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Applied Sciences: Wind Loads On A PV Array
Applied Sciences: Wind Loads On A PV Array
sciences
Article
Wind Loads on a PV Array
Ping-Han Chung 1, * , Chin-Cheng Chou 2 , Ray-Yeng Yang 1 and Cheng-Yang Chung 2
1 Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
ryyang@mail.ncku.edu.tw
2 Aerospace Science and Technology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 711, Taiwan;
choucc@mail.ncku.edu.tw (C.-C.C.); scychung@mail.ncku.edu.tw (C.-Y.C.)
* Correspondence: E84046082@mail.ncku.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-975175133
Received: 10 May 2019; Accepted: 13 June 2019; Published: 17 June 2019
Featured Application: This study determines the wind loads for a photovoltaic (PV) array at
a high angle of tilt. The data is useful for the detailed structural design of an offshore PV array.
Abstract: This study experimentally determines the wind loads on a stand-alone solar array
(length-to-width ratio of 0.19; 1/10-scale commercial modules). The freestream velocity in a uniform
flow is 14.5 ± 0.1 m/s, and the turbulence intensity is 0.3%. The angle of tilt ranges from 10◦ to 80◦
and the wind is incident at angle of 0◦ –180◦ . Mean surface pressure measurements on the upper and
the lower surface of the inclined solar panels are used to calculate the lift coefficient. For the angle of
incidence of 0◦ –60◦ for the wind, the variation in the lift coefficient with the angle of tilt is U-shaped.
The formation of a strong windward corner vortex results in greater lift force on the right half of the
inclined plate for the angle of incidence of 30◦ –45◦ for the wind.
1. Introduction
The use of solar energy has increased, due to public concerns about climate change and
environmental pollution. The total respective capacity for solar photovoltaic (PV) systems was
303 GW and 402 GW in 2016 and 2017 [1]. A PV system consists of inclined panels, which are usually
mounted on the rooftops of residential or commercial buildings. Floating PV on reservoirs, ponds,
or lakes are another emergent solar energy system [2–5]. In nearshore areas, a PV system floats in the
ocean using a buoyancy system [6].
To harness solar energy, PV panels for roof-top or ground systems are installed at an optimal
tilt angle that allows the sunlight to fall perpendicular to the panels’ surface. Wind loads depend on
the tilt angle, the angle of incidence of the wind, and the spacing and sheltering of the arrays [7–11].
For an inclined panel with a length-to-width ratio, L/W, of 2 that faces a uniform flow, Chung et al. [12]
showed that there is a decrease in the sectional lift coefficient as the angle of tilt increases (α = 15◦ –25◦ ).
Corner vortices are also observed. For an inclined panel (L/W = 0.22) on flat roofs, an increase in
α (= 20◦ –45◦ ) produces greater suction [13]. Cao et al. [14] noted that wind-induced loads on an inclined
panel are due primarily to pressure equalization at large angles of tilt and turbulence at small angles
of tilt. The effect of the angle of incidence of wind, β, was investigated by Chou et al. [15]. There is
greater suction on the upper surface near the windward corner for β = 15◦ –60◦ . A study by Shademan
and Hangan [16] obtained similar results.
For a PV system, wind loads are significantly reduced by the presence of neighboring upwind
arrays (sheltering effect) [17,18]. Therefore, this study only determines wind loads for a stand-alone
PV array (nine panels, L/W = 0.19). In addition, the wind loads on the PV panels in a sea environment
are not the same as those for PV panels that are located on land. The motion of a pontoon results in the
variation in α during
the variation in α during
a wavea wave
cycle. cycle. The safety
The safety of PV in
of PV panels panels in environments
environments thatlarge
that feature feature large
waves is
awaves is a issue
practical practical issue
for the for the
system systemTodesign.
design. ensureTo ensure
that that the
the system system properly,
functions functions the
properly, α
effect ofthe
effect
(up to of ◦ andtoβ 80°)
80α)(up and β is determined.
is determined.
2. Experimental Setup
The experiments were performed in a closed-loop wind tunnel at the Architecture and Building
Research Institute (Tainan,
(Tainan, Taiwan).
Taiwan). TheThe wind
wind tunnel
tunnel has
has aa working
working cross
cross section
section ofof 2.6
2.6m (height) ××
m(height)
4 m (width) ×× 36.5 36.5 mm(length)
(length)and andaacontraction
contractionratio
ratioofof4.71.
4.71.ToTodetermine
determinethe thecritical
criticalwind
wind loads,
loads, a
a1/10
1/10scale
scalestand-alone
stand-alonearray array(nine
(nineinclined
inclinedpanels, P1–P9; LL == 168
panels,P1P9; 168 mm
mm andand W == 900 mm) was
constructed, as shownshown in in Figure
Figure 1. 1. The origin
origin of
of the
the coordinates (x/L== 00 and y/W
coordinates (x/L y/W == 0) is located at the
upper left corner of the inclined plate. When the low surface faces
left corner of the inclined plate. When the low surface faces the flow, this the flow, this corresponds
corresponds to βtoofβ 0of
◦.
Figure 1. Test
Test configuration for a stand-alone array.
array.
Meteorological data from nearshore buoys in Taiwan (Qigu, (Qigu, Longdong and Hsinchu) were
collected [19] to determine
determine the the test
test conditions.
conditions. The most most common
common values values of of ββ for
for Qigu
Qigu(23 ◦ 05”42” N)
(23°05”42”N)
were 210 ◦ ◦
–225 and ◦ ◦ ◦
210°225° and 315 –360 for
315°360° for the
the period
period of of2013–2017.
20132017.In InLongtong
Longtong(25 05”48” N) and Hsinchu
(25°05”48”N)
(24◦ 45”19” N), the respective values for β were 0◦ and 30◦ –45◦ . The variation in α for PV panels with
(24°45”19”N), the respective values for β 0° 30°45°. The α
respect
respect to wind was ±45
wind was ±45°.◦ . In this study,
In this study, the value of α α was between 10° 10◦ and 80°80◦ (in increments of 10°) 10◦ )
and the value
value ofof ββ ranged
rangedfrom from0° ◦
0 toto180° ◦
180 (in (inincrements
increments ofof ◦
15 Note
15°). ). Notethatthat
thetheangleangle between
between the the
PV
PV arrays
arrays andandthe the surface
surface of theof the
sea sea is fixed
is fixed for for an offshore-type
an offshore-type PV PV system.
system. ThisThisis notis not
the the
casecase for
for the
the
windwind tunnel
tunnel tests.
tests. However,
However, thethe experimental
experimental results
results of ofthis
thisstudy
studycan canbe beused
used for for preliminary
structural designs of an offshore
offshore PV PV array
array and and to to validate
validate thethe numerical
numerical simulation.
simulation.
For an inclined panel for which L/W L/W = = 2, Chung et al. [12] showed that there is a small increase
in wind loadload when
whentherethereisisananincrease
increase inin thethe intensity
intensity of the
of the freestream
freestream turbulence.
turbulence. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the experiments for this study used a uniform flow. The freestream
experiments for this study used a uniform flow. The freestream velocity was 14.5 ± 0.1 m/s, and thevelocity was 14.5 ± 0.1 m/s, and
the turbulence
turbulence intensity
intensity waswas 0.3%.0.3%. A Pitot-static
A Pitot-static tubetube was positioned
was positioned at theatsame
the same
height height
as theasfront
the front
edge
edge of the inclined panels to determine the static, p , and the dynamic
of the inclined panels to determine the static, p∞, and∞the dynamic pressure, q, for the incoming flow. pressure, q, for the incoming
flow. The Reynolds
The Reynolds number, number,
which is which
basedison based on theoflength
the length of the inclined
the inclined panels, was panels,
1.64 was
× 105.1.64
Note 105 .
× that
Note
there that there is Reynolds
is Reynolds number independence
number independence for an inclinedfor anpanel
inclined
[20].panel [20].
A total A total
of 434 of 434taps
pressure pressure
were
taps were drilled on the upper and lower surfaces of the model. Flexible
drilled on the upper and lower surfaces of the model. Flexible polyvinyl chloride tubes of 1.1 mm in polyvinyl chloride tubes
of 1.1 mmand
diameter in diameter
60 cm in andlength 60 were
cm inconnected
length were to connected
SCANIVALVE to SCANIVALVE
multichannelmultichannel
modules (Model modules
ZOC
(Model
33/64PxZOC 33/64Px
64-port; Model64-port;
RAD3200Modelpressure
RAD3200 pressure transducer,
transducer, ScanivalveScanivalve
Co., Liberty Co., Liberty
Lake, WA,Lake,
USA)WA,
to
USA)
measureto measure
the meanthe meanpressure.
surface surface pressure. The full-scale
The full-scale range of range of thewas
the sensors sensors
±2490 wasPa,±2490
and the Pa,accuracy
and the
accuracy
was ±0.15% wasof±0.15%
the fullofscale.
the full
Thescale.
samplingThe sampling
rate was rate250 was
Hz, and250 Hz,
each
R and each
record record
had had
32,768 32,768
data data
points.
points. The mean pressure coefficient, C
The mean pressure coefficient, Cp (= (pp − p∞)/q), and (= (p − p ∞ )/q), and C1 (= 1
CL (= L∫𝐴 ∆𝐶 A 𝑝 cos∆C cos
A (𝛼)𝑑𝐴)
p ( α ) dA ) were calculated.
were calculated. The
𝐴
The differential pressure coefficient, ∆Cp (= Cp,up − Cp,low ) was determined using the value of Cp for the
differential pressure coefficient, ΔCp (= Cp,up – Cp,low) was determined using the value of Cp for the upper
upper and lower surfaces.
and lower surfaces.
surface for=all
at y/W 0.5test
arecases.
shownFor α = 20°2.and
in Figure 40°, thevalues
Negative valueforof CCplpl (or
decreased
suction)along the longitudinal
were observed direction.
on the upper
all test cases. For α = 20 ◦ and 40◦ , the value of C decreased along the longitudinal direction.
The location with the lowest Cpl value moved upstream for
surface for pl α = 60° and 80°. The variation in Cpl ranged
fromThe location
4.6% withto
(α = 20°) lowest(αCpl
the10.9% value For
= 60°). moved for α =with
upstreampanel
an inclined 60◦ and ◦
L/W80= .2,The
Chou variation
et al. in Cplshowed
[21] ranged that
from 4.6% (α = 20 ◦ ) to 10.9% (α = 60 ◦ ). For an inclined panel with L/W = 2,
there is a significant change in the value of Cpl for α ≤ 30°. This is due to the formation of intense side- Chou et al. [21] showed
edgethat there isOn
vortices. a significant
the lowerchange surface,in the
thevalue
valueofofCplαfor
hadα≤ a 30
◦ . This is due to the formation of intense
significant effect on the Cpl distribution. For
side-edge vortices. On the lower surface, the value of α had a significant effect on the Cpl distribution.
α = 20° and 40°, the value of C pl decreased initially, and then the distributions flattened. The values of
For α = 20◦ and 40◦ , the value of Cpl decreased initially, and then the distributions flattened. The values
Cpl for α = 60° and◦80° were greater for the first half of the inclined array. This demonstrates that the
of Cpl for α = 60 and 80◦ were greater for the first half of the inclined array. This demonstrates that the
localized load
localized was
load wasmost
mostsignificant nearthe
significant near the front
front edgeedge for greater
for greater valuesvalues
of α. The of value
α. The of value
Cpl for of
L/WCpl for
L/W== 0.19
0.19(an(anarray)
array) was was less
less thanthan
thatthat
for L/Wfor L/W
= 2 (a=panel).
2 (a panel).
-0.6
-0.8
Cp,l
-1.0
o
20
o
-1.2 40
o
60
-1.4 o
80
0.6
Cp,l
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/L
FigureFigure
2. Mean longitudinal
2. Mean longitudinalpressure distributions
pressure distributions for =y/W
for y/W = 0.5
0.5 and β =and
0◦ . β = 0°.
resulted
showsinthat
a decrease
the flow in the valuealong
decelerated of Cpltheonlongitudinal
the lower surface.
directionFor β =upper
on the 135°, surface.
Figure 5An shows that the
increase
α produced along
flowindecelerated a morethe longitudinal
positive value fordirection
Cpl on theon the upper
upper surfacesurface.
and a moreAn negative
increasevalue
in α produced
for Cpl a
more positive value for Cpl on the upper surface and a more negative value for Cpl on the lower surface.
The sectional lift coefficient increased as α increased; hence, there is a greater downward force.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2466 4 of 11
on the lower surface. The sectional lift coefficient increased as α increased; hence, there is a greater
downward force.
Cp,l
-0.8
Cp,l -1.0
-1.0 o
20
o
-1.2 20o
40
-1.2 40
o
o
-1.4 60
o
-1.4 60
80
o
o
80
0.6
0.6
Cp,l
Cp,l
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.00.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/L
x/L
Figure 3. Mean longitudinal pressure distributions for y/W = 0.5 and β =◦ 30°.
Figure
Figure 3. 3. Meanlongitudinal
Mean longitudinal pressure
pressure distributions
distributionsforfor = 0.5
y/Wy/W β = 30
andand
= 0.5 β = .30°.
-0.8
Cp,l
-1.0
-1.0
-1.2
-1.2
-1.4
-1.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.00.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/L
x/L
Figure
Figure Meanlongitudinal
4. 4.Mean longitudinal pressure
pressuredistributions
distributionsforfor = 0.50.5
y/Wy/W= β = β45= .45°.
andand ◦
Figure 4. Mean longitudinal pressure distributions for y/W= 0.5 and β = 45°.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2466 5 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 2 of 11
1.0
(a) upper surface
o
0.8 20
o
40
0.6 60
o
o
80
0.4
Cp,l
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Cp,l
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
x/L
Mean longitudinal
Figure5.5.Mean
Figure longitudinal pressure
pressuredistributions for for
distributions = 0.5 and
y/Wy/W= β = 135
0.5 and β =◦135°.
.
-0.4
-0.4
(a) upper
upper surface
surface
(a) 20o
o
20 o
40o
40 o
60
60
o
-0.5
-0.5 80
o
o
80
p,s
CCp,s
-0.6
-0.6
== 00o,, x/L=
(b) lower
(b) lower surface
surface o
x/L= 0.5
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
p,s
0.4
CCp,s
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2
0.2 0.4
0.4 0.6
0.6 0.8
0.8 1.0
1.0
y/W
y/W
Figure 6.6.Mean
Figure6.
Figure Mean spanwise
Meanspanwise pressuredistributions
spanwise pressure
pressure distributions
distributions for
forfor x/L == and
= 0.5
x/L x/L 0.5 and
0.5 and β◦ .== 0°.
β = 0β 0°.
0.0
0.0
(a) upper surface = 30oo, x/L= 0.5
upper surface
(a) = 30 , x/L= 0.5
-0.5
-0.5
p,s
CCp,s
-1.0
-1.0
o
20o
20 o
-1.5 40o
40
-1.5 o
60
60
o
o
80
80
o
-2.0
-2.0
(b) lower
(b) lower surface
surface
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
p,s
CCp,s
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2
0.2 0.4
0.4 0.6
0.6 0.8
0.8 1.0
1.0
y/W
y/W
Figure 7.7.Mean
Figure7.
Figure Mean spanwise
Meanspanwise pressuredistributions
spanwise pressure
pressure distributions
distributions for = 0.5
x/L
x/L x/L
forfor == 0.5 β = 30
0.5 and
and and ◦ 30°.
ββ ==. 30°.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2466 7 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 4 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 4 of 11
0.0
0.0
(a) upper surface
(a) upper surface
-0.5
-0.5
p,sp,s
-1.0
CC
-1.0
o
20o
20 o
-1.5 40o
-1.5 40 o
60o
60 o
80o
80
-2.0
-2.0
(b) lower surface = 45o, x/L= 0.5
1.0 (b) lower surface = 45o, x/L= 0.5
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
p,sp,s
CC
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y/W
y/W
Figure 8. Mean spanwise pressure distributions for x/L = 0.5 and β =◦ 45°.
Figure 8.8.Mean
Figure Meanspanwise
spanwise pressure distributions
pressure distributions forfor = 0.5
x/Lx/L = 0.5 β = 45
andand β = .45°.
80o
0.5 80
CC
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
p,sp,s
-1.0
CC
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-2.0
-2.00.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y/W
y/W
Figure 9.9.Mean
Figure Meanspanwise
spanwise pressure distributions
pressure distributions forfor = 0.5
x/Lx/L = 0.5 β = 135
andand β =◦135°.
.
Figure 9. Mean spanwise pressure distributions for x/L = 0.5 and β = 135°.
3.3. The
3.3. The Lift
Lift Coefficient
Coefficient
CLL was
C was calculated
calculated byby integrating
integrating ΔC ΔCpp (differential
(differential pressure
pressure between
between upper
upper and
and lower
lower surface).
surface). The
The
variation in
variation in CCLL with
with αα and
and ββ is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10.
10. The
The value
value of
of C
CLL was
was negative for ββ 75°.
negative for 75°. The
The lowest
lowest
value for
value for CCLL was
was observed
observed forfor αα == 30°
30° and
and ββ == 45°.
45°. This
This is
is similar
similar to
to the
the results
results of
of Chou
Chou et et al.
al. [21]
[21] for
for
an inclined panel, for which L/W = 2. The value of C L was relatively small for β = 90°, and it was
an inclined panel, for which L/W = 2. The value of CL was relatively small for β = 90°, and it was
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 5 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 5 of 11
Figure 11. For an inclined panel, for which L/W = 2, the value of CL for β 75° decreased linearly with
Figure 11.
α (Sci.
Appl. 30°), For
2019, 9,an
following
2466inclined panel, for
an increase forwhich
α = 50°. L/WAt =high
2, thevalues for β 75°Cdecreased
valueofofαC(=L 60°80°), linearly with
L remained approximately 8 of 11
α (constant
30°), following an increase for α = 50°. At high values of α (= 60°80°),
for α = 30° and 40° [21]. For β of 0°, 30°, 45°, and 60°, for which L/W = 0.19, the variation of C L remained approximately
constant
CL with forαα was = 30° and 40°The
U-shaped. [21].lowest
For β of value0°, 30°,
of CL45°,for and
β = 0°60°,
and for30°which L/W = 0.19,
was observed at the variation
= 20°. For β of = 45°
C3.3.
L with Theα Lift
was Coefficient
U-shaped. The lowest value of C L for β = 0° and 30° was observed at = 20°. For β = 45°
and 60°, it respectively corresponded to = 30° and 40°. For high values of α (= 60°80°), had a less
andsignificant
60°,
CL itwas respectively
calculated
effect on the corresponded
byamplitude
integrating to
of∆CCL=. 30° and 40°.for
(differential For
anhigh
pressure values
between of αupper
at(=lower
60°80°),
and had
lower a (
less30°)
ofsurface).
p Therefore, inclined array values
significant effect on the amplitude of C L. Therefore, for an inclined array at lower values of ( 30°)◦
The andvariation
β ( 45°),inthere CL withwereαlower and βvaluesis shown in CLin Figurewas
, which 10.critical
The value to the CL was
ofsafe design negative for β ≤ 75 .
of the system.
and β (
The lowest 45°),
Figurevaluethere were
for Cthe lower values in C L, which was
α= ◦ critical
and βFor to
= 45 the
◦ safe
. 30°, design of the system.
12 shows L was effectobserved
of β on C for
L for 30 0°80°.
α of Thistheis similar
value oftoCLthe results as
decreased of α
Figure L for α of 0°80°. For 30°, the value of CL decreased as α
Chou et al.12
increased (shows
[21] for an
20°). theinclined
For effect ofpanel,
= 75°105°, β on theCfor whichofL/W
value α had= 2.a less value of CLeffect.
The significant was relatively
This agrees small
withfor the
increased
β results
= 90◦ , and ( Chou
of 20°).
it was For =[21].
etpositive
al. 75°105°,
Theβ value
for the ◦value
≥ 105 of, which
CL forof represents
α
had
120° a less significant
a downward
decreased effect.
as force. Thiscritical
The
(= 40°80°) agrees withand
wind
increased, thethe
loads
resultstheofinclined
onopposite Chouwaset al. for
panels [21]. The
occurred valuefor of CL for
lower 120°
values of β;decreased
hence, theaseffect (= of40°80°)
α on Cincreased, and the
true =10°30°. L is only shown for
opposite
β = 0 –60 was true for =10°30°. L/W =For =value L with is
L for β ≤ 75
◦ ◦ in Figure of Cvariation ◦
The wind load11. onFor each an inclined
inclined panel,panel was for which
of interest. 2, the 30°, the in Cdecreased
The
linearly wind
with αload
(≤30 on
◦ ), each
followinginclined an panel
increase wasfor of
α =interest.
50 ◦ . At For
shown in Figure 13. For P1 (the left-most panel), the value of CL increased linearly as increased.
high = 30°,
values the
of α variation
(= 60 ◦ –80in◦ ), CCL with is
remained The
L
shown in Figure
variation
approximately 13.
in CLconstant ForP1
with for (the
for P2 left-most
α and
= 30P3◦ andwas panel),
◦ [21].
40similar theto value
Forthat of0◦CP1.
β offor increased
, L30 ◦ , 45◦ , and
However, linearly
60◦ , for
there was aincreased.
as which sudden =The
L/W increase
0.19,
variation
the in CL with
= 60°75°.
at variation CLwith
of For for P2
P5P9, and
α was P3 wasofsimilar
U-shaped.
the value Thetolowest
CL decreased that initially,
for P1. However,
value CL for βthere
offollowing ◦was
anda30
= 0increase.
an sudden
◦ was increase
The lowestobserved value
atatfor
= 60°75°.
α =C20 ◦ For P5P9,
. For βdecreased
L, which = 45 andfrom
◦ the value
◦
60 ,P5 of C L decreased initially, following an
to P9, was observed
it respectively corresponded for =to30°45°.
α = 30 For
◦ increase.
and 40 90°,
◦ The
. For lowest
thehighvariationvalue
valuesinofCL
for CL,60
α for
(= which
◦ –80◦ ),
P1P9 decreased
wasβ had from
lessa significant.
less P5 toThis
significant P9,effect
was observed
on the amplitude
demonstrates that the
for = 30°45°. For on
CL . Therefore,
ofwind loads 90°, thethe
for an variation
inclined
inclined in C
array
array L
at
were
for P1P9 was less
values of αat(≤30
unsymmetrical
lower significant.
lower ◦ This
(β60°).
) and demonstrates
◦ that the wind loads on
(≤45 ), there were lower values in CL , which was critical to the safe the inclined array were
unsymmetrical
design of the system. at lower ( 60°).
-1.4
-1.4 -1.2
0.8 -1.0
-1.2
0.8 0.6 -1.0 -0.8
-0.8 -0.6
0.6 0.4
-0.6 -0.4
0.4 0.2 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.0 -0.2 0.0
0.0 0.2
0.0 -0.2 0.4
CL
0.2
-0.2 -0.4 0.4 0.6
CL
0.6 0.8
-0.4 -0.6
0.8
-0.6 -0.8 180
160
-0.8 -1.0 180
140
160
120
-1.0 -1.2 140
100
-1.2 -1.4 120
80
100
-1.4 70
60 80 60
70 50 60 40
60 40
50 30 40 20
40 20 0
30 1020
20
10
0
Figure
Figure 10.10.Lift
Liftcoefficient.
coefficient.
Figure 10. Lift coefficient.
1.0
1.0
0.5 0
o
o
0.5 0 30o
o
30 45o
o
0.0 45 60o
0.0 o
CL
60
CL
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 0 20 40 60 80
0 20 40 60 80
, deg
, deg
Figure 11. Lift coefficient. β: 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ .
Figure 11. Lift coefficient. β: 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°.
Figure 11. Lift coefficient. β: 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°.
Figure 12 shows the effect of β on CL for α of 0◦ –80◦ . For β ≤ 30◦ , the value of CL decreased as α
increased (≥ 20◦ ). For β = 75◦ –105◦ , the value of α had a less significant effect. This agrees with the
results of Chou et al. [21]. The value of CL for β ≥ 120◦ decreased as α (= 40◦ –80◦ ) increased, and the
opposite was true for α =10◦ –30◦ .
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2466 9 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 6 of 11
1.0
o
10
o
0.5 20
o
30
o
40
0.0 o
50
CL
o
60
o
-0.5 70
o
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 80 6 of 11
-1.0
1.0
o
-1.5 10
o
0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 20
o
30
, deg 40
o
0.0 o
50
Lift coefficient. 0◦ –80◦ .
coefficient. αα:: 0°80°.
CL
o
-0.5 70
panel was of interest. For α = in CL with β is
◦ o
The wind load on each inclined 1.0 30 , the
80 variation
shown in Figure 13. For P1 (the-1.0 P1 panel), the value of C increased linearly as β increased.
left-most L
P2
The variation in CL with β for P2 0.5
and P3P3 was similar to that for P1. However, there was a sudden
increase at β = 60◦ –75◦ . For P5–P9, P4 of C decreased initially, following an increase. The lowest
-1.5the value L
0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
value for CL , which decreased from P5 to P9, was observed for β = 30◦ –45◦ . For β ≥ 90◦ , the variation
CL
in CL for P1–P9 was less significant. , degthat the wind loads on the inclined array were
This demonstrates
-0.5
unsymmetrical at lower β (≤60 ). ◦
Figure 12. Lift coefficient. α : 0°80°.
-1.0
1.0
P1
0.5 P5 P2
0.5 P6 P3
P7 P4
0.0 P8
0.0
P9
CL
CL
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
-1.5
-2.0 P5
0.5
0 20 P6 60
40 80 100 120 140 160 180
P7
0.0
P8 , deg
P9
13. Lift coefficient for P1P9 for = 30°.
Figure-0.5
CL
4. Conclusions -1.0
Wind loading on inclined solar -1.5 panels is a key factor in the proper functioning of the system
L/W = 2. For β of 0◦ –60◦ , the variation in CL with the angle of tilt was U-shaped. The formation of
a strong windward corner vortex induced a greater lift force on the right half of the inclined plate
for β = 30◦ –45◦ . Unsymmetrical wind loads on the inclined array at lower angles of incidence for the
wind (≤60◦ ) in the spanwise direction induced a greater bending moment. Wind loads on an inclined
array at lower angles of tilt and angles of incidence for the wind are a cause for concern in the design
of a system.
Nomenclature
CL lift coefficient
Cp pressure coefficient in the longitudinal direction, (p–p∞ )/q
Cp,low pressure coefficient on the lower surface
Cps pressure coefficient in the spanwise direction
Cp,up pressure coefficient on the upper surface
L length of tilted panel
p∞, freestream static pressure
q dynamic pressure
W width of tilted panel
x coordinate in the longitudinal direction
y coordinate in the spanwise direction
α angle of tilt
β wind incidence angle
∆Cp differential pressure, Cp,up − Cp,low
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