Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Integrated palynological, organic geochemical, and sequence stratigraphic T

analyses of the middle to upper Cenomanian hydrocarbon reservoir/source
Abu Roash “G” Member: A depositional model in northwestern Egypt
Amr S. Deafa,∗, Sameh S. Tahounb
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, 71516, Assiut, Egypt
b
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, 12613, Giza, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current investigation provides further insight into the petroliferous characteristics of the Abu Roash “G”
Palynology Member, which is regarded as an important rock unit for the Egyptian oil industry. Forty-seven samples covering
Palaeoenvironments the “G” Member were selected from the BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 wells in the Abu Gharadig Basin and from the Abu
Organic geochemistry Tunis 1X well in the Matruh Basin, both of which are located in the north Western Desert. An independent dating
Sequence stratigraphy
of the “G” rocks of BED 2-4 by benthic foraminifera and ostracods, in addition to palynological dating, suggests a
Hydrocarbon potential
middle-late Cenomanian age and provides the biochronostratigraphic framework for the sequence stratigraphic
Abu Roash “G”
North Western Desert analysis.
Egypt Analysis of the vertical distribution of particulate organic matter defines three palynofacies types (PF). PF-1
represents the basal “G”, where shales of the BED wells and calcareous shale of Abu Tunis 1X were deposited
during a relative sea level rise in an outer middle shelf environment that experienced a notable high primary
productivity. Prevailing reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions supported preservation of very high amounts of
amorphous organic matter (AOM) in PF-1. PF-2 is equated to shales of the middle “G” of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4
and to calcareous shales and limestone of the upper “G” in Abu Tunis 1X. PF-2 was deposited during a relative
sea level fall in an inner middle shelf setting under better-developed suboxic-anoxic conditions. PF-3 corresponds
to the upper “G” of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 and represents the shallowest setting, where sandy and silty shales
were deposited during a pronounced sea level fall in an inner shelf environment. The same suboxic-anoxic
conditions were prevailing during deposition of PF-3. Three bioevents were recorded, which could be of pa-
laeoecological and/or biostratigraphic significance. These are Senegalinium aenigmaticum-Dinopterygium cladoides
peak, Dinopterygium cladoides-Dinopterygium alatum peak, and an acme of Classopollis brasiliensis. Sequence
stratigraphy of a transect of the four studied sections was carried out to understand the response of the parti-
culate organic matter distribution and depositional system to the sea level changes. Three third-order, deposi-
tional genetic sequences were recognized and correlated with the global sea level curve (KCe 2, KCe 3, and KCe
4). The early highstand systems tract (eHST) of the genetically related KCe 3 in all wells is characterized by
relatively rich organic matter, where combined remarkably low water circulation and insignificant dilution of
organic matter with coarse terrigenous material probably supported good preservation of organic matter.
Spatial distribution of the “G” rocks shows lateral facies changes. This was inferred from sedimentation of an
organic-poor (avg. 0.8 TOC wt %), coarse clastic (sandy shales) facies in the studied area in Abu Gharadig Basin.
Sedimentation changes laterally into a northeast and northwest organic-rich, finer clastic (shale, calcareous
shales, and argillaceous limestone) facies in the western Matruh Basin. The robust anoxic conditions and very
low dilution of organic matter by terrigenous influx enhanced the organic richness (avg. 2.4 TOC wt %) of these
rocks, which resulted in the formation of promising hydrocarbon source rocks. Thus, for a successful hydro-
carbon exploration in the north Western Desert, the promising source section of the “G” Member would be
associated with shales, calcareous shales, and argillaceous limestone lithologies. Its depositional environment is
mainly confined to outer middle and inner middle shelf settings that have widespread suboxic-anoxic conditions
and show eHST pattern. In contrast, the regressive intervals that are denoted by the lowstand systems tract (LST)

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amr.daif@science.au.edu.eg, asdeaf75@yahoo.com (A.S. Deaf).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.11.005
Received 20 January 2017; Received in revised form 30 October 2017; Accepted 3 November 2017
Available online 21 November 2017
0264-8172/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
and/or the late HST (lHST) typify the relatively coarse clastics as good quality reservoir rocks that are char-
acterized by poor organic richness due to dilution with terrigenous influx.
1. Introduction
The current work presents a second study in a continuum of an earlier
one carried out by Tahoun and Deaf (2016) on the Abu Roash “G”
Member in order to understand its hydrocarbon potential. This member
extends widely in the north Western Desert of Egypt with a considerable
thickness of about 220 m and attains a maximum thickness of about
1000 m in the depocentre of the Abu Gharadig Basin (e.g. Khaled, 1999;
Maky and Saad, 2009). Its alternating coarse- and fine-clastic dominated
intervals show a dual importance as potential sources and/or reservoirs
in several oil fields in the north Western Desert. This made the Abu Roash
“G” one of the main targets of many national and international oil op-
erating companies. Recently, Tahoun and Deaf (2016) highlighted the
significant potential of the Abu Roash “G” Member as a source of hy-
drocarbons in the extreme northern part of the Western Desert. However,
a complete picture of the hydrocarbon potential of this member across
the north Western Desert is not clear yet. This raised an immense demand
to better understand its vertical and lateral lithologic variations for a
practical delimiting of the coarsening and fining trends and their asso-
ciated depositional trends of the sedimentary organic matter. Moreover,
the “G” Member exhibits an obvious diachroneity and has different de-
positional palaeoenvironmental settings across the north Western Desert.
This calls for a further assessment of its age and depositional setting in
different areas of northwestern Egypt.
Therefore, integrated palaeoenvironmental, organic geochemical,
and sequence stratigraphic analyses of the “G” Member were carried out.
In addition, results of work completed on equivalent sections of this
member in the north Western Desert were compiled and integrated with
our data to present a depositional model of the “G” Member and reveal
its hydrocarbon potential in this vast area of northwestern Egypt (Fig. 1).
2. Lithostratigraphy
The “G” rock unit represents the last member at the base of the Abu
Roash Formation (Norton, 1967) and extends widely in the north
Western Desert of Egypt (Hantar, 1990). Stratigraphically, the “G”
Member overlies conformably the Bahariya Formation and underlies
the “F” Member of the Abu Roash Formation. The “G” Member shows
subtle to notable vertical and lateral lithologic variations in different
basins of the north Western Desert. These changes parallel the shal-
lowing and deepening trends from an area to another. In the deep
settings, shale and limestone are the dominant lithologies (e.g. Nest-1A
and Abu Tunis 1X wells in the extreme northwest). In the shallower
settings in the south, shale, siltstone and fine sandstone are the domi-
nant lithologies (e.g. BED 2-4, BED 14-1 wells in the north Western
Desert). In BED 2-4 and BED 14-1, the “G” Member attains a thickness
of about 126 m and 120 m, respectively. This rock unit shows a dia-
chronism, where several palaeontological studies dated the “G” unit as
being of middle to late Cenomanian age in northern Egypt (e.g. Schrank
and Ibrahim, 1995; Ibrahim, 1996; El Beialy et al., 2010), while others
(e.g. Ibrahim et al., 2009) dated the member as being of late Cen-
omanian age. The recent palynological work of El Beialy et al. (2011),
Tahoun (2012), and Tahoun and Deaf (2016) assigned this member to
the late Cenomanian in the northern part of the Western Desert. In-
tegrated sedimentological and micropalaeontological analyses of the
member suggested shallow marine depositional settings (e.g. Dominick,
1985; Hantar, 1990; Kerdany and Cherif, 1990). On the other hand,
palynology suggested shallow to deep marine depositional settings for
the “G” Member in different areas of the north Western Desert (e.g.
Ibrahim, 1996; Ibrahim et al., 2009; El Beialy et al., 2010; Tahoun and
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Deaf, 2016; Mahmoud et al., 2017).
3. Materials and methods
Twenty-six cutting samples of the Abu Roash “G” Member were
palynologically investigated from BED 2-4 (15 samples, Lat. 29° 53′
20.40″ N; Long. 27° 43′ 10.35″ E) and BED 14-1 wells (11 samples, Lat.
29° 50′ 51.06″ N; Long. 27° 38′ 57.3″ E). Badr Petroleum Company
(BAPETCO) drilled these wells in the north Western Desert of Egypt
(Abu Gharadig Basin) in 1991 and 1988, respectively. Furthermore,
twenty-one samples of the same member were palynologically in-
vestigated from the Abu Tunis 1X well (8 samples, Lat. 31° 16′ 08″ N;
Long. 26° 50′ 41″ E) and from the Nest-1A well (13 samples, Lat. 31° 33′
18.22″ N; Long. 25° 47′ 21.73″ E) in the Matruh Basin. For additional
details on the last two wells, the readers are referred to Deaf (2009),
Deaf et al. (2014), and Tahoun and Deaf (2016). A standard HCl/HF
extracting technique was employed (Wood et al., 1996). The oxidation
step was avoided in order to keep the AOM intact for a detailed paly-
nofacies analysis. Two palynological slides were prepared for each
sample. The particulate organic matter and the palynomorphs were
examined qualitatively and quantitatively using an Olympus (BX41)
transmitted-light microscope (LM) equipped with an Infinity-1 digital
camera for microphotographing, at the Geology Department, Faculty of
Science, Assiut University. For a consistent approach in studying the
Abu Roash “G” Member, the same 500 particles of organic matter and
200 separate counts of palynomorphs (Tyson, 1995; Tahoun and Deaf,
2016) were employed for each sample. Slides of BED 2-4, BED 14-1, and
Abu Tunis wells are stored in the Geological Museum of the Geology
Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University.
An independently calibrated palynostratigraphic framework of BED
2-4 well was carried out using the vertical stratigraphic distributions of
the recovered palynomorphs next to the recorded foraminifera and
ostracodes assemblages (BAPETCO, 1991; M. Abdel-Kader, personal
communication, May 2016). The palynomorphs of stratigraphic and/or
palaeoenvironmental significance were photomicrographed.
For the current palynofacies analysis and subsequent palaeoenvir-
onmental interpretations, the classification of the palynofacies con-
stituents used by Tahoun and Deaf (2016) was applied, by following the
classifications of Whitaker (1984), Tyson (1993, 1995) and Pittet and
Gorin (1997) with some modifications. Five palynofacies parameters
(brown wood, black wood, terrestrial palynomorphs, marine palyno-
morphs, and AOM) were used. Abundance and species diversity of di-
noflagellate cysts (Simpson diversity index 1/DS) as well as cyst mor-
photypes (cavate, proximate, and skolochorate) were also used.
Palynomorphs and particulate organic matter were categorized as very
abundant (> 50%), abundant (36–50%), frequent (16–35%), common
(5–15%), and rare (< 5%). More details on these parameters can be
found in Tahoun and Deaf (2016). We followed Tyson (1984, 1995, p.
438–439) in quantifying the palynological and TOC percentage data in
terms of minimum, maximum, and average.
Organic petrography analyses of the particulate organic matter of
BED 2-4, BED 14-1, and Abu Tunis 1X wells were carried out using the
light microscope and the incident blue light fluorescence. For the UV
fluorescence of the BED wells, a 450–490 (560) nm excitation filter
(green light) with a 510 nm reflector (dichroic mirror) and a
520–529 nm long pass barrier filter at 200× magnification was carried
out at the Zewail City of Science and Technology, Egypt. The UV ana-
lysis of the Abu Tunis 1X organic matter was carried out using the same
light parameters and filters at the Faculty of Medicine, Assiut
University, Egypt.
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

When evaluating a potential hydrocarbon source rock, the Rock- samples from Abu Tunis 1X wells covering the Abu Roash “G” were
Eval pyrolysis is the routine technique used in determining type, selected for geochemical analysis. The pyrolysis of the BED 2-4 samples
amount, and thermal maturation of the organic matter (e.g. Peters, was carried out using the Rock-Eval 6 instrument and a Source-Rock
1986; Peters and Cassa, 1994). Six samples from BED 2-4 and eight Analyzer at StratoChem Services (SCS) in Cairo, Egypt. The pyrolysis of

Fig. 1. Location map showing direction of the cross-section, the studied wells and correlated wells (Map after Kerdany and Cherif, 1990) and the generalized geological cross-section
across the north Western Desert of Egypt (After Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999).

374
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

the Abu Tunis 1X samples was also carried out with the same instru- Whelan and Thompson-Rizer (1993). The oil saturation index (OSI) in
ment but at Core Lab Houston, Texas, USA. Different parameters ob- mg HC/g TOC of Jarvie (2012) was also used.
tained from the Rock-Eval analysis were calculated according to Visual analysis of the spore coloration with depth was carried out on

Fig. 2. Chart showing the lithostratigraphy of the stu-

died Abu Roash “G” section, position of the samples,
percentage vertical stratigraphic distributions of the
recorded palynomorphs in order of highest occurrences,
and independent biostratigraphic control from BED 2-4
well.

375
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
the long-ranging, smooth spore Deltoidospora at a depth interval of 10 m
in order to detect any notable change in the spore coloration according
to the thermal alteration index (TAI) of Pearson (1990). As a precau-
tionary procedure, a careful scan of the spore associations of each
sample was performed to detect any caving or reworking in the spore
population that could lead to an incorrect identification of the color of
the indigenous spores.
In the current sequence stratigraphic analysis, four main palyno-
facies parameters were used to recognize the maximum flooding sur-
faces (MFS), sequence boundaries (SB), and different systems tracts
according to Pittet and Gorin (1997), Bombardiere and Gorin (1998),
and Götz et al. (2008). These parameters are the following: index of
continental to marine palynomorphs (Cont/Mar), relative abundance of
dinoflagellate cysts, relative abundance of MFTLs, and ratio of opaque
to translucent phytoclasts (Op/Tr). The morphotypes and species di-
versity of the dinoflagellate cysts were not used in this analysis because
little is still known about their sequence stratigraphic indication. The
gamma ray logs and sedimentary facies data of the studied wells were
also integrated with the palynofacies data.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Biostratigraphic results and age dating of the “G” Member in BED 2-4
well
Assemblages of benthic foraminifera and ostracods were recovered
from the “G” Member by BAPETCO (1991; M. Abdel-Kader, personal
communication, May 2016) and were used in this study to provide an
independent age calibration to the proposed palynozonation. Moreover,
the productive samples yielded low to moderate palynomorphs of low
diversity and low to moderate abundances. However, they were still
suitable for the current age assessment and subsequent palaeoenvir-
onmental interpretations. Sporomorphs showed good to very good
preservation status in contrast to the dinoflagellate cysts, which showed
fair to good preservation. Occasional biodegradation of some dino-
flagellate cysts was recorded in most samples. The vertical stratigraphic
distribution of the recovered palynomorphs, arranged by their highest
occurrence (HO), is shown in Fig. 2.
Tahoun (2012) provided age dating of the “G” Member (late Cen-
omanian) in BED 14-1 using palynomorphs. For Nest-1A, the “G” unit
was dated by micropalaeontology and palynology as being of late
Cenomanian age (Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). Deaf et al. (2014) provided
a palynologically based late Cenomanian age for the “G” section in Abu
Tunis 1X.
4.1.1. Foraminifera and ostracods stratigraphy of the “G” Member in BED
2-4 well
Samples of the “G” Member of the Abu Roash Formation contain
few benthic foraminifera Thomasinella punica, Thomasinella fragmen-
tari, and Daxia cenomana (Fig. 2), which are diagnostic for the Cen-
omanian in Egypt and in different regions of the Tethyan Realm.
Thomasinella punica and Thomasinella fragmentari are widely accepted
to document the middle to late Cenomanian in northern Egypt in-
cluding the offshore Gulf of Suez and north and west central Sinai (e.g.
Shahin and Kora, 1991; El Ashwah and El Deeb, 2000; Orabi, 2000;
Ismail et al., 2009; Samuel et al., 2009; Shahin and Elbaz, 2013a).
Daxia cenomana ranges in Egypt from the lower Cenomanian and its
upper most occurrence is confined to the upper Cenomanian (e.g.
Shahin and Kora, 1991; Ismail et al., 2009; Samuel et al., 2009; Shahin
and Elbaz, 2013a, b). In the Tethyan Realm, Thomasinella punica and
Daxia cenomana were recorded, for example, from the middle-upper
Cenomanian of north Libya (e.g. Gohrbandt, 1966; Thusu and Van der
Eem, 1985), France (Bilotte, 1985; Schröder and Neumann, 1985),
Albania (Peza and Pirdeni, 1994), northern Spain (Gräfe, 2005), and
Portugal (Cabral et al., 2014). Thus, the co-occurrence of Daxia cen-
omana with Thomasinella punica and Thomasinella fragmentari in most
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
of the “G” Member up to its uppermost sample (M. Abdel-Kader,
personal communication, May 2016) confirms a middle to late Cen-
omanian age of the studied section.
Furthermore, the ostracods assemblage also contains taxa of
biostratigraphic significance (Fig. 2). Dolocytheridea atlasica was
documented to have an early to late Cenomanian range in Egypt
(Szczechura et al., 1991; Abd-Elshafy et al., 2002; Boukhary et al.,
2009; Shahin and Elbaz, 2013b). In Morocco and Algeria, Dolo-
cytheridea atlasica has a similar early to late Cenomanian range (e.g.
Bassoullet and Damotte, 1969; Vivière, 1985; Andreu, 2002) but in
Jordan it appears later in the middle Cenomanian and disappears in
the upper Cenomanian (e.g. Schulze et al., 2004; Morsi and Wendler,
2010). Veeniacythereis streblolophata is another early-late Cen-
omanian marker form in Egypt (Abd-Elshafy et al., 2002; Shahin and
Elbaz, 2013b) and was also recorded in the upper Cenomanian of
Tunisia (Bismuth et al., 1981). This suggests an early to late Cen-
omanian age for the “G” Member. However, the concurrent occur-
rence of Ovocytheridea reniformis and Cytherella ovata throughout
most of the investigated samples (Fig. 2) of the well-known middle
Cenomanian inception in Egypt and elsewhere, simply excludes an
early Cenomanian age and confirms a middle to late Cenomanian
age of the member. Ovocytheridea reniformis was recovered from
middle Cenomanian-Coniacian rocks of Egypt (Ismail and Soliman,
1997; Abd-Elshafy et al., 2002; Shahin and Elbaz, 2013a), from
middle Cenomanian-lower Turonian of Morocco (Andreu, 2002),
and from upper Cenomanian-upper Turonian of Nigeria (Gebhardt,
1999; Ehinola, 2010). Cytherella ovata was also recorded from the
middle Cenomanian-Coniacian of Egypt (Ismail and Soliman, 1997).
Based on the discussion provided above, a middle to late Cen-
omanian age is postulated for the Abu Roash “G” Member in BED 2-4
well (Fig. 2).
4.1.2. Palynozonation (PZ) and age assignment
Several palynostratigraphers in Egypt automatically assigned the
“G” Member to the late Cenomanian following composite logs provided
by the exploration companies and raised erratically the stratigraphic
range of the index sporomorphs (e.g. Afropollis kahramanensis) to the
late Cenomanian. Companies basically identify the “G” Member based
on the vertical change in the lithologic facies from the coarse clastics
(sandstone with occasional shale intercalations) of the Bahariya
Formation to the finer clastics and carbonates (shale and limestone) of
the Abu Roash Formation. A noticeable lateral facies change in the Abu
Roash Formation from north to south is detected. During the middle
Cenomanian marine regression, deep marine conditions in the extreme
north Western Desert graded southward into shallower basins (Hantar,
1990; Said, 1990). According to the current age dating, the “G” Member
was deposited in the Abu Gharadig Basin in shallow conditions during
the middle-late Cenomanian and, later, during late Cenomanian in the
northern basins when shallower conditions were developed. This re-
sulted in the Abu Roash “G” Member to be dichronous in the north
Western Desert.
The current independent age control provided a better precise age of
the “G” Member and showed that the lower part of the member could
be assigned to the middle Cenomanian. This, in turn, enabled us to
divide the “G” Member into indisputably middle and late Cenomanian
palynozones, which were questionable in the past because of the lack of
independent age calibrations. The palynozonation and age assessment
are based here on only age diagnostic sporomorphs, because the dino-
flagellate cysts are facies-controlled (Thusu et al., 1988; Deaf et al.,
2014) in the upper part of the “G” Member, thus their true HO data
cannot be detected. Dating was based on two important Cenomanian
biostratigraphic events, namely Afropollis kahramanensis HO and Clas-
sopollis brasiliensis HO data, which terminate in Egypt and in other re-
gions of the Albian-Cenomanian Elaterate Phytogeographic Province of
Herngreen et al. (1996) at the end of the middle and late Cenomanian,
respectively.
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

(caption on next page)

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A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

Plate 1. Each microphotographed taxon from BED 12-4 well is followed by the sample number/its corresponding depth, slide number, and the England finder coordinates. Scale
bar = 20 μm.

1, 2. Deltoidospora spp.; 5/2186 m, slide 2, England finder (E.F.): T35-1; 6/2180 m, slide 2, E.F.: Q40-2.
3. Cicatricosisporites sp.; 2/2210 m, slide 1, E.F.: S39-0.
4. Leptolepidites sp.; 9/2162 m, slide 1, E.F.: F30-2.
5. Crybelosporites pannuceus (Brenner) Srivastava, 1977; 8/2168 m, slide 2, E.F.: O27-1.
6, 9. Tricolporopollenites spp.; 9/2162 m, slide 2, E.F.: L48-1; 2/2210 m, slide 2, E.F.: F32-2.
7, 8. Dichastopollenites ghazalatensis Ibrahim, 1996; 5/2186 m, slide 1, E.F.: J48-4; 6/2180 m, slide 1, E.F.: Q34-3.
10. Retimonocolpites bueibensis Ibrahim, 2002; 9/2162 m, slide 2, E.F.: T39-4.
11. Rousea cf. brenneri Singh, 1983; 9/2162 m, slide 1, E.F.: T44-0.
12. Foveotricolpites gigantoreticulatus (Jardine and Magloire) Schrank, 1987; 7/2174 m, slide 1, E.F.: G42-0.
13. Ephedripites sp.; 2/2210 m, slide 2, E.F.: G35-1.
14, 15. Classopollis brasiliensis Herngreen, 1975; 3/2198 m, slide 2, E.F.: C36-0; 3/2198 m, slide 1, E.F.: M41-3.
16. Tricolpites sagax Norris, 1967; 9/2162 m, slide 2, E.F.: R38-3.
17. Tetracolpites sp.; 9/2162 m, slide 1, E.F.: N34-4.
18, 21. Afropollis kahramanensis Ibrahim and Schrank, 1995; 9/2162 m, slide 2, E.F. T46-2, E.F. P34-0.
19. Integritetradites foveollatus Ibrahim et al., 2009; 6/2180 m, slide 2, E.F. Q36-3.
20. Pediastrum sp.; 6/2180 m, slide 1, E.F.: O37-0.
22. Foveomonocolpites sp.; 2/2210 m, slide 2, E.F.: W33-0.

4.1.2.1. PZ-I: Classopollis brasiliensis-Integritetraradites foveolatus Interval
Zone.
Definition: From the HO of Classopollis brasiliensis and
Integritetraradites foveolatus to the HO of Afropollis kahramanensis.
Occurrence: From a depth 2138 to 2108 m, which corresponds to
samples 12–14 (Fig. 2).
Associated taxa: Crybelosporites pannuceus, Foveotricolpites gigan-
toreticulatus, Gnetaceaepollenites sp., and Tricolpites sagax. Dinoflagellate
cysts are extremely facies-controlled and represented here by
Subtilisphaera spp. and Odontochitina operculata only (Pls. 1 and 2).
Age discussion: The gymnosperm pollen Classopollis brasiliensis is
regarded as one of the important Cenomanian elements in the Albian-
Cenomanian Elaterate Phytogeographic Province, which has its up-
permost occurrence at the end of late Cenomanian. In Egypt, it was
reported to be of middle to late Cenomanian age (e.g. Ibrahim, 1996,
2002; El Beialy et al., 2010; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016) based on micro-
palaeontological dating. Similarly, Classopollis brasiliensis was docu-
mented from middle to upper Cenomanian strata in NE Libya using
foraminifera dating (Thusu and Van der Eem, 1985). In NE Nigeria,
Classopollis brasiliensis was also recorded from middle to upper Cen-
omanian strata that were dated using micropalaeontology (Lawal and
Moullade, 1986). However in NE Brazil, an earlier inception of the
species was documented from micropalaeontologically dated late Al-
bian-late Cenomanian rocks (Herngreen, 1973). In Cenomanian rocks in
Egypt that are dated by palynology and foraminifera, another potential
late Cenomanian taxon, Crybelosporites pannuceus, appeared. This spe-
cies was found to decline in the middle Cenomanian and to terminate in
the late Cenomanian (El Beialy et al., 2010; El Beialy et al., 2011; Deaf
et al., 2014; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). The same biostratigraphic event
was recorded in PZ-I and PZ-II. Integritetraradites foveolatus was first
described by Ibrahim et al. (2009) from the upper middle to upper
Cenomanian of Egypt and has a similar range in the “G” Member in the
BED 2-4 well. The presence of Afropollis kahramanensis in Sample 12,
which coincides with the well-known middle Cenomanian HO datum in
Egypt and elsewhere, excludes a middle Cenomanian age and suggests a
late Cenomanian age for the current zone.
Correlation: The current palynozone probably corresponds to the
upper part of Zone VI (middle?-late Cenomanian) of Schrank and Ibrahim
(1995), to the PZ4 (middle-late Cenomanian) of Deaf et al. (2014), to
Zones I and II (late Cenomanian) of Tahoun (2012), and possibly to the
entire “G” sequence in the Nest-1A well of Tahoun and Deaf (2016), north
Western Desert of Egypt. PZ-I is very similar to Zone II (late Cenomanian)
of Lawal and Moullade (1986) in the upper Benue Basin, NE Nigeria.
4.1.2.2. PZ-II: Afropollis kahramanensis-Tricolporopollenites spp. Interval
Zone.
Definition: From the HO of Afropollis kahramanensis and slightly
above the HO of Tricolporopollenites spp. to the end of the section.
Occurrence: From a depth 2216 to 2138 m, which corresponds to
samples 1–12 (Fig. 2).
Associated taxa: Crybelosporites pannuceus, Integritetraradites foveo-
latus, Foveotricolpites gigantoreticulatus, Gnetaceaepollenites sp., Tricolpites
sagax, Tricolpites vulgaris, Tetracolpites sp., and Dichastopollenites ghaza-
latensis. Few dinoflagellate cysts also occur in this zone. They are the
following: Dinopterygium cladoides, Dinopterygium alatum, Florentinia
mantellii, and Florentinia berran (Pls. 1 and 2).
Age discussion: Afropollis kahramanensis is a useful late Albian-
middle Cenomanian marker pollen grain and is known to terminate in
Egypt and West Africa by the end of the middle Cenomanian. In Egypt,
Afropollis kahramanensis was recorded from the foraminifera-dated
lower-middle Cenomanian (Schrank and Ibrahim, 1995; Ibrahim, 2002)
and from palynologically dated late Albian-middle Cenomanian rocks
(e.g. Tahoun, 2012; Deaf et al., 2014). In NE Nigeria, it was recorded by
Lawal and Moullade (1986) as Pollen Po-304 from the palynologically
dated Subzone Ia of late Albian-early Cenomanian age. It terminated in
their Subzone Ib of the middle Cenomanian age. Doyle et al. (1982) and
Deaf et al. (2014) pointed out that Afropollis jardinus terminated by the
end of the middle Cenomanian in West and North Africa. Analysis of the
stratigraphic range of Afropollis kahramanensis in Egypt indicates that
the last occurrence of Afropollis kahramanensis is consistent with that of
Afropollis jardinus (e.g. Schrank and Ibrahim, 1995; Ibrahim et al., 2009;
El Beialy et al., 2010; Tahoun, 2012; Deaf et al., 2014). Thus, the last
occurrence of Afropollis kahramanensis could be interpreted to indicate
the end of the middle Cenomanian in Egypt. Consequently, the upper
limit of the middle Cenomanian in BED 2-4 well could be delineated at
the HO datum of Afropollis kahramanensis in Sample 12 (depth of
2138 m). The index elaterates pollen grains that are known to have a
late Albian-early Cenomanian range in the Albian-Cenomanian Elate-
rate Phytogeographic Province (e.g. Jardine and Magloire, 1965;
Jardine, 1967; Herngreen, 1973; Herngreen and Jimenez, 1990;
Schrank and Ibrahim, 1995; Tahoun et al., 2012; Deaf et al., 2014)
terminate here. As a result, this rules out a late Albian-early Cen-
omanian age and, instead, confirms a middle Cenomanian age for the
current zone. Appearing in the middle part of the palynozone is Di-
chastopollenites ghazalatensis, which is also reported in Egypt from the
middle-upper Cenomanian (e.g. Ibrahim, 1996; El Beialy et al., 2010).
Consequently, it is suggested that the present zone is of middle Cen-
omanian age.
Correlation: Our PZ-II correlates to the lower part of Zone VI
(middle?-late Cenomanian) of Schrank and Ibrahim (1995) and PZ4
(middle-late Cenomanian) of Deaf et al. (2014), and to the upper part of
Zone III (latest early Cenomanian-middle Cenomanian) of Tahoun
(2012) in the north Western Desert of Egypt. The present zone greatly
resembles the Subzone Ib (middle Cenomanian) of Lawal and Moullade

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(caption on next page)

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Plate 2. Scale bar = 20 μm.

1. Subtilisphaera senegalensis Jain and Millepied, 1973; 6/2180 m, slide 2, E.F.: D35-0.
2. Senegalinium sp.; 2/2210 m, slide 2, E.F.: F32-2.
3. Cyclonephelium vannophorum Davey, 1969; 4/2192 m, slide 2, E.F.: U39-4.
4, 7. Dinopterygium cladoides Deflandre, 1935; 1/2216 m, slide 2, E.F.: W33-2; 3/2198 m, slide 1, E.F.: M26-2.
5. Leiosphaeridia sp.; 2/2210 m, slide 1, E.F.: H31-2.
6. Cribroperidinium sp.; 1/2216 m, slide 1, E.F.: H29-1.
8. Coronifera oceanica Cookson and Eisenak, 1958; 5/2186 m, slide 2, E.F.: O34-0.
9. Cleistosphaeridium sp.; 9/2162 m, slide 2, E.F.: S44-2.
10. Odontochitina operculata (Wetzel) Deflandre and Cookson, 1955; 13/2126 m, slide 1, E.F. U31-3.
11. Microforaminiferal test lining (uniserial type), 9/2162, slide 2, E.F.: S48-1.
12. Florentinia berran Below, 1982; 1/2216 m, slide 1, E.F.: S47-1.

(1986) in the upper Benue Basin, NE Nigeria. dinoflagellate cysts suggests an organic facies B, which corresponds to
kerogen type II according to Baskin (1997).
4.2. Palynofacies analysis and depositional environments of the “G” Palynofacies Association: PF-1A: AOM/dinoflagellate cysts-domi-
Member nated with minor terrestrial organic matter in the BED wells; and PF-1B:
AOM/dinoflagellate cysts-dominated with no terrestrial organic matter
Samples in all sections studied are largely dominated by AOM; thus, in Abu Tunis1X well (Figs. 3–5, Pl. 3, Fig. 1; Pl. 4, Fig. 1; Pl. 5, Fig. 1).
each palynofacies unit was recognized using significant vertical changes Proposed palaeoenvironment: Outer middle shelf.
in the percentage frequency of terrestrial and/or marine palynomorphs PF-1 is characterized by an abundant to very abundant dino-
and structured organic matter. The palaeoenvironmental interpretation flagellate cyst association. In PF-1A of BED 14-1, this association is
was based mainly on selected palynofacies parameters of known en- dominated (59–82% and avg. 71%) by the open marine (middle-outer
vironmental importance, which were integrated with sedimentological shelf) skolochorate cysts Dinopterygium cladoides, Dinopterygium alatum,
criteria according to Pittet and Gorin (1997), Bombardiere and Gorin and Cleistosphaeridium spp., along with minor occurrences of Florentinia
(2000), Deaf (2009), Tahoun and Deaf (2016), Mahmoud et al. (2017), spp. (Dale, 1983; Lister and Batten, 1988; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). The
and Tahoun et al. (2017). inner-middle shelf, proximate dinoflagellate cysts Cyclonephelium van-
nophorum (Harding, 1986; Brinkhuis, 1994) occur in subordinate
abundances (14–35% and avg. 24%). The inner shelf cavate cysts of
4.2.1. PF-1A (BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 wells) and PF-1B (Abu Tunis 1X
Subtilisphaera sp. (Harding, 1986; Lister and Batten, 1988) have minor
well)
occurrences (4–6% and avg. 5%) in PF-1A. Dominance of the open
Stratigraphic setting: This palynofacies represents the lower part
marine (middle-outer shelf) dinoflagellate cysts over the inner-middle
of the Abu Roash “G” Member (Figs. 3–5) in the three wells, where the
shelf forms, along with the high abundance and moderate diversity
BED wells share very similar palynological organic matter composition.
(Fig. 3), suggests an outer middle shelf depositional environment for
In the Abu Tunis 1X, the current palynofacies is similar to that recorded
PF-1A of BED 14-1 (e.g. Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). A low dominance and
in the BED wells, but it lacks any terrestrial organic matter. Thus, a sub-
a moderate species diversity were taken to characterize the deeper shelf
palynofacies (A) was designed for the BED wells, and a sub-palynofacies
settings of more normal marine conditions (Mutterlose and Harding,
(B) was designed for Abu Tunis 1X. PF-1A covers depths from 2272 to
1987; Steffen and Gorin, 1993a; Tyson, 1995). The high abundance of
2248 m (samples 1–3) in BED 14-1, and from 2216 to 2192 m (samples
the outer middle shelf Cleistosphaeridium spp. (Sluijs et al., 2005) in PF-
1–4) in BED 2-4. PF-1B covers depths from 1295 to 1265 m (samples
1A and the recent record of high abundance of the genus, along with
1–3) in Abu Tunis 1X.
Dinopterygium cladoides and Dinopterygium alatum from outer middle
Stratigraphic distribution: PF-1A is characterized by very abun-
shelf settings (Tahoun and Deaf, 2016), exclude an inner middle shelf
dant AOM in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 (93.4–99% and avg. 96%; 77–95%
and confirms an outer middle shelf setting for PF-1A. The occurrence of
and avg. 88% of total organic matter), respectively. The dinoflagellate
MFTLs generally indicates marine conditions (Lister and Batten, 1988;
cysts are abundant to very abundant (47–66% and avg. 59% of total
Stancliffe, 1989).
palynomorphs) in BED 14-1 and frequent to very abundant (30.5–81%
In PF-1A of BED 14-1, the moderate dominance of the sphaeroidal
and avg. 54% of total palynomorphs) in BED 2-4. In both wells, MFTLs
pollen (e.g. Araucariacites, Balmeiopsis, Inaperturopollenites, and
have similar rare to common frequencies (3–15.5% and avg. 9%;
Spheripollenites) grains (14–31.5% and avg. 21.6% of total palyno-
5–15%, and avg. 9% of total palynomorphs), whereas sporomorphs
morphs) over pteridophyte spores (4.5–30.5% and avg. 13.5% of total
show common to abundant frequencies (18.5–50% and avg. 35%;
palynomorphs) suggests a relatively far offshore, low-energy deposi-
5.5–45% and avg. 22% of total palynomorphs). Phytoclasts are rare to
tional setting (Tyson, 1989; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). The minor dom-
common (1.4–6.6% and avg. 4.2%; 5–23% and avg. 12% of total or-
inance of the small, lath-opaque particles over the brown woody par-
ganic matter), where the small lath-opaque particles comprise nearly
ticles (1–4% and avg. 2.5% vs 0.4–2.6% and avg. 1.7% of total organic
two-fold of the brown woods (1–4% and avg. 2.5% vs 0.4–2.6% and
matter) also confirms the suggested far offshore, low-energy deposi-
avg. 1.7% of total organic matter) in BED 14-1 and five-fold in BED 2-4
tional setting. Thus, this outer middle shelf setting was situated distal
(4–19% and avg. 10% vs 0.8–4% and avg. 2% of total organic matter).
enough laterally to be removed from active deltaic systems. Moreover,
In Abu Tunis 1X, PF-1B is composed entirely of very abundant AOM
the absence of freshwater algae from rocks of PF-1A also verifies the
(92–97% and avg. 94% of total organic matter) and dinoflagellate cysts
distant location of BED 14-1 away from the vigorous deltaic influences,
(60–87.5% and avg. 74% of total palynomorphs), common to abundant
as remarkable signals of freshwater algae are indicative of near shore,
MFTLs (12.5–40% and avg. 26.3% of total palynomorphs), and lacks
high-energy, deltaic and shallow marine settings (e.g. Tyson, 1995).
any terrestrial organic matter.
Nevertheless, the single peak (30.5% of total palynomorphs) of pter-
Kerogen type: In PF-1A of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, the extreme
idophyte spores in the basal “G” section (Sample 1) possibly points to a
dominance of the oil-prone materials (mainly AOM and dinoflagellate
temporal fluctuation in the depositional system, coupled with a strong
cysts), common to abundant sporomorphs, and rare to common oc-
terrestrial influx.
currences of gas-prone material (phytoclasts), suggest an organic facies
In PF-1A of BED 2-4, the association is dominated (34–66% and avg.
B-C, which corresponds to kerogen type II-III according to Baskin
50% of total palynomorphs) by Dinopterygium cladoides and Florentinia
(1997). In PF-1B of Abu Tunis 1X, the extreme abundance of AOM and

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Fig. 3. Vertical stratigraphic distributions of the significant palynofacies parameters, palynofacies types, suggested depositional environments, and hydrocarbon potential of the studied
Abu Roash “G” Member rocks of BED 14-1 well.

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Fig. 4. Vertical stratigraphic distributions

of the significant palynofacies parameters,
palynofacies types, suggested depositional
environments, and hydrocarbon potential
of the studied Abu Roash “G” Member
rocks of BED 2-4 well.

spp., and less commonly by other open marine (middle-outer shelf) (1.5–17.5% and avg. 8% of total palynomorphs). Yet in BED 2-4, the
cysts Spiniferites and Cleistosphaeridium (Marshall and Batten, 1988; open marine (middle shelf) dinoflagellate cyst Senegalinium sp.
Brinkhuis, 1994). Cyclonephelium shows common frequencies (Brinkhuis and Zachariasse, 1988; Slimani et al., 2010) appears and

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Fig. 5. Vertical stratigraphic distributions of the significant palynofacies parameters, palynofacies types, suggested depositional environments, and hydrocarbon potential of the studied
Abu Roash “G” Member rocks of Abu Tunis 1X.

383
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Plate 3. Palynofacies types of BED 14-1. Each microphotographed palynofacies type re-
corded from the Abu Roash “G” Member rocks is followed by the sample number/its
corresponding depth, and slide number. Scale bar = 100 μm. Dc = dinocyst,
AOM = amorphous organic matter, BLW = black wood, Bit = bitumen, Py = pyrite,
MFTL = microforaminiferal test lining, BRW = brown wood, Sp = spore.
1. Palynofacies PF-1A (AOM/Dinoflagellate cysts-dominated); 2/2260 m, slide 2.
2. Palynofacies PF-2A (AOM/MFTLs/Classopollis-dominated); 5/2224 m, slide 2.
3. Palynofacies PF-3 (AOM/Spores-dominated); 7/2200 m, slide 2.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Plate 4. Palynofacies types of BED 2-4.
1. Palynofacies PF-1A (AOM/Dinoflagellate cysts-dominated); 3/2198 m, slide 2.
2. Palynofacies PF-2A (AOM/MFTLs/Classopollis-dominated); 8/2168 m, slide 2.
3. Palynofacies PF-3 (AOM/Spores-dominated); 13/2126 m, slide 2.
accounts for about (6.6–25% and avg. 13% of total palynomorphs) of
the association. Relatively high abundance and dominance of the open
marine (middle-outer shelf) and the cavate middle shelf dinoflagellate
cysts that are accompanied with moderate species diversity suggest an
outer middle shelf setting for PF-1A in BED 2-4 (Fig. 4). The rare to
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Plate 5. Palynofacies types of Abu Tunis 1X. STOM = structured organic matter.
1. Palynofacies PF-1B (AOM/Dinoflagellate cysts-dominated); 3/2198 m, slide 2.
2. Palynofacies PF-2B (AOM/MFTLs-dominated); 8/2168 m, slide 2.
common occurrence of MFTLs that are mainly represented by the
benthic foraminifera Thomasinella punica, Thomasinella fragmentari, and
Daxia cenomana also confirms the suggested outer middle shelf setting.
In Egypt, these species were found to occur in the middle Cenomanian
shales of the inner shelf settings (depths 10–30 m) and to flourish in the
late Cenomanian marls of the inner middle shelf settings (depths
30–50 m). They disappear in settings deeper than 50 m (El Ashwah and
El Deeb, 2000; Gräfe, 2005; Shahin and Elbaz, 2013b). On the other
hand, the moderate frequency of Senegalinium points to eutrophication
conditions, which promoted an abundant dinoflagellate cyst assem-
blage with moderate species diversity (Brinkhuis and Zachariasse,
1988; Slimani et al., 2010). This eutrophication (peaked at samples 1
and 4) is related to the continuous terrigenous influxes that are mostly
intensified during short-lived, relative sea level falls as is recorded in
Sample 2. During these sea level fall periods, more nutrient-rich,
freshwater was brought to the deeper open marine shelf (Einsele, 1992;
Schulz and Zabel, 2006). These strong terrigenous influxes are also
exemplified in PF-1A by the presence of the acritarch Leiosphaeridia sp.
in siltstone and sandstone horizons (samples 2–4). Tahoun and
Mohamed (2013) found that this genus correlates well with coarse
clastics (sands) of regressive sedimentation cycles, which are associated
with temporal sea level falls. From an ecological viewpoint, Leio-
sphaeridia possibly characterizes nearshore marine settings of brackish
conditions (e.g. Colbath, 1980; Jacobson et al., 1982; Sha, 2007; Xi
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
et al., 2016). However, a restricted epicontinental, deep-water pre-
ference of Leiosphaeridia is not excluded (Ottone et al., 1999). The oc-
currence of the freshwater algae Pediastrum (Singh et al., 1981; Hutton,
1988; Zippi, 1998) also reinforces the suggested occasional shallower
setting of the lower salinity intervals.
In PF-1A of BED 2-4, the moderate pteridophyte spores and common
black wood also confirm occasional shallowing of the depositional
basin and point to the noticeable terrestrial influence on PF-1A sedi-
ments. High frequencies of black woody fragments were widely re-
corded from high-energy sands and silts of proximal settings, where
they are commonly subjected to oxidation (Williams, 1992; Tyson,
1995 and references therein). Similarly, the dominance of pteridophyte
spores (9.5–21.2% and avg. 22.5% of total palynomorphs), when
compared to the lower frequencies of sphaeroidal pollen grains
(0.5–2.5% and avg. 1.5% of total palynomorphs) in samples 1–3, in-
dicate relative proximity to nearshore settings (Tyson, 1989; Tahoun
and Deaf, 2016). This evident terrestrial influence suggests that the
locus of deposition of BED 2-4 was close to the mouth of submerged
distributary channels of a deltaic system during occasional periods of
low sea level. These distributary channels are known to transport ter-
restrial organic and inorganic matter during regressive marine phases
(Habib, 1982; Summerhayes, 1987; Tyson, 1995) and high river
flooding into the inner shelf and inner middle shelf settings at water
depths of 5–30 m (Einsele, 1992). As mentioned above, the rare to
common occurrence of benthic foraminifera in PF-1A of BED 2-4 sug-
gests an outer middle shelf setting of a depth over 50 m. Thus, during
intervals of low sea level, the sediment load of these channels, its ac-
companying organic matter, and essential nutrients must have reached
the middle shelf settings.
In PF-1B of Abu Tunis 1X, the dinoflagellate cyst association
(60–87% and avg. 74% of total palynomorphs) is remarkably over-
whelmed with Senegalinium (82–90% and avg. 86% of total palyno-
morphs) and shows low to moderate frequencies of Florentinia,
Spiniferites, Coronifera, Cleistosphaeridium, and Dinopterygium alatum
(Fig. 5). Based on the current palynofacies, the nature of this assem-
blage suggests an outer middle shelf environment. This interpretation is
also confirmed by the absence of the inner-middle shelf proximate cysts
Trichodinium castanea (e.g. Ibrahim et al., 2009) in the overlying shal-
lower palynofacies unit PF-2B. Ibrahim et al. (2009) recorded a Tri-
chodinium castanea bloom from clastic rocks of suggested inner-middle
shelf settings. Similarly, Deaf (2009) recorded good absolute abun-
dances (39–523 grains/gram and avg. 117 grains/gram) of Trichodinium
castanea from clastic rocks of a suggested inner shelf setting and lower
abundances (9–49 grains/gram and avg. 23 grains/gram) from a deeper
carbonate sequence of an outer shelf setting. The common to abundant
occurrences of MFTLs generally indicate open marine shelf conditions
of normal salinity. The striking absence of terrestrial organic matter
from PF-1B of Abu Tunis 1X indicates a carbonate-dominated deposi-
tional system that lacked any terrigenous influxes. This suggests that
the location of the Abu Tunis 1X well was probably at the depocentre of
the Matruh Basin during the middle-late Cenomanian. Thus, it was fully
inundated by the marine water and there were no exposed areas nearby
that would have provided detrital sediments to the depositional site of
Abu Tunis 1X. Here, the high dominance of the peridinioid dino-
flagellate Senegalinium in the calcareous shale of PF-1B in Abu Tunis 1X
suggests high eutrophication levels, which are most likely related to
nutrient upwelling (Crouch, 2001; Crouch et al., 2003) because PF-1B
almost lacks any noticeable terrigenous influx. The plot of PF-1A and
PF-1B from the studied samples in the SPM diagram of Tyson (1995)
also verifies general offshore marine settings (Fig. 6).
In shales from BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, the high accumulations of
AOM and the dominant occurrences of diagenetic sphaeroidal pyrite
particles into the autochthonous marine and allochthonous terrestrial
palynomorphs (Pl. 3, Fig. 1; Pl. 4, Fig. 1) point to distal offshore, middle
to outer shelf settings (Tyson, 1987; Einsele, 1992; Tahoun and Deaf,
2016). These distal settings are located far from strong terrestrial input
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Fig. 6. Microplanktons-Spores-Pollen (MSP) ternary plot demonstrating possible marine
depositional palaeoenvironments of the studied Abu Roash “G” Member (After Federova,
1977; Duringer and Doubinger, 1985). (A) MSP plot of BED 14-1 samples, (B) MSP plot of
BED 2-4 samples, (C) MSP plot of Abu Tunis 1X samples.
(Tyson, 1995; Tahoun et al., 2013; El-Soughier et al., 2014; Tahoun and
Deaf, 2016) where prominent suboxic-anoxic conditions prevailed
(Tyson, 1987; Einsele, 1992; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). However, during
occasional brief regressive intervals, as those represented by samples 2
and 3, less reducing (suboxic) conditions were prominent and had a
negative impact on the preservation of high AOM frequencies.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Lithologically, deposition of shale sediments of PF-1A indicates a rela-
tively tranquil regime (e.g. Boggs, 2006) whereby circulation of the
oxygen-rich surface seawater with the oxygen-depleted bottom sea-
water was inconspicuous (Einsele, 1992). Consequently, this tranquil
setting is believed to have sustained the reducing (suboxic-anoxic)
conditions and promoted the preservation of large quantities of AOM in
PF-1A sediments. Furthermore, traces of glauconite in the argillaceous
sandstone horizons and in the shale units of PF-1A also confirm the
development of a calm marine depositional environment of low sedi-
mentation rate (Einsele, 1992; Dooley, 2006). In BED 2-4, these redu-
cing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions are verified by the occurrence of the
benthic foraminifera Thomasinella punica and Thomasinella fragmentari.
These benthic foraminifera are known as good, low-oxygen (anoxic)
tolerant forms in organic-rich, grey to black siltstone and black shale
sediments (Koutsoukos et al., 1990; Gebhardt, 1997). The occurrence of
organic deposit-feeders, such as the platycopids ostracode species Cy-
therella ovata and Dolocytheridea atlasica in sediments of PF-1A of BED
2-4 also indicates oxygen-depleted (anoxic) conditions of the water
column (e.g. Brandão and Horne, 2009; Horne et al., 2011). In PF-1B of
Abu Tunis 1X, preservation of very high accumulations of AOM and the
common occurrence of sphaeroidal pyrite aggregates into cysts of the
dinoflagellate also signify prevailing suboxic-anoxic conditions. Plot-
ting of PF-1A and PF-1B of the studied wells in the kerogen diagram of
Tyson (1995) also indicates distal setting of major reducing (suboxic-
anoxic) conditions (Fig. 7).
The presence of abundant to very abundant dinoflagellate cysts in
PF-1A and PF-1B of the investigated wells indicates a relative high sea
level condition with a dominant high primary productivity (Tyson,
1993; AL-Ameri et al., 1999).
4.2.2. PF-2A (BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 wells) and PF-2B (Abu Tunis 1X
well)
Stratigraphic setting: PF-2A is recovered from the middle part of
the “G” Member in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 at depths from 2247.9 to
2212 m (just above Sample 3 to Sample 6) and at depths from 2191.9 to
2144 m (just above Sample 4 to Samples 11), respectively. In Abu Tunis
1X, PF-2B represents the upper “G” Member and is recovered from a
depth 1264.9 to 1189 m (just above Samples 3 to Samples 8).
Stratigraphic distribution: PF-2A is distinguished from the un-
derlying PF-1A by showing noticeable decreases in abundance of di-
noflagellate cysts by 35.5% and 42% in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, re-
spectively. On the other hand, increases in abundances of MFTLs,
pteridophyte spores, and Classopollis pollen grains are recorded. Slight
increases in the sphaeroidal pollen grains by 13% and 11.5% in BED 14-
1 and BED 2-4, respectively, and in the cavate dinoflagellate cysts by
12% in BED 14-1 also occur. PF-2A of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 is
dominated by very abundant AOM (87–90.4% and avg. 89%; 83–98%
and avg. 91.5% of total organic matter). The dinoflagellate cysts show
higher abundances in BED 14-1 in comparison to those depicted in BED
2-4, where frequent to very abundant (21–63% and avg. 23.5% of total
palynomorphs) and rare to very abundant (4–55.5% and avg. 12% of
total palynomorphs) frequencies were recorded, respectively. This was
accompanied with common to frequent MFTLs (17–25% and avg. 20%;
10.5–72.5 and avg. 29% of total palynomorphs) and common to very
abundant sporomorphs (46–62% and avg. 55.5%; 13–60.5% and avg.
32% of total palynomorphs). Phytoclasts show almost common fre-
quencies in BED 14-1 (9.6–13.4% and avg. 11% of total organic matter)
and BED 2-4 (2–18% and avg. 10% of total organic matter). The small
lath-opaque particles (3.6–5% and avg. 4.3%; 1–9 and avg. 4.2% of
total organic matter) and the brown woody fragments (6–8.4% and avg.
7%; 0.8–10.3% and avg. 4.4% of total organic matter) show nearly
equal frequencies in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4. In PF-2B of Abu Tunis 1X,
AOM still very abundant (93–97% and avg. 96% of total organic
matter). However, frequencies of MFTLs and dinoflagellate cysts show
an inverse picture to that recorded in PF-1B, where MFTLs are very
abundant (70.5–92.5% and avg. 83% of total palynomorphs) and the
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

Fig. 7. Phytoclasts-AOM-Palynomorphs (APP) ternary showing plot

of different palynofacies types and redoxic conditions for the studied
Abu Roash “G” Member (After Tyson, 1995). (A) APP plot of BED 14-1
samples, (B) APP plot of BED 2-4 samples, (C) APP plot of Abu Tunis
1X samples.

387
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
dinoflagellate cysts are only common to frequent (5.5–29.5% and avg.
16% of total palynomorphs).
Kerogen type: In PF-2A of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, the dominance of
AOM, abundance of marine palynomorphs, rare to frequent of spor-
omorphs occurrences, and the common phytoclasts percentages, all
suggest an organic facies B-C, which corresponds to kerogen type II to
III. Thus, an organic facies B (i.e. kerogen type II) is postulated for PF-
2B of Abu Tunis 1X based on the dominance of AOM and MFTLs.
Palynofacies Association: PF-2A: AOM/MFTLs/Classopollis-domi-
nated in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4; and PF-2B: AOM/MFTLs-dominated in
Abu Tunis 1X (Figs. 3–5, Pl. 3, Fig. 2; Pl., 4, Fig. 2; Pl. 5, Fig. 2).
Proposed palaeoenvironment: Inner middle shelf.
In PF2A of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, the overall decline in abundances
of the dinoflagellate cysts along with minor increases in the terrestrial
organic matter (pteridophyte spores, brown and black woods) indicate
a slightly shallower depositional setting of PF-2A in comparison to that
suggested for PF-1A (e.g. Lister and Batten, 1988; Tahoun and Deaf,
2016). The decrease in the abundance of the dinoflagellate cysts itself is
indicative of shallowing conditions (e.g. Davey, 1970; Tyson, 1993;
Tahoun and Deaf, 2016) and is reflected on the composition of the
dinoflagellate cysts association. PF-2A of BED 14-1 witnesses moderate
increases in the percentages (14–19% and avg. 17% of total palyno-
morphs) of the inner shelf cavate cysts Subtilisphaera and Odontochitina
(Lister and Batten, 1988; Wilpshaar and Leereveld, 1994). This is ac-
companied in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 with minor decreases in the same
proximate (5–24% and avg. 15%, 3.5–43% and avg. 16% of total pa-
lynomorphs) and skolochorate (62–76% and avg. 68%, 43–79.4% and
avg. 44% of total palynomorphs) cysts reported in PF-1A. Tahoun and
Deaf (2016) also recorded a similar trend in the dinoflagellate cysts
morphotypes from a shallower clastic sequence in the north Western
Desert of Egypt. Thus, deposition of the major shale units intercalated
with minor sandstone horizons similar to those described from PF-1A,
along with the persistent dominance of the skolochorate cysts over
proximate and cavate cysts but in slightly lower frequencies, point to a
setting that is relatively shallower than the outer middle shelf and
deeper than the inner shelf setting. This is because the inner shelf en-
vironments are characterized mostly by coarse clastics, dominance of
cavate cysts, and very low frequencies of skolochorate cysts (e.g.
Prauss, 1989; Tyson, 1993). Consequently, an inner middle shelf setting
is suggested for PF-2A of both wells. However, in PF-2A of BED 2-4,
fluctuations in the depositional system could be seen, where occasional
short-lived shallowing periods are reflected in the deposition of sandy
facies and the occurrence of acritarchs and freshwater algae. At the
sandy facies of Sample 7, a possible reworking of older palynomorphs
from the underlying Sample 6 is suggested to have taken place, where
the few recovered dinoflagellate cysts consist exclusively of open
marine (middle shelf) skolochorate forms with no traces of any cavate
and/or proximate cysts. This can be verified by the fairly poor pre-
servation status of the dinoflagellate cysts and the high abundance of
Classopollis, criteria used by Tyson (1984) to refer to re-deposition. The
non-fluorescence character of the organic matter and fluorescence of
some of the dinoflagellate cysts confirm the optically observed poor
preservation status. The presence of glauconite, known to be formed in
marine sedimentary systems characterized by very low sedimentation
rate to nearly non-deposition (Einsele, 1992; Dooley, 2006), provides
strong evidence to the suggested non-deposition and the deposition of
Sample 7 sediments at a later stage. These sediments were sourced from
older sediments when deeper marine sedimentation started to dom-
inate.
Peaking of MFTLs (25% of total palynomorphs) at the middle sec-
tion of PF-2A in BED 14-1 and their upward decrease that corresponds
to the shallowing upward sequence strongly suggests that these MFTLs
are derived mainly from benthic foraminifera (Tyson, 1995). In the
same basin and at about 10 km from where BED 2-4 is located, a similar
but magnified acme (72.5% of total palynomorphs) of the evident
benthic MFTLs of PF-2A occurs. Consequently, this trend also points to
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
the inner middle shelf setting of PF-2A in both wells. This is based on
the high abundances of benthic foraminifera, which flourish in the
inner middle shelf and decrease in both landward and basinward di-
rections. The general increase of Classopollis and other sphaeroidal
pollen grains also indicates a distal marine setting, deeper than the
inner shelf. The sphaeroidal pollen grains were found to occur in very
low frequency in proximal (inner shelf) settings and to increase in a
shelfal direction with decreasing grain size of clastic sediments (Hughes
and Moody-Stuart, 1967; Tyson, 1984). Further discussion on the acme
of Classopollis grains will be discussed in a section below. In BED 2-4,
the presence of Classopollis and the sphaeroidal pollen in frequencies
lower than those reported form BED 14-1 may be attributed to the di-
lution of allochthonous organic matter including Classopollis and other
sphaeroidal pollen grains by MFTLs.
The persistent occurrence of very abundant AOM and the occasional
presence of pyrite in some palynomorphs of PF-2A of both wells in-
dicate a distal offshore setting, where prevailing, favourable reducing
(suboxic-anoxic) conditions maintained preservation of high amounts
of AOM in the current palynofacies units. In BED 2-4, the continuous
occurrence of some benthic forams and ostracode also reinforces the
suggested reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions. These conditions are
also inferred by Tyson's (1995) kerogen diagram.
In PF-2B of Abu Tunis 1X, a shallower open marine setting is de-
duced based on the marked decrease by 58% in the abundance of di-
noflagellate cysts, the minor appearance of terrestrial organic matter
(pteridophyte spores) and proximate dinoflagellate cysts, and the slight
decline by 11% in the outer middle shelf dinoflagellate cyst
Senegalinium. The continued occurrence of the skolochorate forms
generally confirms the development of open marine conditions. The
minor occurrences to nearly complete absence of terrestrial organic
matter in PF-2B clearly excludes the inner shelf setting, which is known
to be affected by strong terrestrial influence and, hence, is dominated
by sedimentation of terrestrial organic matter. Thus, an inner middle
shelf setting is suggested for PF-2B. The higher frequencies
(70.5–92.5% and avg. 83% of total palynomorphs) of MFTLs in PF-2B in
comparison to those (12.5–40% and avg. 26.3% of total palynomorphs)
recorded in PF-1B probably point to the occurrence of mainly benthic
forams and indicate a shallower open marine setting than that proposed
for PF-1B. The very abundant AOM and the concomitant frequent pyrite
in most of the palynomorphs confirm the dominance of the reducing
(suboxic-anoxic) conditions. The kerogen diagram also reinforces these
suggested reducing conditions.
4.2.3. PF-3 (BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 wells)
Stratigraphic setting: This is the last palynofacies unit and it is
described from the uppermost part of the “G” Member. Its lower
boundary in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 is defined just above Sample 6
(depth 2211.9 m) and just above Sample 11 (depth 2143.9 m), re-
spectively. The upper boundary in both wells is delineated at Sample 11
(depth 2152) and Sample 15 (depth 2090 m), respectively.
Stratigraphic distribution: In BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, this paly-
nofacies is dominated respectively by very abundant AOM (79–98%
and avg. 90%; 77.5–98% and avg. 84% of total organic matter) and
sporomorphs (49–85% and avg. 72.5%; 58.5–86.5% and avg. 71% of
total palynomorphs). Rare to frequent dinoflagellate cysts (2–17% and
avg. 8.5%; 5–12% and avg. 8.5% of total palynomorphs) and MFTLs
(4–18% and avg. 8.6%; 4–23% and avg. 15.3% of total palynomorphs)
occur in PF-3 of the two wells, respectively. Phytoclasts are also rare to
frequent (2–21% and avg. 10.3%; 2–22.5% and avg. 16% of total or-
ganic matter), where the brown woody particles show relatively higher
percentages than the small, lath-opaque particles.
Kerogen type: The high dominance of AOM and spores, along with
the minor occurrence of the phytoclasts, suggest an organic facies B-C
of Baskin (1997), which possesses a kerogen type II to III composition.
Palynofacies Association: AOM/spores-dominated (Figs. 3 and 4,
Pl. 3, Fig. 3; Pl., 4, Fig. 3).
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

Fig. 8. Chart showing percentage vertical stratigraphic distributions of the recorded palynomorphs in order of highest occurrences from BED 14-1 well (After Tahoun, 2012).

389
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Proposed palaeoenvironment: Inner shelf.
The very high abundances of the sporomorphs (mainly pteridophyte
spores), the decline in the marine palynomorphs by 15% and 16%, and
the sphaeroidal pollen grains (including Classopollis) by 12% and 14.5%
in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, respectively, indicate a strong regressive
phase (Batten, 1999; Mahmoud and Deaf, 2007; Götz et al., 2008; Alaug
et al., 2014). As a result, a very shallow marine (inner shelf) setting
close to a fluvio-deltiac system was developed during deposition of the
current palynofacies (Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1999; Mahmoud and Deaf,
2007; Götz et al., 2008; Alaug et al., 2014). The upward increase in the
cavate dinoflagellate cysts in PF-3 also indicates a setting shallower
than that described for the underlying PF-2A. The abundance of cavate
cysts is taken to indicate low salinity, near shore to shallow marine
settings (Lister and Batten, 1988; Tyson, 1995; El-Soughier et al., 2014).
The occurrence of the freshwater algae in PF-3 of both wells also con-
firms a very proximal setting of brackish water conditions (Hutton,
1988; Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1999). This shallow, near shore setting is
also confirmed by the general increase in the abundance of the phyto-
clasts (Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1999; Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al.,
2013; Alaug et al., 2014). Moreover, the brown woody particles in both
wells show slightly higher frequencies than the lath-shaped, black
woody particles. This, in turn, suggests that oxidation of fresh woody
particles was not significant during deposition of PF-3 and confirms the
proximal setting of the present palynofacies.
The lower parts of PF-3 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 probably represent
the slightly deeper part of the inner shelf environment, where marine
phytoplanktons are mainly composed of cavate and skolochorate di-
noflagellate cysts. In BED 14-1, the proximate cysts also represent an
important fraction of the dinoflagellate association. On the other hand,
the upper part of PF-3 in BED 14-1 (just above Sample 10 to Sample 11)
and in BED 2-4 (just above Sample 14 to Sample 15) represents the
shallowest, inner part of the inner shelf, because of the lack of any
marine palynomorphs (e.g. Tahoun et al., 2013). More interestingly in
BED 2-4, the absence of any terrestrial palynomorphs from the last
sample (with the exception of phytoclasts) may be attributed to a
combined effect of winnowing and oxidation of the palynomorphs. This
was the result of the interaction between a severe regression and the
uplift that occurred during the latest Cenomanian. A fault is indicated
in the well log of BED 2-4 (BAPETCO, 1991), where most of the younger
“B to E” members of the Abu Roash are missing and the “A” Member
overrides the “G” Member. Moreover, the effect of the anaerobic de-
gradation of the palynomorphs that survived the harsh conditions (i.e.
winnowing and oxidation) cannot be ruled out. At the same time, it may
provide a plausible explanation of the high abundance of AOM in the
last sample since palynomorphs are known to be less resistant to bio-
degradation than lignin-rich phytoclast particles (Tyson, 1995;
Bombardiere and Gorin, 2000). In the same context, the negligible
occurrence of brown and black woody particles is most likely associated
with the dilution effect of the very abundant AOM particles (Tyson,
1993, 1995).
The high dominance of AOM in PF-3 of the studied wells suggests a
prevalence of reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions. However, the fairly
reduced frequencies of AOM by ∼11% and ∼7.7% at the middle part of
the palynofacies in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, respectively, point to a ra-
ther energetic regime. Thus, some of the accumulated AOM was sub-
jected to less reducing conditions and as a result, an important fraction
of AOM was eliminated (Batten, 1981; Tyson, 1987, 1995). An unusual
phenomenon appears in BED 14-1, where percentages of Classopollis
increase upward with increasing sediment grain size and decreasing
water depth. This can be explained by the occurrence of a possible weak
turbulent regime during deposition of the sandy facies, which resulted
in re-deposition of palynomorphs and in concentration of Classopollis
grains in sediments of PF-3 (Summerhayes, 1987; Tyson, 1995). The
interpretation of this reworking and re-deposition is further reinforced
by the very poor preservation of palynomorphs and the presence of free
glauconite in sediments of the present palynofacies.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
4.3. Palaeoecological significance of some palynomorphs
4.3.1. Senegalinium aenigmaticum-Dinopterygium cladoides peak
Based on the current study, it seems that Senegalinium aenigmaticum
and Dinopterygium cladoides can tolerate fluctuations in water salinity. A
peak of both Senegalinium aenigmaticum (23–50% and avg. 36 of total
palynomorphs) and Dinopterygium cladoides (25–42% and avg. 29% of
total palynomorphs) occurs in the low salinity conditions of PF-1A of
BED 2-4. This palynofacies is characterized by the occurrence of the
possible low-salinity acritarch Leiosphaeridia (16–44% and avg. 26% of
total palynomorphs) and the freshwater algae Pediastrum (Fig. 2). An
the same time, Senegalinium aenigmaticum shows a bloom (66–90% and
avg. 86% of total palynomorphs) in the normal marine conditions of PF-
1B and PF-2B of Abu Tunis 1X well (Fig. 5). Similarly, Dinopterygium
cladoides exhibits a peak (13–20% and avg. 16% of total palynomorphs)
adjacent to Dinopterygium alatum (11–15% and avg. 12% of total pa-
lynomorphs) in PF-1A of BED 14-1 of the normal water salinity (Fig. 8).
This contradicts the assertion of Brinkhuis (1994) and Sluijs et al.
(2005) that Dinopterygium cladoides (as one of the allied species of He-
teraulacacysta, Polysphaeridium, and others of the Homotryblium com-
plex) is characteristic of increased salinity conditions.
4.3.2. Dinopterygium cladoides-Dinopterygium alatum peak
The concurrent peak of Dinopterygium alatum and Dinopterygium
cladoides in PF-1A of BED 14-1 (Fig. 8) could be of palaeoecological
importance. The peak of these forms is suggested to characterize outer
middle shelf environments as is shown from the outer middle shelf
settings of BED 14-1 and from a previously identified outer middle shelf
setting of Nest-1A well at the extreme north Western Desert of Egypt
(Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). A similar high abundance of Dinopterygium
cladoides was also recorded from an association denoted by Goodman
(1979) as “Cyst Community C”, which is characterized by open marine
(middle shelf) forms, including the very abundant genus Areoligera
(Brinkhuis, 1994; Sluijs et al., 2005). Moreover, this peak could be of
biostratigraphic significance in Egypt, where it appears from the middle
to the upper Cenomanian and diminishes in the uppermost Cenomanian
of BED 14-1 and Nest-1A wells. Further investigations of the biostrati-
graphic indication of these forms in other interbasinal areas in the north
Western Desert of Egypt are necessary.
4.3.3. Acme of Classopollis brasiliensis
The acme of Classopollis brasiliensis in the BED wells (Figs. 3 and 4) is
suggested to possess both palaeoenvironmental and biostratigraphic
importance to the regional Egyptian subsurface stratigraphy and the
hydrocarbon exploration in the north Western Desert. High abundances
of Classopollis brasiliensis of 38.5% and up to 42.5% of total palyno-
morphs were recorded from the inner middle shelf settings and were
found to diminish in the outer middle shelf and the inner shelf settings
of BED 2-4 and BED 14-1, respectively. Similarly, at the extreme north
Western Desert, moderate abundances of Classopollis brasiliensis and
other sphaeroidal pollen grains (mainly Aruacaricaites and In-
aperturopollenites) were documented to increase from the outer middle
shelf from 44% to 57% (of total palynomorphs) in the inner middle
shelf of the Nest-1A well (Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). This confirms the
general observation of Tyson (1995) that Classopollis and other
sphaeroidal pollen grains increase in a basinward direction and de-
crease in more distal and proximal marine settings. Moreover, Tyson
(1984) recorded a similar trend of increasing Classopollis frequency in
the black shales (46% of total palynomorphs) and decreasing in the
deeper graded claystone (12%) and in the shallower turbiditic marly
limestone (17%). He assumed that the distribution of Classopollis is not
largely controlled by lithology.
In order to assess these assertions, a careful review of the Egyptian
and other related international palynological work was carried out. This
revealed that this acme was also recorded from the “G” Member in
different basins of the north Western Desert of Egypt. To the northeast
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of Abu Gharadig Basin, in the Ghazalat Basin, an acme of Classopollis
brasiliensis (11 to > 30% of total palynomorphs) was recorded from
two calcareous shale core samples of the “G” Member of the middle-late
Cenomanian age in Ghazalat-1 well (Ibrahim, 1996). An acme was also
recorded in the eastern part of the Abu Gharadig Basin based on a
detailed distribution of the species in 10 cuttings samples that consisted
of dark-grey calcareous mudstone to pale-grey shale of the middle-
upper Cenomanian “G” Member in the GPTSW-7 well (El Beialy et al.,
2010). At the base, the distribution is abundant (5–9% of total paly-
nomorphs), changing upward into very abundant (grains > 20% of
total palynomorphs), and ending at the top into common to rare. This
trend bears a striking similarity to the documented distribution of
Classopollis brasiliensis in the middle-upper Cenomanian “G” Member of
BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 described in this study. The distributions show a
rare to common frequency (avg. 11% and avg. 4% of total palyno-
morphs) at the base, an increase in the middle section to frequent (avg.
18% and avg. 16% of total palynomorphs), followed by an upward
decrease to rare frequencies (avg. 5% and 1.3% of total palynomorphs),
respectively. In some areas of the Albian-Cenomanian Phytogeographic
Province of Herngreen et al. (1996), Classopollis brasiliensis showed si-
milar high abundances. For example, in east Nigeria it had a high fre-
quency (> 30% of total palynomorphs) in a dark-grey to black shale
section of late Cenomanian age (Lawal, 1991). In NE Brazil, an acme
(74.3% of total palynomorphs) of Classopollis brasiliensis (as Classo-
pollis > 30 mμ) was also recorded from a middle Cenomanian calcar-
eous mudstone unit (Herngreen, 1973). Several recent palynological
studies showed a similar middle-late Cenomanian range of the Classo-
pollis species; however, they were excluded in this study because they
either lacked independent age dating (e.g. Ricard et al., 2014), and/or
did not provide quantitative distributions of palynomorphs.
Based on the above discussion, it is clear that the well-dated, short
total range (middle-late Cenomanian) of Classopollis brasiliensis makes
the species one of the important middle-late Cenomanian index fossils
in the Albian-Cenomanian Phytogeographic Province, including Egypt.
However, the acme of the aforementioned species could be of a great
regional biostratigraphic potential, as it characterizes the middle
Cenomanian time in Egypt. This acme could be used to correlate and
identify equivalent sections of the source/reservoir “G” Member rocks
in newly studied exploration areas in the north Western Desert of Egypt.
Moreover, this acme could become a powerful tool in palaeoceano-
graphic studies, as it identifies the inner middle shelf settings that are
known to be rich in organic matter. Despite the fact the current
Classopollis species was recovered regionally and intercontinentally
from mostly calcareous grey to black shale units, it is suggested that its
range is controlled by ecological/climatic factors rather than lithology.
Because in most of the reviewed sections, the same lithology continues
upward and show no traces of the species, and this consequently veri-
fies the implication made by Tyson (1984).
4.4. Hydrocarbon potential of the Abu Roash “G” Member in BED 2-4 and
Abu Tunis 1X wells
The conventional Rock-Eval analysis (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Peters
and Cassa, 1994) was used to assess the hydrocarbon potential of the
member (Table 1). Organic petrography analyses of particulate organic
matter were carried out to confirm the pyrolysis-estimated data (i.e.
kerogen type and its maturation level) as was suggested by Peters and
Cassa (1994) and Tyson (1995).
4.4.1. Source rock potential
The organic richness parameters TOC and S2 indicate a fair source
rock potential of the whole sedimentary sequences in BED 2-4 (TOC:
0.57–0.78 wt % and avg. 0.69 wt %; S2: 0.55–0.87, and avg. 0.68 mg
HC/g rock) and Abu Tunis 1X (0.58–1.11 wt % and avg. 0.89 wt %; S2:
2.1–2.6 and avg. 2.3 mg HC/g rock) according to Baskin (1997). The
plot of S2 versus TOC values also points to the fair source rock potential
of the studied rocks (Fig. 9, Table 2).
4.4.2. Kerogen type
Plot of the “G” Member HI versus OI data in the modified diagram of
Van Krevelen (1961) indicates a kerogen type III in the shales of BED 2-
4 and a kerogen type III-II in the calcareous shales and limestone of Abu
Tunis 1X (Fig. 10). The low HI values in BED 2-4 (87–112 and avg.
99 mg HC/g TOC) suggests a humic organic facies, which is mainly gas-
prone and corresponds to kerogen type III (Table 3) according to Baskin
(1997). The kerogen quality diagram (Fig. 11) and the HI-Tmax plot
(Fig. 12) also indicate a gas-prone, kerogen type III for the “G” Member
of BED 2-4. However, the LM organic petrography indicates a mainly
sapropelic facies comprised of dominant AOM and containing lower
frequencies of liptinitic-rich (i.e. spores, pollen grains, and phyto-
planktons) organic matter. Minor amounts of humic (vitrinite and in-
ertinite) components occur. Thus, the nature of the organic matter is
collectively prone to generate oil if it is thermally mature. The liptinite-
vitrinite-inertinite (LVI) diagram of (Dow, 1982) also suggests an oil-
prone organic matter of BED 2-4 and BED 14-1 (Fig. 13a and b). Several
authors (e.g. Espitalie et al., 1980; Katz, 1983) found out that pyrolysis
of organic-lean, clastic rocks yields abnormal higher Oxygen index
values because of the hydrocarbon retention on the mineral matrix. The

Table 1
Organic geochemical logs of the analyzed samples of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells.

Depth (m) TOC S1 S2 S3 HI OI T max (°C) PI PP OSI Kerogen type Thermal maturity Petroleum Potential

BED 2-4 well

2108 0.71 0.06 0.55 0.45 78 64 432 0.10 0.61 8 III-II Mature Fair Oil
2144 0.78 0.12 0.87 2.03 111 260 434 0.12 0.99 15 (Oil window)
2168 0.71 0.08 0.80 2.20 112 309 437 0.09 0.88 11 Poor Oil
2180 0.63 0.05 0.55 1.46 87 232 434 0.08 0.60 8
2198 0.72 0.07 0.78 1.75 108 243 434 0.08 0.85 10
2210 0.57 0.06 0.55 1.77 96 309 432 0.10 0.61 10
Avg. 0.69 0.07 0.68 1.61 78 64 432 0.10 0.75 8

Abu Tunis 1X well

1189 0.95 1.3 2.1 1.46 223 154 430 0.38 3.40 1.34 II-I Early Mature Fair to good Oil
1204 0.94 1.6 2.4 1.39 257 148 432 0.39 3.97 1.65 (Early Oil window)
1219 1.11 1.6 2.5 1.4 224 126 431 0.39 4.09 1.44
1234 0.95 1.5 2.3 1.42 238 149 429 0.39 3.73 1.55
1250 1.02 1.5 2.3 1.54 225 151 429 0.39 3.79 1.46
1265 0.66 1.2 2.2 1.17 333 177 429 0.36 3.42 1.85 Fair Oil
1280 0.93 1.3 2.6 1.46 275 157 432 0.34 3.88 1.42
1295 0.58 1.3 2.1 1.22 369 210 435 0.37 3.40 2.17
Avg. 0.89 1.4 2.3 1.38 268 159 431 0.38 3.70 1.62

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A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

Table 3
Geochemical parameters and organic facies (After Baskin, 1997).

Organic facies Product HI OI Atomic H/O Kerogen type

A (Lacustrine) Oil 700–1000 10–40 > 1.4 I

B (Marine) Oil 350–700 20–60 1.2–1.4 II
BC (Mixed) Oil and gas 200–350 40–80 1–1.2 II-III
C (Humic) Gas and oil 50–200 50–150 0.7–1 III
D (Inert) Some gas < 50 20–200 < 0.7 IV

UV analysis of the organic matter of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 shows no
fluorescence except for few sporopollenin (spores and dinoflagellate
cysts) particles (Pl. 6, Figs. 1–4), which indicates a kerogen type III-II
according to Tyson (1995). Accordingly, the combined organic geo-
chemistry and petrography analyses suggest a kerogen type III-II for the
“G” Member in the BED 2-4 well.
In Abu Tunis 1X, the relatively high HI values (223–369 and avg.
268 g HC/g TOC) suggest an organic facies that is made up of mixed
sapropelic and humic materials, which corresponds to mainly kerogen
type III to lesser type II and is prone to produce mostly oil and less gas
(Baskin, 1997). The kerogen quality diagram also indicates mixed, oil-
Fig. 9. Hydrocarbon potential of the studied Abu Roash “G” Member of BED 2-4 and Abu
Tunis 1X wells.
and gas-prone, kerogen type III to II for the “G” Member of Abu Tunis
1X (Fig. 11). The plot of HI versus Tmax shows most of the samples are
composed of 60–70% of kerogen type III and few samples are composed
Table 2 of 50–60% of kerogen type II (Fig. 14). On the other hand, organic
Organic matter richness and hydrocarbon source rock potential (After Baskin, 1997).
petrography of the Abu Tunis 1X organic matter indicates a sapropelic
Quantity TOC wt% S2 facies comprised entirely of AOM and contains very little liptinitic-rich
material (i.e. phytoplankton and MFTLs), structured organic matter of a
Poor 0–0.5 0–1 possible chlorococcale and prasinophyte origin, and lacks any humic
Fair 0.5–1 1–5
Good 1–2 5–10
material. The liptinite-vitrinite-inertinite (LVI) diagram of (Dow, 1982)
Very good 2–4 10–20 also suggests an oil-prone organic matter in the Abu Tunis 1X well
Excellent >4 > 20 (Fig. 13c). In addition, strong fluorescence of the dinoflagellate cysts,
MFTLs, AOM, and structured organic matter (Pl. 6, Figs. 5 and 6)
suggests a highly oil-prone, kerogen type II to I according to Tyson
(1995) in contrast to the pyrolysis-estimated kerogen type III to II. This
mismatch between the Rock-Eval data and that of the organic petro-
graphy was noted by several organic geochemists. Experimental ana-
lyses of carbonate source rocks (e.g. Espitalie et al., 1980; Katz, 1983)
showed that pyrolysis of samples with TOC of about 4.5–1.3 wt %
yielded erroneously higher Oxygen index values because of the release
of mineral carbon. In Abu Tunis, lower Hydrogen index values can not
ruled out due to possible hydrocarbon retention on the argillaceous
mineral matrix. However, both LM and UV analyses (Tyson, 1995;
Dembicki, 2009) suggest a mainly kerogen type II to I.

4.4.3. Thermal maturation of organic matter

Fig. 10. Modified Van Kerevlan diagram showing kerogen types of the studied Abu Roash
“G” Member of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells (After Waples, 1985).
The Tmax values of BED 2-4 (432–437 °C and avg. 434 °C) and those
of Abu Tunis (429–435 °C and avg. 431 °C) show that the Abu Roash
“G” Member is currently in the early stage of maturation (e.g. Peters
and Cassa, 1994). As Tmax has certain limitations (Carvajal-Ortiz and
Gentzis, 2015; Tahoun and Deaf, 2016), a calibration with TAI values
(3- to 3) of smooth pteridophyte spores in BED 2-4 was done (Pl. 1,
Fig. 1). This also points to an early maturation level of organic matter.
Similarly, TAI (3- to 3) of similar smooth pteridophyte spores of BED
14-1 (Pl. 3, Fig. 3) indicates an early mature organic matter. The HI-
Tmax and the PI-Tmax plots also indicate the Abu Roash “G” Member in
BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells has already entered the early window
zone (Figs. 12, 14 and 15). The occurrence of bituminous material in
BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 reinforces the suggested early maturation of
organic matter in these wells, where kerogen is known to be trans-
formed during the early maturation phase into bitumen (e.g. Lewan,
1993).

4.4.4. Petroleum generation potential

In BED 2-4, the fair organic richness and the low maturation status

392
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Fig. 12. Plot of HI versus Tmax showing kerogen types and thermal maturation levels for
the studied Abu Roash “G” Member of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells.
of kerogen type III-II suggest very low potential to generate hydro-
carbons (Figs. 16 and 17). The very low OSI (8–15, avg and 11 mg HC/g
TOC) and the oil cross-over diagram (Fig. 18) also show that generation
of oil is not likely. In Abu Tunis, the relatively high organic richness and
the fair to marginally good hydrocarbon source potential of the early
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Fig. 11. Kerogen quality diagram showing possible types of
the studied Abu Roash “G” Member of BED 2-4 and Abu
Tunis 1X wells.
mature kerogen II to I suggest fair to marginally good potential to
generate oil.
4.5. Sequence stratigraphy of the “G” Member in BED 14-1, BED 2-4, Abu
Tunis 1X, Nest-1A wells
Sequence stratigraphy originally relied on seismic data as well as on
sedimentological characters and microfunal and/or macrofunal con-
tents of rock units to understand the interaction between changes in the
eustatic sea level, basin subsidence, and sediment supply (e.g. Vail
et al., 1977; Posamentier et al., 1988a, b; Zecchin and Catuneanu,
2013). Recently, there is a growing tendency to use integrated sedi-
mentological characteristics of rock successions with vertical and lat-
eral distributions of organic matter in studying sedimentary basins in
terms of sequence stratigraphy, which is proved to be successful (e.g. Li
and Habib, 1996; Bombardiere and Gorin, 1998; Prauss, 2001). In the
current study, the lithological characteristics of the fine clastics of the
Abu Roash “G” Member cannot be used alone to identify changes in the
relative sea level because these changes are limited in some horizons
and had less influence on the depositional environment. Thus, the se-
quence stratigraphic analysis of the “G” sections was mainly based on
palynofacies and lithologic as well as on electric gamma-ray data. The
sequences and their boundaries were described within the “classical”
sequence stratigraphic context (e.g. Van Wagoner et al., 1988;
Posamentier et al., 1988a, b; Sarg, 1988; García-Mondéjar and
Fernández-Mendiola, 1993). Detailed interpretation of different sys-
tems tracts from the base to the top (Fig. 19) is as follows:
4.5.1. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation
4.5.1.1. Sequence No.1 (SQ. 1): BED 14-1 and BED 2-4. Transgressive
systems tract (part): This transgressive systems tract (TST) is
represented in BED 14-1 by samples 1–3 (2272–2248 m) and in BED
2-4 by samples 1–4 (2216–2192 m). The very low values of the Cont/
Mar index (avg. 0.6 and 0.7) in BED 141-1 and BED 2-4 (Table 4)
indicate a deepening condition that was connected to a transgressive
period (Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Prauss, 2000, 2001). The remarkable
high values (1.8 and 5.7) of Op/Tr ratios also prove the occurrence of
this transgressive phase (e.g. Habib, 1982; Summerhayes, 1987; Tyson,
1989). The general high abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (avg. 58.7%
and avg. 53.6%) provides a further confirmation of the suggested TST
(e.g. Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Prauss, 2001; Vallejo et al., 2002; Dybkjær,
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Fig. 13. Liptinite-Vitrinite-Inertinite (LVI) ternary kerogen plot displays the possible the
hydrocarbon source rock potential for the studied section of Abu Roash “G” Member
(After Dow, 1982; Tyson, 1995). (A) LVI plot of BED 14-1 samples, (B) LVI plot of BED 2-4
samples, (C) LVI plot of Abu Tunis 1X samples.
2004). The upper boundary (i.e. maximum flooding surfaces: MFS) of
the TST is drawn at the maximum abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (63
and 55.5%) at samples 3 and 4 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, respectively
(e.g. Blondel et al., 1993; Steffen and Gorin, 1993b; Pittet and Gorin,
1997). Lithologically, this surface matches well with the deeper
limestone facies overlying the clastic section (Fig. 19). At such
limestone horizons, the Cont/Mar ratio decreases to its minimal value
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
of about 0.6 and 0.1 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, respectively. In BED 2-4,
a fair TOC value (0.72%) is recorded at the late TST at Sample 3
(2198 m), which is the nearest analyzed sample to Sample 4 (2192 m).
This agrees fully with identifying the MFS at/or close to Sample 4
(Tyson, 1993, 1995, 1996).
Highstand systems tract: The HST is recognized in BED 14-1 from
just over Sample 3 to Sample 4 (2247.9–2236 m) and in BED 2-4 from
just over Sample 4 to Sample 7 (2191.9–2174 m). An upward increase
in the Cont/Mar index is observed (1.7 and avg. 1.5), which confirms
the progressive shallowing trend (Prauss, 1993, 2001). The noticeable
high values (17 and avg. 24) of MFTLs also point to the suggested HST
(e.g. Pittet and Gorin, 1997). In addition, the minimum values of the
dinoflagellates and opaques in such intervals confirm the occurrence of
shallowing conditions (i.e. highstand) just after the development of the
previously recorded middle Cenomanian transgressive sequence (e.g.
Blondel et al., 1993; Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Vallejo et al., 2002;
Dybkjær, 2004). Maximum values of the Cont/Mar (1.7 and 2.4) ratios
at samples 4 and 7 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, respectively, were used to
locate the maximum regressive surfaces (MRS), which possibly re-
present the sequence boundary surfaces (e.g. Vallejo et al., 2002). These
SBs are placed at the lowest sample of the coarsening upward section,
which is made up of a sandstone unit (Fig. 19). The SB is drawn ten-
tatively just over Sample 4 at a depth of 2233 m in BED 14-1 and ex-
actly at Sample 7 (2174 m) in BED 2-4.
4.5.1.2. Sequence no. 2 (SQ. 2): BED 14-1, BED 2-4, Abu Tunis 1X, and
Nest-1A. Transgressive systems tract: This tract t is recorded in all of
the sections studied. In BED 14-1, the TST is identified from just over
Sample 4 to Sample 5 (2235.9–2218 m), and in BED 2-4 from just over
Sample 7 to Sample 9 (2173.9–2157 m). The TST is also identified in
Abu Tunis 1X from Sample 1 to just over Sample 2 (1295–1282 m), and
in Nest-1A from Sample 1 to Sample 3 (1560–1520 m). The Cont/Mar
values show a remarkable decreasing trend in BED 14-1 (0.9), BED 2-4
(1.1), and Nest-1A (0.6). In Abu Tunis 1X, sediments show a lack of
terrestrial organic matter. Integration of lithological and palynological
data shows the shale units are capped by limestone horizons in BED 14-
1, BED 2-4, and Nest-1A. These limestone horizons illustrate relatively
high abundances of dinoflagellate cysts (29, 6, and 26), and inversely
lower Op/Tr ratios (0.7, 0.9, and 3.8), which indicate TSTs but of lower
amplitudes in comparison to the basal TSTs in the BED wells. In Abu
Tunis 1X, the high abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (74) and the null
value of Op/Tr suggest the development of a deeply-seated TST, and
indicate that the location of the Abu Tunis well was near/at the
depocentre of Matruh Basin. The traceable limestone horizons at
2218, 2157, 1282, and 1520 m indicate MFSs (Summerhayes, 1987;
Tyson, 1989; Steffen and Gorin, 1993b; Vallejo et al., 2002). Again, the
late TSTs are characterized by fair to relatively good TOC values in BED
2-4 (0.71%) and Abu Tunis 1X (0.93%).
Highstand systems tract: HST is depicted in BED 14-1 from just
over Sample 5 to just over Sample 9 (2218–2170 m) and in BED 2-4
from just over Sample 9 to Sample 14 (2157–2108 m). The current HST
is also defined in Abu Tunis 1X from just over Sample 2 to Sample 6
(1281.9–1219 m) and in Nest-1A from just over Sample 3 to Sample 10
(1519.9–1400 m). A pronounced increasing trend of Cont/Mar is ob-
served in BED 14-1 (avg. 4.9) and BED 2-4 (avg. 5.2) and a less pro-
minent but recognizable increase is also recorded in Abu Tunis 1X (avg.
0.02) and Nest-1A (avg. 1.0). This is combined with a general decrease
in Op/Tr ratios in BED 14-1 (avg. 0.7), BED 2-4 (avg. 0.7), and Nest-1A
(avg. 0.6). These two parameters indicate the accumulation of the HSTs
but in shallower depositional settings for the BED wells in comparison
to their equivalent HSTs in Abu Tunis 1X and Nest-1A. The parameters
point to a relative sea level of a lower amplitude in contrast to the one
that occurred during the HSTs of SQ. 1 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4. The
notable decreases in abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (10.8, 9.5, 8.5,
and 21) and MFTLs (11.6, 19.5, 86.6, and 14) also confirm the recur-
rence of the HST above the maximum flooding surfaces of the preceding
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
transgressive phase (e.g. Steffen and Gorin, 1993b; Götz et al., 2008).
The SBs are tentatively placed at the shallowing sandy facies at 2170 m
in BED 14-1 and at the silty facies at 2108 m in BED 2-4. Such an
identified sequence boundary is more distinguishable in BED 14-1 and
BED 2-4 sections than in their northern equivalent sections. In the latter
sections, the correlative bounding (i.e. correlative conformity: C.C.)
surfaces are suggested to be located at the argillaceous limestone at a
depth of 1219 m in Abu Tunis 1X, and at the sandy shale at a depth of
1400 m in Nest-1A. The early HSTs of BED 2-4 and Nest-1A show fair to
relatively good organic richness (0.78 and 2.41 TOC wt %).
4.5.1.3. Sequence no. 3 (SQ. 3): BED 14-1, BED 2-4, Abu Tunis 1X, and
Nest-1A. Undifferentiated lowstand to ?early transgressive systems
tract: This sequence is incomplete and not fully differentiated in the
studied wells, where the proposed lowstand systems tracts and the
subsequent early TSTs are lumped together and could not be further
divided on a lithological or palynological basis. These lumped systems
tracts are recognized in BED 14-1 from just over Sample 9 to Sample 11
(2169.9–2152 m), and in BED 2-4 from just over Sample 14 to Sample
15 (2107.9–2090 m). In the northern wells, the lump of systems tracts
are identified in Abu Tunis 1X from just over Sample 6 to Sample 8
(1218.9–1189 m), and in Nest-1A from just over Sample 10 to Sample
13 (1399.9–1340 m).
In BED 14-1, a possible late LST can be defined based on very high
Cont/Mar value (12.3), very low Op/Tr (0.3), and MFTLs (4%), where
signals of marine palynomorphs are known to occur and increase to-
ward the MFS (Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Vallejo et al., 2002). A similar
but not identical late LST can be also postulated for the Nest-1A section
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Plate 6. The UV fluorescence of selected palynofacies types
of BED 14-1, BED 2-4, and Abu Tunis 1X.
1. Weak to no fluorescence of palynological organic
matter of PF-1 of BED 14-1, except for some dino-
flagellate cysts; 3/2248 m, slide 2.
2. Weak to no fluorescence of palynological organic
matter of PF-3 of BED 14-1, except for some spores and
dinoflagellate cysts; 9/2176 m, slide 2.
3. Weak to no fluorescence of palynological organic
matter of PF-1 of BED 2-4, except for some dino-
flagellate cysts; 3/2198 m, slide 2.
4. Weak to no fluorescence of palynological organic
matter of PF-3 of BED 2-4, except for some spores and
dinoflagellate cysts; 12/2138 m, slide 2.
5. Strong fluorescence of palynological organic matter
(mainly dinoflagellate cysts and AOM) of PF-1 of Abu
Tunis 1X; 2/1280 m, slide 1.
6. Strong fluorescence of palynological organic matter
(mainly dinoflagellate cysts and AOM) of PF-2 of Abu
Tunis 1X; 6/1219 m, slide 1.
based on the low Cont/Mar value (2.1), very low Op/Tr (0.2), moderate
abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (15.6%), and low MFTLs (5%). Con-
cordantly, in Nest-1A the TOC at a depth of 1340 m illustrates the
lowest value (1.8 wt %) among the measured samples (Tahoun and
Deaf, 2016: 2.26 and 2.41 TOC wt %) because of the great sediment
influx and dilution that characterize such type of systems tracts.
In BED 2-4, a possible early LST can be defined based on the pre-
sence of opaque woody particles (i.e. OP/Tr: 1.3) and the absence of
terrestrial and marine palynomorphs, which is indicative of subaerial
oxidation of fresh brown woody particles (e.g. Tyson, 1995). This is
further verified by the development of unconformity surface near
Sample 5. The recurring deposition of a shale horizon over the un-
conformity surface possibly suggests the onset of an early TST, but this
cannot be confirmed without palynomorph information.
In Abu Tunis, the moderate abundance (avg. 22.5%) of dino-
flagellate cysts and the overwhelming abundances of MFTLs (avg.
77.5%) possibly point to accumulation of an early TST or HST, since
MFTLs are known to be very abundant in the transgressive and high-
stand sequences (e.g. Pittet and Gorin, 1997). At samples 7 and 8, the
TOC values show lower values (avg. 0.94%) than those (avg. 1.02%)
recorded in the underlying HST of SQ. 2. This probably confirms a TST
for the Abu Tunis 1X section.
4.5.2. Correlation with eustatic sea level cycles
In tectonically active continental margins, transgressive-regressive
sedimentary successions and their relations to the global eustatic cycles
are usually overprinted by the tectonic activities (Vail et al., 1991;
Posamentier et al., 1988b). During the Cenomanian time, the north
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Fig. 14. Plot of HI versus Tmax showing percentage composition of kerogen types for the
studied Abu Roash “G” Member of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells.
Fig. 15. Plot of PI versus Tmax showing maturation level for the studied Abu Roash “G”
Member of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells.
Western Desert formed a part of the relatively passive margin of
northern Egypt (e.g. Said, 1990), and thus marine-dominated sedi-
mentary successions and their transgressive-regressive cycles were
mostly related to eustatic cycles. A well-established sea level curve was
proposed on the basis of inferred sequences and biochronostratigraphic
control according to Schiøler et al. (2002), Steffen and Gorin (1993b).
As have been mentioned before, the biostratigraphic control showed the
studied sections could be dated as middle to late Cenomanian. This was
inferred from the occurrence of Thomasinella punica and Thomasinella
fragmentari and other index forms throughout the section. However,
Rotalipora cushmani of the regional and worldwide latest Cenomanian
range (e.g. Hardenbol et al., 1998; Obaidalla, 2002; Ogg and Hinnov,
2012) and Nezzazata convexa of the latest Cenomanian inception in
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Egypt (e.g. Ismail and Soliman, 1997) are absent from BED 2-4 and
Nest-1A sections. This likely indicates that the uppermost Cenomanian
is not represented in the sections of these wells. Furthermore, palyno-
logical zonation of the upper section of BED 2-4 shows Zone I (late
Cenomanian) and Zone II (middle Cenomanian) that are similar to
those identified in BED 14-1 (Tahoun, 2012) and also points to the
possible missing of the uppermost Cenomanian in the last well. In Abu
Tunis 1X, the absence of Classopollis brasiliensis and Cretacaeiporites
polygonalis of the latest Cenomanian HO data from the uppermost part
of the section (see Deaf et al., 2014) may also point to a missing of that
part of the Cenomanian. Generally, the inferred sequences show fair
general correlation with the recent revised long- and short-term eustatic
cycles of Haq (2014). This suggests that eustasy rather than regional
tectonics controlled the present Cenomanian sequences. The proposed
sequences can be correlated to part of the long-term, 2nd order su-
percycle (from ca. 99 to 96.6 Ma) and partly to three 3rd order cycles.
The basal incomplete sequence SQ. 1 (middle Cenomanian) was re-
corded in the BED wells and corresponds to the short-term, 3rd order
cycle (KCe2) of Haq (2014), where its sequence boundary and max-
imum flooding surface are nearly dated as of 98.4 and 98.6 Ma, re-
spectively (Fig. 19). The SQ. 2 (middle-upper Cenomanian) was re-
corded in all wells and corresponds to the 3rd order cycle (KCe3). The
numerical ages of its upper sequence boundary and maximum flooding
surface are nearly 97.4 and 97 Ma (Fig. 19). The upper incomplete
sequence SQ. 3 (upper Cenomanian) is equated to the lower part of the
3rd order cycle (KCe4) at nearly 96.6 Ma.
4.5.3. Sequence stratigraphy and recorded bioevents
Based on the current study, the integration of the low salinity
Senegalinium aenigmaticum-Dinopterygium cladoides peak with its se-
quence stratigraphic setting probably links the occurrence of this peak
with periods of active fluvial system, where reduced salinity conditions
were remarkable during sedimentation of the TST.
The concurrent peak of Dinopterygium alatum and Dinopterygium
cladoides is not suggested to be of palaeoecological and palaeoenvir-
onmental importance only, but also of a possible sequence stratigraphic
significance. The occurrence of this peak connects well with the re-
markable transgressive conditions, and hence can be used to identify
sedimentation of the TST.
The Classopollis brasiliensis species was found to be controlled by
ecological/climatic factors rather than lithology. However, this acme is
regarded as a powerful tool to be used in palaeoceanographic as well as
in sequence stratigraphic studies, where it identifies inner middle shelf
settings. By integrating the occurrence of the stratigraphically and pa-
laeoenvironmentally based acme of Classopollis with its sequence stra-
tigraphic context, the common occurrence of this acme can be corre-
lated with the HST.
4.5.4. Sequence stratigraphy and hydrocarbon potential of the “G” Member
From an economic point of view, spotting the promising source
rocks is very important to the national and international oil industries
in Egypt. Thus, employing the integrated sequence stratigraphy and
geochemical analyses enable us to fully understand the concentration
trends of the kerogen and to trace perfectly the stratigraphic distribu-
tion of the highly potential source rock sections of the “G” Member
through time in the concerned basins. In our study, sections that are
highly enriched in organic matter (i.e. TOC and AOM) were found to be
connected to the late transgressive and early highstand systems tracts
(Fig. 19), where the reducing depositional conditions were widespread
and the dilution of organic matter with terrigenous material was in-
significant. This conclusion is widely accepted and fully understood in
many basins worldwide (e.g. Wignall and Maynard, 1993; Steffen and
Gorin, 1993b; Herbin et al., 1993; Chandra et al., 1993; Arthur et al.,
1988, 1990; Arthur and Sageman, 2004). In Egypt, Robison and Engel
(1993) also connected the hydrocarbon source horizons within the
upper Cretaceous with the transgressive sequences. On the other hand,
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Fig. 16. TOC wt% and hydrocarbon generation potential of the Abu Roash “G” Member
of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X wells.
Fig. 17. Plot of HI versus TOC wt% showing hydrocarbon generation potential of BED 2-4
and Abu Tunis 1X.
the regressive intervals represented by the LST and the late HST show
the relatively coarse clastics, and thus possess a reservoir rock quality
with poor organic richness due to dilution with terrigenous influx.
4.6. Depositional model for the “G” Member and its hydrocarbon potential
in the north Western Desert of Egypt
In the present work, changes in the palynological parameters and
lithologic facies of the “G” Member indicate that sedimentation of the
member took place in the Abu Gharadig Basin in a clastic-dominated
system as is shown in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 wells (Figs. 3 and 4).
However, toward the northwest sedimentation in the central Matruh
Basin at Abu Tunis 1X well changed into a clastic-starving system
(Fig. 5). In the western margin of the Matruh Basin at Nest-1A well,
sedimentation corresponded to a finer clastic-dominated system as in-
dicated by Tahoun and Deaf (2016).
Integrated palynological, lithologic, and sequence stratigraphic
analyses indicate that sedimentation of the “G” Member in BED 14-1,
BED 2-4, Abu Tunis 1X, and Nest-1A wells shows a shallowing upward
facies (Figs. 3–5, and Fig. 3 in Tahoun and Deaf, 2016). This is
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
markedly reflected at the basal TST of SQ. 1 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4
by very high abundances of dinoflagellate cysts, which are coupled with
very low terrestrial (i.e. spores and woody particles) influences.
Dominant reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions sustained the pre-
servation of very high frequencies of AOM in the BED wells. This TST
has outer middle shelf depositional settings in both wells and shows a
mainly gas-prone organic facies of poor to fair richness in BED 2-4,
which increases from 0.57 TOC wt % in the early transgressive systems
tract (eTST) to 0.72 TOC wt % in the late transgressive systems tract
(lTST). However, this organic richness is lower than the 2.3 TOC wt %
recorded in the basal TST of SQ. 2 in Nest-1A and lTST of SQ. 2 in Abu
Tunis 1X (0.93 wt %). This may be attributed to the lower dilution
effect of coarse clastics and detrital minerals to the sedimentary organic
matter and to the absence of reworking and oxidation of organic matter
in Nest-1A in comparison to those noted in the BED wells. The HST of
SQ. 1 in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 has outer to inner middle shelf de-
positional settings and is characterized by a progressive diminishing in
marine palynomorphs and a slight increase in terrestrial palynomorphs.
It possesses a mainly gas-prone organic facies of low richness in BED 2-4
(0.63 TOC wt %). It is important to note that lTST is characterized by
organic richness higher than those recorded in the late highstand sys-
tems tract (lHST) and the eTST. This can be explained by the devel-
opment of a steady-state sea level after the termination of the maximum
flooding event in the late transgressive and early highstand, which
hindered water circulation and re-oxygenation of the water column and
caused remarkable water stratification. Consequently, huge amounts of
amorphous organic matter were preserved in these oxygen-depleted,
anoxic horizons (Davey and Rogers, 1975; Tyson, 1995, 1996; Li and
Habib, 1996).
The middle part of the “G” Member in BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 is
genetically related to the basal and the middle sections of Abu Tunis 1X
and Nest-1A, and is represented by SQ. 2 (Fig. 19), which was deposited
in inner middle to outer inner shelf depositional settings. This sequence
shows marked upward decreases in dinoflagellate cysts, moderate to
high increases in MFTLs, and a gradual upward increase in abundances
of pteridophyte spores. SQ. 2 is generally characterized by organic-rich
eHSTs in BED 2-4 (0.78 TOC wt %) and Nest-1A (2.41 TOC wt %),
where better developed reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions enhanced
preservation of maximum AOM abundances in this part of the sequence.
However, a relatively lower organic richness is recorded in the eTSTs in
BED 2-4 (0.71 TOC wt %), Abu Tunis 1X (0.6 TOC wt %), and Nest-1A
(2.3 TOC wt %), and in the lHST in BED 2-4 (0.71 TOC wt %). An
exception to this is seen in the lHST and eTST of Abu Tunis, where these
systems tracts show upward increases in TOC. This could be explained
by the negligible dilution of organic matter by clastics and the occur-
rence of less pronounced fluctuations in the relative sea level, which
probably maintained the preservation of organic matter. The fairly
organic-rich systems tracts of BED 2-4 and Abu Tunis 1X contain gas/
oil-prone and oil-prone organic facies, respectively, while Nest-1A
contains a mainly organic-very rich, oil-prone facies.
The upper “G” Member in all wells is also genetically related and is
represented by the incomplete sequence SQ. 3 (Fig. 19), which has an
undifferentiated lowstand to ?early transgressive systems tract and is
characterized by a marked shallower setting. This is manifested by the
occurrence of strong terrestrial influences (i.e. very high abundances of
pteridophyte spores) and the severe diminishing in the abundances of
the dinoflagellate cysts and MFTLs in all marginal wells (i.e. BED 14-1,
BED 2-4, and Nest-1A). However, Abu Tunis 1X probably has an early
TST, because it shows very high percentages of MFTLs of the probably
benthic foraminiferal origin and shows strong decreases in the dino-
flagellate cysts (Fig. 5). In this sequence, AOM shows a notable decrease
in frequency in all wells when compared with the underlying sequences
due to the prevalence of relatively less reducing conditions. The LST of
Nest-1A contains oil/gas-prone organic facies of good richness (1.8 TOC
wt %), while the eTST of Abu Tunis 1X contains oil-prone organic facies
of fair richness (avg. 0.95 TOC wt %).
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
By comparing the results of the present study with other work done
on the hydrocarbon potential of the “G” Member, one could detect that
lithologic facies of the member changes laterally from a coarse, clastic-
dominated sedimentation in the Abu Gharadig Basin to a northeast and
a northwest finer, clastic-dominated sedimentation (Fig. 1). This gen-
eral northward deepening in sedimentation is clearly accentuated at the
depocentre of the Matruh Basin, where the “G” Member has a carbo-
nate-dominated setting. Careful reading of the various types of litho-
facies and their associated organic richness revealed that the coarse
clastic lithologies denoted by the sandy shales of BED 14-1, BED 2-4,
and GPTSW-7 (El Beialy et al., 2010) wells contain the least organic
richness and possess a mainly gas-prone organic matter. However, to-
ward the northeast, the finer lithologies represented by calcareous
shales of AG-3 (Khaled, 1999), shales of BED 1-2 (Maky and Saad,
2009), and argillaceous limestone of Razzak-7 (Zobaa et al., 2011) wells
show higher organic richness of better kerogen quality (type III-II and
type II), which are mainly oil-prone (Fig. 1). Similarly, at the far
northwest at Nest-1A well, the shale lithology also exhibits good or-
ganic richness of a mainly oil-prone organic matter. However, in the
carbonate-dominated setting at Abu Tunis 1X well, the organic richness
downgrades again but it has a better kerogen quality.
From the above discussion, we can state that the promising hydro-
carbon source sections of the “G” Member are those associated with
shales, calcareous shales, and argillaceous limestone that were de-
posited in outer to inner middle shelf settings under widespread redu-
cing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions during the late TST and the early HST
sedimentation phases. On the other hand, the regressive intervals re-
presented by the LST and the late HST show the relatively coarse
clastics, and thus possess a good potential as reservoir rocks, since they
are poor in organic matter due to dilution with terrigenous influx.
5. Conclusions
Several concluding remarks and a recommendation can be drawn
from the current investigation as follows:
1 An independent dating of the “G” Member rocks by means of
benthic foraminifera and ostracods suggests a middle-late
Cenomanian age for the member in BED 2-4 well. Palynological
dating of the “G” unit in BED 2-4 shows two palynological zones. PZ-
1: Classopollis brasiliensis-Integritetraradites foveolatus Interval Zone of
398
Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402
Fig. 18. Oil cross-over diagram showing a high probability
of Abu Tunis 1X to generate oil and very low probability of
BED 2-4 to generate oil.
the late Cenomanian age, and PZ-II: Afropollis kahramanensis-
Tricolporopollenites spp. Interval Zone of the middle Cenomanian
age.
2 Integrated palynofacies and lithofacies analyses of the rocks of BED
14-1, BED 2-4, and Abu Tunis 1X define three palynofacies types.
PF-1A represents the basal “G” Member in the BED wells of the re-
latively organic-lean shales. While PF-1B represents the organic-lean
calcareous shale of Abu Tunis 1X. Both PF-1A and PF-1B were de-
posited during a relative sea level rise in outer middle shelf en-
vironments that experienced a notable high primary productivity.
Prevailing reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions maintained pre-
servation of very high AOM frequencies in the PF-1A and PF-1B. PF-
2A is equated to the rather organic-rich shales of the middle “G”
section of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4, while PF-2B is equated to the
organic-rich calcareous shales and limestone of the uppermost “G”
in Abu Tunis 1X. PF-2A and PF-1B were deposited during a relative
sea level fall in inner middle shelf settings, under better-developed
reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions. PF-3 corresponds to the up-
permost “G” of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4 and represents the shallowest
depositional setting with a notable terrestrial influence. Sandy and
silty shales of the BED wells are fairly lean in organic matter and
were deposited during a pronounced sea level fall in an inner shelf
environment under the same prevailing suboxic-anoxic conditions.
3 Three bioevents were recorded. In BED 2-4, the Senegalinium ae-
nigmaticum-Dinopterygium cladoides peak was found to tolerate lower
salinity conditions and it was suggested to indicate the activation of
the fluvial system during deposition of the TST. The Dinopterygium
cladoides-Dinopterygium alatum peak was detected in BED 14-1 and it
was suggested to characterize the outer middle shelf environments
and to mark the development of TST. Finally, an acme of Classopollis
brasiliensis in the BED wells was suggested to have both pa-
laeoenvironmental and biostratigraphic importance to the Egyptian
regional subsurface stratigraphy and the hydrocarbon exploration in
the north Western Desert. This acme could be of an imminent re-
gional biostratigraphic significance, where it characterizes the
middle Cenomanian time and can be used to identify equivalent
sections in new hydrocarbon exploration areas. Furthermore, this
acme was suggested in this study to characterize the inner middle
shelf setting and can be also used to recognize the HST.
4 A sequence stratigraphic analysis of a transect of the four studied
sections was carried out to understand the response of the
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun Marine and Petroleum Geology 92 (2018) 372–402

Table 4
Palynological parameters used in the current sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Abu
Roash “G” Member sections of the four wells.

BED 14-1 well

Sample no. Depth m Cont/Mar Op/Tr Dinoflagellate cysts% MFTLs %

11 2152 12.3 0.3 0 4.0

10 2164 12.1 0.8 2.0 5.0
9 2176 4.6 0.7 11.0 7.0
8 2188 3.8 1.0 3.0 18.0
7 2200 2.6 0.4 17.0 9.0
6 2212 1.5 0.6 21.0 19.0
5 2224 0.9 0.7 29.0 25.0
4 2236 1.7 0.6 20.5 17.0
3 2248 0.6 1.5 63.0 0.0
2 2260 0.2 1.3 66.0 15.5
1 2272 1.0 2.5 47.0 3.0

BED 2-4 well

15 2090 0 1.3 0.0 0.0
14 2108 19.0 0.7 0.0 4.0
13 2126 2.6 0.8 5.0 23.0
12 2138 1.7 0.8 12.0 19.0
11 2144 1.9 0.9 15.5 22.5
10 2150 0.6 0.2 15.0 29.0
9 2162 1.9 1.1 7.5 37.5
8 2168 0.3 0.7 4.0 72.5
7 2174 2.4 6.0 12.0 16.0
6 2180 1.7 2.3 11.0 10.5
5 2186 0.2 0.4 29.5 45.0
4 2192 0.1 5.0 55.5 15.0
3 2198 0.2 2.1 47.5 10.5
2 2210 2.3 5.0 30.5 5.0
1 2216 0.2 10.8 81.0 5.5

Abu Tunis 1X well

8 1189 0 0 15.5 84.5
7 1204 0 0 29.5 70.5
6 1219 0 0 11.5 88.5
5 1234 0.04 0 17 79
4 1250 0.02 0 5.5 92.5
3 1265 0 0 0 0
2 1280 0 0 87.5 12.5
1 1295 0 0 60 40

Nest-1A well
13 1340 2.3 0.2 15.6 3.2
12 1360 2.1 0.3 17.2 4.8
11 1380 1.8 0.2 14 8.4
10 1400 1.4 0.1 16.4 12
9 1410 1.2 0.3 19.2 12
8 1430 1.1 0.3 18.4 12.8
7 1450 0.8 0.5 20.8 15.2
6 1470 0.7 0.0 24.4 16.4
5 1490 0.8 1.7 25.6 13.6
4 1500 0.6 1.0 22.4 18
3 1520 0.6 9.0 26.8 12.8
2 1540 0.6 1.0 24.4 19.2
1 1560 0.5 1.5 26.4 18

Fig. 19. Sequence stratigraphic analysis of the studied BED 14-1, BED 2-4, Abu Tunis 1X,
and Nest-1A wells. For vertical and horizontal scales, refer to Fig. 1.
particulate organic matter distribution and depositional system to
the sea level changes. Three third-order, depositional genetic se-
quences (SQ. 1, SQ. 2, and SQ. 3) were recognized in all wells. These
sequences were correlated with the recently revised global sea level
curve (KCe 2, KCe 3, and KCe 4). The eHST of the genetically related
KCe 3 was found to be characterized by relatively rich organic
matter, where remarkably low water circulation and insignificant
dilution of organic matter with coarse terrigenous material probably
maintained good preservation of organic matter.
5 The integrated palynological, geochemical, and sequence strati-
graphic analyses suggest the eHST of the “G” Member in Nest-1A a
potential good source rock. This section is comprised of a shale
lithology deposited in outer to inner middle shelf settings under
common reducing (suboxic-anoxic) conditions. The spatial dis-
tribution of the “G” Member rocks shows lateral facies changes from
an organic-poor, coarse, clastic-dominated (sandy shales) sedi-
mentation in the studied area of the Abu Gharadig Basin to a
northeast and a northwest, organic-rich, finer, clastic-dominated
(shale, calcareous shales, and argillaceous limestone) sedimentation
at the western margin of the Matruh Basin. In the later area, the
robust anoxic conditions and very low dilution of organic matter by
lithoclasts and fine detrital minerals enhanced the organic richness
of the eHST of these lithologies and resulted in promising hydro-
carbon source rocks.
6 For a successful hydrocarbon exploration in the north Western
Desert, we recommend detecting the promising section of the “G”

399
A.S. Deaf, S.S. Tahoun
Member, which is associated with shales, calcareous shales, and
argillaceous limestone lithologies that were deposited in outer to
inner middle shelf settings, under widespread reducing (suboxic-
anoxic) conditions, and demonstrate eHST sedimentation pattern. In
contrast, the regressive intervals denoted by the LST and/or the late
HST show the relatively coarse clastics as having a good reservoir
rock potential with poor organic richness due to dilution with ter-
rigenous influx.
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to BAPETCO for providing cutting samples and
well log of BED 14-1 and BED 2-4. Special thanks are due to Dr. Thomas
Gentzis at Core Laboratories, Houston, Texas, USA, for providing or-
ganic geochemical data of the Abu Tunis 1X well samples and reviewing
the manuscript. Many thanks also go to Mr. Saber Hassan at Faculty of
Science, Assiut University, Egypt for facilitating UV analyses at Zewail
City of Science and Technology, Egypt. Authors would like to thank
Prof. Guilermo Ottone for his valuable comments and suggestions,
which improved the quality of the paper.
To the best of our knowledge, no financial conflict of interest, or
other, exists.
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