety skills. The scores of the participants’ PQ are shown in
Figure 6. The mean presence scores reflect to the participants’ evaluations about
the VR based training environment.
16 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

Awareness of
Suggestion Development Evaluation Conclusion
Problem

1) Choose a simple behavior 4) Choose an appropriate Scene definition 7) Test & iterate quickly 8) Expand on success
to target technology channel

Object modeling
2) Choose a receptive 5) Find relevant examples of
audience PT
Optional database
conversation
3) Find what is preventing 6) Imitate successful
the target behavior examples
Virtual environmet
authoring

Add interactivity

Package application

Testing & Debugging

Deliver final application

to expert

Figure 7. VR-FST development process.

Safe Behavioral Skills

3D Virtual Worlds Skills Training Approach

VR Technologies 1. Fire safety
2. Abduction prevention
1. Second Life 3. Firearm safety
1. HMD
2. OpenSim BST 4. Poisoned substance safety
2. Control Devices
3. ActiveWorlds 5. Wild animals prevention
6. Abuse prevention
7. Etc.

Figure 8. VR-based environment design model for acquire safe behavioral skills.

Figure 6 shows that all of the participants evaluated the constructs of pres-
ence with the scores that are more than the average. This result shows that
participants have a high level of presence in the VR-FST environment and per-
ceive the environment as sufficiently realistic.

Expand on success. As persuasive design principles were applied in the devel-

opment process of VR-FST, there was no implementation of the principle of
expanding on success.
Overall, the development process of the VR-FST is schematized in Figure 7.
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 17

Conclusion and Discussion

In this research, the design process of a VR-based learning environment, which
is developed for children to acquire basic behavioral skills for fire safety is
examined. VR-FST is a skill training environment created as a result of the
integration of PT principles on VR. With VR-FST, children safe behavioral
skills are tried to be enhanced.
In VR-based skills training, it is very crucial for users to perceive the virtual
environment as realistic. The level of perceived real of the virtual environment is
proportional to the behaviors and the nature of the responses to be given. The
data obtained from PQ indicate that the level of presence provided by the VR-
FST is high. This result suggests that PT may be an important model for dan-
gerous situations such as fire. The presence in a virtual environment depends on
the situation in which the individuals’ attention shifts from physical to virtual.
However, at this time, attention must be completely shifted from the physical
environment (Witmer & Singer, 1998). In this study, high presence level as in the
real world reflects that the distance between virtual and physical environment
experiences could be reduced by following the VR-FST stages.
SL, which provides the infrastructure of VR-FST in terms of both geometric
and behavioral modeling, can substantially reflect the visual and physical phenom-
ena and behaviors in real life. Users can use avatars which are representatives in the
virtual environment, such as walking, running, bending, sitting, standing, and so
forth, and can easily exhibit various physical behaviors. From a visual point of
view, the position of the sun, cloud movements, wind and other environmental
sounds can be perceived in SL as in the real world. The designed environment can
be visualized through the lens of the avatar by integrating the HMDs. Thus, the
users’ level of persuasiveness can be increased by transferring the head and body
movements to the avatar in the VR environment. This can be considered as a
contribution to the sense of reality and the level of interaction with the environ-
ment. Therefore, the platforms similar to SL with high level of persuasiveness can
be preferred for developing behavioral skills via VR.
In this study, BST is used as a theoretical basis for modeling the behaviors
for fire safety. In this sense, BST is considered as an effective method for
teaching various safety skills, especially for children in young age groups
(Houvouras & Harvey, 2014). One can infer from this study that BST is
based on the ability of individuals to actively interact with simulated realistic
environments. Thus, the results of the study address that VR-based environ-
ments are positively effected to the learning outcomes of skills training. While in
this study basic behaviors were chosen to be developed, in future studies, using
various BST approaches, the behavior pool can be enhanced to be simulated in
VR environments. In particular, BST approaches can be employed in training
for young age groups. Thus, it is considered that the BST approach can be a
theoretical basis for skill training to be carried out in the VR environments by
18 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

taking the learning-by-doing as a basis and by virtualizing it. Considering all of

the stages of the suggested framework, the generic model schematized in Figure
8 can be suggested in the skill training to be carried out in VR environments.
The VR-FST environment depicted in Figure 8 has been used to acquire
behavioral skills in fire safety. In other studies, following the similar steps by
integrating BST can be used to provide other safe behavioral skills such as fire
safety, abduction prevention, firearm safety, poisoned substance safety, wild
animals prevention, abuse prevention, and so forth.

Limitations and Implications

This study has several limitations and implications for future research. In this
study, a design model for the development of VR-based learning environments
which can be used in basic behavioral skills training was suggested. In this
context, the ways for the proposed model can be applied in a developed envir-
onment (VR-FST). In future studies, the effect of the environments developed
using this model can be examined through quantitative and qualitative data. The
scope of the fire safety of basic behavioral skills may limit the generalization of
the study findings. Thus longer observations may provide more details about the
development of the behavioral skills. Although the selection and size of the study
subjects may also limit the generalization of the study findings, it facilitated to
keep their experiences in the virtual environment under control. For generaliza-
tion, future studies might be conducted on a wider audience and the impact of
the varying demographics with technological skills of the participants. By creat-
ing simulated training environments, the realistic level of the virtual environ-
ment can be tested and the transferability of the skills acquired in the virtual
environment to real life conditions might be examined. This could also lead to a
better distribution of responses in relation to the feeling of presence. Ultimately,
this article is hoped to contribute to the efforts in the field of designing and
implementing VR-based learning environments.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

ORCID iD
Ünal Çakiroğlu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8030-3869
Seyfullah Gökoğlu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0074-7692
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 19

References
Adams, E. (2004). Postmodernism and the three types of immersion. Retrieved from http://
designersnotebook.com/Columns/063_Postmodernism/063_postmodernism.htm
Aggarwal, R., Ward, J., Balasundaram, I., Sains, P., Athanasiou, T., & Darzi, A. (2007).
Proving the effectiveness of virtual reality simulation for training in laparoscopic
surgery. Annals of Surgery, 246(5), 771–779.
Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (2004). Desktop virtual reality: A powerful new tech-
nology for teaching and research in industrial teacher education. Journal of Industrial
Teacher Education, 41(4), 33–58.
Backlund, P., Engstrom, H., Hammar, C., Johannesson, M., & Lebram, M. (2007, July).
Sidh – A game based firefighter training simulation. Paper presented at the 11th
International Information Visualization Conference, Zurich, Switzerland.
Bailenson, J. N., Yee, N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A. C., Lunblad, N., & Jin, M. (2008). The
use of immersive virtual reality in the learning sciences: Digital transformations of
teachers, students, and social context. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17(1), 104–141.
Beck, K. V., & Miltenberger, R. G. (2009). Evaluation of a commercially available pro-
gram and in situ training by parents to teach abduction-prevention skills to children.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42, 761–772.
Blascovich, J., & Bailenson, J. (2006). Immersive virtual environments and education
simulations. In S. Cohen, K. E. Portney, D. Rehberger, & C. Thorsen (Eds.),
Virtual decisions: Digital stimulations for teaching reasoning in the social sciences and
humanities (pp. 229–253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bulu, S. T. (2012). Place presence, social presence, co-presence, and satisfaction in virtual
worlds. Computers & Education, 58(1), 154–161.
Carroll, L. A., Miltenberger, R. G., & O’Neill, H. K. (1992). A review and critique of
research evaluating child sexual abuse prevention programs. Education & Treatment of
Children, 15(4), 335–354.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). 10 Leading causes of injury deaths by
age group highlighting unintentional injury deaths. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.
gov/injury/wisqars/LeadingCauses.html
Cha, M., Han, S., Lee, J., & Choi, B. (2012). A virtual reality based fire training simulator
integrated with fire dynamics data. Fire Safety Journal, 50, 12–24. doi:10.1016/
j.firesaf.2012.01.004
Chen, C. J., Toh, S. C., & Fauzy, W. M. (2004). The theoretical framework for designing
desktop virtual reality-based learning environments. Journal of Interactive Learning
Research, 15(2), 147–167.
Chittaro, L., & Ranon, R. (2009, March). Serious games for training occupants of a
building in personal fire safety skills. Paper presented at the International
Conference on Games and Virtual Worlds for Serious Applications, Coventry
University, The Serious Game Institute, Coventry, England.
Chuah, K. M., Chen, C. J., & Teh, C. S. (2008). Incorporating Kansei engineering in
instructional design: Designing virtual reality based learning environments from a
novel perspective. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 1(1), 37–48.
Clancy, T. A., Rucklidge, J. J., & Owen, D. (2006). Road-crossing safety in virtual reality:
A comparison of adolescents with and without ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child and
Adolescent Psychology, 35, 203–215. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_4
20 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

DeChamplain, A., Rosendale, E., McCabe, I., Stephan, M., Cole, V., & Kapralos, B.
(2012, September). Blaze: A serious game for improving household fire safety awareness.
Paper presented at the IEEE International Games Innovation Conference, Rochester,
NY, USA.
Detlefsen, J. (2014). The cosmic perspective: Teaching middle-school children Astronomy
using ego-centric virtual reality (Unpublished master’s thesis). Aalborg University,
Medialogy, Aalborg.
Ersoy, M. (2014). Semantic web-based persuasive technology use in Mathematics instruc-
tion. Education Sciences, 9(1), 57–72.
Fingerhut, L. A., Cox, C. S., & Warner, M. (1998). International comparative analysis of
injury mortality: Findings from the ICE on injury statistics. Advance Data, 303, 1–20.
Fogg, B. J. (2003). Persuasive technology: Using computers to change what we think and do.
Amsterdam: Morgan Kaufmann.
Fogg, B. J. (2009, April). Creating persuasive technologies: An eight-step design process.
Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology,
Claremont, CA, USA.
Freina, L., & Ott, M. (2015, April). A literature review on immersive virtual reality in
education: State of the art and perspectives. Paper presented at the eLearning and
Software for Education Conference, Bucharest, Romania.
Gazit, E., Yair, Y., & Chen, D. (2006). The gain and pain in taking the pilot seat:
Learning dynamics in a non immersive virtual solar system. Virtual Reality, 10(3),
271–282.
Grabowski, A., & Jankowski, J. (2015). Virtual reality-based pilot training for under-
ground coal miners. Safety Science, 72, 310–314. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2014.09.017
Himle, M. B., Miltenberger, R. G., Flessner, C., & Gatheridge, B. (2004). Teaching safety
skills to children to prevent gun play. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(1), 1–9.
doi:10.1901/jaba.2004.37-1
Houvouras, A. J., & Harvey, M. T. (2014). Establishing fire safety skills using behavioral
skills training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(2), 420–424. doi:10.1002/
jaba.113
Huang, H.-M., Liaw, S.-S., & Lai, C.-M. (2016). Exploring learner acceptance of the use
of virtual reality in medical education: A case study of desktop and projection-based
display systems. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(1), 3–19. doi:10.1080/
10494820.2013.817436
Huang, H.-M., Rauch, U., & Liaw, S.-S. (2010). Investigating learners’ attitudes toward
virtual reality learning environments: Based on a constructivist approach. Computers
& Education, 55(3), 1171–1182. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.014
Ip, H. H. S., Wong, S. W. L., Chan, D. F. Y., Byrne, J., Li, C., Yuan, V. S. N., . . . Wong,
J. Y. W. (2018). Enhance emotional and social adaptation skills for children with
autism spectrum disorder: A virtual reality enabled approach. Computers &
Education, 117, 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.010
Julien, T. U. S., & Shaw, C. D. (2003, October). Firefighter command training virtual
environment. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Persuasive
Technology for Human Well-Being, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Karter, M. J. (2011). Fire loss in the United States during 2010. Quincy, MA: National
Fire Protection Association Fire.
Çakiroğlu and Gökoğlu 21

Kinateder, M., Ronchi, E., Nilsson, D., Kobes, M., Muüller, M., Pauli, P., & Mülberger,
A. (2014, September). Virtual reality for fire evacuation research. Paper presented at
the 1st Complex Events and Information Modelling Conference, Warsaw, Poland.
Kuechler, B., & Vaishnavi, V. (2008). On theory development in design science research:
Anatomy of a research project. European Journal of Information Systems, 17(5),
489–504. doi:10.1057/ejis.2008.40
Kühnapfel, U., Çakmak, H. K., & Maaß, H. (2000). Endoscopic surgery training using
virtual reality and deformable tissue simulation. Computers & Graphics, 24(5),
671–682. doi:10.1016/S0097-8493(00)00070-4
Larsen, C. R., Soerensen, J. L., Grantcharov, T. P., Dalsgaard, T., Schouenborg, L.,
Ottosen, C., . . . Ottesen, B. S. (2009). Effect of virtual reality training on laparoscopic
surgery: Randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 338, 1–6. doi: 10.1136/
bmj.b1802
Liu, Y. (2014, July). Virtual neurosurgical education for image-guided deep brain stimula-
tion neurosurgery. Paper presented at the Audio, Language and Image Processing
International Conference, Shanghai, China.
Minocha, S., & Reeves, A. J. (2010). Design of learning spaces in 3D virtual worlds: An
empirical investigation of SL. Learning, Media and Technology, 35(2), 111–137.
doi:10.1080/17439884.2010.494419
Negut, A., Matu, S. A., Sava, F. A., & David, D. (2016). Task difficulty of virtual reality-
based assessment tools compared to classical paper-and-pencil or computerized meas-
ures: A meta-analytic approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 414–424.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.029
Park, K.-M., Ku, J., Choi, S.-H., Jang, H.-J., Park, J.-Y., Kim, S. I., & Kim, J.-J. (2011).
A virtual reality application in role-plays of social skills training for schizophrenia: A
randomized, controlled trial. Psychiatry Research, 189(2), 166–172. doi:10.1016/
j.psychres.2011.04.003
Passing, D., David, T., & Eshel-Kedmi, G. (2016). Improving children’s cognitive mod-
ifiability by dynamic assessment in 3D immersive virtual reality environments.
Computers & Education, 95, 296–308. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.009
Roussou, M. (2004). Learning by doing and learning through play: An exploration of
interactivity in virtual environments. ACM Computer Entertainment, 2(1), 1–23.
doi:10.1145/973801.973818
Serrano, B., Baños, R. M., & Botella, C. (2016). Virtual reality and stimulation of touch
and smell for inducing relaxation: A randomized controlled trial. Computers in Human
Behaviour, 55, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.007
Silva, G. R., Donat, J. C., Rigoli, M. M., de Oliveira, F. R., & Kristensen, C. H. (2016). A
questionnaire for measuring presence in virtual environments: Factor analysis of the
presence questionnaire and adaptation into Brazilian Portuguese. Virtual Reality,
20(4), 237–242. doi:10.1007/s10055-016-0295-7
Smith, S., & Ericson, E. (2009). Using immersive game-based virtual reality to teach fire-
safety skills to children. Virtual Reality, 13(2), 87–99. doi:10.1007/s10055-009-0113-6
Stansfield, S., Shawver, D., Rogers, D., & Hightower, R. (1995). Mission visualization for
planning and training. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 15(5), 12–14.
doi:10.1109/38.403821
22 Journal of Educational Computing Research 0(0)

Stull, A. T. (2009). Anatomy learning in VR: A cognitive investigation (Unpublished doc-

toral dissertation). University of California, USA.
Tate, D., Silbert, L., & King, T. (1997, March). Virtual environments for shipboard fire-
fighting training. Paper presented at the IEEE Virtual Reality Annual International
Symposium, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
The New Media Consortium. (2017). NMC horizon report 2017 higher education edition.
USA: The New Media Consortium.
Williams-Bell, F. M., Kapralos, B., Hogue, A., Murphy, B. M., & Weckman, E. J. (2015).
Using serious games and virtual simulation for training in the fire service: A review.
Fire Technology, 51(3), 553–584. doi:10.1007/s10694-014-0398-1
Witmer, B. G., & Singer, M. J. (1998). Measuring presence in virtual environments: A
presence questionnaire. Presence, 7(3), 225–240.
Witmer, B. G., Jerome, C., & Singer, M. J. (2005). The factor structure of the presence
questionnaire. Presence, 14(3), 298–312.
Xu, Z., Lu, X. Z., Guan, H., Chen, C., & Ren, A. Z. (2014). A virtual reality based fire
training simulator with smoke hazard assessment capacity. Advances in Engineering
Software, 68, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.advengsoft.2013.10.004
Yusoff, M. F., Zulkifli, A. N., & Mohamed, N. F. F. (2011, September). Virtual Hajj
(V-Hajj) – Adaptation of persuasive design in virtual environment (VE) and multimedia
integrated approach learning courseware methodology. Paper presented at the IEEE
Conference on Open System, Langkawi, Malaysia.

Author Biographies
Ünal Çakiroğlu, PhD, is an associate professor at Computer and Instructional
Technologies Department of Trabzon University. His academic research focuses
on instructional technologies, and his research interests include online learning
technologies, virtual reality in education, learning analytics and technology
integration.

Seyfullah Gökoğlu is a PhD at Computer Technologies Department of Cide

Rıfat Ilgaz Vocational School, Kastamonu University, Turkey. Before joining
Kastamonu University, he also was an Information Technologies teacher at
Ministry of National Education, beginning in 2007. His research interests
include distance education, teacher training, technology integration, and virtual
reality.