Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ISSN 1520-295X
by
Cevdet Kerem Gulec and Andrew S. Whittaker
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This research was co nd ucted at th e Unive rsit y a t Buffalo, Sta te Univer sity of New York a nd was suppor ted prim aril y by th e
Ea rthquake Engineering Research Centers Program of the Nati on al Science Founda tion und er awa rd number HC 970147 1.
3 SQUAT WALL DATABASE
3.1 Introduction
Gulec (2005) review ed and catalogue d the results af tests of 352 reinforced concre te squat wa lls
with three different cros s-sec tion types, namely, rectangular, barbell, and flanged. Thi s database
was expanded to 434 walls. Of the 434 walls in the database, 150 have a rectangular cross
section and 284 have boundary elements [barbells (19 1), flanges (93)]. The assembled data can
be used to assess the performance of existing models that are used to predict squat wall response
and to develop new models. Detail ed inform ation for each wa ll in the database is tabul ated in
Appendix A. In thi s section, a brief summary of the assembled data is presented. Th e test
specimens in the database are selected usin g the followin g cr iteria : I) a minimum web thickness
of 5 ern. (1.97 in.); 2) symmetric reinforcement layout ; 3) no diagonal reinforcement or
additional wa ll-to-foun dat ion reinforcement to control sliding shear; and 4) aspect ratios (hw / I,..)
less than or equal to 2.0. Wa lls that do not comply with these criteria are not includ ed in the 434-
wa ll database and information on these wa lls is not present ed.
Figure 3-1 presents the variation of the expe rimentally measur ed pe ak shear strength (Vp eak ) with
moment-to-shear ratio' ( M I VI,..) for the wa lls in the database. In the figur e, the experimental
peak shear strength is norm alized by the product of A.. andR , where A.. is the web area
calculated as the pro duct of the wa ll length ( lw) and the web thickness ( 'w), and I:
is the
concrete compressive strength. The data presented in Figur e 3-1 shows that the experimental
peak shear strength for wa lls w ith boundary elements is generally much higher than those of the
wa lls w ith rectangular cross-sections. Figure 3-1 indicates that the ranges of measured pe ak shear
strengths for barbell and flanged wa lls are compa rable . The norm alized peak shear strengths for
rectangular wa lls are generally smaller than lO R wherea s the majority of the norm ali zed peak
shear strengths for wa lls with boundary elements exceed 1O J1l , which is the upp er limit on the
peak shear strength equation of Section 21.9 of AC I 318-08 . As shown in Sections 1 and 2, the
peak shear strength calculation procedures for reinforced concrete walls generally do not
recognize the effects of boundary elements. For two wa lls, one with a rectangular cross-section
and the other with boundary elements, the current procedures predict identical peak shear
strengths provided that the wa lls have the same web area, reinforcement rati o, aspec t ratio, axial
force and Ie'. Neither wall-cro ss section type nor boundary element reinforcement are
considered as variables for calculating peak shear strength. These issues are addressed in the
follow ing sections .
Sections 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 present summary information on rectangular, barbell and flanged wa lls
in the database, resp ectively. In these sections , mon otonic loading refers to incrementally
increasing the load in one direction until failure; repea ted loading refers to loading in one
directi on, unl oading to the origin, and reloading to a similar or larger displacement in the same
directi on; cyclic loading refers to applica tion of lateral force alternatively in both horizontal
35
25 , ,
,
,
, Rect angula r
.,
, • Ba rbell
, , ,
20 , • Flanged
" , ,
-..
• ,,
It.'~ . ~ • ,
~
, " . ,
•
•
~
••
-"
.0; 15 •
•
<
e .
~
•
, ,,
"" ,t 1' t" .: •
. :. I ,. , •
•
,"
,
, .
~
<, , ! •• 4.
" ,, ~
,
I
t" . , J
, ,, ""
,,, ,, ,
,, t , .• -• . I-. ..
•
," ' IV ,I,
,I
5
,• ,••• ••, • ~
,
,I •
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 L5 1.75 2
1\1 1(VIw )
Figure 3-1 Va riation of shear stress [norm aliz ed by the product of we b area ( A.,.) and J l ]
obtained usin g expe rime ntally dete r mined peak shear st r ength (Vp""k) with m oment-to-
shear ratio (M / Vlw )
directions with incre mented force or displacement following a conventional quasi-static cyclic
testing protocol; dynami c loading refers to the use of earthquake simulators ; and blast loading
refe rs to application of large amp litude dynamic pulses.
2 Self-weight ofthe walls are not included in the axial load calculations pre sented in this chapter.
36
100 r-- - - - -- - - - -----, SO r - -- - - - -- - - -----,
Vl GO
~
'-
o ~o
~
-'"
E
~
Z 20
3 ~ 5 G 7 10 15 20 25 30
a) Web thickness (m) b) Wall length I web th ickness
_ M / (Vl)
50
~ _ 11"/ 1" ~
~ ~o ~ ~o
'-
o '1.3
[) 30
~
-'" -'"
E
~
20 E
~
20
Z Z
10
o
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1. 75 2 2.25 o 2 ~ G 8 10 12 1~
100 I~------;::;~~===il
_ horizontal _ horizontal
_ vert ical _ yert ical
~
'- 30
o
~
.D 20
E
~
Z
i.~L
to
()
o 0.50 1 1.50 2 2.50 3
o
12
_.- 3
e) W eb remforcement ra110 (%) t) Number of web reinforcement layers
Figure 3-2 Histograms of geom etr ic, m aterial, and loading p r op er ties of the 150 sq u at
rectangular walls
37
SO 100
_ horizonta l
_ ,"ert ical
~
60 ~
SO
Oil Oil
~ ~
~ ~
60
0 0
~ 40 ~
~ ~
..0
E
..0 40
E
r..
~ ~
Z 20 Z
~j~
20
0 0
200n -loon 6000 sooo 40 50 60 70 SO 90 Ion 110
g) (, (psi) h) Web reinforcement yield stress (ksi}
120 120
~
~
-;; Oil
~ ~
~ ~
0 0
~
~
~ ~
..0 ..0
E E
~ ~
Z Z
Figu re 3-2 H istogra ms of geo me tric, m at erial, an d loading prope rties of th e 150 squat
rectangula r walls (co nt' d)
that ranged between 0.022 ~fc' an d 0 .182 ~f: ; reported concrete compressive strength] varied
bet ween 1991 and 7395 psi (13.7 and 5 1 MPa); horizontal web reinforcement ratios ranged
between 0.00 and 0.0161; and vertica l web reinforcement rati os ranged between 0.00 and 0.0287.
Boundary element reinforcement with rati os up to 0.128 wa s used in 110 of the 150 walls in
addition to the unifonnly distributed vertical web reinforcement. Fifteen of the 150 wa lls in the
dataset did not have horizontal we b reinforcement; 12 did not have vertical web reinforcement; 7
had neither horizont al nor vertical web reinforcement and included only boundary element
reinforcement at wa ll end s. The reported yield stress of the wall vertical web reinforcement
range d between 43.5 and 88.5 ksi (300 and 610 MPa), and that of the horizontal web
reinforcement ranged between 47.3 and 108.1 ksi (326 and 745 MPa). The rep orted yield stress
for the bound ary element reinforcement ranged between 43.5 and 84.8 ksi (300 and 585 MPa).
3 Some authors used cube strength rath er than cylinder strength to rep ort the compressive strength of concrete; cube
strengths were converted to cylinder strengths per M indess et al. (2003).
38
Vertical web reinforcement was provid ed in a single layer for 71 of the 150 walls, in two layers
for 65 walls and in thr ee layers for 2 walls. Horizontal web reinforcement was provid ed in a
single layer for 71 of the 150 walls, in two layers for 62 walls and in thr ee layers for 2 walls. The
maximum spacing for horizontal and vertical web reinforcement was 13.5 in. Note that Section
21.9 of ACI 3 18-08 [ACI (2008)] requires that web reinforcement in special structural walls be
provided in two layers and with a spac ing of less than 18 in.
Th e selected walls were tested using one of four types of loading: monotonic (quasi-static),
repea ted (quasi-static), cyclic (quasi-static), and dynam ic. Thirty of the 150 walls were tested
using monotoni c loading, 2 walls were tested using repeated loading, 110 walls were tested usin g
cyclic loadin g, and 3 walls were tested using dynamic loadin g.
39
100 r-- -- -- - - - - - ----,
~
80 ~
80
2 J ~ 5 6 7 10 20 30 -10 50 60 70
a) Web thickness (m) b) Wall length I web th ickness
_ M / tV1) _ horizontal
120 50 _ vert ical
_ h" /I" ~
~ -10
'1.3
[) 30
""E 20
~
Z
to
o
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 o 2 -I 6 8 10 12 1-1 16
c) Aspect ratio d) Web reinforcement spa cing (in)
t 20 1_"_-~~;====il
_ horizontal _ horizontal
50 _ vert ical 100 _ yert ical
~ ~o
'-
o
[) 30
""E
~
20
Z
to 20
o o
o 0.50 I 1.50 2 2.50 3 1 2
e) Web remforcement ra110 (%) t) Number of web reinforcement layers
Figure 3-3 Histograms of geom etr ic, m aterial, and loading p r op er ties of the 191 sq u at
barbell walls
40
so 100 I-----;::;::;~~==ll
_ horizonta l
_ ,"ert ical
~
60 ~
so
Oil
~
~
0
~
~
.0
E
'"
~
Z 20
()
lOOO ·1000 6000 800n 1nooo
o
40 50 60 70 SO 90 100
g) (, (psi) h) Web reinforcement yield stress (ksi}
1 20 .-~--------------, 1"0
100
120
~
Oil 100
~
~
0
so
~
~
.0 60
E
~
Z "0
20
41
0.0 15 AJ ; and 0.273 ~fc' ; the axial forces on the remaining walls were limited to the self-
weight of the wall and upper loading beam (or slab). Reported concrete compressive strength
varied from 2170 to 15084 psi (16.3 to 104 MPa); 69% of the walls had compre ssive strengths
between 400 0 and 6000 psi (27 .6 and 41.4 MPa). Horizontal web reinforcement ratios ranged
between 0 .0 and 1.69, and vertical web reinforce ment ratios ranged between 0.0 and 2.54.
Boundary element reinforcement (rein forcement restricted to the flanges) was provid ed in all 93
walls; reinforcement ratios ranged between 0.35 and 6.39% of each boundary element area . One
wall was tested without horizontal web reinforcement and one wall tested without vertical web
reinforcemen t. The reported yield stress of the vertical and horizontal web, and vertical bound ary
element reinforcement ranged between 42.9 and 87.7 ksi (296 and 605 MPa).
Th e selected walls were tested using one of three type s of loading: monotonic (quasi-static),
cyclic (quasi-static), and dynamic . Thirteen of the 93 walls were tested using monotonic loading,
78 walls were tested using cyclic loading, and 2 walls were tested usin g dynamic loading.
42
60 r-- -- -- - - - - - ----, !OO r - -- - - - -- - - - ----,
50
~
SO
~ ~O
4-
~
'-+- (, ()
o o
~ JO
~
.0 .0 -to
E 20 E
~ ~
Z Z
20
10
OL--
J ~ 5 6 7 o 10 20 JO ~O 50
a) Web thickness (m) b) Wall length I web th ickness
_ M / (Vl)
5()
~ _ 11"/ 1" ~
~ ~o ~ -10
4-
o '1.3
[) J()
~
.0 .0
E
~
20 E
~
20
Z Z
10
O L-~
0.25 0.5 0.75 I 1.25 1.5 1. 75 2 o 2 .j (, 8 10 12
c) Aspect ratio d) Web reinforcement spacing (in )
SO ~~i==::::;----1
_ horizontal _ horizontal
70
_ vcrt ical _ vcn ical
~
'- J()
o
~
.D 20
E
~
Z
11-
to
OL
o 0.50 1 1.50 2 2.50 J 1 2
e) Web remforcement ra110 (%) t) Number of web reinforcement layers
Figure 3-4 Hi stograms of geom etr ic, m aterial, and loading properties of the 93 squat
flanged walls
43
'" _ horizonta l
_ ,"ert ical
~
30 ~
30
Oil Oil
~ ~
~ 4-
0 0
~ 20 ~ 20
~ ~
..0 ..0
E E
~
~I
~
Z 10 Z 10
()
1noon uooo o
2(XlO GOOO 40 ~ W m W 00
g) (, (psi) h) W eb reinforcement yield stress (ksi}
80
~
~ 60
-; Oil
~ ~
4- 4-
0 0
~
~
~ ~
..0 ..0
E E
~ ~
Z Z
44
8 DAMAGE STATES AND FRAGILITY CURVES
FOR SQUAT REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS
8.1 Introduction
A genera l frame work for seism ic performance assessment and loss computations is provided in
th e 50% draft of the A Te-58 Guidelines f or Seismic P erf ormance Assessment ofBUildings [ATe
(2008)]. A key compo nent of th e fram ework is fragility fun ctions for compo nents and elements
of seismic framing sys tems. Fragility fun ction s relate the prob ability of exceeding one or more
damage thr esholds (described usin g damage states and repair mea sur es) to a demand p aramet er
such as story drift or comp onent plastic deformation. Thi s section summarizes the development
of fragility curve s for squat reinforce d concrete wa lls.
Dam age states are characterized typica lly using descriptors such as concrete crack width, ext ent
of concrete crushing , sliding shear displacement, and reinforcement yielding and bu cklin g.
However, to compute dollars losses and estimates of bui lding down time , damage states must be
charac terized by me asur es (or scopes) of repair and such descriptions are present ed herein , and
Appe ndices C, D an d E.
Information is used from experiments on squat walls rep orte d in the literature to generate
damage data as a functi on of an effic ient deman d param eter. Alternate prob abilit y distributions
are used to present th e damage data. Goo dne ss-of-fit tests are performed to evaluate the utility of
th ese distribution s.
199
Table 8-1 S u m mary of rec ta ngula r w all d at a used to create fragility functio ns
N u mber of damage
PI A,!; d at a u er l\loR
Xo Reference W an ID Loading
(%) 1 2 3 4
1 SW4 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 1 1
2 SW5 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 0 1
3 SW6 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 1 1
Pilakouras (199 1)
4 SW7 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 0 1
5 SW8 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 1 1
6 SW9 Cyclic 0 .0 1 1 1 1
7 M1 Cycli c 2.2 2 1 1 2
8 M2 Cycli c 2.2 0 1 3 1
Greifenhagen et al. (2005)
9 M3 Cycli c 9.5 2 1 3 1
10 M4 Monotonic 5.0 2 1 3 1
11 SW 11 Monotonic 0.0 0 0 0 1
12 SW 12 Monotonic 8.7 0 0 0 1
13 SW 13 Monotonic 18.1 2 1 1 0
14 SW 14 Monotonic 0 .0 2 1 1 0
15 SW 15 Monotonic 8.8 2 1 1 0
16 SW 16 Monotonic 18.0 2 1 1 0
Lefas et al. (1990)
17 SW 17 Monotonic 0 .0 2 1 1 0
18 SW2 1 Monotonic 0.0 2 1 1 0
19 SW22 Monotonic 9.1 2 1 1 0
20 SW23 Monotonic 18.2 2 1 1 0
21 SW24 Monotonic 0 .0 2 1 1 0
22 SW26 Monotonic 0 .0 2 1 1 0
23 S4 Monotonic 6.7 2 1 1 0
Maier and Thurlimann ( 1985)
24 S9 Cyclic 7.5 2 1 1 0
25 Wall-I Cycli c 0 .0 1 3 1 0
Wiradinata (1985)
26 Wall-2 Cycli c 0.0 1 3 0 1
27 Wall-4 Cycli c 0 .0 1 3 2 1
Pilette (1987)
28 Wall-5 Cycli c 0.0 1 3 0 1
29 Wall-7 Cyclic 0 .0 2 2 0 1
Mohammadi-Doosrdar (1994)
30 Wall-8 Cycli c 0.0 1 2 1 1
200
Table 8-1 Su mma ry of recta ngular w all data used to crea te fragility fun cti ons (cont 'd )
N umber o f damage
PI A,!; data u er l\loR
Xo Reference W an ID Loading
(%) 1 2 3 4
31 MSWI Cyclic 0 .0 0 0 0 1
32 MSW3 Cyclic 7.0 0 0 0 1
Salonikios et al. (1999)
33 MSW6 Cyclic 0 .0 0 0 0 1
34 LSW3 Cyclic 7.0 0 0 0 1
35 Synge (1980) Wall-I Cyclic 0 .0 1 3 2 1
36 wp l ll -9 Cyclic 10.0 1 3 0 1
37 wpll l-IO Cyclic 10.0 1 3 0 1
38 wpll05-8 Cyclic 5.0 1 3 0 1
Massone (2006)
39 wpll05-7 Cyclic 5.0 1 3 0 1
40 wp llO-5 Cyclic 0 .0 0 3 0 1
41 wp llO-6 Monotonic 0 .0 0 3 0 1
42 Xie and Xiao (2000) W-IA Cyclic 9.4 2 0 I 1
43 23 Cyclic 0 .0 2 1 0 1
Hidalgo et al. (2002)
44 27 Cyclic 0 .0 3 I 0 1
45 SW I I Cyclic 0 .0 2 2 I 1
46 SW I2 Cyclic 0.0 1 I I 1
47 SW I3 Cyclic 0 .0 3 2 0 1
48 Lopes and Elnashai (199 1) SW I4 Cyclic 0 .0 1 I 0 2
49 SW I5 Cyclic 0 .0 1 I I 2
50 SW I6 Cyclic 0 .0 0 0 0 1
51 SW I7 Monotonic 0.0 0 0 0 1
201
Table 8-2 Geo metric and material prope rties of the rectangu lar wall data
No hw / / .... M i V/.
h. I. '. Sc ale
bi hi Po. P. P, t;
(i n) (in) (in) (in) (in) (%) (%) (%) (p si)
1 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 4.3 6.9 0.50 0. 39 5352
2 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 2.4 12.7 0.59 0. 31 4612
3 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 4.3 6.9 0.50 0. 31 5599
4 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 2.4 12.7 0.59 0. 39 4641
5 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 4.3 7.1 0.50 0 .28 6643
6 2.00 2.13 47.2 23 .6 2.36 0. 30 2.4 4.3 7.1 0.50 0.5 6 5642
7 0.61 0.69 24.0 39.4 3.94 0.49 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.34 0. 37 7352
8 0.61 0.69 24.0 39.4 3.94 0.49 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.34 0.00 7395
9 0.68 0.77 24.0 35.4 3.15 0. 39 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.39 0 .26 29 15
10 0.68 0.77 24.0 35.4 3.15 0. 39 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.39 0 .26 3538
11 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 3.9 5.1 8.5 2.14 Ll 7 7140
12 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 3.9 5.5 6.5 2.14 Ll 7 7332
13 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.14 Ll 7 5423
14 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.14 Ll 7 5642
15 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.14 Ll 7 58 19
16 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.14 Ll 7 7052
17 1.00 LlO 29.5 29 .5 2.76 0. 34 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.14 0. 37 6553
18 2.00 2.12 51.2 25 .6 2.56 0. 32 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.09 0.87 5745
19 2.00 2.12 51.2 25 .6 2.56 0. 32 2.8 5.5 3.1 2.09 0.87 689 1
20 2.00 2.12 5 1.2 25 .6 2.56 0. 32 2.6 5.5 3.3 2.09 0.87 6480
21 2.00 2.12 5 1.2 25 .6 2.56 0. 32 2.6 5.5 3.3 2.09 0.87 6553
22 2.00 2.12 51.2 25 .6 2.56 0. 32 2.6 5.5 3.3 2.09 0.40 388 1
23 1.02 Ll2 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 2.6 5.5 3.3 1.02 1.01 4772
24 1.02 Ll2 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 2.6 5.5 3.3 1.02 0.00 4235
25 0.50 0.58 39.4 78.7 3.94 0.49 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.59 0 .26 3626
26 0.25 0.33 19.7 78.7 3.94 0.49 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.59 0 .26 3191
27 0.50 0.58 39.4 78.7 3.94 0.49 3.9 12.6 1.3 0.59 0.80 4786
28 0.50 0.58 39.4 78.7 3.94 0.49 3.9 12.6 1.3 1.07 1.20 39 16
29 0.75 0.82 59.1 78.7 3.94 0.49 3.9 12.6 1.3 0.59 0.80 6527
30 1.00 1.09 59.1 59.1 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.8 1.6 0.51 0.80 6527
31 1.50 1.60 70.9 47.2 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.4 1.7 0.57 0.5 7 3785
32 1.50 1.60 70.9 47.2 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.4 1.3 0.28 0 .28 3495
202
Table 8-2 Geo metric and m aterial prope rties ofthe rectangu lar wall data (co nt'd)
No hw / / .... M i V/.
h. I. '. Sc ale
bi hi Po. P. P, t;
(i n) (in) (in) (in) (in) (%) (%) (%) (p si)
33 1.50 1.60 70.9 47.2 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.4 1.7 0.57 0.5 7 3988
34 1.00 1.10 47.2 47.2 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.4 1.3 0.57 0.5 7 32 19
35 0.50 0.57 59.1 118.1 3.94 0.49 3.9 9.4 1.9 0.81 1.61 3945
36 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4100
37 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4550
38 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4630
39 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4640
40 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4340
41 0.89 0.44 48.0 54.0 6.00 0.75 6.0 7.5 0.9 0.25 0.27 4500
42 0.50 0.59 48.0 96 .0 6.00 0.75 0 .0 0.0 0.0 0.37 0.31 4250
43 1.38 0.69 70.9 51.2 3.94 0.49 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.00 0.25 3655
44 1.00 0.50 55.1 55.1 3.94 0.49 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.00 0.25 3597
45 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.39 0.92 6230
46 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.39 0.92 642 1
47 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.39 0.92 7537
48 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.39 0.92 6289
49 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 1.8 3.1 5.9 0.39 0.51 6436
50 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 3.9 9.4 1.7 0.00 0.62 5995
51 1.90 1.10 33.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 3.9 9.4 1.3 0.00 0.80 6083
Min 0.25 0.33 19.7 17.7 1.77 0.22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 .00 29 15
Max 2.00 2.13 70 .9 118.1 6.00 0 .75 6.0 14.2 12.7 2.14 1.61 7537
Mean 1.27 1.15 43.3 4 1.7 3.41 0 .43 2.9 5.6 3.3 0.83 0 .61 5249
203
Table 8-3 Summary of b arbell wall data used to create fragilit y functions
Number of damage
PIA,!; data per .M oR
No Referen ce 'Vall ID Loading
(% ) 1 2 3 4
I CW-0.6 -1.2-20 Cyclic 5.8 I 1 0 I
2 CW-0.6 -0.6-20 Cyclic 6.6 I 1 0 I
3 CW-0.6 -0.8-20 Cyclic 4 .9 I 1 0 I
4 CW-0.6 -1.6-20 Cyclic 5.8 I 0 0 I
AU (1985, )
5 CW-0.6 -2.0-20 Cyclic 5.7 I 0 0 I
6 CW-0.6 -1.2-40 Cyclic 12.3 I 0 0 I
7 CW-OA-1.2-20 Cyclic 5.9 I 0 0 I
8 CW-0.8 -1.2-20 Cyclic 5.9 I 0 0 I
9 CW-O.6-0.6-20a Cyclic 6.7 2 2 I I
10 AU (I 986c) CW-O.6-0.8-20a Cyclic 6.6 2 3 1 I
11 CW-0.6- 1.2-0 Cyclic 0.0 2 3 1 I
12 CW-0.6-0-20 Cyclic 5.6 2 1 1 I
13 CW-0.6-0.3-20 Cyclic 5.6 2 3 1 I
14 CW-0.6-2 A-20 Cyclic 5.8 2 2 1 I
15 CW-0.6-2.8-20 Cyclic 6.2 2 1 1 I
16 CW-0.6-0-0 Cyclic 0 .0 2 1 1 I
17 CW-0.6-0-40 Cyclic 12A 2 1 1 I
AU (1985b)
18 CW-0.6-0.6-0 Cyclic 0.0 2 3 1 I
19 CW-0.6-0.6-40 Cyclic 11.5 2 3 1 I
20 CW-OA-0.6-20 Cyclic 5.8 2 3 1 I
21 CW-0 .8-0.6-20 Cyclic 5.8 2 3 1 I
22 CW-OA-2.0-20 Cyclic 5.8 2 1 1 I
23 CW-0.8-2.0-20 Cyclic 5.7 2 3 1 I
24 CW-0.6-2-0 Cyclic 0 .0 I 0 0 I
25 CW-0.6-2-40 Cyclic 11.6 I 0 0 I
26 CW-0.6-2-20B Cyclic 5.5 I 0 0 I
AU (1986b)
27 CW-0.6-0.6-20L Cyclic 7.8 I 0 0 I
28 CW-0.6-1.2-20L Cyclic 7.6 I 0 0 I
29 CW-0.6-2-20L Cyclic 7.8 I 0 0 I
30 No l Cyclic 7.2 0 0 0 I
31 AU (1986, ) N02 Cyclic 5.1 0 0 0 I
32 N03 Cyclic 3.4 0 0 0 I
204
Table 8-4 Geome tric and m aterial prope rties of the barbell wall data
No hw / / .... M i vt;
h. I. '. Sc ale
bi hi P.. P. P, t:
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (%) (%) (%) (psi)
I 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 1l .8 1.0 1.20 1.20 4935
2 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 1l .8 1.0 0.60 0.60 4281
3 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 1l .8 1.0 0.80 0.80 5760
4 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.4 1.60 1.60 4878
5 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 5021
6 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 1.20 1.20 4608
7 0.28 0.35 25.6 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 1.20 1.20 4793
8 0.63 0.70 57.1 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 1.20 1.20 4850
9 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 4224
10 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.80 0.80 4295
II 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 1.20 1.20 4 167
12 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.00 0.00 5106
13 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.30 0.30 5106
14 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.40 2.40 4878
15 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.80 2.80 4594
16 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.00 0.00 4594
17 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.00 0.00 4594
18 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 5106
19 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 4935
20 0.28 0.35 25.6 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 4878
21 0.63 0.70 57.1 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 4864
22 0.28 0.35 25.6 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 4935
23 0.63 0.70 57.1 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 4978
24 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 4893
25 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 4921
26 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 2.00 2.00 5149
27 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 0.60 0.60 3655
28 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.0 1.20 1.20 3755
29 0.46 0.52 41.3 90 .6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 1.8 2.00 2.00 3655
30 0.48 0.55 41.3 85.8 3.15 0.39 7.1 7.1 2.9 1.20 1.20 3940
31 0.48 0.55 41.3 85.8 3.15 0.39 7.1 7.1 2.9 1.20 1.20 5561
32 0.48 0.55 41.3 85.8 3.15 0.39 7.1 7.1 2.9 1.20 1.20 8463
Min 0.28 0.35 25.6 85.8 3.15 0.39 7.1 7. 1 1.0 0.00 0.00 3655
Max 0.63 0.70 57.1 90.6 3.15 0.39 11.8 11.8 2.9 2.80 2.80 8463
Mean 0.46 0.52 41.3 90.1 3.15 0.39 11.4 11.4 1.4 1.18 1.18 4824
205
T able 8- 5 S u m mary of flanged w all data used to create fr agility fun ct ions
Nu mber of damage
P I ,1,/;
~o Reference WalllD Loading d at a ue r l\I oR
(%) 1 2 3 4
1 Bl -l Monotonic 0.0 4 2 1 0
2 B2- 1 Monotonic 0.0 4 2 1 1
3 B3-2 Cyclic 0.0 4 1 1 1
4 B4-3 Cyclic 0.0 4 2 1 1
Bania (1972)
5 B5-4 Cyclic 0.0 2 2 1 0
6 B6-4 Cyclic 0.0 4 3 1 1
7 B7-5 Cyclic 0.0 3 3 1 1
8 B8-5 Cyclic 0.0 3 3 1 1
9 SI Monotonic 6.6 1 3 1 1
10 S2 Monotonic 24.2 2 1 1 1
11 S3 Monotonic 6.5 1 3 0 1
Maier and Thiirlimann (1985)
12 S5 Cyclic 6.3 1 4 1 1
13 S6 Monotonic 6.6 1 4 1 1
14 S7 Cyclic 27.3 2 1 0 1
15 Synge ( 1980) Wall-3 Cyclic 0.0 1 2 2 1
16 Kitada et al. (1997) V-I ES 3.9 0 0 0 1
17 DPI Cyclic 5.4 3 3 I 1
Palermo and Vecc hio (2002a)
18 DP2 Cyclic 0.0 3 2 I 1
19 Saito et al. (1989 ) W 12- 1 Cyclic 5.6 1 1 0 1
20 24M 8-30 Cyclic 5.3 0 1 I 0
21 24M 8-40 Cyclic 5.6 0 1 I 0
22 24M 8-50 Cyclic 5.7 0 1 I 0
23 36M 8-30 Cyclic 5.1 2 2 I 1
24 Sato et al. (1989) 36M 8-40 Cyclic 5.2 0 I I 0
25 36M 8-50 Cyclic 5.3 2 2 I 1
26 48M 8-30 Cyclic 7.3 0 I I 0
27 48M 8-40 Cyclic 7.3 0 1 I 0
28 48M 8-50 Cyclic 7.1 0 1 I 0
20 6
Table 8-6 Geometric and material properties of the flanged wall dat a
No hw / / .... M i vt;
h. I. '. Sc ale
bi hi P.. P. P, t:
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (%) (%) (%) (psi)
I 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 1.8 0.50 0.4 8 4200
2 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 6.4 0.50 0.4 8 2370
3 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.50 0.4 8 3920
4 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.50 0.00 2760
5 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.00 0.4 8 4 190
6 0.46 0.50 34.5 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.26 0.4 8 3080
7 0.21 0.25 15.8 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.50 0.49 3730
8 0.96 1.00 72.0 75.0 4.00 0.50 24.0 4.0 4.1 0.50 0.50 3400
9 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 1.1 1.13 1.01 5352
10 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 1.1 1.13 1.01 5568
11 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 2.5 2.54 1.01 5323
12 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 1.1 1.13 1.01 54 10
13 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 1.1 1.13 0.5 7 5163
14 1.02 1.12 47.2 46.5 3.94 0.49 15.7 3.9 1.1 1.13 1.01 4946
15 0.50 0.57 59.1 118.1 3.94 0.49 19.7 3.9 1.8 0.37 1.61 377 1
16 0.65 0.77 79.5 122.0 2.95 0.37 117.3 3.9 0.5 1.20 1.20 4153
17 0.66 0.76 79.5 121.1 2.95 0.37 119.9 3.7 0.4 0.82 0.76 3147
18 0.65 0.76 79.5 121.5 2.95 0.37 119.9 3.9 0.4 0.82 0.76 2727
19 0.35 0.4 7 29.5 83.5 4.72 0.59 19.7 4.7 4.8 1.32 1.32 5106
20 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 0.8 0.80 0.80 55 12
21 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 0.6 0.60 0.60 5192
22 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 0.5 0.4 8 0.4 8 5076
23 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 1.2 1.16 1.16 5700
24 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 0.9 0.90 0.90 5628
25 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 0.7 0.72 0.72 5439
26 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 1.6 1.60 1.60 3974
27 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 1.2 1.16 1.16 3989
28 0.65 0.74 55.1 84.6 5.91 0.74 39.4 5.9 1.0 0.96 0.9 6 4061
Min 0.21 0.25 15.8 46.5 2.95 0.37 15.7 3.7 0.4 0.00 0.00 2370
Max 1.02 1.12 79.5 122.0 5.91 0.74 119.9 5.9 6.4 2.54 1.61 5700
Mean 0.67 0.75 50. 1 78.8 4.51 0 .56 37 .0 4.6 2.0 0.87 0 .82 4389
207
Experimental data from 111 squat walls that met the above criteria provided the damage data
presented below. Twenty-eight walls had flanges, 32 walls had barbells, and 51 walls had
rectang ular cross-sections. Th e web thickn ess range d between 1.77 in. and 6 in. The aspec t ratios
(hw / I,..) range d between 0.21 and 2.0; moment-to-shear ratios (M / Vlw ) ranged between 0.25
and 2.13. The maximum aspec t ratio in the barbell and flanged wall datasets are 0.63 and 1.02,
respectively. Sixty-five walls were tested with applied axial load ranging between 0.022 A,/:
and 0.273 ~ fc' , where AI is total wall area and f:
is concre te compressive strength. Concrete
compressive strength , based on standard cylindrical tests, varied between 237 0 and 8463 psi.
Eight walls did not have vertical web reinforcement , 6 walls did not have horizontal web
reinforcement and 3 walls did not have any web reinforcement. Eleven of the III test specimens
did not comply with the minimum reinforcement requirements ( Ph = P v =0. 25%) of ACI 318-08
[ACI (2008)] for Special Structural Walls and Concrete Beams (Chapter 21.9). The maximum
observed horizontal and vertical reinforcement ratios were 2.80%. Eighty-nine of the III test
specimens were tested using cyclic loading, 21 were tested using monotonic loadin g and 1 was
tested using an earthquake simulator. The scales in the dataset ranged between 0 .22 and 0.75.
208
Table 8-7 Damage sta tes and correspo nding methods of repairs
209
Docum ents that provid e guidelines for repair of reinforce d concre te walls (e.g., FEMA 306
[ATC (l998b)] and FEMA 308 [ATC (l998a)]), repair of concre te (e.g. , ACI 546R-04 [ACI
(2004)]), observations from experimental programs, previous research on retrofit of squat walls
and expert opinion [Hooper (200 8)] were used to identify the most appropriate damage states and
their correspo nding methods of repair. The followin g subsections pre sent information on each
Me thod of Repa ir (MoR) and the corre sponding damage states. The number of damage data
obtained for each wall and method of repair is presented in Table 8-1, Table 8-3, and Table 8-5,
for rectangul ar, barbell and flanged walls, respectively. Appendix C presents all of the damage
data ana lyzed in the body of the report.
8.4.2.1 Introduction
Damage states OS2.1, OS2.2, OS2.3, OS2.4a, OS2.5a, OS2.4b , and OS2.5b of Table 8-7 are
associated with epoxy-injection repair. Epoxy injection is widely used to restore the stiffness and
strength of cracked concrete components. Crack width (OS2 .4a, OS2.5a, OS2.4b , and OS2.5b)
and reinforcement yielding (OS2.1, OS2.2, and OS2.3) are considered two indi cators of the need
for epoxy injection repair.
Method of Repa ir MoR-2 is sim ilar to Structura l Repa ir I of FEMA 308. Exa mples of damage
states OS2.1, OS2.3, and OS2.4a, each of which is link ed to MoR-2, are presented in Figur e 8-3,
Figure 8-4 and Figur e 8-5, respec tively.
Th ere is no consensus in the design professional community on the minimum residual crack
width for epoxy injection. Herein, two options are presente d, MoR-2a and MoR-2 b.
8.4.2.2 :\IoR-2a
Lowes and Li (2008) note that residual crack widths in excess of 0 .01 to 0.02 in. require epox y
injection to restore component strength and stiffn ess . However, residual crack widths are not
reported in the literature and could therefore not be used to identi fy the need for injection
grouting . Rather, max imum crack width, which is presented in the literature, is used as a
surrogate for residual crack width: if the reported maximum crack width under loadin g exceeds
0.02 in (0.5 nun}, (assum ed equivalent to OS2.4a and OS2.5a in Table 8-7) epoxy injection is
210
Figure 8-1 Initial flexural cracks on wall M4 tested by Greifenhagen et al. (2005)
...... '~
". ....
... ,
.•.
~ .. . . -,
,.
.'.:
Figure 8-2 Initial shear cracks on wall 52 tested by Maier and Thiirlimann (1985)
2 11
Figure 8-3 Cracking pattern for wall 53 tested by Maier and Thiirlimann (1985) at first
yielding of horizontal web reinforcement
Fi gure 8-4 Cr acking pattern for wall 52 tested by Maier and Thiirlimann (1985) at first
yielding of flange vertical rein forcement
212
Figure 8-5 Cracking pattern for wa ll DP I tested by Palermo and Vecchio (2002a) at a
maximum shear crack width of 0.5 mm
required. Reinforcement yielding (DS2.l , DS2.2 , and DS2.3 ) was used as another indicator for
epoxy injection, on the basis that reinforcement yielding will result in residual cracks of
substantial width. This relationship is studied in Section 8.6.
8.4.2.3 NI oR -2b
Method of Repair MoR-2b involves injection grouting of cracks for which the maximum crack
width under loading exceeds 0.04 in (1.0 mm), that is DS2.4b and DS2.5b in Table 8-7.
213
Figure 8-6 Cracking pattern for wall SWll tested by Lefas et al. (1990) at compression
zone failure
•
Crack width = 3.0 mm
.
/
.
Figure 8-7 Cracking pattern for wall M2 tested by Greifenhagen et al. (2005) at a
maximum flexural crack width of 3.0 mm
2 14
8.4.4 MoR-4, Wall Replacement
Damage states DS4.1 through D54 .5 of Table 8-7 are associated with complete replacement of
the wall panel.
Sliding at the interface between the wall web and the foundation (D5 4.1) will requir e wall panel
rep lacement, especially if the residual displacement is significant. Squat walls with low vertical
reinforcement ratio an d low axial load are susceptible to sliding shear. A sample cracking pattern
for damage state DS4. 1 is presented in Figure 8-8. Substantial com er-to-comer diagonal cracks
(OS 4.2) which are indicators of diago nal tension (DT) or flexur e-diagonal tension (F-DT)
failures [see Section 1.2], trigger a rapid loss of strength and stiffn ess . Such walls cann ot be
repa ired using epoxy injection because the crack widths are too great and parti al wall
rep lacement is not feasible because of the orientation and length of the cracks. Squat walls with
light horizontal reinforcement are susceptible to this type of damage. Figure 8-9 pre sents a
cracking pattern for damag e state DS4.2.
Walls with heavy reinforcement and/or high axial loads usually fail in diagonal compre ssion
(crushing of compression struts) as shown in Figure 8-10 . The damage is so widespread that
partial wall replacement is not feasible and the entire wall panel mu st be replaced (DS4.3).
Re inforcement fractur e (OS4.4) is rarely seen in tests of squat walls. Reinforce ment fractur ed in
only 3 of the 111 walls. Damage state DS4.4 is linked to wall rep lacement beca use reinforcement
fracture followed other significant damage in all three cases. Figure 8-11 shows the cracking
pattern in a wall at the fracture of boundary element vertical reinforcement. Widespread damage
at the interface betwee n the wall web and foundation is evident in the figur e. Damage State
DS4.5 assumes that wall panels with maximum shear crack widths larger than 0.12 in (3 mm)
must be replaced. FEMA 306 [ATC (l998b)] notes that when the width of shear cracks in a wall
exceed 1/8 in. (3.2 nun}, the damage is considered heavy and restoration of the pre-earthquake
strength and stiffn ess requires rep lacement of the wall. Thi s damage state is similar to damage
state DS4.2 in the sense that it is also closely related to diago nal tension (DT) and flexur e-
diagonal tension (F-DT) failures observed in squat walls.
Th e available images of damage together with the author' s descr iptions of damage were used
whereve r possible to identify the drift associated with wall rep lacement. A major challenge was
the identifi cation of drift corresponding to sliding shear failure (DS4. 1). The author-reported
drifts for slidin g shear failures exhibited significant variance, for exa mple, in some cases the
authors reported the drifts at initiation of sliding whereas in others the author-reported drift s
corre sponding to significant slidin g displacements. Two supplemental criteria are therefore used
herein to aid in the identifi cation of drift for DS4.1: 1) residual drift exceeding 0.5% (SCI), and
2) drift associated with wall strength less than 50% of the peak strength (SC z). Each criterion is
describ ed in more detail below. For a wall reported to have failed by sliding shear, the drift is
calculated using SC t. If a drift cannot be computed using SCI, SC z is used. If a drift cannot be
computed using SC z, no data is reported for DS4.1.
Sup pleme ntal Criterion SCf If a cyclic force-d isplacement relationship was available, the peak
transient drift associated with a residual drift angle of 0.5% was estimated. The residual drift
angle of 0.5% was associated with a zero-force displacement intercept of 1% story drift angle.
Given that the coda portion of earth quake groun d motions will generally serve to partially re-
center displaced compo nents, elements and building frames, we assumed that a residual drift
215
/
/~
I
~e AR WALL DP2
FINAL
DISP ;~ 1 0
Figure 8-8 Cr acking pattern for wall DP2 tested by Palermo and Vecchio (20 02a) at a
slidin g failure between the wall web and top slab
· - . -,...
t
· ... ·. .,. - , .
. .... .
"
.'. .
· ,..'
· .. . ,
,-
1 .. ,
" ' , '
. ,
. "-
·
f
~
, - - - .. . .
Figure 8-9 C r acking pattern for wall 59 te sted by Maier and Thiirlimann (1985) at
diagonal tension failure
216
Figure 8-10 Cracking pattern for wall 57 tested by Maier and Thiirlimann (1985) at
crushing of diagonal compression struts
Figure 8-11 Cracking pattern for wall M1 tested by Greifenhagen et al. (2005) at
reinforcement fracture
2 17
angle of 1% from a displacement-controlled cyclic test would be reduced to 0.5% in an
earthquake . Only first cycle curves at each displacement level were considered for computation
of the drifts at which the drifts at zero-load exceed 1.0%.To illustrate this computation , con sider
Figure 8-12 that pre sents the load-di splacement data for wall Ml reported in Greifenhagen et a1.
(2005). In the figure, the peak transient drifts in the first (1.47%) and third quadrants (2.70%) for
which the residual drifts exceed 1.0% are identified using red circles. The smaller of the two
drifts is assumed to mark the onset of sliding shear failure and used for further analysis.
2:50
- 0.0 F
20 0
l SS4
1:50
I Drift = -1.0% I
100 l S58
50
[
~
V>
0
~ " , =25 ", =20
~
<:I
- 50
- 100
Drift = + 1.0%
- 150
- 0.8 F ,
51 Specimen M1
- 200
lS~ l S 37
_ J -f ,
- 25 - 20 - 15 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
North ~ Sout h North _ South
l ateral Displacement [ml\l]
Figure 8-12 Residual drift computation on the force-drift relationship for M1 tested by
Greifenhagen et al. (2005)
Supplemental Criterion SC:f A backb one load-displacement rela tionship for the first and third
quadr ants is prepared using the first cycle shear strengths at each displacement increment. The
peak resistance of the wall is compu ted as the maximum force in the first and third quadrants.
The story drifts in the first and third quadrants at which the resistance dropped below 50% of the
peak resistance are calculated and the smaller of the two story drifts is chosen for further
analysis. The computation is illustrated in Figure 8-13 in which backb one force-di splacement
curve s are presented in the first and third quadrants. The peak shear strengths of the wall (in the
first quadrant in this case) and the drift s at a post-capping shear strength equal to 50% of the
peak resistance in the first quadrant and third quadrants, equal to 3.84% and -3.4 7%,
respectively, are identified in the figure .
The supplemental criteri a are used primarily to identify transient drifts associated with sliding
shear failure s but are also used if a failure by either diagonal tension or compression is reported
but the drift at failure is not, the drift associated with SC2 is reported,
218
zso
- 0 03h, -o.nz», -o.on-, o 02h, 00311,
200
0.8 F ,
150
100
50
~
j
co
~ ~1~=2 5 p, =20 11, =25
!,l
- 50
-1 0.<1-:-- - ----'
- 0.8 F ,
Specimen M1
l S46
-f ,
- 25 - 20 - 15 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 2D 25
North c- South North --4 Scu m
Lateral DospIa ce", ent [mOl]
Figure 8-13 Det ermination of drifts at which the for ce-peak shear strength drops to 50% of
th e peak for M1 tes ted by G reifenhagen et al. (2005)
2 19
Figure 8-14 illustrates the application of the two methods. In this figur e, MoR-N is any method
of repair, and DSN.l thr ough DSN.5 are the available damage data for MoR-N.
Using all available demand para meter-damage state pairs to create fragility curve s will yield the
greatest numb er of data points for each MoR (a maximum of 5 pairs pe r Figure 8-14). However ,
in most cases, the use of Me thod I will result in a higher mean value for a fragility fun ction than
that of Me thod 2 (one value per Figur e 8-14). Fragility curves were developed using both
methods to investigate the impact of the choice of data representation. Mea ns and standard
deviations for the drift data obtained usin g the two methods are pr esented in
Table 8-8 for each MoR; data are presented for both MoR-2a and MoR-2b. As seen in the table,
the means calculated usin g Method I are higher than those calculated usin g Method 2.
Variability, as measured by coefficient of variation, is higher for Method 1 excep t for MoR-3.
Th e impact of the choice of method is more significant for MoR- l and MoR-2a because, in many
cases, two or more values of drift could be associated with these methods of repair for a given
wall. Inmost instances, a single drift could be identified for each wall for MoR-2b, MoR-3, and
MoR-4.
220
Table 8-8 Statistical summary of the drifts (a ll cross-sections) obtained using two methods
for data mining for each ~loR
Method 1 Method 2
MoR Standard Coeff. of Standard Coeff. of
Mean Mean
deviation Variation deviation Variation
1 0.12 0 .14 1.20 0.07 0.09 1.20
2a 0.50 0.28 0.55 0.42 0.18 0.44
2b 0.62 0.22 0.36 0.62 0.23 0.37
3 0.84 0.39 0.46 0.83 0.41 0.5 0
4 1.23 0 .51 0.42 1.19 0.47 0.39
1 exp[_(lll(X)-,Po,)' ] for r z O
tx (x) = X<Yo,.;z;; 20-0 , (8-1)
{
0, elsewhere
In Equation 8-1, P ln x and O"ln x are the mean and standard deviation of the natur al logs of the
demand parameter. The standard deviation of the natural log of the data, O"ln x, is term ed
dispersion in the ATC-5 8 project [ATC (2008)] and is denoted as P. The median ( 8), mean ( p)
and standard deviation (0" ) for a lognormally distributed demand parameter (x) are presented in
Equations 8-2 through 8-4.
(8-2)
(8-3)
(8-4)
22 1
41 i i i L i I I 211 i i i I i i I I
- - - P = 0.125 - - - k = 3 1, = 5
- - - P = O.25 - - - k = 3 1, = 3
. . p = 0.5 k = 3 1,= 1
3 &... . . . .... . . . . .•..: . ······································, 1 - - - p=1 1.51-1··························:······················.•.... .: , ······ ·1 - - - k = l l, = l
- - - P = 1.5 - - - k =0.5 1, = 1
--- p = 3
:s
,-""
2 H ························: · , ····i····
"'"'
,.::.,
,-""
hnx=°1
0 .5
6"'"' "'"'
,.::.,
,-"" ,-""
2 4 5
0'
o
====
0.25
--- I
0.5
===0.75 ]
X X
Figu re 8-15 Fa milies of probability den sity functions for th e four distributions utili zed herein
8.5.3.2 Gamma Distribu tion
Sim ilar to the lognormal distribution, the gamma distribution is also one-sided. Equ ation 8-5
presents the probability density fun ction for the gamma distribution. The gamma distribution
uses two parameters, k and A . The parameter k defin es the shape of the distribution and A is a
scale paramet er. The probability density functi on for the gannn a distribution is unimodal with its
peak at x = Ofor k :<: :; l ,andat x = (k - l) /A for k > l [Soong (2004)].
{
~xk-le-).x: for x;:::': 0
Ix (x) ~ , (k ) (8-5)
0, elsewhere
•
J
r (k) = u k - 1e- lldu (8-6)
o
where ! denotes factorial. Th e mean (II) and standard deviation ( 0") for a gannna -distributed
variable are :
k
11 = - and
Jk
(Y ~ -
(8-8)
A A
Th e Weibull distribution is an extreme value distribution of type III [Soong (2004)]. Equation 8-
9 presents the probability density fun ction for the Weibull distribution. Similar to the gamma
distribution, k defines the shape of the distribution and A is a scale parameter.
(8-9)
Th e mean ( II) and the standard deviation ( 0") for a Weibull-distributed variable are:
(8- 10)
223
Brown (2008) notes that the Weibull distribution is appropriate for developin g fragility functions
because it provid es accurate results with small data sets and represents a broad range of
distribution shapes, which enables easier fittin g.
Th e beta distribution is a versatile distribution defined on the interval [0, I]. The probability
density function for the beta distribution is:
Th e parameters a and fJ are both shape parameters that take on positive values only. When
a,fJ > I, the density function is unim odal with the peak at (a - I) /(a+fJ - 2) . The density
func tion becomes U-shaped when a,fJ < I ; J-shaped when a ;: :': I, fJ < I ; reverse J-shaped when
a < I , fJ ;:::': I ; and uniform when a = fJ = I [Soong (2004)]. The mean (J1 ) and standard
deviation ( a ) of a beta-distributed variable are:
a 1 ~
J1 = a+fJ and a= a+fJ V~ (8-13)
Sin ce the beta distribution is define d on the interval [0, I] , expe rimental data mu st be
transformed to the interval [0, I] before fittin g the distribution.
Ix,x,.x. (xpx" »., x. 18 ) ~ I x, (x,)l x, (x, ) > > I x. (x. ) ~ ITl x (x, 18) (8-14)
224
Th e likelihood func tion L (O) of a set of 11 sample values is
"
L (Olx" x, • ..x") ~ ITl x (x,lo ) (8- 15)
i_I
which gives the relative likelih ood of havin g observed this particular sample ( X l = Xl'
Th e maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) of 0 is the value that maximi zes the likelih ood
function L(O) . Per Benjamin and Cornell, maximum likelihood estimators possess the followin g
desirable properties
• Asymptotical unbtasedness : means are asymptotically (1I ----t 00 ) equal to the tru e
para meter value(s), 0
• Efficiency : minimum expec ted squared error among all possible unbi ased estimators,
• Cons istency : be close to the true parameter values as the sample size increases with
increasingly high probability, and
• Sufficiency : make maximum use of the information contained in the data.
Given a set of samp le values Xl ' X 2 , ... , x n observe d from a population X , the test parameter for
the K-S test ( D ) is calculated as:
(8- 16)
In Equation 8-16, Fx (x j ) and Sx(:\";) are the theoretical and empirical CDFs, respectively,
calculated at the ill observation. Thus, the test para meter ( D ) of the K-S test corresponds to the
maximum of the absolute values of 11 (sample size) differences between the emp irical CDF and
the hypothesized CDF evaluated for the observed samples. The distribution of D is independent
of the hypothesized distribution and is a fun ction of 11 only [Benjamin and Comell (19 70)].
Th e null hypoth esis, H o ' for the K-S test is that the popul ation X comes from the hypothesized
proba bility distribution. At a specified significance level ( a) , if D is less than or equal to D crit ,
the null hypothesis is accep ted.
(8- 17)
225
Values for D crit have been tabul ated [e.g., Soong (2004)] as a fun ction of the samp le size ( 11 )
and significance level ( a ).
Th e advantage of the K-S test is that it is applicable to all sample sizes and uses data in unaltered
form (does not requir e arbitrary grouping of the sample data) unli ke the chi-square goodness-of-
fit test. However, the K-S test is valid strictly for continuous distributions and values for D cr!1 are
based on a complete ly specified hypothesized distribution (parameters known). Thi s is not the
case herein since the distribution parameters are unknown and mu st be estimated from the data.
Using the K-S test with estimated distribution parameters may result in an unconservative
acceptance of the null hypothesis [Benjamin and Cornell (1970)]. Herein, the K-S test is used to
evaluate the quality of the fit of the distributions relative to one another.
Th e Lilli efors test evaluates the normality of a given data. Herein, the test is used to assess the
accep tability of the lognormal distribution by testing the logarithm of the available data. This test
is a variant of the K-S test to account for computation of the distribution parameters from the
sample data [Lilliefors (1967 )]. The test statistic for the Lilli efors test is calculated in a similar
manner to that for the K-S test; the difference is in the calculation of D crff • The Lilli efors test
accounts for the unknown sample mean and variance and uses Monte Carlo simulation to
determine approximate values of D crit . The Lilli efors test is valid for small sample sizes but is
also appropriate when the distribution p arameters are unknown [Lilli efors (196 7)], which is the
case in this study.
226
T ab le 8-9 Statistical summary of drifts for each l\loR and Method 1
'Vall geometry
Rectangu lar Barbell Flanged
MoR
x sd cv x sd cv x sd cv
1 0.17 0. 16 0.95 0.04 0 .02 0.57 0.13 0.16 1.24
2a 0.47 0 .19 0.40 0.43 0 .20 0.46 0.59 0.38 0.64
1
2b 0.58 0.20 0.34 N /A N /A N /A 0.75 0 .27 0.37
3 1.07 0.29 0.27 0.35 0 .16 0.46 0.80 0.33 0.42
4 1.39 0.51 0.36 0.88 0 .14 0.16 1.45 0.63 0.4 3
1. There IS one data pomt for MoR-2b and barbell walls.
X ~ - L x,
1 "
, sd ~ -
1 " _
L( x,- x )
,]1" , cv r- sd Ti (8-18)
11 i_ I
[ 11 - 1 i_I
where n is th e number of samples of Xi . The dri ft va lues obtain ed for wa lls with barbell cross
sections are generally much lower th an those for wa lls with rec tangular and flanged cross
sections. No te th at the m ean drifts for Mo R-3 are smaller than Mo R-2 for wa lls with barb ell
cross sections, which is attributed to the dataset used to generate dam age data for barbell wa lls
th at includes many wa lls with low-aspect ratios and high vertical and horizontal web
reinforce ment rati os (see Tabl e 8-3 and Tabl e 8-4). Given th e results of Table 8-10 and th e
range s of data present ed in Table 8-1 throu gh Tabl e 8-6, families of frag ility fun ctions are
presented for eac h wa ll geometry .
Figure 8-16 presents the variation of drift with aspec t rati o for Mo R- I, MoR-2a, MoR-3, and
MoR-4 . All ava ilable damage data are included in the figure (also in Figure 8-17, Figure 8- 18,
and Figure 8- 19) . For barbell an d flanged wa lls, no trends are evident for any of the MaRs
considered. For wa lls with rec tangular cross-sec tions, the re is a wea k trend of increasing drift
227
a
• ba rbo ll • bar bo l
e fianged , • • flanged
• ....ctangul.. r , rec ta ngular
~
~
0.75 •
• . e:
~
1.5
. '
•
~
' CC -
" 0' C
'C
-0 I ". . ' •
. .. . U
•
" ' ,'i
•
I ~ -.:::
•
.~
• •
:
0.5 .
. • I:I ll . .' . I
,
•
~
•
.
"
' "..1 .
•'
o 0
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 c 0.5 1 1.5 2
Aspect ratio (II / I ) Aspect ratio (II / I )
If " If "
a) MoR-1 b) MoR-2a
~ "[~ '1 3~
00
2
•
[
•
•
•
bar bel
flanged
,.. "tangutar 2.5
,
.
.
,
', I. '
,
bar bo l
flanged
,,,,,tang ular
~ ~ 2 • •
':::: t .5 I ':::: ' • • •
~
-e • ~ 1.5 • I • "• •• I
. .
-0
,
C'
-0
,
I'
I .
"
...• C
-
' •
".• , •
if.
'
• • • •
•
• V; 1
0
. :. • •
•
•
o5 ~
t· .i- . . . . ..' . '
. . .
- • I " 0.5 . '
, I
,
0' ! 0
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 c 0.5 1 1.5 2
Aspect ratio (II / I ) Aspect rat io (II 1/ )
If 1\ W 1\
c) MoR-J d) MoR-4
Figure 8-16 Variation of drift wit h aspec t ratio for di ffe ren t met hods of repa ir
with increasing aspect ratio for MoR- I . However, scatter is significant and the size of the
rectangular wall dataset for MoR- 1 for aspec t ratios of between 1.0 and 2.0 is small, with most of
the data clustered aroun d 2.0. In summary , the available data do not reveal any strong correlation
between aspect ratio and damage for any wall geometry.
Figure 8- 17 presents the variation of drift with horizontal web reinforcement ratio for each
method of repair. No relationship between drift and horizontal web reinforcement ratio can be
identifi ed for any method of repa ir for either rectangul ar or flanged walls. Th e limiting drifts for
MoR-1, MoR-3, and MoR-4 for barbell walls are independent of horizontal web reinforcement
ratio. A weak trend of increasin g drift with increasin g horizontal web rein forcement ratio is seen
for M oR-2a but the scatter is quit e large and sample size is modest.
Figure 8-18 presents the variation of drift with vertical web reinforcement ratio for each method
of repair. No visible trends between drift and vertical web reinforcement ratio are evident for any
method of repair for rectangular and flanged walls. For the barbell walls, the limiting drift s for
MoR- l , MoR-3 and MoR-4 are independent of vertical web reinforcement ratio. For MoR-2a, a
trend of increasing drift with increasin g vertical web reinforcement ratio is evident. Note that all
barbell walls considere d herein had equal percentages of horizontal and vertical web
reinforcement an d that the trends obs erved with drift and vertical web reinforcement ratio for
barbell walls for all methods of repair are similar to those observed with drift and horizontal web
reinforcement ratio.
Figure 8-19 pre sents the variation of drift with normali zed axial load for each method of repair.
No significant trend s between drift an d normalized axial load are evident for any method of
repa ir for an y cross-section type. However, the numb er of data for normalized axial loads of
higher than 10% is very small as seen in Figur e 8-19.
In summary, the available data do not support the use of aspect ratio, horizontal and vertical web
reinforcement ratio, and axial load as variables in the presentation of fragility curves. Although
horizontal and vertical web reinforcement ratios have an impact on the limiting drifts for MoR-
2a, the dispersion is substantial. Only wall geometry substantially influ ences the relationships.
Th e barbell wall dataset yielded significantly different damage charac teristics than walls with
flanged an d rectangular walls as presented in Table 8-9 and Table 8-10 . Although the damage
data for rectangular and flanged walls are compa rable, the ranges on the two datasets are
significantly different.
229
2
• barbel , barbol
o
• • flanged • fla nged
• rectangul ar , rectangular
0.75 . 1.5 •
--::::-
~
~
.
. e:c
~
. .
.~ ·C ·
"C 0.5 . -0 1 I , "
o
i::' .. '
l e o
c' ••• I
I •
• •
.
U5 \ • • Vi '" • • •
• • •
f"'
• I ..
I ' ~1 . 11"
o ., ~"' ,•
•
·.
•
, • .
. . ..
0 25 " 0 .5
o
.. I
•
.• .• •
'• O • '•
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
~ OO ~ OO
a) MoR-1 b) MoR-2a
~ 25[ ] 3~
~ I.
I
o • barbel • 0 • barbol
• • flanged , fla nged
2 ,,,,,,ta"9uta, 2.5 . : I . ,,,,,ja"9u1a,
7;
'-' •.5 •
0 '.
• •
7;
'-'
2 0 :0••
0
•
c • • C ' •
·C •• ·C I • •• •
-.:;l • • -0 1.5 • • • •
..
c, ' • • •
.
C' • • ••• • •
c 1 ' . ' , " 0 • I • • • I •
if.
0 5f
I'
.
l ,..-, ..
' • •
..' . r7. 1 '"
• •
t
. , , '
•
I •
.
• • •
ot I 0
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
~ OO ~ OO
C) MoR-J d) MoR-4
Figure 8-17 Variation of drift with horizon tal web reinforcement ratio for differe nt methods of repair
2
• barbel , barbol
• • flanged ' . fla nged
• rectangul ar _ rectangular
--::::-
~
0.75
. .
. e:c
~
1.5 •
. .
~
.~
"C 0 .5 •
·C
-0 1 ' .'
·•
·
i::'
o •
. I C,
0 . ' . ·1 • '• .
~ ~
• ' "
~
.
~_ _
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
~~ ~ (~
a) MoR-1 b) MoR-2a
-t:: 2.5 [
2~
•
I. •
•
barbel
flanged
,,,,,,ta"9uta,
] 3~
2.5
o
. .
0
,
I . I
•
barbol
fla nged
,,,,,ja"9u1a,
o 0
'1 • 'l 2 . •
'-'1 .5 " I '-' ., • •
c
·C •
• C
·C
: •• •
-e .. -0 1.5 , •• • ' •
. 0 I ' • • , I . • • •
C 1 " • •• • C , I •
.2
v.
o5 ~
-
."j
••
•
•
"
'• • . .
I
I
.
•
:
.
'
. .2
V; 1
0.5
. ,, ' ,
.
.'
".
.
.
.'
_
'"
I • •
•
• •
o I 0
ot I 0
() 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
~~ ~ (~
C) MoR-J d) MoR-4
Figure 8-18 Variation of drift wit h vertica l web reinforce ment ratio for diffe rent methods of repair
a
• barbel
• • barbol
• flanged • fla nged
• rectangular
• • rectangular
0.75 L5
•
~ • t • •
" 0'
'C "
'C
I
•
•
.. .
-e ~
C- C' ••
-...... ..
S • • • s ~ •
•
'" 025 "' OS -,: ':.. •
• ••• • • • • ~~ ••
•
0
•
.; ~
~ -! II , 0
• •
0 5 10 IS 20 2S 30 0 5 10 IS 20 2S 30
PI A!c' (% ) PI A!c' (%)
a) MoR-1 b) MoR-2a
N 3
w
N "I •
•
•
barbel
flanged •
• •
•
barbol
fla nged
2 • ,,,,,,ta"9 uta, 2,5
• I • ,,,,,ja"9 u1a,
'l a •
'1
'-' l .5
- ,• • • •
, •. -.'•
" " •
...·..,
'C 'C
~
• -0 1.5 ••
C' 1 • C' •
"'" • • •
•
"'" 1
-........
•
'.
• • •
•
• •• • ••
O.5 r
~.
• OS •
• •• ,
0' 0
0 5 10 IS 20 2S 30 0 5 10 IS 20 2S 30
PI A!c' (% ) PI A!c' (%)
C) MoR-J d) MoR-4
Figure 8-19 Variation of drift with no rmalized axia l load for different methods of repair
8.5. 7.1 Fragility Functions Developed Using Method 1
Method 1 utili zes all ava ilable damage data for eac h method of repa ir. The distribution
parame ters (as defined in Section 8.5.3) estimated usin g th e method of maximum likelihood are
presented in Table 8-11 for rec tangular, barbell and flanged wa lls. Results for the K-S (all
distribution s) and Lilli efors (lognorma l distri buti on only) goo dne ss-of-fit tests are presented in
Tabl e 8-12 and Tabl e 8-13. The goodness-of-fit tests of Table 8-12 and Tabl e 8-13 were
conducted at the 5% significance level.
Table 8-11 Distribution parameters computed using Method 1
Distribution Parameters
w an
l\loR lognormal gamma \Veibull beta
Geometry
e f3 k A k A a f3
1 0.11 0.92 1.40 8.37 0.18 1.16 1.20 5.54
2a 0.43 0.43 6.06 12.98 0.53 2.61 2.63 3.38
Rectangular 2b 0.54 0.36 8.49 14.76 0.64 3.26 2.16 2.79
3 1.03 0.28 13.43 12.59 1.18 4 .09 1.39 1.58
4 1.30 0.37 7.69 5.52 1.56 3.00 1.70 2.95
1 0.04 0.47 4.27 101. 72 0.05 1.92 0.87 2.47
2a 0.38 0.50 4.61 10.76 0.4 8 2.3 7 2.26 3.20
Barbell
3 0.32 0.45 5.29 15.05 0.40 2.3 7 1.97 2.17
4 0.87 0.17 25.20 28.82 0.94 6.24 3.95 4.20
1 0.07 1.03 1.02 8.08 0.12 0.94 0.68 3.85
2a 0.48 0.68 2.54 4.32 0.66 1.66 2.15 4.94
Flanged 2b 0.7 1 0.34 8.78 11.69 0.84 3.28 0.36 0.40
3 0.75 0.32 8.79 11.00 0.90 2.42 0.69 2.66
4 1.32 0.44 5.54 3.82 1.64 2.56 1.01 1.52
Th e data presented in Tabl e 8- 12 include the K-S test pa rameter ( D), decision on the null
hyp othesis that the data comes from the hyp othesized probability distribution (A = Acc ept, R =
Reject), p va lue of th e test and th e critical test parame ter ( Dent). As noted previously, if
D :-:;; Dent ' the null hyp othesis ( H o) is accepted. The null hyp othesis for the K-S test is reject ed in
1 of the 14 cases (3 wa ll geome tries x 5 MoR except for MoR-2 b and barbell walls) for th e
gamma, We ibull and lognormal distributions (barbe ll walls, MoR4), and rej ected two times for
the beta distri buti on (rectangular wa lls, MoR-2; barbell wa lls, MoR- 4). The D statistic for the
K-S test repr esents th e maximum absolute difference between the emp irical CDF and th e
theo retical CDF . Therefore, it is a measur e of the devi ation between the repo rted data and th e
hyp othesized CDF . In Table 8-12, the yellow shaded cells rep resented th e sma llest D for the K-
S test cond ucted on the correspo nding wa ll geome try and m ethod of repair. For 6 of the 14 cases
investigated , the logn ormal distri buti on yields the smallest va lue s of D . In another thr ee
instances, th e va lue of D for the logn ormal distri buti on is only marginally « 10%) larger th an
233
Table 8-12 K-S test results for each distribut ion obtained using Method I
Rectangul ar 2b 0.294 0.288 A 0.213 0.399 A 0.194 0.720 A 0.150 0.49 1 A 0.180
N
4 0.203 0.678 A 0.108 0.892 A 0.086 0.92 1 A 0.082 0.8 15 A 0.095
W
"" I 0.20 1 0.770 A 0.098 0.558 A 0.117 0.273 A 0.147 0.348 A 0.138
Fla nged 2b 0.483 0.7 14 A 0.249 0.737 A 0.244 0.792 A 0.232 0.97 1 A 0. 174
the smallest value of D . The logn orm al distribution is therefore judged to be the best of the
distributions considered here. Table 8-13 presents the Lilli efors goo dness-of-fit test results on the
lognormal distribution. The Lilli efors test yields smaller values of D cril than for the K-S test for a
given sample size and significance level (see Section 8.5.5). As seen in Table 8- 13, the
lognormal distri buti on fails the Lilli efors goo dne ss-of-fit test for MoR-2a and MoR-2b for the
rectangular wa lls and for M oR-4 for the barbell wa lls. Note that no outlier analysis was
und ertaken before processin g the data.
Th e functions developed using lognormal distribution for each wa ll geometry and method of
repa ir type can be compared using the medians ( 8 ) and logarithmic standard dev iations (fJ )
present ed in the gray shaded columns of Table 8- 11. The standard deviati ons for Mo R- l are
generally high, which is attributed to the use of Me thod 1 that includes all ava ilable damag e data.
Th e standard deviations for other methods of repa ir are genera lly reasonable. ATC -58 [AT C
(2008)] qualifi es the fragilit y fun ctions that p ass the Lilliefors goodness-of-fit test an d yield
logarithmic standard deviations ( fJ) ofless than 0.6 as high quality. One interestin g observation
is that for barbell wa lls, MoR-3 precedes MoR-2a, that is, the median drift associated for Mo R-3
is less than that of MoR-2a. This anomaly is attributed to the charac teristics of the barbell wa ll
data used herein, nam ely, low-aspect rati o and heavy web reinforcement in most cases. Figur e
8-20, Figur e 8-2 1, and Figure 8-22 present the empirical and theoretical fragilit y functions for
rectangular, barb ell and flanged wa lls, respectively.
235
0.8
.f'
:g 0.6
.D
....o
0-
<1)
.... """"'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR-1)
..2 0.:1- --- Theoret ical fragility function (MoR- 1)
'@ """"'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR-2a)
u, --- Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-2a)
"""""''''''''''''''
Empirical fragility function (MoR -2b)
--- Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-2b)
0.2
""""'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR-3)
--- Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR -3)
Empirical fragility function (MoR-4)
- - - Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-4)
0.8
.f'
:g 0.6 1- 1·········.. · ·; ,...-/"
.D
....o
0-
<1)
....::l 0.:1- 1- 1 · · + /
'@ """""'''''''''''''' Empirical fragility function (MoR -1)
~ - - - Theoret ical fragility function (MoR-1)
""""'" Empirical fragility function (MoR-2a)
J ""..".........,,,.,,,,. ,,,,, , ,. I - - - Th eoretical fragility funct ion (MoR- 2a)
0.2 """""'''''''''''''' Empirical fragility funct ion (MoR -3)
- - - Theoret ical fragility function (MoR -3)
Empirical fragility function (MoR-4)
- - - Theoret ical fragility function (MoR-4)
Figure 8-2 1 Met hod 1 frag ility functions for barbell walls
236
0 .8
Method 2 utilizes the damage data with the smallest demand parameter (drift) for each method of
repair of each specimen. The distribution parameters are pre sented in Table 8-14 for rectangular,
barbell and flanged wall s. Re sults for the K-S (all distributions) and Lilliefors (lognorm al
distribution only) goodness-of-fi t tests are pre sented in Table 8-15 and
Tab le 8-16 at the 5% significance level. As seen in Table 8-15, the null hypothesi s for the K-S
test is rejec ted once (rectangular walls, MoR-4) for each distribution type for Method 2.
In Table 8-15, the yellow shaded cells identify the smallest value s of D for the K-S test for each
wall geometry and method of repair. For 5 of the 14 cases inve stigated, the lognormal
distribution yields the smallest D . Accordingly, the lognorm al distribution is used to develop
fragility curves for squat reinforced concrete walls.
Table 8-16 presents the Lilliefors goodness-of-fit test results. The lognorm al distribution fails the
goodness-of-fit test for MoR-2a, MoR-2b and MoR-4 for rectangular walls and MoR-4 for
barbell walls.
The logarithmic standard devia tions corre sponding to MoR-l are generally high but less than
those observed for Method 1. The logarithmic standard devia tion s for MoR-2a, MoR-2b, MoR-3
and MoR-4 are less than 0.60 except for the flanged walls and MoR-2a ( /3 = 0.62). Similar to
that observed for Method 1, MoR-3 precedes MoR-2a for barbell walls and MOR-2a. Figure
8-23 , Figure 8-24, and Figure 8-25 pre sent the empirical and theoretical fragility functions
developed using data characterization Method 2.
237
Table 8- 14 Distribution parameters computed usin g Method 2
Distribution Parameters
Wan
l\loR logn ormal ga mma \Veibull beta
Geometry
e f3 k A k A a f3
1 0.07 0.81 1.58 15.04 0.1 1 1.18 2.13 15.34
2a 0.40 0.42 6.81 15.88 0.48 3.01 5.78 6 .34
Re ctangular 2b 0.54 0.36 8.49 14 .76 0.64 3.26 2.16 2 .79
3 1.05 0.30 11.79 10.75 1.21 4.03 1.27 1.32
4 1.25 0.35 9.10 6.90 1.47 3.55 2.15 2 .96
1 0.03 0.31 10.11 316.82 0.04 3.19 1.32 2 .48
2 0.33 0.49 4.4 8 11.93 0.43 2.21 0.90 1.42
Barbell
3 0.32 0.45 5.29 15.05 0.40 2.37 1.97 2 .17
4 0.87 0.17 35.22 40.12 0.94 6.24 3.95 4 .20
1 0.04 0.79 1.71 29.17 0.06 1.29 0.65 1.48
2a 0.36 0.62 3.27 7.71 0.4 8 2.03 3.81 5.45
Flan ged 2b 0.72 0.37 7.79 10.14 0.86 3.22 0.33 0 .35
3 0.75 0.32 8.45 10.58 0.90 2.39 0.65 2 .51
4 1.32 0.44 5.54 3.82 1.64 2.56 1.01 1.52
238
Tab le 8-15 K-S test results for eac h distribution computed using Me tho d 2
Rectangula r 2b 0.294 0.288 A 0.213 0.399 A 0. 194 0.720 A 0.150 0.49 1 A 0.180
N
4 0.215 0.3 18 A 0.152 0.440 A 0. 138 0.7 17 A 0.111 0.088 A 0.198
W
-o
I 0.246 0.662 A 0.132 0.529 A 0. 146 0.398 A 0.162 0.607 A 0.138
Flanged 2b 0.519 0.609 A 0.29 1 0.637 A 0.285 0.584 A 0.297 0.980 A 0.180
0.8
.f'
:.g 0.6
..D
...o0-
...::l
<1)
0.4-
""""'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR -1)
-- Theoretical frag ility function (MoR -1)
-@ """"'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR -2a )
~
-- Theor etical frag ility fun ction (Mo R-2a)
"""""''''''''''''''
Empirical fragility fun ction (Mo R-2b)
-- Theoretical frag ility function (MoR-2b)
0.2
""""'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR -3)
-- Theoretical frag ility function (Mo R-3)
Empirical fragility fun ction (Mo R-4)
- - Theoretical frag ility function (MoR -4)
240
0.8
.f'
:g 0.61-1··························· + ,....J-iI........ ; ,.............. J , ·,···························· oi
.D
....o
0-
<1)
....
..2 0.:1- 1 1 .. . ........................ Id~·······························,··············~===::::±==============::; 1
'@ """""'''''''''''''' Empirical fragility function (MoR -1)
u, - - - Theoret ical fragility function (MoR-1)
""""'" Empirical fragility function (MoR-2a)
, .;. """"..""""""" :... I - - - Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-2a)
0.2 """""'''''''''''''' Empirical fragility function (MoR -3)
- - - Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR -3)
Empirical fragility function (MoR-4)
- - - Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-4)
Figure 8-2 4 Met hod 2 frag ility functions for barbell walls
0.81-+ """"",, ··,, ",, · ;" / +,, ,,"' ,,'1"""",,· ,,"""",,·,,"""., """"""."" ,;>,,,.,.,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,, ,,.,..,,,,,,,, , oi
.f'
:g 0.6
.D
....o
0-
<1)
.... """"'" Empirical fragility fu nction (MoR -1)
::l 0.:1- I f 'f ; 11 ........·........ '"! .A - - - Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-1)
'@ """"'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR- 2a)
~ --- Theoret ical fragility funct ion (MoR-2a)
"""""''''''''''''''
Empirical fragility funct ion (MoR -2b)
--- Th eoretical fragility funct ion (MoR- 2b)
0.2 ..,.- "",""""..... ,
""""'"
Empirical fragility function (MoR-3)
--- Theoret ical fragility function (MoR -3)
Empirical fragility function (MoR-4)
- - - Theoret ical fragility function (MoR-4)
24 1
8.6 Fragility Function Recommendations
8.6.1 Probability Distribution
Th e fragility data presented in Section 8.5 .7 reveal that the lognormal distribution is the best of
the four distributions cons idered for repre senting fragility functions for squat reinforced concrete
walls for both Me thod I and Me thod 2.
MoR-2a uses reinforcemen t yielding data (OS2. 1, OS2.2, and OS2.3) together with OS2.4a and
OS2.5a that are associated with crack widths of 0.5+ mm . This assumption is evaluated herein by
fitting lognormal distribution usin g Me thod 2 to a) reinforcement yielding data (OS2.1, OS2.2
and OS2.3), and crack width data (OS2 .4a and OS2.5a). Table 8- 18 pre sents the para meters of
the distribution. The pa rameters for barbell walls and OS2.4a and OS2.5a cannot be obtained due
to a lack of data. For rectangular and flanged walls, the medians calculated using yielding data
(OS2 .1, OS2.2, and OS2.3) and crack width data (OS2.4a and OS2.5a) are in close agreement.
Th e data of Table 8-18 support the use of reinforcement yielding data and crack wid th data for
MoR-2a.
8.6.3.2 Damage States Associated with Sup plemen tal C r iter ia for l\I oR -4
Two supplemental criteria are sugg ested for MoR-4 to aid in identification of damage for cases
where the rep orted data is insufficient to make an assessme nt. Th e first, SCI, serves to identify
drift at sliding shear failure. The second, SC 2 , is intended to the identify thr eshold drift for wall
rep lacement for walls that fail under diagonal tension or compression, for cases where the drift at
failure is unclear. The drifts identified using the supplemental criteria are presented in Appendix
C.
Table 8-19 pre sents the distribution pa rameters for MoR-4 calculated with and without SCI and
SC 2 . As seen in the table, the use of the supplemental criter ia does not significan tly alter the
distribution paramet ers. Criterion SCI identifies 13 data points for rectangular walls, 5 data
242
Table 8-17 Logn orm al distr ibut ion parameters calculated using ~Ieth od 2
Table 8-18 Lognorm al distribution parameters calcul ated usin g Method 2 for ~l oR-2 a
dam age states
243
points for flanged wa lls and 0 data points for barbell walls. Criterion SC z identifies 6 data points
for flanged walls, 2 data p oints for barbell wa lls an d 0 data points for rectangular wa lls.
The data of Table 8-19 shows that the use of the two supplemental criteria does not substantially
modify the values of the distribution p arameters. Accordingly, the reco mmended medians and
dispersions presented below mak e use of supplemental criteria.
Table 8-19 Effect of SCI an d SC 2 on the l\loR-4 lognormal d ist ribution p aramete rs for
~Iethod 2
Given that most squat wa lls will likely comp ly with the AC I 318-08 [ACI (2008)] require ments
for minimum rebar ratio, the medians and dispe rsions recomm ended in Section 8.6.5 are based
on the data of Table 8-20 .
244
Table 8-20 Lognormal distribution parameters and the corresponding Lilliefors test results
for squ at walls that comply with the minimum rein forcement requirements of ACI 318-08
lAC) (2008)]
8.6.5 Recommendations
Table 8-2 1 presents the recommended medians and dispersions for rectangular walls . On the
basis of input from the ATC-58 project team, MoR-2 is represented by MoR-2b, namely, cracks
widths in excess of 1.0 mm. The methods of repair in COIUlIlll I of the table are mapped to
damage states per the ATC-58 notation in column 2.
Table 8-21 Distribution par ameters for rectangular walls
Damage
MoR
State
e f3
) DSO 0.07 0.79
2 DSI 0.55 0.34
3 DS2 1.09 0.27
4 DS3 1.30 0.35
245
8. 6.5.2 Barbell Walls
Table 8-22 pre sents the rec ommended medi ans and dispersions for barbell wa lls . Since the
median drifts for M oR-2a and MoR-3 are virtually identi cal , MoR-2 is set aside for barbell walls.
Th e meth ods of repair in column I of the table are mapped to dama ge states per the A Te-58
notation in column 2.
T able 8-22 Distribution parameters for barbell walls
Damage
l\loR
St ate
e fJ
1 DSO 0.03 0.31
3 DS2 0.33 0.33
4 DS3 0.87 0.18
Table 8-23 presents the recommended medians and dispe rsions for flanged walls. For the reason
given in Section 8.6.5. 1, MoR-2 is represented by MaR-2b. However, given that the median
drifts for MoR-2 (=0.72) is virtually iden tical to that for MoR-3 (=0.76), MoR-2 is set aside for
flanged walls . The meth ods of repair in column 1 of the tabl e are m apped to dama ge states per
the ATe-58 notation in colunm 2.
Table 8-23 Di stribution parameters for flan ged walls
Damage
l\loR
St ate
e fJ
1 DSO 0.05 0.76
3 DS2 0.76 0.33
4 DS3 1.34 0.45
246