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Vol. 22. No. ?, pp. 269-2a1, 1a94

Els€vi€rScicnccLld
Pergamon Prinrcd in Crcat Brirai'l

0346-251X(93)E0012-G

REVIEWS

Scholarswho would like to publish in this section of Systemare requestedto contact the
Review Editor before submitting a paper. As a rule, all contributions should be made in
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l'r&r! Vol. 22,No.2, pp.269-240J94

Pdnkdin GreatBrilair
RETROSPECTIVEREVIEW ARTICLE: THE GOOD
LANGUAGE LEARNER*

BROWN, H. D., Breaking the Innguage Barrier: Creating Your Own Pathway to Success.
YarmouthME: lnterculturalPress,1991;BROWN, H. D., A Practical Guideto Languageand
Learning: A Fifteen-weekProgratn of Strategiesfor Success.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989;
COHEN, A. D., Languagel*arning: Insights for l*arners, Teachers,and Researchers.
Boston MA: Heinle & Heinle, 1990; NAIMAN, N., FROHLICH, H., STERN, H. and
TODESCO,A., The Good Innguage Leamer. Toronto:The Ontario Institutefor Studiesin
Education,1978; RtlBIN, J. and THOMPSON,L, How to Be a More SuccessfulLanguage
Learner.Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle, 1981;SKEHAN, P., Individual Dffirences in
Second-Innguagelzaming. London: Edward Amold, 1989.
"You, the languagelearner are the most important factor in the languagelearning process"
(RubinandThompson,1982,p. 3).

And so begins our quest for the good languagelearner (GLL). This most important of factors
has certainly arousedinterest in recent years as evidencedby the collection of six works that
will be consideredhere.

The phrase "the good languageleamer" quickly generatesa number of questionsabout the
conceptunderlyingthe label.ln reviewingthe collectionof books,we will considerthe issues
addressedby the following questions:is there a single GLL and all others are somehow
deficient?Are there necessarilybad languagelearners?What are the attributesof GLLs? What
do we know about the GLL? How doesone develop into a GLL? Theseissueswill arise from
time to time in the following paragraphsand we will return to thesequestionsin our
concludingcomments.
*The concept behind Retrosp€ctive Review Articles is explained in an editorial preceding the first two such adicles in
Systen 15(1), 97-98 (1987).
 REVIEWS

Perhapsthe more accuratedescriptionof this body of researchis the rather dull sounding
"individual differences(ID) approach"or the study of "learnervariables."
All of the works
reviewedsharea focus on characteristics of the learner,how peoplediffer on those
characteristics,and what thosevariablescontributeto the learningcontext.Discussions of
teachingmethods,curriculumdevelopment,programmeevaluation,and so on are treatedin a
cursoryfashion-if at all. A focuson the learneris reasonable
and informativein its own right,
so long asoneremainscognizantof the potentiallypowerfuleffectsof the contextin which the
learnerfunctions.

Our plan for reviewingthesetexts is to begin with the research-oriented works,partially

becausethat is our areaof interest.We considerthreesuchworks: Naiman,et al.'s The Good
LanguageLearner,Skehan'sIndividual Differencesin SecondLanguageLearning and
Cohen'sLanguageLearning:Insightsfor l*arners, Teachersand Researchers. We will then
proceedto the more practicalimplicationscontainedin the student-oriented books,Brown's
Breaking the LanguageBarrier andA Practical Guide to lnnguage Learning, and finally
Rubin and Thompson'sHow to Be a More Successfullanguage Lcarner. After considering
eachtext individually, contrastswill be highlightedbetweenthe works to demonstratetheir
relativemerits and limitations.Finally, we considerthe collectionas a whole and attemptto
draw someconclusionsaboutthe GLL andwhereID researchmisht be headed.

Perspectiveson the GLL

In one of the earliestempirical examinationsof the GLL, Naiman et al. (1978) set out with the
premise that, through an understandingof what languagelearners are like and how they go
aboutlearninga language,it would be possibleto improve the quality of languageteaching.
More specifically, it was believed that by examining what "good" learnersdo to learn a
Ianguageit could be determinedhow to help the "bad" languagelearnersimprove their
learning. While recognizing the importance of a diversity of variables for languageleaming
outcomes,such as aspectsof the learner,teachingmethods,the environment,and the language
learning process,theseresearchersfocused on how personality, cognitive style, and language
leaming strategiespredict successfullanguageleaming.

The monographdescribes,in detail, two studiesof good languagelearners.The first involved

in-depth interviews with adult learners.In the secondstudy, severalhigh-schoolstudents
completeda battery of personality, attitude and achievementmeasures,were observedin their
classrooms,and were subsequentlyinterviewed. Through this process,Naiman and colleagues
were able to identify five strategies,largely pertaining to the extent of effort and involvement
in the leaming process,and a number of ID variables (e.g. field independenceand attitude)
that characterizesuccessfulleamers.Perhapsthe most significantconclusion,however,was
that a prototypical GLL is difficult to identify: the difference betweengood and bad language
learnerscould not be defined solely in terms of strategieswithout consideringother
characteristicsof the learnerand the learning situation.

Although it must be recognizedthat the study was exploratory, a numberof problemslimit the
rnore specific conclusionsthat can be drawn from the results.Someproblemsare a function of
 REVIEWS

the time in which the studytook place,suchas the useof univariatestatistics.It is likely that,
if the study were replicatedtoday, more rigorousstatisticalprocedureswould be employed.
Otherproblemsare more limiting. For example,the samplingof adult learnerswas generally
restrictedto well{ravelled,highly educatedindividualswho may not be typical of leamersin
general.Given this distinctivesample,the findingsassociated with thesestudentsmay not
necessarilyprovidethe ressrcher or teacherwith usefulinformationto help leamerswho have
lesseducationor who arelessexoerienced travellers.

Perhapsthe major criticismof the interviewstudy is the lack of a substantial comparison

group of "bad" languagelearners.It would be easierto determinewhat makesthe "good"
leamer "good" if one could, at the sametime, confidentlyestablishwhat makesthe "bad"
leamer"bad". From that information,onecould betterdeterminewhethercertainstrategiesare
ultimatelyhurtful to secondlanguagelearning,or if good languagelearnersknow betterhow
to use strategiesin a complementaryor compensatorymanner[seethe discussionof Brown
(1989)belowl, or if good languagelearningis simply the degreeto which one employs
strategies,almostany strategy.Despitethe criticisms,the studyenduresas a provocative,in-
depthanalysisof the languageleamer;the casestudiesareone of the more intriguingaspects
of the study becauseof the detail provided.The value of the study is acknowledgedin the
traditionof researchthat it helpedto inspire,a tradition discussedat length in the following
work.

Individual dffirences in second language learning by Skehan(1989) is an exceptional

sunmary of the work that has been done on the role of ID variablesin the languagelearning
process.On the frst pageof the text, Skehancommentsthat a robust ID researchtradition is
lacking in the secondlanguagearea; he goes a long way toward establishingone. This text
would not likely be useful for students,would possibly be useful for teacherswith a strong
leaning toward conductingresearch,and is most appropriatelydirected toward those
conducting researchor who have some experiencewith experimental and correlational
methods.It should be noted that the secondchapterdeals with methodologicaland statistical
issuesbut likely provides insufficient grounding to initiate the reader who lacks expertisein
this area. There is little need for this chapter anyway becauseSkehanskilfully reviews and
interpretsresearchresultsfor the reader.

The frst chapterpresentsthe basic theoreticalfoundationsand provides a good introduction to

the issuesraisedlater in the book. Skehanreviews four types of researchmodels,including the
theory-then-researchvs research-then-theory approaches,using the GLL as an exampleof the
latter approach.Skehanalso commentson the interactionalperspective,which combines
instructional and learner variables,and disjunctive rnodels,which postulatedifferent routes to
tlte sameend point. As noted below, theselatter two types of models may have considerable
appealfor current conceptualizationsof the GLL becausethey promise to deal with the
complexand compensatorynatureof leamer variables.

Having acknowledgedthe contributionsof lohn Carroll and Robert Gardnerin developingthe

ID area, it is not surprising that Aptitude and Motivation make up the first two content
chapters.Of all the variablesconsideredin the text, Skehandoes the best review of the
 REVIEWS

researchon languageaptitude,usinga critical but constructivestyle.Severalof the arguments

that have been marshalledover the years againstthe aptitudeconceptare effectively
dismantledby Skehan.This text also offersa good review of Gardner'ssocio-educational
model and the extensivework that it has generated.John Oller's widely cited criticismsof
Gardner'smodel are reviewedand debunked.It is interestingthat Skehantakes up the
motivation-as-cause vs motivation-as-effect
argumentandconcludesthatthe literaturetendsto
supportthe motivation-as-cause perspective.However,it is surprisingthat Skehandoesnot
drawtheconclusion thatmotivationis partof a continuousprocess.In essence,theissueis not
whethermotivationcausesachievement but when is motivationa causeand when is it an
effect.In additionto Gardner'swork, alternativemotivationalorientationsaredescribedbased
on researchdone in other cultural contexts,as offered by RichardCl6mentand others.The
extantresearchon both aptitudeand motivationare well presented,and the conclusionsstand
up well today.

The three following chaptersdeal with languageleaming sEategies,additional cognitive and

affective variables,and aptitude-treatmentinteractions.On the topic of strategies,Skehan
concludesthat they are in the embryonic stageof developmentand calls for studiesthat
actuallyhave beenconductedin the last few years(i.e. after publicationof Skehan'sbook).
Recently,therehasbeena profusionof researchinto languageleamingstrategiesandSkehan's
chapteris likely out of date already, simply becauseof the explosion of research.Other
cognitive and affectivevariablesare considered;introversion,risk-taking,intelligence,field
independence, and anxiety are eachtreatedin turn. Of thesevariables,the most changehas
occurred in the stateof knowledgeabout languageanxiety. Like strategies,the information in
Skehan'stext may be outdatedbecauserecentwork has further developedthe constructand its
methodologywell beyondwhat was availableto Skehan,even a few yea$ ago. With respectto
aptitude-treatmentinteractions,Skehanoffers three conclusions:these studies are extremely
interesting,thesestudiestend to be poorly done,and finally that therehas been"abysmally
little researchof this sort" (p. 134).Theseconclusionsmight be offered with equal confidence
today.

In the final chapteron conclusionsand implications,14 conclusionsare offeredbasedon the

work reviewedin the text. On balance,theseare fair and accurateassessments but they do
reflect somewhatof a bias toward explanationsbasedon aptitude and againstthosebasedon
the "additional" affective variablessuch as anxiety and personalityfactors.This chapteris
highly recommendedto researchers,as is the entire text. Skehanhas done a goodjob of being
comprehensivein reviewing the literature. In contrast, the following work has taken a much
more nalrow focus consideringlearning strategiesthat can be appliedto secondlanguage
acquisition.

Cohen's (1990) LanguageLearning: Insightsfor Learners, Teachers,and Researchersis

consistentwith the conclusionof the original GLL study (Naimanet al., 1978) which
recommendedshifting attention away from good and bad learnersto the circumstancesunder
which strategiesmay be more or less successful.Cohen's discussionof languagelearning
sftategiessuggeststhat, by understandingthe fundamentalcognitive processesinvolved in
learningin general,onecanfacilitatethe processof languageleamingin particular.
 REVIEWS

AlthoughCohenclaimsthathisbookissuitableforanaudienceoflearners,teachers'and
be languageteachers'
resear;hers,he maintainsthat the constituencybest servedwould
However'throughoutthebookthereaderisassumedtobealearner(thebookaddressesth
personallyas..you''l.Itisouropinionthatthistextmaybetoodetailedtomaintaintheinterest
doesnot encompassa wide
of all but the most pensivelearier. Moreover, the researchtreated
cohen
Nonetheless,
thuslimiting the interestof researchers'
varietyof authorsandapproaches,
p,","nt. a reasonablycomprehensive applicationof the principlesof cognitivepsychologyto
the studyof languagelearning'

(excluding the introduction and

The structureof the book consistsof two broad sections
conclusion)'Chapters2_6illustratethevarietyofcognitivestrategiesavailabletothelearner
thatcanimprovememory,attention,reading,comprehension'andwritingskills'Whilernost
ofthesestlategiesalesound'somemaybeimpracticalandhenceoflimitedutility,For
example,Cohenrecommendsthataneffectivemannertoimprovewritingstyleistohave
be, this strategy would
one,s text reformulated by a native speaker.As effective as it might
imposition on the
likely take a great deal of the studentistime and may also be an unrealistic
be expectedto ernploy all of
nJu" ,p"ut"i. Thus, only the most ardentlanguagelearnermight
the strategiesProPosedbY Cohen.

strategiesare based'The
chapters 7 and 8 describethe researchupon which the recommended
and supplementedby an
,"r"L"h cited is largely carried out by cohen and his colleagues,
studieshave a provocative
annotatedbibliography for further reading. Although many of the
rigour that can
**, *t *" it"o iitnit A by the samplesize and the lack of methodological
these concelns' for example
be applied in a classroom (netd) setting. without attention to
of trends in the
orr,igtr triangulation of research'methoct,it it difficult to assessthe meaning
"*itr, findings could be
Jt , o.-*ithorrt statistical methods.Moreover, the importance of the
through researchby
better illustrated if they were integrated with what has been determined
of severalof the studies
other authors.Nonetheless,u, *ur-oot"d above,the designand results
areintriguing and warrant further investigation'

for teachersto assist

on the basis of the researchfindings, -of cohen arguesthat it is possible
learnersin becoming -or" "*ur" their cognitive learning processesand thus exercise
potentially becomea better'
control or choice over them. With this knowledge,then, one could
moreautonomouslanguagelearner.Moreover,greaterlearnerautonomywouldenhancethe
instructor of the specifics of
teacher,srole as a facilitator of the leaming prociss in addition to
thetargetlanguage.Thus,Cohen'spri"clpacontributionisinapplyinggenerallearning
what makessome
principies to G Unguagelearning "ont"*t, enhancingour understandingof
'p"opfi works are
**" efficieit itran ottreri. Unfortunately, as far as the research-oriented
concerned.this one is the most limited in scope'

(1991) Breaking the Language

Our discussionof learner-centredbooks begins with Brown's
may also be.readby teachers
Barrier whichis intendedfor studentsof a iecond language,but
positive, encouraging students and
with considerable profit. The tone of the book is very
easingtheiranxietiesbyprovidingnumerou'sanecdotesandsensibleinterpretationso
pathways to learning, that each
available research.This book empiasizes individualized
learnerisuniqueandnosingleformulaforsuccessexists.Insomewaysthismaybeth
 REVIEWS

antithesisof searchingfor THE GLL but it aligns well with Skehan'scall for disjunctive
modelsandCohen'sargumentsconcemingthe searchfor optimalstrategiesfor eachstudent.

Brown's first two chaptersdeal with languageacquisitionby children and how adults can
abstractsome of thoseprinciplesfor their own use. In thesechapters,Brown introducesa
powerful themethat pervadesthe book: becauseof its strong survival value, a languageis
learnedefficiently,almostunconsciously,when thereis an urgencyaboutusingthat language
for communication.In many schools,studentsare defensiveabout leamingand are strongly
motivatedto avoid failure ratherthan securethe rewardsof authenticcommunication.Brown
arguesthat adults, in essence,try to learn backward,focusing first on the grammar,then
contrivedcommunication,and finally authenticsocial communication.Children proceedin
reversewith far betterresultsbecauseof a senseof communicativeurgencywithin their
sociaVfamilialcontext.

The next chapterdescribessome of the general learning principles that govern language
acquisition,suchas reinforcementandpunishment.Along with learning,Brown addresses the
broader issue of IQ and concludesthat general Ie is not important for secondlanguage
learningbut that a "languagelearningIQ" is; a valuablepoint but severelyoverplayedin the
chapter.Finally, communicativeurgency is discussedas a natural memory aid, allowing
studentsto practice what they needmost and to forget what they rarely needto use-sort of a
Darwinian approachto vocabulary.

The next chapter, "Strategiesfor success,"reports on several streamsof research,traditional

topics in the ID area.The right brain/left brain distinction is resurrectedand Brown suggests
that studentsuse the left brain for logical deduction of rules too much and needto develop the
more intuitive right bmin as a necessarysupplement.Brown also statesthat adults tend to be
overly field-independent(insensitive to languagecontexts) while children benefit from field
dependence.However, in the end, the emphasisis on how field dependenceand independence
work best together. Tolerance for ambiguity is another of the ID variables considered and
again the middle ground is advocated.As an example of the diversity of approaches,Brown
describeshow the well-known composerLeonard Bernsteinwas successfulat finding the
appropriatestrategyfor a given context, a flexibility that Brown strongly advocates.

Broader social and educationalissuesare addressedat various points throughoutthe text.

Brown usesthe idea of "joining the languageclub" to demonstratethe sociaVculturalbenefits
of group membership,with languageas the key entrancerequirement.Brown reviews trendsin
sorneof the most popular educationalmethods:grammar-translation,audiolingual,home
study' Berlitz, suggestopedia,community languageleaming, the silent way, total irnmersion,
and computerizedinstruction.By now the reader must be ready to guessthat an eclectic
approachis recommended.

Brown's forte is demonstratingthe necessityof turning a potential negativeinto a positive. For

example,studentsare shown the instructional value of making mistakes,even to the point of
referring to "the joy of goofing" (p. 109). Anxiety is introduced in a similar manner,
suggestingthat a little anxiety is helpful. Introverted studentsare encouragedto use fully their
introspectivenature to abstractrules but are encouragedto develop a more sociable
 REVIEWS

are given the oppositeencouragement.

orientation--€xtroverts Thesediscussionsreinforce a
commonthemein theseworks, that THE GLL doesnot exist, ratherGLLs usetheir strensths
andcompensate for their limitations.

The final chapterinvolvesself-testingwith acceptedmeasures of relevantconstructs

consideredthroughoutthe book, includingextroversion,ambiguitytolerance,left/right brain
preference,visual vs auditorylearning,and finally a languagepuzzle.The readeris
encouragedto take the testsand thenconsidertheir interpretations and relevanceto language
training.This is an excellentidea.Further,the informationgiven aboutthe testsis reasonable,
gearedtoward the learnerwith no backgroundin psychology,and appropriatecautionsare
provided.Brown concludeswith a l2-stepprogramemphasizingthe usefulnessof keepinga
languagediary for furtheranalysisin termsof the topicscoveredin the book.

This book managesto be very uplifting and motivatingwithout preaching.It has a quality of
seasonedreasonableness, a balancedapproach,and gently prods the learner with
encouragement by consistentlytuming the negativeinto the positive.The academicsof it are
quite acceptable,better than his other book (discussedbelow). Brown offers 55 footnotes,
most of them directing interestedreadersto relevantresearch.This work advocatesa
philosophyof languagelearning and servesasa practical guide as well.

A secondbook by Brown (1989),A Practical Guide to Innguage Leanting: a Fifteen-week

Program of Strategiesfor Success,addressesitself to beginning languagestudents.It is the
type of book that can be recommendedto studentsbefore entering their first languageclass.
This self-helpbook makesan excellentcompanionto Brown's (1991)text by suggestinga 15-
week program of more than 70 weekly languagelearning strategies/exercises. There are
enoughhumorous anecdotesand personal stories to make the book interesting, easy reading
with a powerful message.This book covers an impressiverange of individual difference
variables,including cultural stereotypes,norms, aptitude,IQ, cognitive style, personality
variables(e.g. introversion), tolerancefor ambiguity, risk-taking, anxiety, and self-confrdence.
Thesevariablesare discussedwith the beginning studentin mind.

Consistentwith Brown's other book under considerationhere. the most often recommended
strategyis a languagelearningjoumal or diary; almost half of the weeHy exercisesinvolve the
joumal. Additional exercisesemphasizeinteracting with other learnersand obtaining authentic
input. These strategiesgive the impressionof being basedon solid research.Unfortunately,
Brown doesnot take great pains to cite this literature. The advantageof this approachis that
the reader is not given too much extra information (unfamiliar names,numerousfootnotes,
etc.) that would make the orientation less self-help and more academic.The disadvantageof
this tactic is that it is not possibleto evaluatethe strengthof the researchon which the claims
arebased.

On balance,the advice given seemsto be quite sound.Again, the overarchingprinciple

advocatedhere is that individuals must understandthemselves,exploit their strengthsand
comp€nsatefor their weaknesses. For example,extrovertsare encouragedto keep making
social contactsbut are remindednot to neglectthe thoughtful,introspectiveprocessesthat
would lead them to abstractthe rules of the language.InEoverts are given the opposite
 REVIEWS

advice----capitalizeon your tendenciesto be introspectivebut sometimestake the initiative

socially,forget the rules, and try to communicate.For variablesthat are more naturally
conceivedon a continuum,like risk-taking,readersare advisedto find the middleground,not
too much andnot too little. Of course,eachstudentmay definethosetermsdifferently,but that
is not necessarilya problembecausethereis not one absolute,ideal level to be advocatedfor
everyone.Instead,Brown exhorts readersto find their natural tendenciesand then nudge
themselvesin the oppositedirection.The text doesnot judge the "best" strategiesbut rather
advocatesflexibility.

As researchers, it is somewhatfrustratingnot to havereferences to evaluatethe strengthof the

claims.Similarly, Brown doesnot attemptto rank the variablesin termsof the size of their
effects.The text alsodoesnot commenton the strengthof confidencein the researchbut rather
presentsalmosteveryconclusionwith equalconfidence.Somereadersmight be put off by this
approach,especiallythosewho seekcritiquesof the type providedby Skehan.Finally, it is not
possibleto evaluatethe entire l5-week programbecauseno evidenceis cited for it as a unit.
However,it shouldbe re-statedthat eachof the conclusionsare solid in themselvesso it is
likely that the program,or at leastmajor elementsof it, would find supportif put to the test.

This particulartext is a reasonableone and would likely representa usefulpracticalguidefor

beginninglanguagelearnerswho feel isolated,unmotivated,and unsuccessful. The primary
flaw is the lack of supportingevidencegiven to the many assertionsand evidencesupporting
the effectivenessof the more than 70 weekly exercises.

Another book well suited to the beginning, and perhapsintimidated, languagelearner is the
brief pocket book by Rubin and Thompson (1980), How to Be a More SuccessfulLanguage
lzamer. This is a fine introduction to t}reprocessof learning a secondlanguageand the use of
languagelearning strategies,particularly for the novice learner.Moreover, its refreshing,
pragmatic,and down-to-earthstyle is well suitedfor this audience.

This book is divided into three parts: Learning about languageand languagelearning,
Languagelearning strategies,and Aids for the languageleamer. The frst section introduces
the learner to the processof learning anotherlanguageby discussinga number of factors that
might explain successfullanguagelearning, such as age, intelligence, attitudes,extrovenion,
inhibition, tolerance of ambiguity, learning style, risk-taking, eye--earleaming, stereotypes,
ethnocentrism,and past experiences.Unlike some other books reviewed here, Rubin and
Thompson (like Brown) underscorethat learning a secondlanguageinvolves more than
developingacademicskills. Since languageleaming is a communicativeprocess,one must be
prepared to develop skills necessaryfor appropriate and effective interaction with others.
Moreover, since this interaction involves membersfrom anotherethnic communig, one must
also pay attention to the influence of factors, such as stereotypesand ethnocentrism,that may
play a role in intergroupcomrnunication.This extensionof the rangeofissues to be considered
would seema more valid and comprehensiveanalysisof what must be tackled to be a good
(i.e. successful)languageleamer.

The second section briefly describes 14 strategies.Rather than being specific learning
exercises,thesestrategiesrepresentlarger, meta-cognitiveadmonitions,suchas "learn to make
 REVIEWS

"let contexthelp you". No attemptis

intelligentguesses","learn to live with uncertainty"and
madeto classifythesestrategiesinto somehierarchicalstructureor systematicallylink them.
At best,the effect is that the strategiesreada little like a recipebook or shoppinglist; at worst
theyreadlike somebody'splatitudes.Many of thesestrategieswill be obviousto the advanced
learner and offer little inspiration for the researcheror the teacher.They may, however,
verbalizeimportantprinciplesfor the beginninglearner,who could then usethemto regulate
the learningprocess.As well, the third section,which discusses the varioususesof textbooks,
dictionaries,teachersand other leaming resources,may be of greatestuse for orientatingthe
newly initiatedlearner.

Onestimulatingpoint madeby Rubin andThompson,which is importantfor our consideration

of the GLL, is that differentlanguagelearnersmay havemany differentreasonsfor learninga
secondlanguage.Although the authorsmaintain that generallylanguagelearningincludes
masteringthe varietyof cognitive/academic andinterculturalcommunicationskills,in addition
to developingcertain personalcharacteristics,they also emphasizethat successfulsecond
languagelearning dependsupon the student'sgoals in learningthe language.In many
instances,for example, it is sufficient to develop only reading comprehensionin the second
language.This frank acknowledgementof the variety among learners' goals and strategiesis
part of what makesthis an enjoyablebook to read.It is also an excellent way of thinking about
the GLL.

Comparisonsamonq the workt

For the purposesof comparison,we will maintain the distinction betweenthe research-and
learner-orientedbooks. Among the research-orientedworks, Naiman et aI.'s (1978)
monographis most important for its historical contribution to developing interest in the ID
researchtradition. By no meanswas this the first study to tackle the topic; peoplelike Carroll,
Schumann,Lambert, and Gardnermade significant prior contributions.But the Naiman et al
volume drew from that previous work, broadenedthe perspectiveon the GLL, and made its
own contribution to the developmentof the ID tradition. That tradition is well synthesizedin
Skehan'sbook. Skehandoes more than simply report the results of studies,he commentson
the field as a whole and the philosophical traditions from which the researchdevelops.
Unfortunately, Cohen's work doesnot acknowledgethis vast body of evidence.ln fact, Cohen
does not even cite the work of Carroll, Schumann,Lambert, nor Gardner,which must be
considereda significant omission. However, Cohen does attempt to bridge the gap between
researchand practice to a greaterextent than doesSkehan.

With respectto the learner-orientedworks, all three could be recommendedwith confidence.

Brown's Q99l) Breaking the lnnguage Barrier is the strongestwork in illustrating the nature
and complexity of GLLs. It draws upon the researchliteratwe to a greaterextent than do the
other two books in this categorybut doesnot report extensively on specific languagelearning
strategies.Both Brown's (1989) Practical Guide to Language Learning and Rubin and
Thompson's (1982) How to Be a More SuccessfuIIanguage Lcarner do an admirablejob of
illustrating the specific strategiesthat learnerscan employ but neither cites researchto support
their claims (for example,neither book has included a list of referencesnor a subjectindex).
 REVIEWS

In their discussionof strategiesfor languagelearning,each of thesesix works is something

like a cookbookfor languageleaming.Thereis a majoromissionfrom the recipes:noneof the
authorsis ableto providethe unitsof measure.Do you needa kilogramof extroversionor will
a pound suffice? Granted,somethingapproachinga recipe could only be made on the
individualleamerlevel but thereis a certainamountof frustrationin readingthat everythingis
helpfulwithoutprioritizingthe information.This is mostnotablein the learner-oriented
texts.

Eachof the booksemphasizeleaminghow to learnlanguages, ratherthanlearninga particular

languageper se. Thus, the entirecollectiondemonstrates the necessityof accountingfor
individualdifferencesin describingthe languagelearningprocess.The threeresearch-oriented
volumesindicatethat considerable interestexistsin this area.The threeleamer-oriented books
demonstrate the practicalapplicationandusefulnessof that research.Unfortunately,thosewho
might benefit most from this literature,the beginninglanguagelearner,may not discoverit
until it is too late to help them.Therefore,awareness of themescontainedin this collectionon
the part of languageteachersand a willingnesson their part to teachthe applicationof these
principlesmight go a long way toward making languagelearning easierfor the individual
student.A similar challengecan be issuedto researchers to help determinethe relative
effectiveness of the pragmaticstrategies;especiallyuseful would be studiesof the effectsof
particularstrategieswith specifictypesof leamersin a givencontext.

In the end, the major commonality in this collection of rather diverse works is a consistent
focus,in one way or another,on languagelearningstrategies.At a conceptuallevel, however,
it may not be clear that the strategiessuggestedin thesebooks are languageleaming strategies,
or simply generallearningstrategies. Therefore,we mustconsiderthe questionof whetherit is
sufficientto regardlanguageleaming as simply one form of learning in general.Certainly,
Cohen'sdiscussionwould suggestthat the GLL may be the one who is most awareof the
learning processin general, and such knowledge may be applied to languageacquisition. If
languageleaming is merely a specific instanceof generallearning, then why all the fuss about
languageleaming strategies?

Basedon this collection, a casecan be made for the uniquenessof the languagelearning
process.What might clearly distinguish languagelearning from leaming other skills are the
communicativeandinterculturalaspects.Both Brown (1991)andRubin andThompson(1982)
imply that there is somethingqualitatively different about being a successfullanguageleamer,
and this is especiallyevident in their discussionof the processof communicationand
intergroupcontact.In languagelearning, studentslearn new ways of communicating,the most
basic tools for establishingmeaningand making social contact,rather than simply acquiring a
body of knowledge. In addition to learning how to master new vocabulary, to read well, to
listen attentively and to speakproperly, the learnermust also learn communicativestrategiesto
managethe discourseprocess,emotional strategiesto deal with the uncertainty,ambiguity and
anxiety,andinterculturalstrategiesso as not to offend.As notedby Brown (1991),languageis
our fundamentalmeansof presentingourselvesto the rest of the world. It is our contention
that languageleaming is qualitatively different from other types of leaming and therefore a
certain number of strategieswill be unique to the languagelearning context. Thus, the GLL
may not be the strongestacademicbut would likely be the one most interestedin
communicating.
 REVIEWS

Conclusions
The literatureon the GLL is well reflectedin the currentcollection.The texts blend the
interestsof researchers,teachersand students,and taken togethereach work supportsthe
othersvery well. Let us concludewith someanswersto the questionsposedat the beginningof
our reviewandendwith someindicationof what the futuremieht hold.

Is there a single GLL? In some ways the phrase"the good languagelearner" incorrectly
implies that thereis only one type of GLL. As evidencedby someof the work reviewedhere,
the searchfor the prototypelikely will be abandoned,andmay alreadyhavebeen.That is, it is
sufficientto searchfor "a" GLL ratherthan "the" GLL.

Are there bad languagelearners?Perhapsa GLL implies the existenceof a bad language
leamer.Certainly somestudentsfeel incapableof learninga secondlanguageand they can
experiencesevereproblemsin their attemptto do so. However,basedon the work reviewed
here,it appearsthat termssuchas "good" and "bad" are relativelyuninformative,evaluative
judgements.It seemsmuch more productiveto think in terms of successfulstrategiesfor
certaintypesof peoplein certaincontextsratherthan simply in termsof purely successfulor
unsuccessfulpeople. Each learner's successdependson a constellationof interdependent
factors(personality,intelligence,aptitude,anxiety,etc.) which, individually are sharedwith
others,but collectivelyare uniqueto eachperson.This providesno guaranteethat successful
methodswill be portablefrom personto person.It alsoprovidesquite an interestingtopic for
further study.

Who is the GLL? This questionprovidedthe impetusfor Naimanet al.'s work but seemsto
have been abandonedin recent years.The current assumptionis that almost anybody has the
potential to be a GLL, provided the studentlearnsto tap his/her sftengthsand compensatefor
his/her weaknesses. It is difficult to imagine that someonewho has learnedone language
would be unableto leam another.Thus, every personhas the potential to be successful,but in
no way is successensured.

What do we know aboutthe GLL? Ratherthan attemptingto presentthe conclusionsthat these

six books have reached,let us simply refer interestedreadersto the volume that is most
relevant to their needs.Naiman et al. can be given credit for helping to stimulate researchin
this area.Their study certainly had its flaws and might not standup to more rigorous standards
currently employed but its conclusions, methods and descriptions are very interesting,
especiallyin their historicalcontext.Brown's texts and the Rubin and Thompsonbook are
filled with reasonable,practical recommendationsbasedon the empirical literature but do not
presentthat literature to a great extent. Those interestedin a summary of available research
need look no farther than the review by Skehanwho demonstratesin a comprehensive,
detailed, and critical mannerthe ID literature. Unfornrnately,the overview by Cohen is not as
broad-basedbut it contributesa discussionof the application of generallearning principles to
secondlanguageleaming which may interestsomereaders.While specific conclusionsare
beyond the scope of this retrospectivereview, we can state generally that GLLs are able to
adaptto the learning situation,exploit their strengthsand compensatefor their weaknesses,use
a number of languagelearning strategies,and are likely interestedin the communicativevalue
of languageleaming.
 REVIEWS

How does one becomea GLL? Brown's books clearly advocatethe kind of complex,
compensatorymodelspreferredby Skehan,and thereforeseemto be the most appropriate
guidesfor studentswho wish to improvetheir languagelearningskills. Rubin and Thompson
list a cookbookfull of goodideasbut lack the balanceevidentin Brown's works.Many of the
specific strategiesoffered by Cohen and Naiman et al. can be supportedby researchin
linguistics and cognitive psychology,but their practicality and usefulnessneed to be
ascertained.Finally, Skehan'swork doesnot addressthis issueto an appreciable
degree.

Where is theory and researchon the GLL going? It is with sometrepidationthat we try to
predictthe future.Perhapsthe futurelies in disjunctivemodelsthat captue the compensatory
relationsamonglearnervariablesratherthan advocacyof one end of a singledimension(e.g.
low anxiety).Suchmodels,if they can gain acceptance, may betteraccountfor the phenomena
under study. Certainly learnerscome to a languagewith a completepackageof attitudes,
motivations,aptitudes,anxieties,and learning strategies,and it is quite likely that no one
combinationis bestfor all purposes.It would seemthat a comprehensive model of language
learningmustaccountfor this.

This is certainly not meant to sound a death knell for the univariate study investigating the
effects of a single variable. Such studiesare vital and necessaryto build the knowledgebase,
one piece at a time. Future studies may approach the GLL with an increasedsensitivity to
various learner contextsand goals by studying diversegroupsof languagelearners.These
studiesmay then provide the fuel to propel even more comprehensivemodels.The ability of
thosemodelsto accountfor the discretefacts and potentially conflicting conclusionspresented
by narrowly focusedstudieswill be their ultimate test and contribution.

We have learnedmuch aboutthe GLL. Fortunatelv,there is much left to learn.

PeterMaclntyre
Kimberly Noels
University of Ottawa
School of Psychology
145Jean-Jacques Lussier
PO Box 450 STN A
Onawa,Ontario KIN 6N5
Canada

Syrt ', Vol. 22, No. 2, PP.?&-X\ 19'94

*ffffiffi#
DAVIES, ALAN, The Native Speakerin Applied Linguistics. Edinburgh:Edinburgh
UniversityPress,1991,x + 181pp.,f,14.95.

A book on the native speaker brings into focus a host of basic theoretical and empirical
questionsin linguistics which have only beentouchedupon in the literature so far, and a more
elaborateand systematictreatmentof the issuesinvolved is long overdue.Alan Davies' book
on The Native Speakerin Applied Lingurstics is thereforea most welcomecontribution to the