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CHAPTER 21
Instrumentation
Introduction of
and Control Control System
System
 CONTENT

1.1 •History of Control System

1.2 •Control System Basics

1.3 •Control System Configuration

1.4 •Examples of Control Systems

1.5 •Control System Design

1.6 •Simulation Software in Control – MATLAB

1.1
History of
Control System
 History of Control System
300 BC 1900’s 2000’s

•Contemporar
•Early •20th Century
y
•Simple, •Extensive
•Widespread
primitive use of sensors
applications

• Water clock (300 BC) • Automatic Ship Steering • Navigation

• Steam pressure & (1922) • Entertainment
temperature control • PID Controller (1920s) • Smart Homes
systems (1680s) • Feedback Control System • Military
• Speed control (1745) Technique (1930s) • Space Application
• Stability Theories • Root locus, Bode, Nyquist • Chemical Process
• Routh-Hurwitz (1877) (1948)
• Lyapunov (1892)
• One of the earliest control systems known is the water clock invented by Ktesibios (300
BC) - Liquid level control.

• In 1681, Denis Papin introduced the steam pressure control systems, where he invented
the safety valve (very similar to the present pressure cooker).

• In 17th century, hatching eggs using mechanical temperature control

• In 1745, speed of windmills are controlled

• Pitching blades further back so less area available
• As wind decreases, more blade area available
• In 1868, James Maxwell published the stability criterion for a 3rd order system based on
the coefficients of differential equations

• In 1877, Routh Hurwitz criterion to determine the stability of a system is proposed

1.2
Control System
Basics

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 Control System Basics

-‐General Control System Block Diagram

Input signal Output signal

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Process

(desired output/ (actual

Controller Actuator Plant response)
set point)
 Robust  Valve
 PID  Motor

CONTROL SYSTEM
 Control System Basics

Purpose & Methods

Primary Aim:
• To regulate certain variables about constant values even
when there are disturbances.
• To force some parameter to vary in a specific manner.

Control Methods:
• ‘Manual’ control
• ‘Automatic’ control

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 4 main control purposes

For power amplification

1 • e.g. in moving the radar antenna position to certain angle, small
input power is amplified to produce high output torque.

For remote control

2 • e.g. in controlling the movements of robots working in
contaminated areas where human presence should be avoided.

For convenience of input form

3 • e.g. in a temperature control system, the turn of a knob
corresponds to certain desired room temperature.

For compensation for disturbance

4 • e.g. to maintain antenna position in the presence of strong wind.
 Manual Control

Human-aided
control

Operator constantly observe the deviation and

make corrections when necessary

Not
consistent

Hundreds of variables to be
controlled

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 Automatic Control

To replace humans with machines (nowadays, computers) to implement the

control of the plant.

Measurement  sensors/transducers

Decision  computers

Control action  actuators

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1.3
Control System
Configuration

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 Control System Configuration

Open- Closed-
loop loop

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 What is an open loop control system ?
▪ For example, an electric clothes dryer.
▪ Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet they are,
a user or operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 ➢ Commanded by the
minutes input
▪ at the end of the 30 minutes the drier will automatically stop ➢ Utilize a controller or
and turn-off even if the clothes where still wet or damp. control actuator to
obtain the desired
▪ the clothes dryer would be an open-loop system as it output
does not monitor or measure the condition of the output ➢ A system without
signal, which is the dryness of the clothes feedback
➢ Any open-loop system
can be represented as
multiple cascaded
blocks in series or a
single block diagram
with an input and
output.
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▪ Therefore, an open-loop system is
expected to faithfully follow its input
command or set point regardless of
the final result.
▪ an open-loop system has no
knowledge of the output condition the dryer door opens
so cannot self-correct any errors and heat is lost
▪ disadvantage of open-loop systems
is that they are poorly equipped to
handle disturbances or changes in
the conditions which may reduce its
ability to complete the desired task.
▪ if the dryers door was open it would
be detected and closed allowing the
drying process to continue.
Feed forward Control
Then we can define the main characteristics of an “Open-loop system” as
being:
✓There is no comparison between actual and desired values.
✓An open-loop system has no self-regulation or control action over the
output value.
✓Each input setting determines a fixed operating position for the
controller.
✓Changes or disturbances in external conditions does not result in a direct
output change (unless the controller setting is altered manually).
▪ Closed-loop Control System, also
known as a feedback control
system is a control system which
uses the concept of an open loop
system as its forward path but has
one or more feedback loops (hence
its name) or paths between its
output and its input.
▪ Closed-loop systems are designed to
automatically achieve and maintain the
desired output condition by comparing
it with the actual condition.
▪ In other words, a “closed-loop system”
is a fully automatic control system in
which its control action being
dependent on the output in some way.
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Then we can define the main characteristics of Closed-loop
Control as being:
❑To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems
input.
❑To improve stability of an unstable system.
❑To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
❑To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the
process.
❑To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.
1.4
Examples of
Control Systems
▪ An example of an open loop control system is your kettle
▪ You fills the kettle with water
▪ You switches on the kettle
▪ Wait for the water to reach boiling point
▪ A thermostat (the control element) switches the kettle off
▪ Without further interaction nothing else happens
▪ Open loop control systems are good for applications that require set
parameters
▪ For example we always want the kettle to reach 1000 degrees and
then switch off
▪ If we want a motor to drive a constant load at a given speed (all the
time) then open loop control works well
▪ Open loop control is usually simpler to implement, is cheaper and
easier to maintain than closed loop control
▪ A toaster toasts bread by setting timer

Setting of timer Toasted bread

Toaster

▪ Objective: make bread golden browned and

crisp.
▪ A toaster does not measure the colour of
bread during toasting process
▪ A toaster would be more expensive with
sensors to measure the color and actuators to
adjust the time based on the measured color.
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 ▪ A washing machine washes
clothes by setting a program
▪ A washing machine does not
measure how clean the clothes
become
▪ Control without measuring
devices (sensors) are called
open-loop control

Program setting Washed clothes

Machine

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Application : CD Player, Computer disk
drive
Requirement : Constant speed of rotation

A tachometer (sensor) provides an output

voltage proportional to the speed of the
shaft.

The error voltage is generated by the

difference between the input voltage and
the tachometer voltage.

A tachometer (revolution-counter,
tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an
instrument measuring the rotation
speed of a shaft or disk, as in a
motor or other machine.
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▪ An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process directly without
using feedback.
Desired Output Actuating
Process Output
Response Device

▪ A closed-loop feedback control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback of the
output signal to compare it with the desired output or reference.

Desired
Output Comparison Controller Process Output
Response

Measurement
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 Advantages of Disadvantages
Open Loop of Open Loop
• Simple construction and • Disturbances and changes
ease of maintenance. in calibration cause errors,
• Less expensive than a and the output may be
corresponding closed- different from what is
loop system. desired.
• There is no stability • To maintain the required
problem. quality in the output,
• Convenient when output is recalibration is necessary
hard to measure or from time to time.
measuring the output • They are less accurate.
precisely is economically • If external disturbances
not feasible. are present, output differs
significantly from the
desired value.
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Advantages of Closed Loop
• They are more accurate.
• The effect of external disturbance signals can be made very
small.
• The variations in parameters of the system do not affect the
output of the system i.e. the output may be made less
sensitive to variation is parameters. Hence forward path
components can be of less precision. This reduces the cost of
the system.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop

• They are more complex and expensive
• They require higher forward path gains.
• The systems are prone to instability. Oscillations in the output
may occur.
• Cost of maintenance is high. 27
1.5
Element of
Control System
▪ Normally depicted in a block diagram
▪ Plant provides the system output
▪ Controller takes the control input and provides a control output
▪ Sensor takes the output and feeds it to the subtractor (or comparator) that
compares the demand with the output of the sensor to produce an error
▪ All connected by arrows, which represent signals
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 Elements of a control system
disturbance + Disturbance is unwanted
signal that may sway the
input controller plant output
output

disturbance
+
Error is a signal made up of
error
+ + the difference of input and
input plant
controller output
-

Feedback is a process where some

proportion of the output signal of a
Input
System Output system is passed (fed back) to the input.
This is often used to control the
dynamic behaviour of the system.
Feedback Loop
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 Closed-loop Control System

Manipulated input variable into the plant so

desired output that the plant output achieves
to be achieved variable
(MV) the SP value
Setpoint Disturbance
(SP)

+ +
Input Input +
Controller Plant Output
transducer
-‐
Controlled
variable
(CV)
Output
transducer
Process variable output of the plant
(PV) to be controlled

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A university wants to establish a control system model that represents the student
population as an output, with the desired student population as an input. The
administration determines the rate of admissions by comparing the current and
desired student populations. The admissions office then uses this rate to admit
students. Draw a functional block diagram showing the administration and the
admissions office as blocks of the system. Also show the following signals: the
desired student population, the actual student population, the desired student rate as
determined by the administration, the actual student rate as generated by the
admissions office, the dropout rate, and the net rate of influx.

Solution
A university wants to establish a control system model that represents the student
population as an output, with the desired student population as an input. The
administration determines the rate of admissions by comparing the current and
desired student populations. The admissions office then uses this rate to admit
students. Draw a functional block diagram showing the administration and the
admissions office as blocks of the system. Also show the following signals: the
desired student population, the actual student population, the desired student rate as
determined by the administration, the actual student rate as generated by the
admissions office, the dropout rate, and the net rate of influx.

Solution
▪ A temperature control system operates by sensing the difference between the
thermostat setting and the actual temperature and then opening a fuel valve an
amount proportional to this difference. Draw a functional closed-loop block
diagram identifying the input and output transducers, the controller, and the plant.
Further, identify the input and output signals of all subsystems previously
described.

Solution
▪ A temperature control system operates by sensing the difference between the
thermostat setting and the actual temperature and then opening a fuel valve an
amount proportional to this difference. Draw a functional closed-loop block
diagram identifying the input and output transducers, the controller, and the plant.
Further, identify the input and output signals of all subsystems previously
described.

Solution
A dynamometer is a device used to measure torque and speed and to vary the load on rotating
devices. The dynamometer operates as follows to control the amount of torque: A hydraulic actuator
attached to the axle presses a tire against a rotating flywheel. The greater the displacement of the
actuator, the more force that is applied to the rotating flywheel. A strain gage load cell senses the
force. The displacement of the actuator is controlled by an electrically operated valve whose
displacement regulates fluid flowing into the actuator (D’Souza, 1988). Draw a functional block
diagram of a closed-loop system that uses the described dynamometer to regulate the force
against the tire during testing. Show all signals and systems. Include amplifiers that power the
valve, the valve, the actuator and load, and the tire.
Answer
A dynamometer is a device used to measure torque and speed and to vary the load on rotating
devices. The dynamometer operates as follows to control the amount of torque: A hydraulic actuator
attached to the axle presses a tire against a rotating flywheel. The greater the displacement of the
actuator, the more force that is applied to the rotating flywheel. A strain gage load cell senses the
force. The displacement of the actuator is controlled by an electrically operated valve whose
displacement regulates fluid flowing into the actuator (D’Souza, 1988). Draw a functional block
diagram of a closed-loop system that uses the described dynamometer to regulate the force
against the tire during testing. Show all signals and systems. Include amplifiers that power the
valve, the valve, the actuator and load, and the tire.
Answer
▪ An aircraft’s attitude varies in roll, pitch, and yaw
as defined in Figure P1.2. Draw a functional
block diagram for a closed-loop system that
stabilizes the roll as follows: The system
measures the actual roll angle with a gyro and
compares the actual roll angle with the desired
roll angle. The ailerons respond to the roll angle
error by undergoing an angular deflection. The
aircraft responds to this angular deflection,
producing a roll angle rate. Identify the input and
output transducers, the controller, and the plant.
Further, identify the nature of each signal.

Solution
▪ An aircraft’s attitude varies in roll, pitch, and yaw
as defined in Figure P1.2. Draw a functional
block diagram for a closed-loop system that
stabilizes the roll as follows: The system
measures the actual roll angle with a gyro and
compares the actual roll angle with the desired
roll angle. The ailerons respond to the roll angle
error by undergoing an angular deflection. The
aircraft responds to this angular deflection,
producing a roll angle rate. Identify the input and
output transducers, the controller, and the plant.
Further, identify the nature of each signal.

Solution
1.6
Control System
Design
Mathematical Laws Of System
Modelling Physics Identification

Frequency
Analysis Time Domain
Domain

Design of Controller Controller

controller Structure Type
 STEP 4: STEP 5 :
STEP 1: Use the If multiple
STEP 6 :
Determine STEP 2: STEP 3: schematic blocks, reduce Analyze
a physical Draw a Transform to obtain a design, and
the block
system and functional the physical block diagram, test to see that
diagram to a requirements
specifications block system into signal-flow
diagram,
single block or and
from the diagram. a schematic. specifications
or state-space closed-loop
requirements.
system. are met.
representation.
▪ Understand the general schemes that can be used to control a system.
▪ Understand the system you’re trying to control. You need to predict how a system behaves –
mathematical techniques that involve differential equation solution
▪ Common goals:
- Stability
- Performance
▪ Transient response (short-term characteristics)
▪ Steady-state response (long-term characteristics)
- Robustness and sensitivity to disturbances, modeling errors, noise, etc.

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1. System analysis – establish requirements (talk to users)
2. Formal specification of required system performance
3. System modelling – system must be accurately modelled before controller design can begin.
Usually using a differential equation (some quantity that changes w.r.t. time)
4. Control algorithm development – the controller is developed using the model and standard
control theory to meet the specifications.

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o Transient state
a state whereby the system response after a perturbation
before the response approach to a steady state

o Steady state
a state whereby the system response becomes steady after a
transient state

o Stability
The condition of the steady state. If the response converges to
a finite value, it is said to be in a stable condition. If the
response diverges, it is known to be unstable.

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▪ Transient response:
▪ Gradual change of output from initial to the desired condition

▪ Steady-state response:
▪ Approximation to the desired response

▪ For example, consider an elevator rising from ground to the 4th floor.

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Transient Response
• In the case of elevator, slow transient response makes passengers impatient.
• Excessive response makes passenger uncomfortable and could also cause
permanent physical/ structural damage.
Steady-State Response
• This response resembles the input and is usually refers to the response remains
after transients have decayed to zero.
• This response refers to the accuracy
• E.g. the elevator stop near the fourth floor, head of disk stop at the correct track
• Steady-state error is analyzed for corrective action

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