wStudies

2.1 tN|TRODUCT|ON
Electrical transmissionsystemso ln their steady-statemode under normal conditions.Three
major prqblemsencounteredin y-state mode of operationsare listed below in their hierarchical
order of irmportance:
1 . Load flow problem
2. Qtptimalload dispatch blem
3. Systemscontrol problem
The computational procedure req ired to determine the steady-stateoperating characteristics
of a
power syslem network is termed flow (or power flow). The aim of power flow calculationsis
to determine the steady-stateopr ing characteristicsof a power generation/transmission
system
for a give:nset of bus bar loads. Active power generationsare specified according to
economic
dispatchin;g.The magnitude of ration voltage is maintained at the specified level by an
automaticvoltageregulatoracti on the machine excitation. Loads are specified by their
constantar:tiveand reactive requirements.The loads are assumedto be unaffectedby the
small variations of voltage and ncy expectedduring normal steady-stateoperation.
The direct analysis of the network is not possible, as the loads are given in terms of
complex p'owersrather than irn es. The generatorsbehave more like power sourcesthan I
voltage sources.The main infi I
tion obtainedfrom the load flow study consistsof: I

:
. Magnitudes and phasea es of load bus voltages
. R$active powers pnd vol ge phaseanglesat generator
buses
. Real 'and reactive power ow on transmission lines
. Po,werat the referencebu

This infornnationis essentialfor continuousmonitoringof the current stateof the system.The

information is also important for yzing the effectivenessof the alternativeplans for the future,
such as adding new generatorsi meetingincreasedload demandand locating new transmission
sites.
 Inad Flow Studies

The single-linedia of a power systemhavingfour busesis shownin Figure2.L In the

porversystem,the variab definedon eachbusare:
. Complex powers rppliedby generators ,S*,and S*,
. Complex powers 'awn by loads, Sdl, Sld3,hnd S7o
. Complex voltages,Vy V2, V3, and Va. J

S,,

sr/3 soo
Fig 2.1 Single-linediagramof a four-bus system.

There resultsa net in ion of power into the transmissionsystem.The transmissionsysrem

may'be a primary transmiss systemor sub-transmission system.The primary transmissionsystem
transmitsbulk power fro the generatorsto the bulk power substations.The sub-transmission
systemtransmitspower the substationsor someold generatorsto the distributionsubstations.
The transmissionsystemh to be designedin such a manner that the power systemoperation
is reliable and economic no difficulties are encounteredin its operation.The difficulties
involved, however,are:
. One or more on lines becomingoverloaded
. Generator(s) ng overloaded
. The stability margi for a transmissionlink being too small

There may be emer suchas:

. The loss of one or more transmissionlinks
. Shutdown of some generatorswhich gives rise to overloading of other generators
and
transmissionlinks.
In system operationand nning, the voltagesand powers are kept within certain limits. The
power system networks o today are highly complicated consisting of hundredsof buses and
trans;mission links. Thus, load flow study involves extensivecalculations.With the adventof
fast digital computerswith huge memory, all kinds of power system studiesincluding the load
flow study can now be c ied out conveniently. The type of solution for a load flow also
determines the method which can be:
a
Accurate or approx
o
Unadjustedor adj
o
Offline or online
a
Single caseor mult ple cases
 Pg'y", System Optinizat

2.2 NE:TWORK
MODEL RMULATION
A real-lifepowersystemcompris ; a large number
of busesfor a load flow study. Thesebuses
interconngctedby meansof trans ission lines- Power is injected are
the loads are tapped from it. into a bus from generators,while
re may be some buses with no generation-
buses ma)' have VAR generat facilities and some
attachedto them. The surplus power at some of
the busesis
, transporteplvia transmissionlines o busesdeficit in power. The single-linediagram
systemis shown in Figure 2.2. of a three_bus
rrmally a transmissionrine is modelredbv u nominar-fl,
the line rgsistanceis always neg while
ed in load flow analysis.

Figure 2.2 le-line diagram of a three-bussystem.

The loads are considered ative generatorsand lump together the generator
ower at threbuses.The power at re and load
ith bus injected into the transmissionsystem
)uspower pnd is defined is called the
as

Sr=S*, -.S.li
(2.r)
,rhere
' the complex power supplied
the complex power drawn by
the cornplexpower injected i
Equation (Z.l) can be rewri

i =(Psi +iQs) - (Pa, + jQat)

4 +j = (Pe,- Pa) + j(ee, - ea,)

he real and reactrvepowers
in into the ith bus are

Pt=Pe, - Pai
i (2.2a)
F
I Qi=Qgi -Qo,
(2.2b)
 Load Flow Studies 11
So the 'bus current' at ith bus is defined as

Ii=ls,-lai (2.3)
Threequivalentpower s at the ith bus injectscurrentI into the bus.All the sourcesare
alirvaysconnected to a mmon ground node. The transmissionlines are replaced b'y their
nominal-Il equivalent(Fi 2.3). The line admittancebetweenthe nodes i and & is depictedby
!i* and !i* = yp.. The al admittancesbetweenthe lines is assumedto be zero. Apply'ing the
Kinchhoff's current law ( CL) at nodesI, 2, and 3, respectively(Figure 2.4):

Ir = !rcVr + tn(Vr - Vz)+ trc(y - V)

Iz= lzoVz+ !n(Vz- V)+ !zt(Vz- VE)

h = y 1 p V s +t B ( V z - V ) + h t ( V t - Vz)

lzto
2

*st
Figure 2. Equivalentcircuitof the power systemof Figure2.2.

Irz

Ito = ltzo Itzo, lzo = lxo * lzto and )go = )rro *

Fig 2.4 Reduced circuit diagram of Figure 2.3.
 ng the preceding equati

\ = ( ! o* !n+ lrc)\- lnVz- lnVt (2.4)

f -
t 2 - - nVt * (lzo+ !n* lz)Vz- lzgVt (2.s)
f -
t 3 - - nVr- lnVz + $Eo+ !rc+ lz)Vs (2.6)

(2.7)

Ihe diagonal elementsof the Y ix are self-admittances,

I,
Yii=* (allY=0excepr
Yi

= short-circuitdriving point or self-admittanceat the ith bus

Yn= )ro* ln* ln
Y z z =l z o * l n * lzt
Yn= )go* ln* lzt
lhe off-diag;onalelementsof Ysug the transfer admittances,

Y*(i * k) = (all Y=0excgptV*)

-circuit transfer admittancebetween the ith and /cth buses.

Yn= Yzt= - ltz

Yn= Yi;,=- ltt
Y2j- Ytz=- lzs
Jsing the irrdex notation,Eq. (2.7) can be rewritten as

NB
I i = E Y t V*; i = 1,2, ...,NB (numberof buses) (2.8)
k=l

n matrix notation
/sus = IsusVsus (2.e)
vhere
/sus ir; NB x I column of bus currents
Vsusir; NB x I column of bus voltages
Isus iri NB x NB matrix of admittancematrix.

, .., . sli,-
 Load FIow Studies

It follows that:

I'susis a symmetric x lYp= Ya(k* i)), if thereis no regulating/shifting

transformer.
fio only NB(NB + L)12 are to be storedfor the NB bus system.
llotQ+ k) = 0 if ith and busesarenot connected.
Since in a power network each is connectedonly to a few other buses,the Isus of a large
network is very sparse,i.e. it a large number of zero elements.The sparsity feature reduces
numericallcomputationsin load flow studies and minimizes the memory requirement,as only
nonzero elementsare stored.
Equation(2.9) can also be written in the form,
Vsus= Zeuslsus (2.10)
where ZBus= f#, .
Zsus is known as the Bus pedanceMatrix. It may be notedthat:
o Siizeof Zsu5 is (NB x
o llhe diagonal elements are the short-circuit driving point impedances and the off-
cliagonalelementsare short-circuit transfer impedances.
a
SiymmetricI'nusyields mmetricil Zws.
o
2lnusis a full matrix, i.e. zero elementsin Isus become nonzero elements in the
colrespondingZsvs.
I'sus is used to solve load ow problems.It has gained widespreadapplicationowing to its
simplicity' in data preparationan the easewith which it can be formed and modified for network
changes.

2.3 YeusFORMULATION

2.3.1 llo MutualCoupli BetweenTransmissionLines

Initially arllthe elementsof Y) are set to zero. Addition of admittance y between buses i andi
affects forurentries in [nus, Y Yr, Yii, Yii, and Y1as follows:

Yi!"*=Yittd+y (2.11,ai,)

Yi"* =Y;to - Y (2.1lb)

Yi"n =rr?to-Y (2.LIc)

Yi"n =Yitd +Y (2.1ld)

Addition of an elementof admit ce y from bus to groundwill only affect,

Yil"n= Yilld+Y

The detaiiledalgorithm is outli next:

 14 Power System Op

Algorithn! 2.1: To Build Irsus

l. Read NL = numberof Ii ; NB = numberof buses.
2. InitializeYf = 0 (i = l, . . . ,N B ' ,j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,N B ) .
3. Sertthe line number i=1.
4. Rr:adthe admittancey busesj t'o ft and shuntadmittancebetweenthe bus and
reibrence.
SB,- storesthe index of ttre 7th bus which is linked to the kth bus.
EIlr- storesthe index of the lth bus which is linked to the yth bus.
Ui- admittance the 7th and kth buses.
yih - admittanceber the 7th and referencebuses.
5. Apsign the values
/=SB;
m=EBi
Yil'* =Yfto +yr +yth

Y;::: =y:# +)i +fh

Yilf =Yf,:,. - li

Y#* =Y#o - li
6 . C h L * ki > N L
if 'yes' thenGOTOStep7
,elsei=i+1and Step 4 and repeat.
7. Write the matrix and stop.

2.3.2 MtntualCoupling B Transmission

Lines
lhe equivallentcircuit of mutuall coupled transmissionlines is showp in Figure
2.5. Shunt
:lements are omitted for simplicit The mutual impedancebetweenthe transmission
lines is zm
md the seriesimpedancesare zsl Zs2.
From lFigure2.5
V ; = Z s l l i + Z ^ I 1 r +V i

V * = Z s z I * +Z ^ I i * V ,

Zsl
J
Zs2 I,
<_

Figure2.5 Mutuallycoupledtransmission
lines.
 :L;l
=[;:
|xl :][:] (2.13)

0r

=L;:
l;l ;:l[l-]l (2.t4)

Simi,larly,

[r,l [*' r*l fv,- v;

l l = l l l l (2.1s)
LI,J Ly, t'z)LV,-vrJ
FrorlnEqs.(2.14)and(2.15 elementsof Ysu5become

Y,'i"*=Y,?to*)sl (2.16a)

Yff*=Yfi'o* Y,r (2.16b)

f&* =Yfln * yrz (2.r6c)

Y#v' =Y:]o * )s2 (2.16d)

Yi* = Yi}"* =Y,fn - )sl (2.r7a)

- )s2
Yff*=YY =Yfrlo (2.r7b)

Y,t* = Yfr"*=-Vfo+ 1lr$ (2.18a)

Yii""-Yif* =vi"lo+YrF (2.l8b)

- 1,m
Y;* =Ylf* =Y,}rn (2.r9a)

Yf;* - Yff* =vflo - )rrr (2.reb)

2.1 Obtain for the 4-bus sample systqm given in Figtrre 2.6. The ,series
and the shunt ttances of each line are give[ in Table2.1.
 Povter System Opt

gure 2.6 Samplenetworkl

Table 2.1 Line i pedancesfor samplenetwork of Figure 2.6

Lin,e Bus Admittance Impedance

no. (p-q (v) (z)
I t-2 j0.0 0.08+ j0.20
2 1-4 i0.0 0.05+ j0.10
3 2-3 j0.0 0.04+ j0.12
4 3-4 j0.0 0.04+ j0.14

Solution Ysuselements
are nitializedto zero.The numberof busesare4, so the size of the
m a t r i x i s 4x 4 .

n = 0.0,
?,',:'r;i:,';,:=
1.3: 'zt =
0.0, Y,j= 0 (i = l, 2, 3, 4)
Yzt = 0.0, Y3z= 0.0, El = 0.0, = o ( , t =l , 2 , 3 , 4 )
Yq = 0.0, Ya2= 0.0, +l = 0.0,
Branchy1 ir; added betweenthe bu numbers 1 and 2 and the elementsof I'eus are modified as
given belour:

!r = llzt r.724r38- j4.3r0345

Y n = Y n lr = 1.724138 - j4.310345
Yzz= Yzz lr = 1.724138 - j4.310345
Yn= Yn lr = -1.724138+ j4.310345
Yzt= Yzt lt = - 1.724138
+ j4.310345
]ranch )z isr added betweenthe numbers1 and 4 andthe elementsof Ysus are modified as
Sivenbelow':

l z - lzz=4.0-i8.0
Y n = n * lz = 5.724138- j12.310345
'qq*
Yq4 = lz= 4.0-j8.0
Yn= A-lz=-4.0+78.0
v '+r-!z=-4.0+78.0
r4l -
 Load Flow Studies

Branch yl is added between bus numbers2 and 3 and the elementsof )'sus are modified as
given below:
= llzt = 2.5- j7 .5
'zz=
Yzz* ls=4.224138- j11.810345
'ig=
Ytt* !t= 2.5- j7.5
'23=Yzt-lt=-2.5+j7-5
'32=
Yn- lt = -25 + l-1.5
Branc,hy+ is added between bus numbers3 and 4 and the elementsof )'eus are modified as
given below:
v - j6.603774
= llza = 1.886792
Y3 = Yt3* y+ - 4.386792- j14.103774
Y. - Yaa* yq = 5.886792- j14.603774
Y = Yy- !+ = - 1.886792+ j6.603774
Y. = Yn- !+ = - 1.886792+ j6.603774
The elementsof Ysusare o ined as

tr = 5.724138- j12.310345
rz = - 1.724138+ j4.310345
13=0.0+j0.0
t4= -4.0 + j8.0
I = -1.724138 + j4.310345
= 4.224138- jl 1.810345
- -2.5 + j7.5
= 0.0 + j0.0

r=0.0+j0.0
- -2.5 + j7.5
= 4.386792- j14.103774
=-1.886792+ j6.603774

I = -4.0 + j8.0
2=0.0+j0.0
3 = - 1.886792
+ j6.603774
- jr4.603774
= 5.886792

2.4 NODE ELIMINA N lN Zavs

i
Equation(2.10) is consid here

II
Vsus= Zsus /eus
I
I
I
I
I
I
L.- --r- ua
 18 Potver System O,

Equation(2:10)can be written in the partitionedform as

vru,I fzru, z,t1[/rurl

l = l l l - - - l (2.20)
e 7 J l . z r tz u ) l , n J
where
et ig the voltageelementto be eliminated
I is the currentelementto be eliminated
Vsusis ttre (NB x l) vectorof voltagesto be retained
/sus is the (NB x 1) vectorof currents to be retained
Zsusis the (NB x NB) sub- ix of impedancesto be retained
Z;y is the off-diagonal (NB 1) sub-matrix
Zg i;; the transposeon Ziy
Zs iptthe element of the i matrix to be eliminated.
The lnatrices are airanged i sucha way that the nodesto be eliminatedare in the bottom
rows, l.e.

NB
I ZUIi +Z;yI2 ( f = 1 , 2 , . . . ,N B ) (2.2r)
i=l

+ zyyl2
Zrz,t , (2.22)

To eliminate bts L, short-circuit Itagesource(er = 0): Therefore,from Eq. (2.22),

NB
€L=
J=t
or
Zr,
I. r = - tF
jl (2.23)
#"
SubstitutingEq. (2.23)into Eq. l), the following is obtained:

t*,,
;= !t zuri Y LIL
J=T J=T

(2.24)

fhe modified elementscan be

Zil"* - Zgta ( f = 1 , 2 ,. . . N
, B ;/ = 1 , 2 , . . .N
, B) (2.2s)
 Load Flow Studies 19

2.5 Zeus FORMULATION

(2.10)canberewritten
Equation AS

/sus= ItsusVeus
or
=Zsuslsus
Vsus= I'e-rls/sus (2.26)
or
Zsus= Ystis
The sparsityof I'eus may be tained by using an efficient inversion technique [Tinney and
Walker, 19671,and the nodal i nce matnx can then be calculateddirectly from the factoized
admittancematrix. Equation(2. ) can be written in expandedform as
NB
V;- Zi*l * (2.27)
k=l

It follows from Eq. (2.27) t

Zi* =
(2.28)

Also, Z* = Zri (Zsvs is a s ical matrix).

As per Eq. (2.28) if a unit t is injectedat bus (node) k, while the other busesare kept
open-circuited,the bus voltages eld the valuesof the /<thcolumn of Zsu5.Ttre Zsus algorithm is
a step-by-stepprogrammable nique which proceedsbranch by branch. It has the advantage
that any rnodification of the net does not require completerebuilding of Zsus.

2.5.1 No MutualCouplin BetweenTransmission

Lines
Considerthat Zsus has been for lated up to a certain stage and another branch is now added.
Upon adding a new branch,one of the following situationsis presented.
1 . Zia is added from a bus to the reference btn. A new branch is added and the
dimensionof Zsus goes up by one. This is consideredas type-l modification.
2i6 is added from a new bus to an old bus. A new branch is addedand the dimensionof
Zlsusgoesup by one. is is consideredas type-Z modification.
3 . 2i,6is addedfrom an old to the referencebus.A new loop is formed but the dimension
of Zsus does not chang . This is consideredas type-3 modification.
4. 216connectstwo old A new loop is formed but the dimensionof Zsus does not
change.This is consi as type-4 modification.

Type-l nrodification
Figure 2.ir shows a passive(li ) 2-busnetwork.
421[r'l
ll_ I (2.2e)
znJ LIr)
A branch with impedance 21, is betweenthe new bus 3 and the referencebus.

L
-,,I
 Power System Opti,

Linear
passive
network

Figure 2.7 Type-1modification.

Now,

v3 - zult
Flquation(2.29) can be

(2.30)

where 2'41= Ztz=Zn=4s= ized form, it is rewritten for the added

branch with impedance26 bet referencebus. Thus,
i*k) (2.3r)

(2.32)
wheren is sizeof the previous

Type-2 modification
26 is added from the new bus to the old bus 2. It follows from Figure 2.8 that

Y3- V2+ Zd3 (2.33)

Vr= ZnIt+ Zn(12+ IE) (2.34)
V2- 4Jr + 4z(Iz + 4) (2.3s)

Ir
I
Iz, ,1, + 13
Linear
passive
network

Referencebus
Figure 2.8 Type-Zmodification.
 rill
Inad FIow Studies il''
matrixfornn,
I lzrt z,r1f 11 | (2.36)
l = l l l +- l
[: ,J Lz^ zzz)lI2 \)
ubstitutingIh. (2.35)into Eq. (2,3i), we have
V7 = hJr + 4z(Iz+ /3) + Zult

.earrangingthe above equadon, obtain

(2.37)
V3 , \Jr + hzlz + (Zzz+ A)lt

iquations(2,'34),(2.35) and (2'37) fve

the new marix

(2.38)

ln= 42, 7a2=Zy2, .4t= 4z + 4

vhereZp = Zp, 4t = Zzt, added branch with
In gerreralized form the ;; rquation can be rewritten for the
bus 1. Thus,
mpedance216betweenthe new bus ft and the old
(2.3e)
= Zir (i = 1, 2, "', rli i * k)
=Zu
(2.40)
= Za+ Zjj

where n is siizeof the Previous

Type-3mo,ditication
bus as shown in Figure 2'9: This follows from
Here 26 connectsan old bus 2 to the reference g = Q. From w. (2'37), the
,Figure2.8 loYconnectingbus 3 to fhe referencebus, i.e. by settin h
following is obtained.
rlr* ZnIz+(42+7a)\=0

,-1
1 3 --
t
lZult +Z.2212) Q.4T)
" Zrz +Zv
t
t
t 22 I'ower System Optimizot
i

Substitutingthe value of 13 from Eq. Q.al) into Eq. (2.34),

V t = Z t r, +z,r(t, (zutr+z22r2l)
#
Rearranging
the aboveequati , we obtain

,, =(t -ffi),,*(',,
m),, (2.42)

Substitutingthe value of 13 ined from Eq. Q.al) into Eq. (2.35),we get

Vz=Zz r1+zrr(r, (zutt+zr; 2>)

#
Rearrangingthe above equatio we have

z z z z z )t (
,-ffi),,*1t,, zzzzzz),
ffi1,, (2.43)

Equations Q.a\ and (2.43) can be written in matrix form,

or
z,rl [l,l
l t - t _ _ l
Zr,) Lt,)
I l znzzr zn
26 + 222 lzrrZ^ zn Zft]
or
7,")[]
Tnew
"BUS

The aboveequationcanbe wri in generalizedform. If the branch with impedanw Za is added

betweenthe old bus k and the bus, then

Tnew
"BUS. (2.44a)

In the index form the aboveeq ion can be rewrittenas

zil"n- zi'o (2.Mb)

 Iaad Flow Studies

1pe4 modiflcation
an old bus2 to
ere26 connects other old bus 3 as shownin Figure2.10.It thusfollowsthat:

(2.4s)

I1

Linear
passive
network

Referencebus
2.1O TyPe-4modification.

The voltages of the buses 2 3 are constrainedbY the equation

(2.46)
Vt= V2+ Zlela
or
-
+ I) +
Ztlr + 2,32(12 Is - Iq)= krlr + hz(Iz+ I+) + Qs(It Iq)+ ZvIq

Rearranging,we obtain
0 = (4r- Ztr)\ + (7q2 4z)Iz + (Zzt - 4)Ig + (Zn + 4g 74r - 4z + ZiIq
or
'14-
Ia=-;I 4)\ + (42- Zt)Iz + (Z2i- 4)Il
r
whereP = 4+ 4z+ 4t- 7-2j- 4t
The iaboveequationcan be ewriffen in matrix form as

(2.47)

Equation (2.45) can be rewriffen n the'form,

(2.48)

L
24 tPo_wer
System

Substituting
the valueof Ia F4.(2.47)into 4.Q.48), we have

2znw
BUS
Q.a9a)

Ttre above equation can written in the generalizedform. If the branch with impedance26
is addedlbetween the old bus and the old bus.,.l,then

Z* - Ztt Zn-Zn

.7n,ew -old I z21s- 221 Zrz - Zn

zBUS ZBus (2.4eb)
F

Zn* - Znt Zp' - Zn

whereP'= Za + Zw + Zu - Zp,
In the index form the a equation can be rewritten as

,zncw oold
(Z* - Zfi(zu - Zu)
.ii =Li -
-
(l = 1, 2, ..., ni j = t,2, ..., n) (2A9c)
+Zu-Zp-Zp

The openingof a line (Z;r)is -Zii.

ivalentto addinga branchin parallelto it with impedance

Algoritltm 2.22Ib Build Zbus

1. Input data-Nl (no. lines) and NB (no. of buses).
2. Initialize Zi = 0 (i = I 2, ..ii'NB; / =.1, 2, ...,NB)i ' - : -
3. Set the line number t e r ( f= l a n d m = 0 ) .
4. Input the impedance betweenthe busesk n / and type modification.
5. Check type modificati
If typ6 modification is I then GOIO Step6 :
If type modification is then GCffO Step 7
If type modification is then GCITOStep 8
If type modification is then GOTOStep9. ,
6. Type modification I rsthat a branchis addedfrom the new bus& to the referencebus
Zw= Za
Zri = Zi1,= 0.0 (j = 1,2,...,m)
m o d i f ym
, =m+l GOTOStep10.'
 Inad Flow Studies 25
7. Type modification2 that a branchis addedfrom the new bus & to the old bus I
Z w = 2 1+
1Z o
Z*j = Ztj; j = 1,2, ..., nt
Zili = Z*ii j = 1,2, ..., nl
modify,m=m+l GOTOStep10.
8. Type modification 3 that a link is addedfrom the old bus t to the referencebus

Z*Z*i
Zfi"*=zf,'o
Zs, + 26
GOTOStep10.
9. 'Iype
modification4 m that link is added from the old bus * to the old bus I

Lzlr:w
.zold
tj =aij -
(Z* zil (zu - z,i)
Zr+Z +Zu -Zk -Zkr

GOTO Step 10.

10.Checkt>NL
if 'yes' then GOTO I l, else i = i + I and GOTO Step 4 and repeat.
I l. \ilrite the matrix and

2.5.2 ltr/lutual
Goupling een TransmissionLines
Addition of a branch
In this case, a new branchp-q added as shown in Figwe 2.11 to a partial (already assemblJ)
network.

: l

2
p &

Figure2.1 Additionof a branchto partialnetwork.

The performance equation for the already assemblednetwork with

an aCded branch
p-q is

L g L
 Power System Opti

Zn Zrz Ztp Zt^ Ztq I1

Zu Zzz Zzp Zz^ Zu I2

Zpr Zpz IP (2.s0)

E^ Z^l Zmz : " Zry Z^n 2,,,q I^

Eq Zqr Zqz Zo, Zn^ Zoo Iq

The network consistsof bil passiveelements,so Zqi = Ziq (q = l, 2, ..., m). The elementsZiq
can be determinedby inj g curent Ii = I pu at the ith bus and calculatingthe voltageat the
qth bus with respectto the brencenode r as shownin Figure2.11.Sinceall otherbus currents
are zero,then
Ei = Zqi (i = l, 2, ..., m) (2.sr)
Assumethat the t pq is mutually coupled with a group of elementsindicatedby r,r.
The currentsin the elemen of the network can be written in terms of primitive admittancesand
the vohagesacrossthe e ts. Thus,

=l;:-
[;] T^"]L;] (2.s2)

where
ioo is the current gh the added eldment
vro is the voltage the added element
i," is the current of the alreadybuilt network
v,' is the voltage of the alreadybuilt network
lpo is the self-admi of the addedelement
!pq, o is the vector of admittance between pn and all other elements with which it
has coupling.
From Figure 2.1t,
Eq= Ep- vpq (2.s3)
Further,from Eq. (2.5
ipq= lpqVpq+ lpq,r,Vr. (2.s4)
The current in the added ioo, is zero, becausethe current source is connectedbetween the
bus i and the reference.Bu the voltage across pq, vo* is not zero due to mutual coupling. Thus
froin Eq. (2.54),

lpqvpq* !pq,o\r = 0
 v* in Eq.(2.53), get

Eq

Eq = E, +

UsingEqi (2.51)
- Zri)
, o(Zrt (2.s6)
Zqr =Zpi *
lPq

Eu with respectto referenCe'Since all other

To calcul?teZqq,inject /r_= l_.P.u.current and measure
currents4re zero, using Eq. (2150
Ej = Zjo (t = t, 2, ..., m)
(2.s7)
ipq=-In=-l

for i* in Eq- Q.Sa we obtain

Substitutilng
= -1
lPqVPq* lO,,rsVrs
or

vpq = -

Substitut[ngfor vonin Eq.(2.53, we obtain

L*lPe'rs vrs
Eq=Eo+
lpq

Eq = E, +

Using Eq. (2.57),we get

qq
-- 7 (2.s8)
, "Pq

I
I
I
I

I
I
L -+.
 28 Power SystemO,otimi,

Addition of a link
Let threaddedelement1>-q I e a link. A voltage sour@ e1is connectedin
series with the added
element for recalculating
; the :lementsof the bus impedancemafiix, as shown in Figure 2.12. This
create$ a new fictitious node I which will be eventuallyeliminated.
The value of el is such that
the currentthroughthe element is zero.

I
2
,
I artial
n twork

tt, = I P,u.
vpq

r
Flrxure 12 Additionof a link to a partialnetwork.

The performanceeq for the partial network with the added element p-l and the series
voltage source e1is

Zn ZL2

Zn zz2

Zpr Zp (2.se)

Zn Z^
Zn Zn
In the aboveequation
, Er, 82, . , E. are
bus 4. So,

The elementsZ1i,i * l ( be deter

Figure 2.12 and calculating€1 h respec
Eq. (2.5e)

E*= 2

(2.6r)
 Load Flow Studies Zg

lhe voltage of the seriessource

et= Ep- Eq- vpt (2.62)

iince im = 0, the elementsp-l be treatedas branch,and also ip1= 0. Thus,
ipl= lplvpt+ !pt,oVo
ltrerefore,
'
I pl, rsVrs
vPl = -
lpt
)r

(: Ypt,o = !pq,rs, lpl = !pq) (2.63)

lpq

),

et=Ep

)r
!Pq"'(E' '- E')
Ep - Eq *
lpq

iubstitutingiEq. (2.61) into the equation,

- Zti)
lpq,rr(Zri
ZU =Zpj - Zqj (t = l; 2, ...,.m;j + I) (2.64)
lpq

fo calculateiZp, there is need to ject 1 pu current at bus / with bus q as reference.Determine

rroltageat bus / with respectto
Therl from Eq. (2.59),
'*=
Z*t (k = L,2, ...,ffi)

€r=Zu (2.6s)
where Ep arc the voltages with t to the reference bus. 211can be found out directly by
rcmputing e1.The current in the nt p-/ is
ip1=-Ir=-l

Ihe current in terms of primitive ittancesand the voltagesacross''theelementare

ipt = lplVpl * !pt, rsVn = -1

Since !pt, n = lpq,," dd lpt = !pq,

 P7wer SystemO,

vpt=-14!Pn'ov" (2,66)
lpq

Eq. (2.66)in Eq. .62),we get

Substituting

t=Ep-Eq.'#
or
+ Y'o'o(E' - E')
t = Ep - Eq *l
tpq
Substituting Eq. (2.65) into the above equation,

+ Y o n ' , " ( z t- z a )
z =Zpt - zqt *l
(2.67)
lpq

Here, the summary of eq ions for formation of the bus impedancematrix is given as per
type of modification defined ier in Section2.5.1,

Tlpe modification 1: A bran is added from a new bts q to the referencebus having mutual
coupling with link from bus r

(l = l 12, ..., m)

lpq

TVpe modilication 2: A h i s added from a new bu q to an old brs p having mutual

coupling with link foom bus r bus .t.
- Zti)
! pq, ,r(Zri
Zqi = pit ( l = 1 ,2 , . . . , m )
tpq

| *you,o(Zrq - Zro)
Zqq = pq*
lpq

Tlp" mo,dification 3: A link s added from an old bts q to the referencebus having mutual
couplingwilh link from bus r bus J.
- Zti)
pq,o(Zri
. + !
qt ( l = I , 2 , . . . ,m )

Zu=-
 Inad Flow Studies

[Vpenrodllfication4l A link is from an old bus q to the another old bts p having mutual
fouplingwittr link from bus r to
- Zri)
4, , ! pq,o(Zri ,.
Zti = Zri Z o' i * 4 1i= 1,2,...,ffi)
tpq

1+lpq,rr(Zrt -Ztt)
. , + -rru
Zy = Zpt Lql

f" =zfr'o ( f = I , 2 , . . . ,f f i i j = 1 , 2 , . . . ,f f i )

Hemovalof elements
Let the equation of the system
Esus= Zsuslsus

r.{B
= L Zi*I* (i = 1,2, ...,NB) (2.68)
k=l

On remoying an element,there be changein the impedancematrix of network, Eq. (2.68) can

then be wrdtten as
NB
= (2.6e)
ttc
k=l

whereElto' is the new bus vol of the ith bus.

Now, if the original i matrix is retained then to maintain the new bus voltages,
appropriatechangesin the bus t of affectedelementsare required.Then, Eq. (2.69) becomes

El"* = t Zi*Q*+ N) (t = 7',2,"', NB) (2.t0)

=l

p-q is to be
Suppose an element P-(I i mutually coupled to an element r-s. Element
removed.lFollowingEq. (2.70),i is obtained as
N*= Non for k = P
N1r- -Noo for k= Q
N*= No for k= r

N*=-A/," fork=s Q'71)

and AI& = 0 for the remaining b

 32 Pctwer System Optim

A currentsourceof I pu the .1thbus is connected(i.e. Ij = | pu) and other busesare kept

open-circuited.
/j= l Pu
I*= 0 (for/<= 1,2, ...,ni k * i) (2.72)
Substituting
Eqs.(2.7l) and(2. ) in Eq. (2.70),we obtain

E!* z,i+ z*N*- ziflrq* Z,No- ZAI^

or

El"* Z,i + (Zip- Zi)Npq + (Zu- Zi) N,, (2.73)

Let q- lp r l r a n dF = [ q slr.
'
Substitutingthe above defi variablesinto Eq, (2,73),we get

Elu* = Zij + (Zia- Zid 6lal (2.74)

In ,r'iew of the primitive ittance matrix, the perfoilnanceequationcan be written as

N = Af, (Ei"* - E;"* ) (2.7

s)
"p
where

AY"= f"- Yrt

and
Y" is primitiveadmittancematrix before removing the element
If is primitive admittancernatrix after removingi the element
El'*, E;"* are the new
From Eq. (2.74),the new Itagescan be written as

Ef* =Zyj +(Z^1a- ZrilNofl (2.76)

$"* = zaj +(zao - ZailNoF (2.77)

SubstitutingEqs. (2,76) and (2.1 in Eq. (2.75),we get

N o P =L Zyi - Z6j + Qp- Zfr- Zu+ Zd N,,pl

Rearranging,
we obtain

t/ - Ay"( - ZTp- 26o + ZsfllN"B = LY,(Zyj- Zai)

On simplification,
NaB-- IurtLYsQri - Za) (2.78)
whereM ==I - Lys(Zp_ Zrp_ Z + zad.
Substitutin,g
Eq. (2.75) in Eq. (2. 4), we get

E!"* = Zii + (Zio- ZidtufrLY,1zr,- zai)

 . Load Flow Studies gs

From the above equation the el ts of the impedance matrix can be obtained as ,,

Zii* = Zii + (Zio- Zi tLYrlzr,- zil (i = I ,2, ...,NBi J = I ,2, ...,NB) (2.79)

EXAMPLI0 2.2 Obtain Zsus f the 4-bussamplosy$temgiven in Figure2.13. The series

impedancesiof each line are giv by R. No line is
in Table2.2. Refufeneebus is represented
mutually coupled.

2
gure2.13 Sample
neNvork.

Table2.2 ine impedancedata of a samplenetwork

Ltn:g Busc Impedance Type of modification

ETO, (p-q) a)
I R-1 0.6 1 (New bus to reference)
1 R-2 0.5 1 (New bus to reference)
3 2-3 0.s 2 (New bus to old bus)
4 1-3 0.25 4 (Old bus to old bus)

Solwlton
StepI: Add branchZn = .6. It is type-l modification,i.e. from bus I to referencebus R.
Thus,
Zsvs = [0.6]

Step2: Add branchZzn= .5. It is type-l modification, i;e. from bus 2 to referencebus R.
Thus,
[o.oo.ol
Zsus=l I
Lo.O0.5J
Step 3: Add branch Zzt = .5. It is type-2 modification,i.e. from new bus 3 to old bus 2.
Thus,
 34 PowerSystem

Step4: Add branch 3 = 0.25.It is type-4modifipation,

i,€, fr,qtpgld bus I to old bus3.
Thus,

Zsvs

where
P = Z r r + 4 t- Z n - 4 r + 0 . 2 5
= 0 . 6+ 1 . 0- 0.0- 0.0 + 0.25= 1,85
Thus,

0.6 0.0
Zgus = 0.0 0.5

0.0 0.5

ified bus impedancematrix of Exampre 2.2, if the line from bus I

impedanceof - 0.25 betweenold bus I and

where
Zn * Zss- Zn- Zy - 0.25
0.40J405+ 0.459459- 0.324324- 0.324324- 0.25
- 9fr33784
Therefore,

-*cJ
 Load Flow Studies 35

EXAMIPLE 2.4 Obtain Z, for thp 4-bussamplesystemgiven in Figure2.14.The self and

mutual impedange$
gf gflph are givenin Table2.3. Reference by R.
bus is represented

0.5

Figure 2.14 Samplenetwork.

Thble Line impedancedata of a samplenetwork

Line Self Mutual Modification

no, type
Bus code Bus code Impedance
rrfq) (zpq) (r-s) (zpq,o)

I R-1 0.60 I
2 R-2 0.50 I
3 2-3 0.50 2
4 1-3(r) 0.25 r-3(2) 0 .1 0 4
5 r-3(2) 0.20 4

Solution
Step I: Add branchZ1p= 0.60.It is type-l modification, busR.
i.e.from bus 1 to reference
Thus,
Zsvs= [0.6]
busR.
i.e.from bus2 to reference
Svep2: Add branehZ2s = 0.50.It is type-l modification,
Thus,
[o.e o.ol
Zsus=l I
L0.oO.sl
S,tep3: Add branch 223= 0.50.It is type-2modification,i.e. from new bus 3'to old bus 2.
Thus,

Step 4: Add branch 21 D = 0.25. It is type-4modification,i.e. from old bus I to old bus 3.
 I-oad Flow Studies

- 0.324324)
-2.5(O.4o54os = 0.0486486
Zn = 0.405405 +
- .324324
6.25

W h e nk = 2
- ztz * Ytt't'.?.(ztz
:'zn'l
tz=zrz )t-l(t),1-3(2)

or
- 2.5(0.162162- 0.229730)
= - 0.040541
Z n = 0 . 1 6 2 1 6-2 .229730+
W h e nk = 3
-Zn+
B =Zn

or - !A59a59) -
- 2.5(0.32432a = 0.081081
Zn = 0.324324- +
.459459

Now,
- ZY +
tt =Ztt
)t-l(t), 1-3(2)

r.0- _! 081081) = 0.237838

2.s(0.0486486
+
+ .081081
7u = 0.0486486 6.2s

405 0.162162 0.324324 0.0486486

-0.040541
162162 0.364865 0.229730
z
ZBUS - -0.081081
324324 0.229730 0.459459
-0.081081 0.237838
M86486 -0.040541

Elimlnatlng the node' the fpurttr nodeis eliminated.

=Zfr
4fru* I,2,3ii=|t2,3; k=4)

W h e in= 1 , j = t a n d k =
zii* =ziy ;

or x 0.0486486
p.0486486 = 0.395454
7n9w -= -
.405405
f-ll 0.237838
 Power SystemOptimizat

Wtreni=l,j=2andk=4
zold zold
Pl4 1,42
LTneuJ
lz -- zold
Ll2
,"ld
tJU

x (- 0.040541)
0.0486486
zi;* = 0'162 = 0.17M54
0.237838
W h e ni = 1 , j = 3 a n dk = 4
roldzold
zii* =zilo "#
rJM

x (- 0.081081)
0.0486486
Zit* = o'324 = 0.340909
0.237838
W h e ni = 2 , j = 2 a n d k = 4

zti*=ziy '#
zoldzold

L44

(- 0.M0s4l)x (- 0.q40s41)
Zr;n = 0'3648 = 0.357955

W h e ni = 2 , j = 3 a n d k = 4

or
(- 0.04054t)x (- 0.081081)
Zffi* = 0'2297 = 0.215909
0.237838

W h e ni = 3 , j = 3 a n d k = 4

ziY = ztlA ziyZ3\o

zty
or

Zi|* = 0'4594 t - o.osro8_l)

: J._Q.9BlQQl) 8t&
=9.431
0.217&q
Finally,the modifiedimpedance ix becomes

Zsus

,""..,
 Load FIow Studies 39

EXAMPLF,-2.SFindthe ce, Zsss,of Example2.4 if the elementfrom bus

ied busimpedan
I to 3 (Irigure 2,14) is removPd

Solution Removal of t network element 1,-3(2) mutually coupled to network element

1-3(l) is obtainedfrom
_
iJ+ (Zio - Ziil Wl-t [LY,](Zri zai)

where pn is l-3 and r-s is 1-3. The indices G,= l, T = L, F = 3 , a n 6

d= 3 '
The primitive imPedance

= Io.zs
o'l
Zvte,t,r-lr(z)
L 0., 0.2)

I s.o -2.s1
- =l
)s=zil,^
L-zs 6 . 2 s )
The modifiedPrimitive lancesubmatrixis

[+.0 o.o]
yj=l I
10.0 o.oj
Theq,
- I t.o -2.s1
Av,=v, YI=
L_r., 6.zs)
Now,thPM matnxi s r ned bY
t14 U - [Ay,](Z"rA- tZaA- tzrPl+ lZl,PDl
where
,"1= 4s4o.lls+s+l
, J =lr" fo.les
1,,, [o.us+s+o.3es4s41
zd
tr,1_ o.a+orul
l= lt" [o:+oeoe
LZtr zrr) lo.uolol o.34oeoej
trrl_ o34oeoe-l
gl= f'" zrr)
LZrt
fo.uoeoe
[o.r+omeo34oeoej
0.431818-|
zn1 [0.+r1818
t - lt" o. 3rsiaJ
LZtt ,rr)= [o.ort818

-l
 PowerSystem

T'hg'elempnts
of the M x are obtainedas

IZy"J- 6a I - [zrp)+

or

0 . 2 1 8 1 8 -1 0.2t8181.l r.218181
0.2ru81.l
=|
0.545453 o.s4s4fi
I l- o.s+s+se
o.+soro,l

14l-l _lo.aran- o.3z43nf

1 0 . 8 1 0 8 0 81 . 8 1 0 8 0J8
Also,
-0.3243rt11
| _2.r1 r.+se+ss
_f
-
r.810808
-JL-r.s 6.2sJL_3.7r6ztz
The' elementsof the i nce marix are obtained as

rz,,-z,rf,
zt*=z,i+l I t.q
| |
LZn- z,sJ l- l.' ( f = 1 '2 , 3 , J = 1 r 2 r 3 )

Zsvs

2.6 LOAD FLOWPROBL

The complex power injected by sourceinto the ith bus of a powef
sy$tefnis
Sr= i+jQi=VtIi (i = I ,2, ,...,,
NP)
Substituting
the valueof7, = !t v1, in the above power gquation,
k=l
 Load Flow Studies

( &= 1 , 2 ,. . . ,N B ) (2.80)

where
'Vi is the voltage
of ith bus
, |Yi*is the elementof admittancebus.
Equatingthe real and raginary parts,

( /Ng
R " l vl,> v , . o v i ( & = 1 , 2 , . . .N, B ) (2.81a)
\ \t=r )

( /Ns
I*l%lZv,ivt (ft= I ,2, ...,NB) (2.8rb)
\ \*=r ))
where
4 is the real power
Oi is the reactivepower
Irt Vi = lVilei8i, Vk = V1,lei6*,Yi*= lY*leiei*
where

lVrI is the magnitude the voltage

Iti is the angle of the v Itage
0,.1is the-load angle.
Substitutingfor Vi, V* in Eq. (2.80)
Y;1,

Pi+jQi =lV, ,i6i e-io*lr*

| ,-ioi* ( i = 1, 2 , . . . ,N B )
J, l* |
or
NB
4 +jQt =lV,
-l lY-| lV*1ti<a'-6r-o*) 1, 2 , . . . ,N B )
(i =
or
NB
..Pi+jQi = lY,I
:=l
l 26, - dr
I l v olv*l 0*) (d= I , 2, ...,NB)

Pi+iQi,=lvl lv*l I i* | (cos(di - 61,- 0p)+7sin (di - dr - 0*)) (f = 1,2, ...,NB)

_:y,
Separal;ingthe real and imagi parts of above equation to get real and reactive powers,
NB
r, = 'lvil' &I= l 'ol lY,rlcos(d; - 61,- fiit) (r = 1, 2, ...,NB) (2.82a).

NB
'ol
Qi = 'lvil
&=l
lYnl sin(d; - 61 - 0*) (2 82b)
 42 Rtwer SystemOpt

Equation (2.80) can also be nas

NB
l , kI= l (G* - iBil lvole-i6*
4+jQt=lV
where
Yp= Gv,+jB,o
Yi*= Gi*- jBi*

P i + j e i = l % l. (Gi* - iBi) lVoleit\ - dt) ( i = 1, 2 , . . . ,N B )

k

NB
P i + j e i = l vl, I ( G i r iBil lvolzlAi- 6d (r- 1,2,...,NB)
k=l

NB
4 + i Q i = l 'vkrr= ll l v o l tik - jB*) (cos(6; - 6) +7sin (6; - dr) (f = 1, 2, ...,NB)

NB
PtiiQi = lvrl
' / <I = l lvol [G;e
cos(6, - 6) + Bir sin (d; - dr)]

+ jlG;* sin (dt do) - B;1cos(6, - dr)l) (i = 1, 2, ...,NB)

Separating
the real and ima nary parts of the above equationto get real and reactive powers,

NB
r' = 'lv;l I lvoltc,o (4 - 6) + Bi*sin(d; - dr)l ; (i = 1,2, ...,NB) (2.83a)
&=l

NB
Q t i l=r rl ,I l y o I t c'*n (4 - de) - B* cos(d; - d*)l; (r = 1, 2, ...,NB) (2.83b)

Equations(2.81a)and(2.81b), . (2.82a)and(2.82b),Eqs.(2.83a)and(2.83b)arecalledpower
flow equaltions.
TheseareNB andNB reactivepowerflow equationsgiving a total of 2 x NB
power flow equations.At each there are four variables, narnely | % l, 6p P; and Qi, giving a
total of 4 x NB variables (for buses).If at every bus two variablesare specified(thus
specifyingatotal
of Z xNB les), the remainingtwo variablesat every bus (a total of 2 x
NB remairningvariables) can be bund by solving2 x NB power flow equations. In a physical
system, th'e variables are specifi depending on what kind of devices are connectedto that bus.
In general,,four types of buses

2.6.1 Slack Bus/SwingB eferenceBus

Voltage magnitude and voltage ase angle are specified. Normally, voltage magnitude is set to
1 pu and '"roltageangle is set to . The real and reactive powers are not specified.
The known parametersare tagemagnitudrI y,l, *d voltageangle 4.
The runknownparametersa real power Pi and reactive power Q;.

-.dt
 Load Flow Studies 43
In a load flow study, and reactivepowers cannot be fixed a priori at all the busesas the
net complex power flow into network is not known in advance. So, the system power iosses
are unknown till the load flo study is complete. It is, therefore, necessaryto rhave one bus at
which complexpower is un ified so that it suppliesthe differertcein the total systemload pius
lossesand the sum of the co lex powers specified at the remaining buses.Such a bus is known
as slack bus and must be a g bus. If slack bus is not specified,the bus connectedto the
largest generatingstation is rmally selectedas the slack bus.

2.6.2 PQ Bus/Load
A pure load bus is a PQ bus A load bus has no generatingfacility (i.e. Ps = Qe, = 0 ). At this
type of bus, the net real po P; and the reactive power Qi are known as

= Ps, - Pai and Qi = Qsi - Qa,

where
'Ps,,Qs, are the real reactive power generationsat the bus respectively.
Fa,, Qa, are the real reactive power demandsat the bus respectively.
'P6,and Q4, are known m load forecasting and P*, andQr. are specified.
lihe known variableso bus are real power Pi and the reactive power Q1.
llhe unknowns are vol magnitud" | % | and voltage angle d;.
The PQ buses are the common comprising almost 85Voof all the busesin a given
power system.

2.6.3 PV Bus/Gene r Bus

A generatoris always con to a PV bus. Hence the net power Pi, known asP4 is known from
load forecasting.
Ithe knowns are real po P; and the voltage magnitude | % l.
lfhe unknowns are reac ve power Qt and the voltage angle d;.
PV busescomprise l|Vo of all the busesin a power system.

2.6.4 Voltage-Gontroll Buses

Generally the PV buses and
have physical difference.
uses a tap-adjustabletrans
Hence,Pr, = Qr, = 0 at these
llhe knowns are real po
magnit.udedi is an unknown
voltage-controlledbuses are grouped together but these buses
voltage-controlled bus has also voltage control capabilities, and
and/or a static VAR compensator instead of a generator.
. Thusn - - Pa, andQi - - Qo, at thesebuses.
P;, rcactivepower Qi, and voltage magnitudeI I1l. The voltage

2.6.5 Limits
For static load flow equati (SLFE) solution to have practical significance, all the state and
controllvariablesmust be wi in the specified practical limits. These limits are representedby
specifi,cationsof power hardwareand operating constraints,and are describedas follows:

t
 44 Power System Optimi

r VoltagemagnitudeI V1 must Satisfythe inequality

l y , l ' i ns l v i l < l % l r a r
This limit arisesdue t the fact that the power systeni equipment is designed to operate
at fixed voltageswithi the allowablevariationsof t (5-10)Voof ratedvalues.
. Certain of the voltage es d; (statevariables)mustsatisfy

la - dols la,- dol**

This consffaint limits the maximum permissible power angle of transmission line
connectingbusesj and k and is imposed by considerationsof stability.
. Owing to physicallimi ons of P andlor
Q, generationsourcesare constrained.
Pi, S Ps,< P#* (l = I ,2, .,.,NB)

oil < Qr, s Q;^ (i = I ,2, ...,NB)

Also, the equality cons

+Pr

+Qr

where Pi. and Qt are system and reactive power lossesrespectively.

The load flow equations nonlinear algebraic equationsand have to be solved through
iterative numerical techniques ch as Gauss Elimination, Gauss-Seideland Newton-Raphson
techniques,etc. At the cost of lution accuracy,it is possibleto linearize load flow equationsby,
making suitable assumptionsa d approximationsso that fast and explicit solutions become
possible.

2.7 COMPUTATION
OF INE FLOWS
Considerthe line connectingthe buses i and k (Figure 2.15).
where
y* is the series admi
lnau !*ro are the shunt ad ittancesrespectively

I
I I*r li* Iar Ip
___l

IE6 I*io

lirc l*to

Ffgure2.15 ransmission
line connectingi and k buses.
 Load Flow Studies 4s
,S1pis the power injected in the line from the ith bus
f1 is the current injected by the ith bus
% is voltage at the fth bus.
The r:urrent fed by the bus into the line can be expressed
I*- I i 1 4+ I i p

Ii*=(Vi-V*)y*+Vilm (2.84)
where
IiH=(Vi-V*)yi*

Irc - ViYirc

The power injected into the line from bus i to bus & is

S*= Pi*+ jQir

Si* = Vilir

Substitutingthe conjugateof Eq. 2.84) into the above equation

s = vil(vi - V;)y,i + Y,.y,io

] (2.85)

Similarly, the power injected into line from bus & to bus i is

s - v1,t(d- v,*)yi + viy|ol (2.86)

The powerlossin the (t-fr)thline i the sumof the powerflows in the (i-&)th line from the ith bus
and the /cthrbus, respectively,i.e.

Pti* -- S4 + Su (2.87)

Total transmissionlossescan be mputed by summing all the line flows of the powersystem.

NL
Ptor,= (2.88)
ilt,
where Sl = S* + Sr
The slack bus power can be obtained by summing the line flows on the lines
terminating at the slack bus.

2.8 MODELLINGOF RE LATINGTRANSFORMERS

Transformers
providea convenient
meansof controllingrealpower,andreactivepowerflow along
a transmiss:ion line. Real power be controlled by meansof shifting the phaseof voltage, and
reactive power by changing its itude. Voltage magnitude can be changed by transformers
provided with tap changing load (TCLJL)gear.Transformers speciallydesignedto adjust
voltage magnitudeor phaseangle through.smallvaluesare calledregulatingtransformers. The
'presenceof regulating in lines modifiesthe Ysu5matrixtherebymodifyingthe load
flow solution. Considera line, ting two buses, having a regulating transformer with off-
inominal turns (tap) ratio a incl at one end as shown in Figure 2.16.

. ' a
,*[
 Ibwer System

vj
Vi = aVi lij Ij

: . :
Flgure2.16 Transmission line with regulating transformer.

Sincethe transformeris umed ideal, complex power output from it equalscomplex power
input,i.er.
St - Viti =Vi\t).
or
vili = aVi(I). (',' Vi' = aVi)
or
I; =a*Il (2.8e)
For translmission
line,
Ii = yijoVi'+yij(Vi' - Vi)
or
Ii = ayiioVi+ lii(aVi - Vi)
or
I/a* = alrjoVi+ aliiVi- lUVi
or
Ii= a2(yw+ yij)Vi- a*yiivj (2.e0)
Similarly,
Ii =liioVi +yii(Vi - Vi)
or
I j =li1oV1+yii(Vi - aVi)

Ii= lqoVi+ lUVi- aYUVi

Ii = -aliiVi + 0,lo + yi)Vi (2.er)

Equations(2.90) and(2.91)can written in matrix form,

Ir,
I
+ril - a'yij
I'tl i lo"uo
- I f-l
y,i)J
(2,92)
L ayij 0i,io+ LYiJ
i i , .
 Load Flow Studies

Alternartive method
FromFigure2.16,
':,1=1":,,,"
j,,,]
where
f;J (2.e3)

L,
",,'
l=I 'JL;
lvi
lv,
.vj
0l Vi

.vj
Q.9aa)

t:,, ;l
rl'
Ij.] =

t e3),
rto, E q. ((2.
;

I
IIi

IIi
(2.e4b)

SubstitutingEqs.(2.94a)and .e4b)into

i'lt - 0iu o+{ yij

Iii) t,vij
l -
I i J [' lii (),rio + v
or

Oi,io+ )ii)
-ah
[,]

or

[] ,*'i,u,]
L::]f':.,,1' [;]
=1":';,"
or

;] ;;'::,J
[l] (2.es)

,i-netff ork rePresentatlon an off-nomlnaltransformer

For an off-nominal turns ra transformer, a is real, i.e. a' = 4. Therefore, Eq. (2.90) can be
rewritten as
Ir= a2(yq+ ydVi- ayijVj
or
I i = !o),n+ a2y;)Vi- aliiVi+ ayilVi- oytiVi
or
I r = lazyip + a(a - l)yiilVi + ayilVi - Vi) (2.e6)

I
t*
48 Power System

Equation(2.91)can be rewri

Ij aliiVi- alijVi + $aru+ yiVi- ayiiVj

or
= ah/Vi- V) + [yW + (l - a'IyA]Vi (2.e7)
Equations(2.96) and (2.97), be representedby a ?T-networkas shown in Figure2.17.

ay ij
I

dy,n + a(a
tn+Q-a)Yii

Figure 17 fi-representation
of a transmission
line.

Otf-nominaltransformers both line ends

With off-nominal tap-setting formers at each end as shown in Figure 2,I8, we have

'i,)=P:;'',,,'
i,,,,]
L;; (2.e8)

l: ai ai:1,1,,

4 tij Ij

Flgure 2.18 Off transformers

at both line ends.

where

lu=;l fo,
tL 0
' 1
(2.99a)

,= 0
ai

I (2.eeb)
0 []
aj
 Load Flow Studies

SubstitutingEqs. (2.99a) (2.99b)into Eq. (2.98),

1
ai
=l'"-iu'u'
0 [] ,u,'.r,J
[; ;] [;]
l o
*
4i +yil -aiti
1",(rro I ft,l
L -aili ai1i1o
* ruil LurJ
0 l
aj
or
o +ft) -aiyii
I'r I f",oi;o
-aitii I [,*I
[] Io ";..|L *ru)JLurJ
ai(yiio
or

t; (2.100)

2.9 GAUSS-SEIDEL ETHOD

Let there be NB buses. systemis comprisedof threetypesof buses,namelyslackbus, pe
busesandPV buses:The busis numberedone,andthe remaining(NB - 1) busesmay be pe
busesor PV buses.I-et 2 to busesbe PQ busesandNP + I to NB busesbe PV buses. :

PQ huses
At P9, buses,real power,P;(f 2,3,..., NP) andreactivepower,Q{i = 2,3,..., NP) are specifiedor
knownrwhereasvoltagemagn , I Vif (d = 2, 3, ..., NP) and voltageangles,4 (i = 2, 3, ..., Np)
are to be calculated.So, Vi i assumedinitially and -updated',in,
every iteration.
'fhe
complex power inj ted into the ith bus is

Si=4+iQi=VtI;
or
Pi- jQi= vil,
or

Ii -
4 -iQi
vi (2 101.a)
i a.-

bus is
- N g

:'Ii = I ilpV* ( i = 2 , 3 , . . . ,N P ) (2 rolb)

k=l
 Power System Optimizati

Subs;tituting
the valueof I; nto Eq. (2.lOla),we get

NB
n = vi' E Yi*V*
*=l
(i = 2,3, ...,NP) (2.101c)

FromEq. (2.l0lb), which be rewrittenas

NB
Vi + I Y*v* (i = 2,3, ...,NP)
k=l
k*i

or

(i = 213, ...,NP)

SubstitutingEq. (?.l0la) in the r equation,

(2.r02)

Now for t,he(r + l)th iteration, tl voltage becomes

i-r
y.r+t=1 {n.;io,
NB I
Yii L tv;)' .2 Y,rv;*t
t=l
I
t=i+l
Y*v[ | <i= 2, i,..., Np) (2.103)
)

For the (r + l)th iteration,th updatedvaluesof Vi*r (/c= 1, 2, ..., t - l) are usedand for the
rest of voltagespreviousvalues,i.r VkG= i + 1, i + 2, ..., NB) are used.The iterativeprocessis
continued 'till no further improver in voltage is achieved.

1* lo+ r- v r ' l = r (i=2,3,...,Np) (2.r0/)

The limits of voltage magnitude < be checked and fixed as

lvrl< lvrl*'"
(i = 213, ...,NP) (2.105)
lv'l: l%l'*
lv,l*".lv,l.lv,l*
PV buses
Real power,,Pdi = NP + l, Np + 2, .., NB) and volage magnitude,I Vi | (f = NP + l, NP * 2, ..., NB)
are known at PV buses.Reactir power, QiG = NP + l, NP * 2, ..., NB) and voltage angle,
d,{i= NP .r l, Np + 2,..., NB) unknownat PV buses.So, Qi M 4 .rc updatedin every
iteration.
 I-oad Flow Studies

c),

;=-Im (2.106a)

The re'visedvalueof 0i is ined from the aboveequationby substitutingthe most updated

valuesof voltages.Thus,
N g l
Tr1.l
k + (%')' t Y,*V[
l, (i = NP + l, NP + 2, ...,NB) (2.106b)
k=i )

ue of d' is ined from F-q.A.103)as

I '-I NB
( i = } { P + l , N P* 2 , . . . , N B )
k =l *=i+l
(2.106c)

of can be-checked and fixed as given below:

Qr'" a s Q y "
(i = NP + l, NP * 2, ...,NB) (2,107)
Qi= lQr^ i Qi > Qf*
Q i i QY" <Qi <QY

If any limit (eittrermaxi or minimum) is violated, then that bus is fieated as the PQ bus.
But if in a subsequent iteration, Qi aoffLaswithin the limits then the bus is converted
back trcthe PV bus.

Slack bus
At slar:kbus, voltage magni I yl I and voltage angle 4 are specified or known, and real power
P1 andlreactive power Qr te be calculated.To calculate power, the following equationscan be
used as

(2.108a)

(2.108b)

Accelleration
Convergencein the G del method can be speededup by the use of the accelerationfactor

v{*'=v{ +a(v{+'-vi) (2.10e)

where a is a real number' the accelemtion factor.

 P'ower SystemOptirrizat

A suitable value of a for
valueis 1.6.A
recomnnernded
method to diverge. The
to complletean iteration. A
y system can be obtainedby trial load flow studies.A general
choice of a may slow down convergenceor even causethe
idel method requires the smallestnumber of arithmetic operations
iled stepwiseprocedureis explainedhere.

Algorithm 23: Gauss-Seidel to Perform the Load Flow

I " Read data
NB is the number of b ; NP is number of PQ buses.
Vr, 6i for slackbus,P - 2, 3, ..., NB) for PQ and PV buses.
Q;Q = 2' 3, ..., NP) r PQ buses,%s(i = NP + l, NP + 2,..., NB) for PV buses.
yr.*n, yrnax (i = 2,3, .. NP) for PQ buses.

Qi*, Qmax(i = NP + I NP + 2, ..., NB) for PV buses.a (steplength),R (no. of iterations),

e (convergence )
2 Form YeususingAl
3 Assumeinitially

lv,o
lt;
4" Set iteration count, r = 0 a n d l A Y ' " * l = 0
5" Set bus-counti = 0
6" If BUS is PQ-bus then
6.1. ComputeV; from . (2.102)as

6.2. Updatethe vol : according to Eq. (2.109)as

- Vt)
%new-,= Vi'+q(Vro"*

6.3. Checkthe limits t lV, I andset according to Eq . (2.105),

i.e.

irlv,| < l%l-"

irl%| > lv,l*.
irlv,Ito. lv,| . lv,l*
6.4. Compute LVi = -vi

i f l A y ,l > l A y I thenlLv,l = IAY* |

6.5. Assign new volta to old
Vi = Ylt*
 Iaad Flow Studies

tf BUSis tfrcP%bus
i,t, Cornpute
Ql'* tte PV'bususingEq.(2.106a)

et=-kn{n'-T,,*rrl
'1.),
eheekthe llmits Q andset accordingto Eq. (2.107a)

If no lirtrtt is theil set gtinit * g

lf anyiirnit is then eet glimit = 1
7.3.Computethe anglefor the PV bususing4. (2.106c)

Vf* =l

7.4. Updatethe vol accordingto Eq. (2.109)

%n*=Vt*a(Vinn -Vi)
7.5, If 4llimit= 0 then

lr'w- vf/.9r"
!n* = Vis(cos6,** +7 sin di*)
7.6. Assignnew to old
Vi= Vlt*

8. lncrementthe bus cou ' ,i = i + I

9. Checkthat all voltagesof PQ andPV buseshavebeenmodified

if t < NB then GOifO tep 6 and repeat.
10. Check convergence
r=r+l
If I AY I'nux> 0 and r R then GOTO Step 5 and repeat.
 FotryerSystem O,

I l. Computepowers on slac

( . N B l
P1- iQ = LrY'-vrl
tui
12. Calculateline flows usin Eqs.(2.85)and(2.86)

- vi u,. - v;) yio+ %.rio]

[f
= v* [cu; - v,*)yir+ vfyi,o]
13. Stop.

EXAMPL,E 2.6 For the sample systemof Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat all the
four buses,while loads are at 2, 3, and 4. The values of real and reactive powers are listed
in Table 2,,4. All busesother than k are of PQ-type.Line data are given in Table 2.5. Find the
voltages arrd the bus angles at three buses using the GS (Gauss-seidel)iteration.

0.08+ j0.20
O
ct
+
!n
O
o

3
2.19 Samplesystem.

Table 2.4 Input data

Bus Pi Qr vi Type of bus

(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
I 1.05
z0 Slack
2 -off - 0.15 P8
3 - 0.51 - 0.25 PQ
4 - 0.60 - 0.30 PQ

Table 2.5 Line data

Line: Line,impedance
,rr--. (p-q)
I r-2 0.08+ j0.20
2 t-4 0.0s 1 70.10
? 2-3 0.04+ j0.12
4 3-4 0.04 + j0.l4
 I-oad Flow Studies

Sohttion l/-bus is calcul using Algorithm 2.1. The elementsof ysus are given below:
Y n = 5 . 7 2 4 1 3 8j l-2 . 3 l Yn= -1.724138+ j4.310345
Yn=0.0+j0.0 Yru=-4.0+78.0
Yzt = -1.724138+ 74.31 - j11.810340
Yzz= 4.224138
Yzt = -2.5 + j7.5 Yz+=0.0+ J0.0
Y31'= 0.0 + j0.0 Ytz= -2.5 + 17.50
Yst=4.386792-jl4.l03 Ygq= - 1.886792
+ j6.603774
Y4r,= - 4.0 + 78.0 Yqz=0.0+ j0.0
Y + t = - 1 . 8 8 6 7 9 2 +j 6 . 6 0 3 YM- s.886792- jr4.603770
Assuming flat start (means t the voltageto 1 p.u. value)

Vt=1. + 70.0p.u. Vz= 1.00+ 70.0p.u.

V t = 1 . + 70.0p.u. V+= 1.00+ j0.0 p.u.
Set iiterationcounter,r = 0
Let lAll"ux | = 0

UsingF4.Q.102), Vf"* is puted as

I
vfn =
Yzz

pr- jQ,
vf* = t I - YztVr- YztVt
Yzz lT
Vt"* = Q. 1507- j0"0290685
p.u.
UsingEq. (2.109),Vf'* is

V f " *= V z + u ( V f * - V z )

= 09941808- j0.03488218
p.u.

vl = lrt*' - v2f=o.ors3624
to check the convergence,i.e.

lavl lou*. l, rolav* | =o.ors

3624
 56 Power System

The calculated vatue Vt"* is assignedto V2, i.e.

- ;0.03488218
= Vy* = 0.9941803 p.u.
Now to calculaE Ylt* the followingvoltagevaluesareconsidered
in which thc valueof
voltagp V2 is the updated ue.

Vr = 1.05+ y0.0p.u.
Vz = 0.9941808- y0.03488218
p.u.
Vt = 1.00+ y0.0p.u.
Va- 1.00+ 70.0p.u.
UsingEq.(2.102),Vi is computed as

= I l"* - ytrvr
- J t ' r - ytzvz
- v*vo1
Yn Lv; J
- j0.04667337
= 0.9708458 p.u.
UsingEq.(2.109), is accelerated,i.e.

= Vt + q,(Vte* - V)
or
- j0.05600805
= 0.9650149 p.u.
Changein voltageis putedas

favl = lvf"* - v3l=o.ooo03678

Maximumchangeis to check the convergence, i.e.

vl.,lou*- l, rolav'u*| =0.06603678

The calculated value Vl"* is assignedto V3. Thus,

v = Vl"* = 0.9650149- 70.05600805p.u.

To calculate Vfw, the llowing voltage valuesare used in which the value of voltage Y3 is
the updated value.

r = 1.05+ 70.0p.u.
'z = 0.9941808
- j0.03488218
p.u.
- p.05600805p:u.
r = 0.9650149
4 = 1.00+ 70.0 p.u.

L** - **rl
 Load Flow Studies

UsingF4.(2.1V2),
Vf"* is computedis

4
- .70.04863431
= 0.9786592 p.u.
UsirngEq. (2.109),vt* is le

Y4 -Va+a{Vy -V+).

v) - j0.05836118
= 0.974391 p.u.
Change in voltage is as

vl= luf* - v4l=o.oorn263

Ma,ximumchangeis to check the convergence,i.e.

lavl lou* l, rolav* | =o.oooolozs

The,calculatedvalue of W is assignedto V4, i.e.

Vt= - p.05600805
l'* = 0.9650149 p.u.
The convergence
is as below:

tslav*lce(o.oool)
If the convergence criterionis satisfied,go for the next iteration by incrementingthe cotfiter
r r i . er,= r * 1 ,
To start the new iterati the following voltage values are used in which the value of
voltage !t is the updatedv
= 1.05+ p.0 p.u.
= 0.994t808- p.03488218
p.u.
- J0.05600805
= 0.9650t49 p.u.
- p.05600805p.u.
= 0.9650149

Aft'er 13 iterations,the final vol values,when IOU* | = 5,St+256x 10-06, 8r€ given as

= 1.05+ j0.0
= 0.9286948- j0.0970232p.u.
 Power System

V3- 0.9046143
- 70.110961l,
p.u.
- - j0.0687263p.u.
V4 0.9461540
Voltagemagnitudes I anglesare givenbelow:
I V ,| - 1.05p.u. 4 = 0.0 rad
l V z| = 0.9337450 p.u. 6, = -Q.1040950
rad
l V t = 0.9113891 p.u. A = -0.1220516rad
lV+ - 0.9486451
p.u. 6+= :0.0725102rad
The slack bus real a reactive,powers .arecomputedusing the following equation.
4
n j=l

The line flows are lated below in fatjre i.6.

Table 2.6 Line flows

Line no. Bus code Sa

(i-k)

I l-2 0.6587177+ j0.37336sQ

I 2-l 4.6171169- j0.269363r
2 l-4 1.484540+ 70.5836556
2 4-1 4.9514246.- j0.4595973
;
3 2-3 0.1671311 + j0.rr9382r
3 3-2 -0.1651958 - j0. 1135760
4 3-4 -0.3448024- j0.r364204
4 4-3 0.3514238+ j0.1595952

EXA\I{PLE 2.7 For the ple system of Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat all the
four buses,while loads are a buses2, 3 and 4. The values of real and reactive powers are listed
in Trrble2.7 alongwith the pe of bus. Line data are given in Thble 2.5. Find the voltageandlthe
bus anglesat the three busesusing GS (Gauss-Seidel)iteration.

Table 2.7 Input data

Bus Pi Qi vi Typeof bus

(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
I r.0520 Slack
2, - 0.45 -ort r.00t0 PV
3 - 0.51 - 0.25 PQ
4 - 0.60 - 0.30 PQ
 I-oad Flow Studies 59

Solution Z-bus is using Algorithm 2.1 and.the valuesof rsus elementsare the
sarneas thosegiven in ple2.6.
Assuming flat start, s that the voltage is set to I p.u. value.

Vt - 1.05+ 70.0p.u Vt = 1.00+ j0.0 p.u., and V4 - 1.00+ ;0.0 p.u.

Set iteration counter,r

Let ILV**l=0
Qz is computedusing (2.106a),i.e.

4 l
ez=_* I Yzrvrl
{ &=l )

'| (YzrVr+ YzzVz* Y6V3+ Y24V4))

- - 0.215517p.u.
Qz= -Im {

UsingEq. (2.102),Vi is computedas

- YztVt

- j0.0273094p.u.
Vt"n = 0.9902325
UsingEq. (2 109),Vi is accelerated.

Vf"* -V2+a(Vfn -Vz)

Assuminga = 1.2
- j0.03277127
Vt"* = 0.988279 p.u.
The voltageangleis

( -o.olzlltzl\
= t a n-,- r l - - - - - . '
--.
| = -0.0331478
\ 0.e88279 )
The voltageangle is with the specified voltage of the PV bus.

vt"n = 1.0 x [cos(-O.0331478)

+ Tsin(-0.0331478)]

vt"*= 0.9994507- -j0.03314t73 p.u.

 Power System
'l[he
to V2,i.e.
computed value of Vl"* is assigned
- p.03314173p.a,
V2 = Vr'* = 0.9994507

lilow to calculate Vyn, followingvoltagevaluesare usedin which thc valueof volrlagp

V2 is the updatedvalue.

Vr = 1.05+ 70.0p.u.
Vz = 0.9994507- j0.03314173
p.u.

i = 1.00+ 70,0p.u.
'e= 1.00+
10.0p.u.
LlsingF4. Q.102),Yf'* is computedas

or
I lrr-jQg r,r, t --l
v3nt*
,"LT-YYvr-Ynvz-Y*vo)
or
- 0.973647t- j0.M568502p.u.
ftsing F-q.(2.109),Yf'* accelerated,i.e.

l"*= Vt+ a(W"n-Vg)

or
- j0.05482203p.u.
T"* = 0.9683765
Clhangein voltage is co a$

llvl = lvf* - Vtl=o.oor28s05

lvlaximum change is to check ttn eogvelgence,i.e.

rf la | > fav'*;, thenfan*l =o.M328eos

The computedvalueof lt* is assignedto Vg,i,e,
v3 - j0.05482203
Yf* = 0.9683765 p.u.
Tir calculate Vf;*, the fi owing voltage values are used in which the value of voltage V31is
the updlatedvalue.

I = 1.05+ 70.0p.u.
'z = - j0.03314173
0.9994507 p.u.

t -- -.-r
.Jt
 = 0.96$765 - j0.05482203
p.u.
= 1.00+ j0,0 p.u.
UsingEq.(2.1V2),Vfr* is computedas

v{n =

or

vf;* = I po- iQn YqrVr- Y+zVz

W
or
vf;* = 980t714- j0.04827332p.u.
UsingEq.(2.109),I4** is

vi = V++ cr(Vj** - V+)

or
4
- 10.45792799
= 0.9762A57

Change in voltage is com uted as

I vl =luf* - val=o.ooz62444
Nlaximum change is to check the convergence,i.e.

rf lavl lou**I, rhenlou* | =o.oorz8eos

The computedvalue of V, is assignedto Va, i.e.

Vq= - j0.05792799
Vt"* = 0.9762057 p.0.
The convergenceis as

tsllv**l . rto.ooot)
Convergencecriterion is ot satisfied, so we go for the next iteration by updating the
counterby l.
r= r * |
Tb smn new iteration, the following voltagevaluesare usedin which the valueof voltage
Va is the updatedvalue.

r = 1.05+ 70.0p.u.
'z= - j0.03314173p.u.
0.9994507

t*-"-
 Power SygtemO,

v3 - 0.9693765
- 70.05482203
p.u.
- j0.05792799
V+= 0.9762057 p.u.

After I I iterations final voltage values aregivenbelow,whenlou'*l - 9.300476

x
l0_rc6.

Vt - 1.05+ j0.0
v2 - 0.9925385- j0.12r932r p.u.
-
v3 0.9492246- j0.1257839 p.u.
v4 - 0.9653854 - j0.0764109p.u.
Voltagemagnitudes d anglesare mentionedhere:

1 l = 1 . 0 5p . u . 4 = 0.0 rad
'zl =
1.00p.u. 62= -0.1222363rad
irf = 0.9575223
p.u. dr = -0.1317447rad
= 0.9684M7p.u. da= j0.0789860rad
The slack bus real reactive powers are computed
andare givenbelow:

Pt - iQr =vr. L YriVi

j=l

- j0.429160
Pr= jQr = 1.6531060 p.u.
The line flcws are lated below in Thble 2.8.

Thble 2.8 Ljne flows

Line no. Bus code (i-k) S;t

I t 2 0.6558731+ 70.0393236
I 2-L 4.624s468 + j0.0389922
2 t-4 0.9972326+ 70.3898367
2 4-l 4.9452397- j0.28s8s07
3 2-3 0.1745856+ j0.296r466
3 3-2 -0.1698582- j0.28r9647
4 34 4.340t432 + 70.03r9J03
4 4-3 0.3452354- j0.0141476

2.1IC'NEWTON-RAPSON METHOD
Thr: load flow solution rnus satisfy the following nonlinear algebraicequations,i.e.

fi(V, d) = 0 for all buses (ilt:I 10)

 ' ' I-oad Flow Etudies 63
At eatlr bus, except the slack real and reactive powers need to be evaluated.

fi(V, d) = P,S- Rt , d ) = o for all PQ and PV buses (2.Ltra)

f{v, d)=Of - Ol, , d ) = o for all Pp buses. ( 2 . 1I l b )
where
,R;fis specifiedreal por of the rth bus
!2;l is specified reactive of the ith bus
% is magnitudeof vol at ttre lth bus
,D;is angle of voltage at rth bus
l!ilBis the numberof
l\IV is the number of PV ses.
Consider that number o e bus of the power system is the slack bus. Assume that initial
values of the unknown varia are as under: : .

v! 1t= + 1, NV + 2, ..., NB for all pe buses)

6;01f = 2, 3,..., NB for atl PQ nd,pV buseb)
Irt AV; (r = NV + l, NV 2, ..., NB) and Ad; (i = 2, 3, ..., NB) be the corrections,which on
being acldedto rhe initial give the actual solution. Equation(2.110) can be written as

ftUf * A6/ = 6
LVr,6oo (i = 2,3, ...,NB) (2.r12)
lixpanding the above equ tion using Taylor's seriesaround the initial guess,and ignorirng
the hig;herorder terms

ft$f + LV1,,df* 6i=fivf,6P)*o=H.,

#LVe+-8,
#^*
P'artial derivatives are uatedaroundthe initial poinrs( W, &5. using Eq. (2.112),the
above equation can be rewri as
NB )r NB fr
T #wr+ L #Ad1 =-f,Vf,df) \e.rt:)
&=NV+l sVk k=2 OO*

A,flterexpandingEq. (Z,l la) using Taylor'sseriesaroundinitial guess,'theequationis

writtenirnthe form of Eq. (2.1I ) a s
NB lp.
I i- ldo + X * oro=ac ( i = 2 , 3 , . . . ,N B ) (2.rltl)
k=Z dO* & =N V + l dV *

whereAPi= ngf ,6P) - p,.s

Similarly, after expandingEq. (2.111b)using Thylor'sseriesaroundthe initial guess,the
equatiornis written in the form Eq. (2.113)as

where,\t7i- etUf,6P) - Oi.

 Power Sysitem

(2.114)and
Equations I 15) can be'wriuenin matrix form as

(2.116)

Sizeof matrix= NB + (NB - (NV+l)) - I = 2(NB - 1) - NV

NB - (NV + l) is the umberof PQ buses

NB is numberof total buses
NV is numberof PV
Equations(2.114)and 2.115) are solved iteratively,till AP and LQ becornealmost zero.
Let

Hi* = ro#,ri*=#,Ln=vrff
N,r=
#,
(2.116)can
Equation rewrittenas

(2:..r17)

Equation(2.114) can rewrittenin termsof H and N as

NB
= APi (i = 2,3, ...,NB) (2.1
r8)
I " +
Hir dr Y x,o*
k=2 k= NV+l V 1,

Equation(2.115) can rewritten in terms of / and L as

NB
$/, , r-i;
L V * = LQi (i = NV + 1, NV * 2, "', NB) (2.11e)
= NV+l
I
k=2 Y1s

Evaliuationof Jacobian ix elements

Real and reactive powers representedby Eq. (2.83a)and Eq.{2.83b), respectively,and are
enlistedbelow:
B
ViV* lGi* cos(6; - 6r) + Bir sin (6i - 6r)l
=l

B
Qi=, V;V1,[Gi1,sin (6; 61) - Bi* cos(d; - 6r)]
=l

Thr: above equations can bt rewritten as

NB
= GiiVi + I Vivk IGik cos (d; - 6&) + Bi* sin (d; - 6r )l (2"r20a)
&=l
k*i
 I-aad Flow Studies

NB
ti = - B,,V? kE= l ViVp[Gi1,sin (4 - 6;l - Bn cos(6'; - 0r)] (2.1201b)
k*i

Differentiating Eq. (2.120a)w.r. 6i to find ^F/,i

'iVk
l- Gir sin (d; - 6) + Bp cos(d;
- dr)l (2.12r)

Adding ,Eqs.(2.121)and (2.1

Qi+ff= -8,,V,2
A }Pi

Rearra:ngingthe above equati

ff a4
H ir=#=-Qi-8,,V? (2.122a)

DifferernriatingEq. (2.120a)wi respectto 6k & * i) to find I/,'pG * i)

dP,
JI
rt ik = ViV1,[Gx,sin (d; - 6) - Bi* cos (di - 6t )] (2.r22b)
a6_
Eq. (2.120a)wi
Differerntiating respectto % to find &i
NB
+ I V*lGg cos(6; - 6) + B,r sin(6; - dr)l
' k=L
k*i

Multiplyipg equatt by vi,

NB
= ZGiiVi + (2.12:,3)
k=l
k*i

SubtractingEq. (2.120a)from . (2.123),

v,* - n =Giivr2
" d6,
Rearrarngingthe above equati

v,?#=4+G,,V?
N,.,.= (2.12t[a)

DifferrerrtiatingEq. (2.120a)wi
,
dPi
Nr
Multiplying by Vk,

N i r= V * = ViVrfGi*cos (di - dp) + 84 sin (6; - 6r )l (2.12t[b)

 66 PoryerSystem

Differentiaring
F,q.(Z.l20b) ritl respectto to find
4 ,Ii;
0ei = NB
ad; kx=l
ViV*[G*cos(d; - dr) + Bi*sin(4 - 6r)]
(1r.tzs)
k*l

Subfr,acting
Eq. e.lZS) from Eq. (2.r20a),

dQi
Pt- = GiiVrz
a4
Rearilnging the above equa OD'

JF#='' -Gi,viz
(TL26a)
Differcntiating F-q.(Z.l 20b) ith respectro & (k * r) to find Jy,(k * i)

= ViVr[-G* cos(4 - 6&) - B* sin(4 -

dr )] (2.r26b)
Differentiaring
Eq. (2.t}}b) ith respect to Vi to fnd Lii

NB
,t* sin(4 - d*) - Bpcos(6;- dr)l
IrVrlG*
k*i

Multiptying the above equati by vr,

__do, - -zBii',' * NB
'' V{1,lGpsin(4 - di) - Bircos(,0; - d*)l
fr kP.
=l
k*i
(2.1t27)

Subtracting
Eq. (z.t}Ob)from . (2.127),

v,, Y - Q i = B i i v r z
dV,
Rearrangingthe above equati

1
L i i = V.,'* =Qi - Biiyiz
dv, (2.r28a)
Differbnrtiating
W. (Z.t20b)wi respectto V*(k * i) to find Lsr(k * i)

VitGirsin (6, - 6e) - B* cos(4 - 6r

)l
Multiplying by V1,

Li* = V *dQi = ViV*[Girsin (4 - 6i - Bi*cos(4 -

dvr dr)]
Q.rztrb)
 Load Flow Studies 6'7

Limits on the controllable Q; of PV buses

Qi is co;mputed
usingEq. (2.1 . The limits are set as following and the PV bus is consideredas
ttp Pp bus on violationof limi

if Qi < QY'"

ifQi>Qf* (2.r2e)
it Qy" 3 Qi S Qro*

The bus vrhich has beenchangedfrom the PV bus to the PQ bus on violation of Q limit needsthr:
calculationof changein voltage magnitude.It is calculatedfrom Eq. (2.119).

NB NB
t
k=2
Ji* * + L r i + ./ < = >
NV+l
,,0#=a,ei
k+i

Rearranl;irngthe above equation,

NB NB
LQt E Ji1,A61, : (2.130)
k=2
f:,.*.t

and spec;ifiedvoltage magnitude f the PV bus is updated as

Vi =Vf + LV;
where Y,'t ir scheduledvoltage itude of the rth bus.
Wthr the new value of V,, bus is restoredto PV bus and iteration is continued.

Limits on the voltage Vi

The power systemequipmentis )slg ed to operateat fixed voltageswith allowable variationsof
t(5-10)9/o of the rated values. I the voltage magnitude limits are violated, (hen the voltage is
fixed as follows:

(2.r3r)

The Newton-Raphson (NR method is useful for large systems.The NR method requires
more mejmorywhen rectangular inates are used.Hence polar coordinatesare preferred for the
NR method.To avoid time consu ing sine and cosineterms in the Jacobianelementsin the polar
version o,f the NR method,the el ts of the Jacobianare calculatedby the rectangularversion.
The rectangularversion is faster n convergence,but slightly less reliable than the polar version.
With the hlR method, the power ifferences and elementsof the Jacobianare to be computed per
68 Power System

iterertionand triangu has also to be done per iteration, so that, the time taken per
iterertionis considerably as cornparedto the Gauss-Seidelmethod.However,the NR
method gives the aecurate Its and convergenceis guaranteed.The choice.of slack bus does
not alfect the solution.M ; it works with the regulatingtransformers
etc. equallywr.,ll.A
detailedstepwiseprocedure explainedhere.

Algorithm 2.4: Newton- hsonMethod to Perform Load Flow

l. Read data
NB is the number o buses;NV is the number of PV buses,
Vr, 4 for slack bus, ^Pi t; = 2, 3, ..., NB) for pQ andPV buses.
gl tt'= NV + l, N + 2, ..., NB for PQ buses),V,Ft; = 2, 3, ..., NV fa PV buses),
I/lrun I/ max /; -_
vi t vi + l, NV t 2, ...,NB for PQ buses).
\r
Qyn,Qf"* (i = 2, 3, ...,NV for PV buses).
R(maximumnumberof iterations),e (tolerancein convergence).
11.Form Isus as explai in Section2.3.
3. Assumeinitially
ll4(t=NV+1, a n d 4 t ; = 2 , 3 , . . .N
, B)
tl,. Set iteration count,
5. Compute P;, APi usi Eq. (2.120a)or Eq. (2.83a)
NB
Pi = E viV*l ;1cos(d; - 6r) + B* sin(d; - d*)l (i = 2,3, ...,NB)
&=l

A4 =P,S- 4 ( = 2 , 3 , . . . N
, B)
Compute Qi, AQi us Eq. (2.120b)or Eq. (2.83b)
NB
Qi = I' ViV*IG* in(6i - d1) - B* cos(4 - dr)l (f =NV+I, IW+2,...,NB)
k=l
?

LQi=Of - Qi (i= + 1,NV * 2, ...,NB)

j . . 1 '

6. If maximum {AP; (f 2,3,..., NB) and AQi(f = NV + l, NV t 2, ...,NB) S e thenGOII)'

Step 15.
',t.
Compute Jacobian trix elementsusing Eqs. (2.109).
When i= k

- Q i - B i i v i z , N-ivi , 9 d : i = 4 + G i i v i z
7,=

Lu=v,# =Qi- Biiviz

=n - G,:v,',
'
ff
W h e ni * k

'Hi* = = ViV*[G* sin (di - 5r) - By,cos(d; - dr)J

 Inad Flow Studies

N* =V* cos(d;
=ViVr[GiP dr ) + B;1sin (d; - dt )l
#

l!-=v,vrl- Gi*cos(d, dr ) - B;1sin (d; - 6t )l

Ji* =
k

Li* = V* =ViV*[Gitsin(6i 6r ) - B;pcos(6; - 6t )l

H
8. Compute L6, (i = 2, 3, ..., NB) and LV;lViQ = NV + 1, NV * 2, ...,NB) using4. (21'.117),

Iapl
t t
Irc-l
9. Modify d; and Vi,
6i = 6i + Aq (i = 2,3, ...,NB)

vi-vi+^{v,

r0. Set bus count i =

1 1 .It PQ bus then the limits of V; and set accordingto Eq. (2-131), i.e.

Vi = Vitu if Vi < Y,tin

Vt = Vi* if Vi > Y,**

t2. If PV bus then p; using Fq. (2.l2}b) and check the limits of Qi and set aci,ording
to Eq. (2.129),i.e.

A - Qf^" it Qt < 8i^

ei=AY if Qi > Qf*

If limits are vio then PV bus is temporarily converted to PQ bus. So, compute "I;1and
La with updated aluesof Qi, Vi, and d;. Using Eq. (2.130), calculate the changc in
voltage,i.e.

and specified vol magnitudeof PV bus is uPdatedas

Vi- V,S+AV;
 70 tPower System

1 3 . Incrementthe bus coun

If t S NB, rhenGOTO
t4. l\dvance the count, r =
If r<Rthen GOTOS
1 5 . Computethe active and tive power on slack bus usingEq. (2.83a)and Eq. (2.g3b),i.er.
NB
n -r k=l
Vr[Gw cos (d1 - 61)+ Bw sin (d1 - dr)]

NB
Qr= I Vr[Gr* sin (6; - 6) - B* cos(61 - dr)]
k=l

16. Clalculateline flows usin Eqs. (2.85) and (2.86),i.e.

,Sa- (vf ).t yir+ Ui"). yhol

'fu(vf (vi').1 +
Sa= ). f, Vf ). yiol
where Vi" = V;(cos 6i + j

17. lStop.

EXAMPILIE2.8 For rhesample tem of Figure 2.19, the generators

are connectedat all the four
buses,whiltethe loadsare at bu 2, 3, and 4. The valuesof real and reactivepowers are listed in
Table 2.4. AII busesother than s ck are of PQ-tvpe. Line data
are given ih Table 2.5. Find the
voltagesand the bus anglesat th three busesusing the NR (Newton-Raphson)
method.
. Solul:ion y-bus is formed ng Algorithm 2.1. The rear and imagrnaryparts are separated
to obtain the G and B matrices.

5. 38 - r.724r38 0.0 -4.0

-t.724 3 8 4.224138 -2.5 0.0
Q =
0.0 -2.5 4.386792-r.886792
-4.0 0.0 -r.886792 s.886792

- 12.31 4.310345 0.0 8.0

4.31 5 -11.81034 7.5 0.0
B=
0.0 7.5 -r4.10377 6.603774
8.0 0.0 6.603774-r4.60377
To start iteration,choosethe *1 6i'

I.0p.u.
 Load Flow Studies

Spre'cified real and reactive powers are taken as

Prs= -0.45 p. Pf = - 0.51p.u., Pos= -0.60p.u.

el = -0.15p. , Qi = - 0.25p.u., Qi = - o.3op.u.
Ttre real powers (Pz, Pt, P) are computedfrom Eq. (2.120a)as

4
I'z = I vzVr[Gx cos( - dft) + Bx sin (d2 - 6*)l = -8.620691 x l0-2 p.u.
k=l

4
r\= - dp) + Btr sin (63 - d*)l - -2.384186 x l0-7 p.u.
k=l

4
I'+= : cos 64 - d&)+B+rsin(6+ - 6r)l = - | .999998
VqVk[Ga1 x 10-rp.u.
k=l

Re,ahpower residualsare culated as

L P 2 =P t - P z = - 0 . 3 6 3 8p . u .
LPt- Prt- Pt = - 0.5100p.u.
, - p S D
4-,4- r4--0.4000p.u.

UsinrgEq. (2.120b),the ve powers Qz, Qt, and Q+ are computedas

4
Q)e= - 5) - Bx cos(62 - dr)l - -2.155170 x lfrr p.u.
&=l

4
Qlt = - 6k) - B* cos(63 - dr)l = -4.768372 x 10-7p.u.
/<=l

4
4 - 6k) - B+* cos (da - 6r)l = -3.999996x lfr p.u.
(l,q= 2 V+Vt,lGq*'sin(
k=l

Reactive power residuals calculated as

LQz= QE- Q,z= 0.0655p.u.

LQs- Qi - Qt = -o.25oo P.u.
LQq= Qi - Q+= 0.1000p.u.
Th,e convergence criterion i checked to stop the iterations, i.e.

maximum {AP i = 2, 3, 4) and LQ;(i= 2,3, 4)l < € (0.001)

0.25,0.1) = 0.51> 0.001

maxirnum{0.363 , 0.51,0.40,0.0655,
 Power System Optimizat

The convergencecriterion is satisfied,so the changesin variablesat the end'of the finst
iteration are obtainedas follo

Hzz Hzt Hz+ Nzz Nzt Nzq Adz LPz

Hsz Hn Hv Nn Nrr Nr+ Adr M3

Hqz Hqt H+q Nqz Ner Naa Ad+ Ma

Jzz Jzt Jz+ Lzz bs h.+ LVzlV2 LQz

Jn Jn Js+ Ln ht 4+ LWtV3 LQs

J+z J+t J44 Ln L+t LM LV4lV4 LQq

where

dPz
z - BzzVt=12'0259
rt = -
t122=
a6,

dPt
ITzj= \ [ G z t sin (d2
- 6r) - ^823cos (d2 d g ) J= - 7 . 5
a6r=r,

'+fGz+
sin (62 - 6+) - B2a cos (d2 - 6)l = 0.0
": #=vz
nr t t z =
dPl - Y, , 3 'zfGn sin(63 - 6r) - 832 cos (63 r dz)l= -7.5
ad,

aP, - BnVl = 14.1038

!fG1g sin (63 - d4) - By cos (f3

-, d+)l= -6.6038

'zfGqzsin (d+ - 6) - Ba2cos (d'a dz)l = 0.0

'sfG+tsin(6a- 6r) - Ba3cos (da dr)l = -6.6038

o-B*V?=15.0038

\+G22V] =4.1379
 Load Flow Stadies

N23=dP,
v r f rVzVtIGzt
= cos(d2 - d3)+ Bztsin(d2 - d'3)J= -2.S

cos(d2 - 6e) * Bz+sin(d2 - d+)l = 0.0

VzV+IGzt

cos(d3 - 6) * Bn sin(63 - 6)) = -25

VtVzIGsz

N : rw=# =Pt +GnV? =4.3868

r-#=
Nr+= VtVo[Gycos(63 - 6i +Bs sin(63 - 6.+)]= -1.8868

N n = r r # VqVzlGqz
= cos(de - 6) * Bqzsin(da'- dz)l = 0.0

=,r#=
N+r cos(da - 6r) * B+tsin(da - dg)l = - 1.8868
V+VtIG<g

N++=rrft P + + G * V ? = 5 . 6 8 6 8

lzz=# =r, - GnVt = -4.3103

J z t = , W = \[-
v zGzt cos(62 - d3) - Bn sin(62 - 4)l = 2.5

r z + = # - v 2'ql- Gzqcos(62 - 6+) - Bz+sin(d2- da)l=0.0

J t z = # = v t'zf- Gn cos (d3 - 6) - Bszsin(63- 6)l=2.5

Jtt=ft=n
- GnV? = -4.3868

J y = P = V '+f- Gy cos(63 - d+) - By sin(dr - 6+)l= 1.8868

Edn

J q =z Y = v Vz[-
, Ga2cos(6a - 6) - Ba sin(6+ - 6)1= o.o
d6z
 J + t = W = v q v-Gqt
g cos(d+ - 6g) - B$ sin (da - d3)J= 1.9868

GuVt = - 6.0868

- BzrV] = 111
.594&

\ lGzt sin(62 - d3) - Bztcos(62 - d311= 7.5

'q
lGzq sin(62 - 5i - Bz+cos(d| - 6+)l = 0.0

'zfGn sin(d3 : 6z) - BEzcos(d3 -

dz)l = -7.5

- BnV?= 14.1038

'+
[Gv sin(ds - 6) - By cos(63 - 6+)l= -6.6038

'zl.G+z (6a -
sin 6) - B4acos(da - 6)J = 0.0

t lGqt sin (da - 6r) - B+t cos (da - 63)l = -6.6038

Lu=vr#=Q+
- BuV? = 14.2038

Using the gauss eliminati method, in which triangularizationand back substitution

processir; performedto compute changesin ,6and V, we have
A4 = -0. , A,A - - 0.tl2l7, Ada= - 0.06928
AVzlVz= - 0.055 , LV3|Vg= - 0.07549, LV4/V4= - 0.04285
MorCified valuesof d; and are computedas

6.= 4.+ Lh.= 0.0 - 0.09696= - 0.09696rad

4 = 4 + A& = 0.0 - 0.ll2l7 = - Q.Ll2l7 rad
d + = d + + Ada= 0.0 - 0.06928= - 0.06928rad

..di
 Load Flow Studies

Vz=Vz q# =0.0e44e6
1.0 p.u.
"
0.07549
Vg=Vz x 1 . 0 = 0 . 9 2 4 5p1. u .
t0

V q= V +
+v4 v4- 1.0- ry1.0 x t.o=0.e57r5
p.u.
,After seveniterations, resultsobtainedare tabulatedin (ThbleZ.g).

ble 2.9 Resultsafter seveniterations

Btts fs e P o V 6
(p.u.)' (p.u. (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (rad)
I 0.0 0. 1.5694500 ,,,0,7529464 1.05 0.0
2 -0.45 -0.15 -0.4499942 -0.1499812 0.9337445 -0.10409630
3 -0.51 -oi.zs -0.s 100103 -0.2s00389 0.9113876 -0.r22051t60
4 -0.60 - 0.30 -0.5999956 -0.2999793 0.94864s4 -0.07251044

EXALPLE 2.9 For the le systemof Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat all the
four buses,while the loads at buses2, 3, and 4. The values of real and reactive powers are
listed in Table 2-7 along w h the type of buses.Line data are given in Table z.s. Find
the
voltages and the bus angles the three busgs using the NR method;
Siolution l,-bus is fi using Algorithm 2.1. The real and imaginaryparts are separatedto
obtain ttre G and B matrices. re obtainedvaluesof G and B matricesare given in Example 2.g.
Tb start iteration, ch initial valuesof V; and 4 as
62-d3=d+=0
Vt = V4- 1.0p.u.
Specified real and reacti powers are taken as
P f = - .45p.u., Pf = - 0.51p.u., Pf = - 0.60p.u.,
Qi = -0i.25p,u., Qi = - 0.30p.u.,
The real powers (Pz, Py and Pa) are computedfrom Eq. (2.120a)as
4
P2- (4 - dd + 821sin (6r- dr)l = -8.620691x t0-2 p.u.
olrrrro lGz*

4
\ - I vtvr [G* os (A - d1)+ B* sin (4 - dr) = -2.384186 x 10-7p.u.
k=l

t_
76 Rnver SystemO,

4
P+= [Ga cos(d+- 6D+ Balsin (d+= 4) = -t.999998x t0-r p.u.
Erro,*
Real power residuals are culated as

L P 2 = P i - P z = - 0 . 3 6 3 8P . u .
L P 3 =P r s - P s - - 0 . 5 1 0 0 p . u .
LPa= Pi - P+= -0.4000P.u.
UsinrgEq. (2.120b),the ive powers Qt nd Q+ are comPutedas

4
- I VtV* [G31sin (4 - 6D- 831cos(4
- 6r)l = - 4.768372x 10-7p'u'
h
&=l

4
VtVr [Ga1sin (d+- tD - Bapcos (6+- 6r)l =
-3.999996x 10-t p.u.
Qn = I
.&=l

Reactive power residuals calculated as

LQt= Ql - Qt = -0.2500p.u.
LQ+= Qi- Q+= 0.1000P.u.
Ttre convergencecriterion checkedto stop the iterations,i-e-
maximum { !(i = 2,3,4) and LQi(i= 3,4)) < t (0'001)
maximum {0. 636'0'51'0'40' 0'25' 0'1) = 0'51> 0'001
The convergencecriterion has n been satisfied, so the change in variables at the end of firr;t
iteration are obtained as follows
H n H Hz+ Nzt Nzq L6z M2

H n H H34 Nrr N34 Adr AP3

Ha2 H H44 Na3 N 44 Adn Ma

Jtz J Jy ht 144 avtlvt LQJ

Ja2 J Jaa L+t La LV4lV4 L84

where

- BnV] = 12.0259

- -7.5
[G4 sin (d2 - 6s) - 823cos(d2 6r)l =

,, dP, ,, - - 6+)l = 0.0

EIZ4=;;-V2 tGz+sin (62 - 6+) B2a cos(6s
do+
 I.oad Flow Studies

AR gos(dr - de)l= -7'5

V3 lGtzsin(& ' 0) - BBz
lln =
6=
- EnV?= 14.1038 :

'+lG.l-qin(dr
llv=H =vt - 6+) - Bv cos(da - d+)l= -6'6038

'zlGn sin(d+ - 6) - Ba2cos(dr - d:)l = 0'0

- dr) - Ba3cos(da - drI = -6.6038

tfGa6 sin (da

- BuVt = 15.0038

- 6g) + Bzgsin(d2 - 6111= -25

bVt[Gzscos(&

cos(dz - d+)* Bznsin(62 - d+)l = 0'0

VzV+lGz+

+ C"t$ = 4.3868

(dg - 6a)+Bu sin(dr - d+)l = -l'8868

VgVqlGycos

- -
V+VtlGncos(6a - dr) + Bq3sin(do dll = l'8868

Pq+GuV?=5.6868

r n = # = v tz l-Gncos(6r- 6) - Bn sin(ft - dz)I=25

- e$ = -4.3868

sin(d3 - d+)l= l-8868

'tf- Gy cos (61 - d+)- Bga

=p =v,Vzl-Ga2cos(da -
r+z 6z\- B+zsin(da- drn =0'0
Edz

- = V ,Vt[-Ga3 cos(da -
! * = pEdr 6g)- Bn sin(d+ - di)l = 1-8868
 tP,
ower System

J u = W = P-+G*V? = -6.0868

Lt t = r r #= - Bs# = 14'1038

L t q = r r # =VtV+lGy sin (63 - d+) - By cos (d3 - 6i)l = -6.6038

L + s = r r # V+Vt[G+t
= sin (6a - 63) - Bn cos(6a - 63)l = -6.6038

L u = r - # Q+
=- B*V? =14.2038

U;sing the gauss elimi ion method, in which triangularizationand, back substitution
processis followed, changesin 6 and V are found out as given below:

.11664, A4=-0.12567, Ada=-0.07658

'j - -
LV 0.03854, LV4|V4= -0.02700

rModified valuesof 6, V; are computed as

4= = - 0.11664rad
+ Aq = 0.0- 0.11664
d3= + AA = 0.0 - 0.12567- - 0.12567rad
d+= + Ad4= 0.0 - 0.07658= - 0.07658rad

Vt=Vt+ Y rr= t.o- ry x l.o=0.96146p.u.

V3 " 1.0

'x
V4-V++ v+=1.0- 1.0=0.e7300
p.u,
i#
'Ihis
procedureis and the results after five iterationsare given below (lhble 2.10).

2.10 Results after five iterations

Bus a
(p.u.)
P
(p.u.)
o
(p.u.)
v
(p.u.)
d
(rad)
I 0.0 0.00 1 . 5 51r 5 5 0 0.2742737 1.05 0.0
2 -0.45 -0.1s -0.4499938 8oo
o.3ivr 1.00 -0.r2224i1
3 -0.5r -0.25 - 0.5100070 -0.2500268 0.9575192 -0.13r74t\
4 -0.60 -0.30 - 0.6000010 -0.2999982 0.9684032 -0.078987

-.d
 Inad Flow Studies 79

2.11 DECOUPLED
N ON METHOD
An inttrinsic characteristic of practical electric power system operating in steady state is strong
inter-reliancebetweenreal and bus voltage angles and between reactive powers and voltage
magniturdes.The property of feeble coupling between P-d arrd Q-v yariables results in
developingdecoupledload fl (DLF) method. P-6 nd Q-v are sclved separately.In view of the
(2.116)<2.119)
above,JEqs. c

(2.r:\2)

lu
L, (2.ri\3)

( i = z , 3 :. . . N B ) (2.13,1a)

( f = N V + 1 , N V + ...,
2 , NB) (2.r3ttb)

where

l
Hu= (i=k)

Hik - - 6) - B* cos(4 - d*)l (i*k)

r V , H = e - B , i V i z , ( =i k )
Lr=

sin(6;- d*)- Bi*cos

L* = vr?#;=viv*[G,'p (6; - dt)] (i* k)

'Ad.
I3quation(2.134a)is solved to find The updated d is then used to solve Eq. (1.134b)to
computeAV.

Limitri on the controllable variable Qi of PV buses

0; is computedusingEq. (2.134b).The limfts ar,gsetasfollowingandthe PV busis considered
as
a PQ bus on violation of limits. :i

if Qi < QY"

ifQi>Qf (2.136J
if Qr s Qi s Qy^*
80 tPowerSystem Optimization

The bus which hasbeenchangedfrom PV b PQ on violation,needsthe calculationof changeirn

voltagenragnitude.
It is calculatedfrom W. (Z,l34b)

t"T*t=F*'n
+-LQi
the above equation
fi.earrangi.ng

NB

t = NV+l
(2.136)
k + i

and the specifiedvoltagemagnitudeof the PV bus is updatedas

Vi= Vl + AVi
where lf is scheduledvoltagemagnitudeof the ith bus.
Witlh the new valueof V;, the bus is restoredto PV bus and iterationis continued.

Limits on the voltage magnltude, Vi

If the v,oltagemagnitudelimits are violatedthen the voltageis fixed as per the following:

if Vi < %*n

if Vi > Vi^* (2.137"1

if %*n 3 vi < %**

The relirability of the decoupled Newton rnethod is comparableto the formal Newton method for
ill-conditironedproblems.But, the decoupledmethod is simple and computationallyefficient thanr
the formal Newton method. The storage of Jacobianelementsand triangularizationis less. Burt
computation time per iteration is less in the Newton rnethod.A detailed stepwise procedure isi
explained here.

Algorittrnn 25: Decoupled Newton-Raphson Method for Ioad Flow Calculations

l. Fieaddata
IttB is the numberof buses,NV is the number of PV buses.
Vi, 4 for slackbus, P,l (i = 2,3, ..., NB) for PQ andPV buses.
0P(t = NV + l, Nv * 2, ..., NB for PQ buses),V,pt;= Z, 3, ..., hIV for pV buses),,
yrt* (i = NV + l, NV * 2, ..., NB for pp buses).
v'rttun,
Oy (i=2,3, ...,NV for PVbuses),R(rnaximum
Cf,lo'n, numberof iterations),
e (tolgrance;
in convergence)
2. Fbrm IBus as explainedin SectionZ.i. .
3. Aisslur€initially voltagemagnitude
t vPt(; = I{! + l, l{v * 2, ...,NB) andangleof voltagef ti = 2,3, ...,NB)

JI
 Load Flow Studies E1

4'. Setiterationcount, r = 0.
5;. ComputePi, LPi using4. Q.l20a) as

NB
Pi ='f cos(d;- dr) *Bi* sin(di - dr)]
V,Vr[G;1 (i=2,3, ...,NB)
k=l

A4=4s - n (i=2,3,...,N8)
(i.Ifmaximum{APi(i=2,3,...,NB)}SethenGoTostepl0.
'1,.
Compute the elementsof the Jacobianmaftix I/ as

,, r i =aPt
H #=-Qi-BuV? (i=/c)

, , a =viv*
Hr*=#,
n , [Gi*sin(4 - 61)- B* cos(4 - dr)] (i*k)

AA (, - 2,3, ...,NB) usingEq. (2.134a)

8. Compute as

tI4 tAdJ= [^P]

9. Modified value of dr is computedas

4 = 4 + A4 (i = 2,3, ...,NB)
10. ComputeQi, LQi using Eq.(2-120b)' i.e.

NB
v.v.tc.. s i n ( d ;- 6
i V * [ G *cin(5, ) -- BB,,
6,-) os(dt - 6
' f f ccos(d, t ) J ( i = I \ I V + 1 , ]lW + 2,...,N8)
6o)l
Qi= I V
k=l

LQi = Qf - Q, (f = NV + 1, I{V * 2, ..-,NB)

11. If maximum{AQi(r = NV + 1, }[V *2,...,I'[B)] S ethenGQIO Step20.
l',2. Computethe elementsof the Jacobianmatrix L as

Lri=v,9
- fi --A
Y,
- Buv? (f=/c)
a4

- rK g
Li* =Vt =ViV*[G,rsin(4 - 6*) - Bi*cos(di - 6t)] (t * Ic)
dv*

i 13. ComputeLVIVi{i = NV + 1, NV * 2r..., NB) usingEq. (2.134b),i'e'

I
I

II ---lavt =toot
ttlLTJ
14. The modified values of voltage magnitude, Vi dre computed as

II
I
vi - vi + v, (i = tIV+ 1,NV* 2,...,N8)
ff
I
I
i}.r-,-- -
-,2i.
 82 I'ower System Optimization

15. Set bus count i = 2.

16. If bus is PQ then check the limits of Vi and set accordingto Eq. (2.137),i.e.

Vi = Vifrn if vi

Vr = V'm," if Vi

17. If bus is PV, then compute Q; using Eq. (2.120b)and check the limits of Qi and sier
accordingto Eq. (2.135),i.e.

Qi=Qi " if Qt < Qr,"

*
Qi = Qmax if Qi >_Qy
If any limit is violated then PV bus is temporarilyconverte
d to PQ bus. So, compute1.,.4
with updatedvaluesof Qi, V; and d;. Using Eq. (2.136),calculatethe changein voltageas

and the specified voltage magnitude of the PV bus is updatedas

Vi -V,s +LV,
18. ,lncrementthe bus count i = i + |
Itf t < NB, then GOTO Step 16.
19.,Advancethe count r = r + |
llf r < R then GOTO Step 5 and repeat.
20. Compute slack-bus active and reactive powers as

NB
Pj - I VtVr[G1ecos (61 - 6k) + Brr sin (fi - dr )]
t=l

NB
Qr = sin (d1 - d'&)- Bw cos(d1 - 6r)]
oZ=rrrrr[G11
21. Calculateline flows using Eqs. (2.85) and (2.86), i.e.

.ia =vr'[{(y,.).- (v;').} yi + (vf').yio]

Sri= Vfl{(Vf). - (Vi')"} yi + Uf ). ylol

, rvhere Vi, = V;(cos6i + j sin 6i)

',
22. Sitop.

JI
 Inad Flow Studies

EXAMPILIB 2.10 For the sample system of Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat;all the
four buse,s,while loads are at buses2, 3, and 4. The valuesof real and reactivepowers.-arelisted
in Thble ",2.,4.
All busesother than slack are of the PQ-type. Line data is given in Thble 2.5. Find
the and the bus anglesat the three busesusing the decoupledNewton-Raphsonmethod.
_voltaBe,s
Soliul:ion The G and B matrices are given below:

5.724138 -r.724138 0.0 -4.0

-t.724t38 4.224t38-2.5 0.0
Q =
0.0 -2.5 4.386792 -r.886792
- 4.0 0.0 -r.886792 s.886792

-12.31034 4.310345 0.0 8.0

4.310345-11.81034 7.5 0.0
fr=
0.0 7.5 -14.t0377 6.603774

8.0 0.0 6.ffi3774 =14.ffi377

Assu:methat bus number one is slack bus. To start iteration, chooseinitial values as

h=k=6+=0
V2- V3- Vq = 1.0 p.u.
Specjifiedreal power values are
; ,Pj = -0.45 p.u., P.i = -0.51 p.u., Pf = -0.60 p.u.
The r:ealpowers(Pz, Pt, and Pa)arecomputedfrom Eq. (2.120a)as
4 : - :
Pzt= .Z.VzVr,[Gxcos(d2- dt) + Bxsin (62- 6Dl= -8.620691
x 10€ p.u.
k=l

4
(d3- t ] = -2.384186x 10-7p.u.
P:,= .2 V{*[G*cos (d3- 6r.)* B'gksin
ft=l

4
P4 = (da- 6d + B* sin (da- dDl = -1.99998 x lfr p.u.
o\rVoro [Gq*cos

Real power residualsare calculatedas

: . ', LPi= Pt - Pz= - 0.3638P.u.
' /\Pt= Pt - P3=''-0.5100
P.u. :
: :, LP+=rd- Pa= -0.4000P.u.
 PowerSystemOptimization

If maximum{AP,(i = 2,3, 4)} > € (0.001)thencaiculate i.e.

in voltageangies,
thechange

wheng

Hzz=#= - Q z - B n V ?= 1 2 , 0 2 5 9

Hzs= sin(d2 - ds) - Bttcos(d2 - dr)l= -i.5

= VzVtlGzg
#

H u = # = V z V + l G z + s i n ( d -z d + )- B z + c o s ( d- d2e ) l = 0 ' 0

Hn = y, (d3 - 6) - Bncos(d3 - 62)l= -7,5

= VsVz[Ggzsin

t, = oPg = -
Hn Qt - BnVl= 14.1038
ffi
Ht+=# - d4)- BEqcos(d3
=VtVqlGvsin(dr - 6.+)l
= -6.6038

- 6) - B+zcos(da
Hqz=#=v+vz[G+zsin(d+ - dz)l = 0.0

H+t=# =V+Vt[Ga3sin(da - dr) - B+tcos(da - dr)l = -6.6038

J' = dP+
Hu = -Qq - BuV?= 15.0038
;*
or

After riangularization the above matrix becomes

 Load FIow Studies

Changein volage angleat eachbus, Ad,-(t= 2, 3, 4, is obtainedas

A4 = -0.11758, AA = -0.14{X)3, Ada= -0:08829
as
6,, voltageangle,is comPuted,
h= 62+A& = 0.0- 0.11758 = - 0.11758 rad
d3= 63+ A4 = 0-0 - 0.14003= - 0' 14003rad
6+= da+ Ada= 0.0 - 0.08829= - 0'08829rad
Specified reactive powers are given as

Ql = - 0.15P.u.,di = - 0.25P.u.,Qi,= - 0'30p'u'

CornputeQz, Qt, and pa using Eq. (2.120b)' i.e.

4
(8- t l = -2.612371x 10-2p.u.
l2z= .L.VrvrlGxsin (d:- d, - B2*cos
t=l

4
lZt = E VtV* lG* sin (Q - td - Bs,cos (d3- dDJ= x l0-r p'u'
l-6440:12
&=l

tQA= - Bacm(6a- 6rt = -8-56?333

rlG*sin(da- 6o1 x l0-2p-u'
irrn
Reactivepower rcsidualsarq calculatedas
AQz=Qi - Qz= -0.1239 P-u-
LQt = Oi - Qt = -A.4t44 p.u.
'
Lgo= e|- Q+= -0.2143
p.u.

Convergence If ma,ximum
is checked. {APi(i =2,3,4) and LQ:Q=2,3,4)} s e(0.001)then
stop,otherwisecomputechangein voltagemagnitudes.

Qz BzzVt= 11.1842

VzYt G23sin (d2 - 6g) - Bzt cos (d2 - dg)l= -7.5542

 PowerSystemOptirfiization

Iaa= vr# = vr|vo

[Gusin(d2- d+) - Bz+cos(d2 - d4)l = 0.0

Lsz= vr# = vtvz llgzsin(dr - dz) - Bgzcos(d3 - 62)l= -7. MzO

ht=Vt = Q3 - BssV?
= 14.2682
av,
Ly =ro (d3 - d4) - Bsecos(d3 - d4)]= -6.4974
=VtV+[Gy siSr
#

Lqz = Vz =VqVz[Gqzsin(6+ - 6) - Bqzcos(da - 6)] = 0.0

L+g = Vt = VqVt[G+gsin (d+ - d3) - B$ cos(da - d3)] = -6.6925

L44 = Qq - BuV? = 14.5181

The elements ted in matrix form as

process,the above matrix becomes

Employingbacksubsti changein voltagemagnitudes,

Lvlvi (i = z, 3, 4) is computedas
LVzlVz= - Q. LVtlV3= -0.09051, LV4/V4= -0.05649
Modified voltage, Vi G - 2, 3, 4) is computedas

LVz 0'06854
Vz=Vz Vt = 1.0. x1'0=0'93146P'u'
V2 t0
LVt 0.09051
Vt =Vt V3- 1.0- x 1.0=a.9@49
p.u.
W ff
 I-oad FIow Studies 87

AV,
Vq=V++ x 1.0 -O.94351p.u.
v4
This procedure is repeated a iterations are given below in Table 2.1I
rnd line flows are given in Table ,12.

Thble I 11 Results
afterseveniterations

Bus tr P o v d
(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u-) (p-u-) (rad)
l 0.0 0.00 1.6721890 0.9570484 1.05 0.0
2 -0.45 -0.15 0.M99998 - 0.l 500000 0.9337450 - 0.I 040963
3 -0.51 -0.25 0.s099999 - 0.2500001 0 . 9 1 1 3 9 1 1- 0.1220526
4 -0.60 -0.30 0,6000003 - 0.3000002 0.9486455 - 0.0725t04
. : t _

Thble 2.12 Line flows

Line Bus .S;1

no. T (p.u.)
t 0.6587290+ 70.3733827
2 - 0.6171262- j0.26937 57
'1.0134600 j0.5836660
+
I - 0.9514301 - j0.4s96054
3 0.1671262 + j0.r193755
2 - 0,1651910 - j0:t r 35699
-0.3448088- j0.r364298
0.3514306
+' 70.tr596059

MPLE 2,ll For the sample ystem of Figure 2.t9, the generatorsare connected at all the
buses,while the loads are at l uses 2, 3, and 4. The values of real and reactive powers are
in Thble 2.7. Line data are g venin Table 2.5. Find the voltagEsand the bus angles at the
buses using the decoupledN wton-Raphsonmethod.
Solution The'G and B mari ;esare as in Example 2.10.
Consiclerthat bus I is the sli :k bus. To start iteration, choose the initial values as

4=4=d+=0
Vt - V+= 1.0 p.u.
Specifiied real power values a : given as

Pf = -0.45 P.u. Pi = -0.51p.u., Pf = -0.60 p.u.

 Power System

The real powers (P2, g, and Pa)arecomputedfrom Eq.(2,120a)as

4
P2- cos (62- de)+ Bxsin (62- 6*lt - -8,620691x l0-2 p.u'
k=l

4
P3- Z vrvol
r ^ r cos(4 - d1)* Bsxsin(dj - d't)l= -2.384186x l0-7 p'u'
t = l

4
P4- cos(6a- d&)+ B+sin (da- 6olt: - r.999998x 10-rp'u'
]-rvovrlc

Real power residuals calculatedas

L , P 2 =P | - P z = - 0 . 3 6 3 8P . u .

L P s = P 3 s -h - -0.5100p.u.

APa=4- Pa- -0.4000

p.u.

If maximum { LPi Q 2, 3,4)) > e (0.001)then calculatethe changein voltageangleat PV

PQ buses.

LP2

AP3

M4

where
'Hzz=# - Qz - BnVt = 12.0259

H z n = #VzVt[Gztsin(62 - dl) -'Bzt cos(dz - dr)l= -7'5

H z + = #VzVolGz+sin(dz - d+) - Bz+cos(62 - d+)l= 0'0

H t z = # VtVz[Gn sin (ft - 6) - Bn cos(63 - 6)) = -7.5

n r r = # , - Qt - BnVl = 14.1038

Htq=# VtV+lGy sin (d3 - d4) - Bt+ cos (63 - 6)l = -6.6038

-'-.4
 Load Flow Studies

=# =Vqvza2sin (da -
H+z 6) - Bn cos(da - 6)l = 0.0

a3 sin (da - 6r) - B+t cos (da - 6g)l = -6.6038

- BuVt = 15.0038

The ;aboveelementsare esentedin matrix form as

-7.5000

14.1038
-6.6038

After fiangularization the )ove maffix becomes

-7.5000

9.426/-
0.0000 l
Emplioyingback substitution the changein voltageangles,6;1;= 2, 3, 4) is computed as

A4 = - 0.117B , A4=-0.14003, Ada=-0.08829

Modiified values of d(i = 2, 3, 4), are computedas

6=k L4, = 0.0- 0.11758= -0.11758rad

4 =4 A4 = 0.0 - 0.14003= -Q.14003rad

6 + = 6 + Ada= 0.0 - 0.08829= -0.08829rad
Specified reactive powers

d - 0.25p.u., Qi = -0.30P.u.
ComlputeQt M Qa using (2.rz0b)
4
h - .Z qvp [G31si (A - dr) - 831cos (4 - dr)J= r.644An x 10-r p.u.
t=l

4
Qa= .2 vqV*[G+rsi (d+- dr) - Ba1cos (d+- ddl = -8.567333x 10-2p.u.
k=l

Reactivepower residuals calculated as

Q t = O i - Q a =-0.4144p.u.
= Q l - Q + =-0.2143p.u.
 90 Power SysremOpt

Convergenceis chec

maximum { i (f = 2,3,4) andAQi Q - 3,4)l S e (0.001)

thenstop
maximum t0 3638,0.5100,0.40,0.414, 0.2143)= 0.51> 0.001
I "r - l

Convergenceis not met, so the change in voltage magnitude at PQ busesis given by

Il r* l
ho1 | tvrrvrl I tgrl
l l = l l
L Lo, L++) ltvotvo) ltOo )
where

-h - BttV?=14.2682

L t + = V r # =; VtV+[Gy sin(d3 - 64) - Bt+cos(d3 - 6l)l = -6.4974

dQ+
L+t = Vt =VqVt[G+ssin(d'a- dr) - Bqtcos(da - &)]= -6.6925
dvt

L q q = v - #= Q+ - BnoV?= 14.5181

Elementsare arranged

=[_l
:"f,
l:7r:^1
Triangularizingthe ve matrix,

-6.4e741
1.2682 | nvrrvrl= l-0.+ru]
0.0000n.470s-J
loro,ro.JL-o408zJ
After back substitution we get

A \lV3 = - 0.M527, LV4|V4= - 0.03563,

Modified voltage is ted as

0'0!227
Vt=Vz +v3 vt" =1.0- 1.0
x 1.0=0.95473p.u.

LV^ 0.03563
V+= =va
V4- 1.0- - x 1.0=0.96437p.u.
1.0
This procedureis re and the resultsafter nine iterationsare given in Table 2.13. Line
flows are given in Table 2.1
 Load Flow Studies glt

2.13 Results after nine iterations

Is P o v
(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)' (p.u.)

I 0.0 0.00 1.6531390 0.4291533 1.0500000 0.0

2 - 0.45 - 0.15 - 0.4s0b00e - 0.3351609 1.0 - 0.12224t8
3 - 0.51 - 0.25 - 0.5100001 - 0.2499999 0.9575218 - 0.I 3r7479
4 - 0.60 - 0.30 - 0.5999997 - 0.3000001 0.9684043 - 0.0789868

Thble 2.14 Line flows

Line code , sir

no. i-k (p.u.)

I I -2 0.6s58992+ j0.0393r69
I 2- t - 0:6245705+ j0.0390050
2 1-4 0.99724M+ 70.3898371
2 -1 - 0.9452469- i0.28s8496
3 -3 0.r745696+ j0.2961555
3 -2 423-
- 0.1698 j0.28r9736
4 -4 - 0.3401
575+ 70.0319743
4 -3 0.3452502- j0.0141501

LOADFLOW(FDLn
2.12 FASTDECOUPLED
The Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) was developed by B. Stott in 1974. The assumptions
which arervalid in normal system operation, ffo made as follows:
(i) IJnder normal loading itions, angle differences,(4 - A), acrosstransmissionlines are
small,i.e. cos(6r- A) l, sin (dr- dr,)= 0
(ii) Iior a transmission
line, reactance In otherwords, XIR>> '!".
is morethanits resistance.
Sio,Gp can be ignored Gip <1 Bp.

In rriew of the above, G* s n (6, - 6&)1< Bp and Qi << BiiV?-

With these assumptions, elements of H ard L sub-matricesbecomeconsiderably
simplifiecl as

- Biivi2 (i= k) (2.138a)

- V;VpBip (i*k) (2.138b)

- Bt,V? (i= k) (2.139a)

L
 Power System O.

Li*=vr\# = - viv*B* (i * k) (2.139b)

SubstitutingEqs. (2.138a) (2.138b)in Eq, (2.134a),we have

NB
T Adt = Mi
[-V1V1rBp] (i = 2, 3, ..., NB) (2.r40a)
k=2
or'
NB
ad*=
I l.-v*Bi*l (i = z,;, ...,NB) (2.140b)
k- +
SettinlgVk - I p.u. on right side of Eq. (2.140a),

(2.r40c)

Substiituting
Eqs. (2.t39a) (2.139b) in Eq. (2.134b). we get

NB
I '*Birf = LQi (j = NV + l, Nlv* 2, ...,N8) (2.r4ra)
[-Vi +
& = NV+l Yp
or
NB
I LVr= !9 (r = NV + t, NV * 2, ...,NB) (2.r+rb)
& = NV+l V1

Setting V1,- I p.u. on right- d side of Eq. (2.14AQ,

NB
E t - ,*lLVr=+
& = NV+l
( i = N V l,+I{t' *2, ...,NB) (2.r{rc)

Above equationscan be wri in matrix form as

rB'lt^8,= (?.142a)
[f]

[B'][a[" I to1
',=L7J (2.r42b)
where : :
)9' is the matrix haying ts -B,r (i, = 2, 3, ..., NB and k = 2,3, ..., NB)
lY' is the matrix havjng Iements-Bi* (l = NV + l, hIV *2,..., NB and /<= NV + l, IrlV +
2, ...,I{B).
'
Ilurther simplification the FDLF algorithm is achievedby:
l. Omittipg the elernen of [RJ that predominatelyaffect reactive power flows, i.e. shunt
reactances and mer off-nominal in-phasetaps.
 Inad Flow Studies 93

2. Omittingfrom tfll the ang shifting effect of the phascshifterthat predornitraielyaffects

reactivepo\verflows.
3, Igncringtheseriesresi in calculatingthe clementsof [B'J, which then becomesthe
dc approximationof the
Q.lMa) andQ.l4 ) are solved alternatively,alwaysemployingthe most recent
Equartions
oltagevanu,es.
A detailedstepwiseprocedureis explainedhere.

rlgorithm 2.6: Fast Decoupled FIow Method

L. Read data
NB b the number of I.IV is the number of PV buses.
V,, 4 for slackbus, Pf(f = 2, 3,..., NB) for PQ arldPV buses. ;
0 l ( t = N V + l , N V + 2 , ..., NB) fs PQ buses,Vrt ti = 2, 3, ..., NV fa PV buses),
Yr*tt, Vit* (i = NV + 1, * 2, ...,NB) for PQ buses.
Ofo, Oy (i =2,3, NV
..., for PV buseS,R(maximumnumberof iterationS),, € (tolerance
in c,ornvergence)
2. Fonn Yeusas explained in ion 2.3 and form E and F' matrices.
3. Ass,urneinitially, voltage gnitude and voltage angles
lW(i=NV+1, , B ) a n d 4 t ; = 2 , 3 , , . ,N
. + 2 , . . .N , B)
4. Setiterationcount,r = 0.
5. ConnputeP;, AP; using Eq. Q.l?oa)

NB
Pi = E ViV{G* (6r - 6p) + Bi* sin (di 6*)J (i = 2,3, ...,NB)
t-l

Af.=C - 4 (t 2t,1,...,
NB)

ConnputeAP* = maxi {APi(i = 2,3, ..,.,NB)}.

If d'Pm'xS Eothen GOTO ep 9.
7. CornputeA4 (i - 2,3o ..., B) usingEq. (2.142a),i.e.

trtr^dr=L?J
8. Mlodified di it computed
d;r= 4 + A4 (i = 2,3, ...,NB)
9. CornputeQi, AQi using Eq (2.120b),
i.e.
NB
Q),i= I' ViV*[G;psin (d; - 6*) - B* cos(d; - dr)l (i = IW + 1, NV * 2, ...,NB)
t=l

6Ql,i= QP- Q, (i = + 1, NV * 2, ...,NB)

 Pawer System

ComputeAQ^ = imum{AQt(f = NV +..1,lW .* 2, .,,,NB)}.

If (A0'* S eoand Mmaxs e) thenCOTOStep14.
- a '

Compute LVi Q = + l , N V + 2 , , NB) usingEq. (2.142b),i.e. . :

'l=Iaol
[8,,] TAvl t - l
LYJ
12. Modify % as

1 3 . Advancethe count
Isr<Rthen Step5 and repeat.
t4; Compute the "acti and reactivepowerson slackbus as
NB
Pt= I= l VrV*[Gi* cos(dr - d&) + Brr sin(fi - dr)l

NB
I V{plGy, sin (61 - 61) + B* cos (d1 * 6r )l
&=l

15. Calculateline fl using Eqs. (2.85)and (2.86),i.e.

- Vi'Iwi'). - (yr").)y,:r,
^Sa
t
+ (y,e).)i'toj
r :
;:

i l

lao J

where Vi' = V;(cos i + j sin d;)

16. Stop.

EJV\MPLE 2.12 For the ample system of Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat all the
forurbuses,while loadsare buses2, 3, and4. The valuesof real andreactivepowersarelisted
in Thble 2.4. Nl buses than slackareof the PQ-rype.Line datais givenin Table2.5. Find
the voltages and the bus gles at the three buses using the fast decoupled load flow (FDLF)
method.

Solution

.31034 4.310345 0.0 8.0

.310345-11.81034 7.5 0.0
B=
7.5 -r4.r0377 6.603774
0.0 6.603774-t4.60377
 Inad Flow Studies

Cormiderbus I as the bus. To start iteration, choose,initial valuesof I and % as

62=4=d+=0fad
: I
-
Vz- Vt = V4 1.0.p.u.
Spec,ifiedreal power values are

Pi = -0.a5p. ., Pt = -0.51p.u., 4 = -0.60p.u.

. :
The real powers (Pz, Pt, Pa) are computedfrom Eq. (z.,l20ulut

4
P2=' .2 . vzv* [G* cos (d2 dd + 821sin (62- d*)J= -8.62M91x l0-2 p.u.
k=l

4
-
4 ,2. Vrvr
J f r '[Gs*cos
(d3 d*) + 831sin (ds- d*)l = - 2.384186x loa p.u.
t=l

r 4
P4=' (da 6r) + Bapsin (d+- dJl = -1.999998x l0-r p.u.
r\rrou* lG*cos
; : '- ro
Real power residuals are ulated as ;'-';

'z= P8,- P2 = - 0.3638p,g.

I -,r

r=Pgs-\=-o.5t0op.u.
3+
+ = pl - p4 = - 0.4000 plu,
Convergenceis checked as

ma)flmum

maximum {
F :
{:!

Convergenceis not obtai

or

i
I

I
II
I
t_
 Power System

Triangularizing
ttie matrix, we

-7.5000
g.3/t0

0.0000

Biacksubstitutiongives anglesall
462 = -0.1 4507. Ada= .0.09299
I\{odify d;(i = 2; 3, 4)
6 z = z+ L6,= 0.0 -0.12293= - 0,12293 rad
d r = + 463 = 0;0 - 0.1450?= - 0.14507rad
d + = ia+ Ada= 0.0- 0.@299= - 0.09299rad
Specifiedreactivc are
Q) = -o.l p,u., Qrs= -0.i5 P.u., Qi = -0.30p.u.
ClomputeQ2, Q3, and usingEq.(2.120b)as

(A - d&)- 821cos (4 - 6l)l = -1,289478x 1012p.u.

(4' dr) - 831cos (d3- d*)l = 1.643656X l(Il p.u.

,U =
J, v+v*lGaxn (d4
- dr) Bt*cos (da- 6Ut = 4.297398 x l0-2 p.u.

R.eactive are calculated as

: .
AQz=QE- Qz= -Q.1371 p.u.
AQt= 0f - Qt= -0.41M p.u.
, A Q t = O l -, Q + = - 0 , 2 i 7 0 p ; u' i , : :

Convelgencecriterion is

maximum(44 = 2, 3,4) andAQiQ = 2,,''3,4\::

< e (0.001)
maximum{ , 0.51,,0.4, = 0.51> e
0.13?1,0.414,0.2370}
Convergencehas not obtained, so the change 'in voltage magnitudes is computed as

*-{
 Ied Flow Studies

Triangularizing
the abovem

Backsubstitutiongivesthe chpng in voltage magnitude as

AV2= -A'A72! , LVt = -0.09 r77 , LVa= - 0.05954
Modified voltagesare
v2 1.0- 4.07243= 0.92757p.u.
v3 1.0- 0.09577= 0.9M23p.u.
v4 t.0 - 0.05954= 0.94O46
p.u.
This procedureis repeated resultsafter 14 iterationsare givenin Table2.15.Line flows
are given in Thble 2.16.

2.15 Results after 14 iterations

B u s t r e P o V 6
Gu) (pu) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) Gad)
I 0.0 0.00 t.672t970 ,0.9570510 t .50 0.0
2 .-0.45 -.0.15 0.4500004 - 0.1499991 0.9337449 - 0.1040965
3 -0Fl -0.2s 0.5099981 -0.2500028 0.9113908 -0.1220529
4 - 0.60 -0.30 0.6000080 -0.2999880 0.9486451 -:0.0725110

Thble 2.16 Line flows

Line Bus .S;1

no. (t (p.u.)
1 0.6815881+ j0.3377037
I - 0.6396030 - j0.2327412
? 1.0347830 + 70.5468349
2 - 0.9726ffi2- j0.4225897
3 0.1907119 + |A.O9479M
3 - -
0.1886566 j0.0886283
4 - 0.3808s4s - i0.@05160
4 0.3881041 + ;0.1158895

d,i
II
98 Power System O,

EXAMPLE 2.13 For the le system of Figure 2.19, the generatorsare connectedat all the
founbuses,while the loads at buses2, 3, and 4. The valuesof real and reactivepowersare
listed in Table 2.7. Line are givenrin Thble 2.5. Find the voltages and the bus angles at the
threebusesusing the fast pled load flow'method. ,
, l

3t034 4.310345 0.0 8.0

31034s -1 1.8rO3/ 7.5 0.0
B=
0 7.5 r4.t0377 6.ffi3774
0 0.0 , 6:603774,-.t4.60377

To start iteration initial valuesof 4 and Vi as

6z- dr = dr = 0

V3- Vt = 1,0 P.u.

lSpecifiedreal power ues are

Pl = -0" 5 P.u., = -0.51 p.u., , Pf = -0.60 p.u.

P3s,
'[he
real powers (Pz, ps and Pj are computedfrom Eg. (2.120a)as

4
Pz= .2. vzvr[Gx cs (d2- 6D + Bxsin (d2- dr)l = -9..620691
x lgr2 p.u,
/c=l

4
ft = (d'1'- 6d +.831sin (dr - 6r)l = -2.984t86 x tf7 p.u.
r\rv"r lai*
.;,i+,
4
-H'' - t r r rr r l
,-.
r=l
4, * [G+* x 1[r p.u.

Ileal power residuals calculatedas

A P 2 =P t - P 2 - - 0 . 3 6 3 8p . u .

"A& = Pt - P3= -0.5100p.u..

LP+=4-Pa=-0.4000p.u.
Clonvergence,
is. checked

{APi(i = 2,3, 4)} < e (0.001)

{0.3638,0.51,0.4} = 0.51> € (0.001)
 Inad Flow Studies

Since c,onvergence
has not n a chieved, changes in voltage angleSard'calculatedas

Bn
Bn
B+z

Triangularizing the matril,

Back substitutiongives re change in voltage angles as

L 6 2= - 0 ' 1 i2g3, Adr - -0.14507, Ad+= -o.09299

Nlodifiedvaluesof 4 (t '- 2, 3, 4) arc computedas

6 z = 2+ L62='0.0- 0.1229i'-- 0.12293rad
d r = 3 + Ad3= 0.0 - 0.14507- - 0.14507rad .
6 + = a + A6a=,0.0 - 0.W2W = - 0.09299md
Specified reactive are

f = -0.25 p.u., Qi = -o-30 P.u.,

s

ComputeQt M 0+ us g Eq. (2.L20b), :

4
h = .I- vsv*lG* sin (d3- d*)- Bt*cos (63- dr)l = tt.&t3656x 10-rp.u.
t=l

4
U = .I- v+v*[Gq*sin (da - dn)- B+* cos (da - dr)l = -6.297398 x 10-2p.u.
, ft=l

- . ':
Reactivepower residualsare cdlculated as
' -' '
AQt = Ql - Qg = -0.4144
-
p.u.
I. ,-' -
' AQ+= Qi - Qq= -0.2370p.u:
 Power System

considered as
maximum{APi(i = 2, 3, 4) andAe (i = 3, 4)} S € (0.001)

i0.3638,0.51, 0.4,O.4tM,O.Z37O\
= 0.5I > e
Convergencehas not been hieve4 so changein voltagemagnitudesis qomputed.

- ott -Brnf
|
L-u*-r*l
or

liriangularizing the
I matrix, we have

4.1038 -*r::]
0.0000 11.5I I^nl=f-o+r++l
17JLAy4JL-0.43loJ
Eack substitution gives change in voltage magnitudesas

V3- -0.04691, LVa= -0fi374./.

tvfodified voltage at each P@ bus is computedas

V3- 1.0- 0.04691= 0.95309p.u.

Vq= 1.0- 0.03744= 0.96256p.u.

Tlhis procedure is repea I and results after twelve iterations

are given in Thble2.17, when
AP = 1,,4525p;9x 1o-5and A = 8.388814x 10-6. '

Ll7 Results after twelve iterations

p a P o v
(p.u.) d
G.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (rad)
r 0.0 0.00 r.653t4/;O 0.4291472 1.05 0.0
2 -0.45 -0.15 -0.4500015 0.335t632 r.00: -4.n22420
3 -0.51 _ 0.25 - 0.5100006 -0.2499992 0,957522n -0.1317483
4 -0.60 _0.30 -0.59998s5 -0.2999916 0.9684048 -0.0789874
 Inad Flow Studies

Line flows are given Thble2.18.

Thble 2.18 Line flows

Line Bus code
no. (i4)
l-2 0.&37674+ 70.0M9928
2-l - 0.6136931+ 70.0701930
t-4 1.0061940
+ ;0.3536526
4-l -0.9s4ffi - j0.2s04784
2-3 0.2135317+ j0.273r219
3-2 - 0.2087948- j0.2s89113
3-4 - 0.3496354+ j0.075rr52
4-3 0.3551111- y0.0559500

2.13} INITIALGUESSFOR LOAD FLOW

Leonriopoulos[994] deri the method to calculatethe initial guessinsteadof flat voltage start.
The real poweris represen by the equation
NB
P1 - i &T= l V*[Gi* cos (6; - 6) + Bi* sin (d; - dr )] (2.r43)

where
4 is the real powero the ith bus
% is voltagemagni of the ith bus
4 is volcageangleof ith bus
Yik- G* +.78ais the of admittancebus matrix
NB is numberof
Expanding the followi around zero,'

(dt - dr)3
- d*)=(di - dt) -

(A;'.6.f)3-
cos (di - dp)=,I - *.-.
2l
If an,glesare small, then the higherordertermscan be ignored,i.e.

sin (4 - d*) = (6i- dk) (2.rM)

' cos(dr- do;= | (2.r4s)
AssumeVi = L0 (l =

L _g.^
102 Power Systern Optimizat

Substitutingthe aboveassumPti s in Eq. (2.r43),

NB '-
- V i L V*[G* * Bi*(4 dr)]
'
/<=l

or
NB
= I Gi*+ - dt)
Ir=l k=l
or
NB NB NB
E Gi*= U Bi*6i
/c=l k=l &=l
k*t k*i

The above equation can be ttgn as

NB NB
Pi- T Gi* = - Bi*6* (2.146)
t=l k=l

where
NB
Bit =
k=l
k*i

The slack bus voltageis a priori, so Eq. (2.L46)can,be modified

NB NB
(2.r47)
k=t
f;l
From Eq; (2.147), voltage angl of PI/ and PQ buses can be obtained by usihg the Gauss
elimination method or any method used to solve the'linear simultaneouseQuations.
The reactive power is ted by the equation
NB
V*[G* sin (d; - 61) - Bi* cos (d; - 6t)] (2.148)
Qi =Vi
k=

where 0i is the reactive power the fth bus.

Let
%= 1P'u'
sin (d;- 5'*)= (4 - d*)
cos(d; - dr) = I
Ga sin (4 - 6*)<< B*
Substitutirngthe above assum ns in Eq. (2.148),
NB
Qi= >' V*(-Bi*)
k=l
 Load'FIow Srudies

NB
(- Bi-)Vr = t v*(- Bir) (2.r4e)
Qi k =NV+l
I

lere NIV is the numbr of slack PV buses.

e magnitudesof PQ busescan be o'Btained bY usingthe
From the above equation, vol equations.
russ elimination method or any r method to solve the linear simultaneous

and line impedanceof a power system

KAMPLE 2.L4 Line dataconsi ing of line charging on various types
schedtleJ generation,I'oad and specified voltages
e given in Table 2.19. The
'
busesare given in Table 2.20' Fi tf,e starting point for the load flow solution.
'is
Solution Bus I the slack Bus 2 is the PV bus. The B matrix is given below.

-8.6275 2.3529 0.0 1.5686 4.7A59

2.3529 -9.4118 4.7059 2.3529 0.0

B'= 0.0 4t0ss -9.41i8 0.0 4.7059

1.5686 2.3529 0.0

-3.9217 0.0

4.7059 0.0 -9.4118

4.7059 0.0
Thble 2,19 Line data

Line charging, Impedance

Line Bus code
no. (p-q) Yon 2,,

t-2 j0.0 0.10+ i0.4

1
l4 j0.0 0.15+ j0.6
2
1-5 j0.0 0.05 + i0.2
3
2-3 j0.0 0.05 + i0.2
4
2-4 j0.0 0.10+ i0.4
5
3-5 j0.0 0.05+ i0.2
6
'buses
Table 2.20 load, and voltage at

Voltage Typeof
Bus Generation
bus
no. P,, Qt,
pai Qa, Vi
(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)

0.00 0.00 l,o2 0.00 Slack

1
2 0.0 1.00 0.00 ':o PV
0.60 0.30 PQ
3 0.0
0.40 0.10 PQ
4 0.0
, 0.60 0.20 PQ
5 0.0
 I'ower System

Flgure 2.2O Sample system.

Equation(2.14'l)c,anbe ten in matrix form as

-Bp -Fn - B2a -Bzs 62 - Grz + 82161
-Bn --Bll -Bt4 -Bss d3 - Grt + 831d1
-Ba -Ba - Bu -B+s 64 - Crr++ 8a161
-Bsz -Bst -By -Bss d5 - Grs + Bsrfi
where

5
-Bzz = Bn * Bn * B+z* Bsz and Gtz =
Gvi
*=l

5
-B:g = Bn Bzt * Ba3+ Bs and Gtl = t
l=l
Gs*

5
-Bu = B+r Bqz* Ba3+ Ba5 and Gr+ = I Ga*
t=l

5
-Bss= Bsr Bsz* Bs + B5a and Gts = T Gs*
*=l

-9.4rr8 .t059 -2.3529 0.0 62 -1.0

:-4.7A59 .4118 0.0 -4.7059 63 -0.6
-2.3529 .0 -3.9216 0.0 64 -0.4
0.0 .7059 0.0 -9.4118 d5 -0.6
The abovematrix is tri ilro*
-.9.41tg -4.7 -2.3529 0,0 62 -1 0
0.0 -7.0 88 r.1765-4.7059 d3 =Ol
0.0 0.0 -3.1373 -0.7u3 64 -0.1667
0.0 0.0 0.0 -6.0784 d5 -,4,4917
 Inad Flow Studies

By ernployingbacksubstitu the voltageanglesare obtainedas

= 0,I 1516rad, dr =
6zt, O3427rad, 6a = 0.03290rad, ds = 0'08089rad
Equartiott(2.149) can be wri in matrix forrn as

Solvingwe get
' V3= 097667P' ., V4- 1,0065P.u., Vs = 0'97708P'u'

2.14 D,GSYSTEMM
To analyze the steadY-statedc
. A',tthe terrninalbusbar,
. The converteroperation
. The converter transfi
operation, the following assumptionsare made:
three-phaseac supply is balanced and sinusoidal
balanced
is losslessand the magtietizing admittance is ienored'

A 'basic dc converter is shown in Figure 2,2L(a) representingthe fundamental

frequency.An equivalent circuit the converter is shown in Figure 2-21(b).

/. , =, t3TJ Ii * (2.150)

where
/c is very close to unitY
I; is the fund4mental c t on secondaryof converter transformer
/3" is ihe converter dc llt,
'The
fundamental:current itudes on both sides of the losslesstransfgrmer are related by
the foll owing equation.
(2.151)
I Ii= alr

I
II
i
' '
.
VrZd
Il
u'ui,gg t
V6.
I
l-
I
r
Figure
F

2.2 Schematicdiagram of a dc converter.

I
106 I'ower System O,

Iaa
v46i
aB, vrz6, t
V6

(r - a)8,

Flgure2.21(bl Si gle-phaseequivalentcircuitfor the basic converter.

where
{ isrthe fundamental on primary of the converter transformer
a isr the off-nominal tap o.
Therefore,

Ii =ak*- ,0" (2.rsz)

fi

Therreal power of h on thp

c frequenciesat the bus bars:'is;prF$edted."The..porver
secondarl'side of the trans is equal to the dc power, i.e.

Va"la"= VJ* cos 4 (2.1s3)

where
% is the magnitudeof the
side (fundamental freque
4 is',the .angl€ of .voltage
V6" is the average dc vol
/6, is the converterdc
It is assumedthat transfi
i.e. on the rectifier
tage at the convertertransforme{sec.gnda_qfl
component is taken)
the converter transformer secondary,-(on'therectifier side)
.
is lossless,'the real power may be equated to the dc power, i.e.

V*I* = Vdi cos d; (2.rs4)

where
transformer on the bus bar side
tonvertertransf.
% is the magnitude of the voltage at the converter
6i is the angle of voltage t the converter transformer on the bus bar side

Substitutingthe value of { from Eq. (2.152) into Eq. (2.154) and rearranging,

Ia"- via(r+) /6"cosdi = o

On simplification,
where kr = k(3{2)ln.
Therdc voltage is e
Va"Ia"- kpV/6c cos 4 = 0 (2.rss)
in terms of the ac sourcevoltage as
Vd"= klaVicos a- k2I6"X" (2.rs6)
 Load Flow Studies tu7

a is the firing delay an of thyristorsin rectifier

& ir commutation re of the,converterat dc busbar
k2 is a constant(= 3ln).
The dc curTentand vol satisfythe relation

f (v*, /0")= o (2.rs7)

FromFigure2.21(b),the ollowing relation can be established'usingthe Kirchhoff's voltage
law
Va"- /6.R6"= 0 (2.r 58)
where R6. is the resistancein dc circuit.
Thredc model may be s as follows:

R(x, V;)1= Q (2.rse)

where
R(l) V6s- klaVi cos 4 (2.r59a)
RQ) Ve- kpVicos a+ kzxJe (2.rseb)
R(3) f (V*, /u") = V,y - Ra"/." (2.r59c)
R(/) control equations
x [V0", 16,Q,COSg, 4Jr
Control equationsmay written as

R(4) = a- a'P
R(5) = Va"Ia"- P;E
R(6)=cos d-cos dry
where
a'l' is the specified transfonner tap ratio
, PJBis the specifieddc
drP is the specified mini firing angle.

Ttre dc real and reactive are expressedas

Pd" = V;[ cos 6i= kfiVila. cs 4 (2.r60a)
Qa"= V;f sin 6i= kgVila" sin d; (2.160b)

The eqluivalentinverter
The equivalentinvertercircuit i shownin Figure 2.22.The residualequationsare similarto those
of the r,ectifier with the conditi that

a+ T = 180o

where 7' is the extinction adva angle in the case of inverter.

 Ie ,jd'

V'24 l:a vrz4

2.22 The equivalentinverter.

R(l) - va" kpV;cos d; (2.r6ra)

R(2) -- V6s klaVi cos (n - i - k2 X"la" (2.16rb)
R(3) - V6 Ra"/0"- flI;y,, cos 4) (2.r6rc)
R(l) = equations
where x = lVa", Id",a, cos d., 6i, Tf.
The control equationsmay written as
R( ) = a - a " P
R( | - v*l*- Pff
R( = cos a - cos dtP
= cos(n- T) - cos(n_ yT
where
a'P is the specified transformertap ratio
Pj! iis the specifieddc
dsP is the specified mini firing angle
tdP is the specified minimu for minimum reactancepgwer consumption of the inverter.
.The residual equation for rectifier and the inverter model can be generalized as given

- V6s- kpVi cos d1

(2.r62a)
= V6 - kpVi cos a + SilqXJe (2.r62b)
= V6 - S,Ra"/6"- f (1a",cos A) (2.r62c)
RU = control equations
r = [V0", Id", a, COsq 6[
a=fi-T

for rectifier operati

sA r =[+i
{
[-l for inverteroperati
 I-oad FIow Studies 109

Corntrolequations may be considered as

R(4)= a- a"P
R(5)= V*l*- Pff
R(6)=cosa-cos dP

2.15 l\c-Dc LoAD FLO

ac
The load,flow equationsrelatin to ac systemvariablesare derived from the specified system
operatingconditions.

=F,
#Adp+*=H.,
(2.r63a)
#o'r
=y gAdp+Y (2.163b)
k=2 dO* &=NV+l

where
P; is the real powerof ith bus
Qi ts the reactivePower. the ith bus
V; is the magnitude of Itage of the ith bus
6i is the angle of voltage of the ith bus
NII is the total number busesin the sYstem
I.I\/ is the number of the buses.

Thremodification,requi to the usual real and reactive powers mismatchesoccur at the

converterterminalbus bar, i.
PsP - Piu"- 4d" =0 (2.r64a)
(2.164b)
Q'p- Q?"- 8!" -0

NB
Pi^"= L ViVefGy,cos ( ,i - dr) + Bi*sin(6; - dr)l
ft=l

NB
8?" = I ViV*tGi*sin( - 6*) - Bi* cos(6i - dt)l
*=l

40" = V;I;cos dr = akl6". cos d;

Ql. =V;/;sin 6, = ak{6". in 6;

Pj* is the real ac power the ith bus
Qii" is the reactiveac at the ith bus
Ptt"'i* the real dc power t the ith bus
Olf is the reactive dc at the ith bus.
110 I'ower System Optimizat

Small variationsabout the initial valuesof Eqs.(2J6ail and (2.164b)can be obtainedby

the following equations:

aff'= (2.r65a)

LQi = (2.l65b)

AR= (2.r65c)
where I =, fV6os,
Id",dr,cos n 6r),.
The dc systemequations made independentof the ac system angle d by selectinga
separateanglereferencefor the system variables.This decouplesthe angle dependanceof ac
and dc syistems.
The real power more related to d and reactive power to V in the case of ac.

(2.r66a)

(2.t 66b)

(2.r66c)
For ac network,

Hii-#= -ei B,iViz (i = /<) (2.167

a)

HP- # =viv*[ sin(d; - 61) - Bi* cos(d; - dr)l (i * k) (Z.t67b)

Lii=V,W=Qi BiiViz (i=k) (2.167c)

L i * - r r # = r ,|lG* sin(rDr- 61)- B* cos(4 - d*)l (i * k) (2.167d)

For t,herectifier model,

l\R(l)= Lv*.g (Dar*.

# EP La+# a(cos
a)+# ot
FrornEq.(2.159a),
aR(l)= A '* - (krVi cos d) Lu + (k1aV;sin d;)Ad; (2.l68a)
Similiarly,
fromW. e.t59b),
AR(2)=AVo"-( A/a" - (krVi cos d;) La + (kpV) A(cos a) (2.168b)
AR(3)= AVo"- dc (2.168c)
AR(4)= Aa
(2.168d)
 Load FIow Studies 1.11

AR(5) = IacAV* vi".N*. (2.168e)

AR(6)= A(cos (2.1680
Forrthe inverter model,

A R ( l ) = L V * - ( & r icos 6)M + (kpVi sin 4)44 (2.169a)

AR(2)= AV.*-(k A/a" - (ktVi cos (n- T)) La + (kpV;) A(cos f) (2.l6eb)

AR(3) = AVoc* +#4/6" +#A(cosa)

416, (2.r69c)

AR(4) = Ln (2.r6ed)
- h"do,
AR(5)= Id"LVa" (2.169e)
AR(6)= A(coss) (2.L6ef)
AR(7)= -A(cos I (2.r6ee)
(2.165a),
Eqruations (2.1 ) and (2.165c)can be solved using the Gausselimination method.

Algorithm 2.72 DecoupledM od for ac-dc Load Flow

l. Readdata(ac)
NB is the number of ses;NV is the number of PV buses.
Vr, 6r for slackbus, P,$i = 2, 3, ..., NB) for PQ and PV buses.
0 i t ; = N V + 1 , t { V 2, ..., NB) fu PQ buses,V,.tt; = 2, 3, ..., I{V) ft
PV buses,
Yr*n, Vito (i = NV + I NV + 2, ,,., NB) for PQ buses.
Qy",8y^ (i = 2,3,..., for PV buses,R(maximumnumb€rof iterations),e (tolerance
in convergence)
Read data (dc)
TIVDClink between bars, X, (Commutationreactance),Ro" (dc link resistance),Con-
trol parametersfi" (Oc nk power), d(nring angle), TslExtinction advanceangle), etc.
2. Form fnus as explai in Section2.3 for ac busbars
3 . Assumeinitially magni and angle of voltage
tvft (; = Iril/ + 1,NIV* 2, ...,NB) and f (i = 2,3,....,NB) ,
4. Set iteration count r =
5. ,ComputePi, Mi using . (2.120a),i.e.
NB
Pi- I viv*[G*cos dr - 61)+ Bir sin(d; - dr)l (i = 2,3, ...,NB)
&=l

A P ; = P i-sn G
6. [f maximum {APi Q = 3, ..., I.IB)) < e then GOTO Step 10.
7. tComputethe elements Jacobianmatrix H, i.e.

Qi -BiiViz i=k

t_ ._i
 Power System Optim

ViV[Giesin(d; - 61)- B* cos(6; - dr)] (i*k)

A4 (t = 2,3 ..., NB) usingEq. (2.134a),

8. Compute i.e.

tHl tAdJ= [AP]

9. Modified value of dr computedas

4 = 4 + Aq ( i = 2 , 3 , . . . ,N B )
10. Compute p;, Ap; usin Eq. (2.120b),
i.e.
NB
Q = I viv*fGi* (dr - 6) - Bi*cos(d;- dr)l (d= NV + t,I{V *2,..., NB)
&=l

L,Qi= Qf - Qt (t NV + l, NV * 2, ...,NB)
1 1 .lf maximum{AQi (i = NV + l, NV * 2, ...,NB)) < e rhenGOTOStep22.
12. Compute elementsof acobianmatrix Z as

L i i = V i W =i - BiiV? Q=k)

L , i * = V * #VrV*[Gpsin(4 - 6e) - B* cos(d; - dr)] (i*k)

13. ComputeLV/V; (i = + 1, NIV* 2, .;.,NB) usingF4.Q.134b),

i.e.

='on,
wtf+]
14. Moc.ified value of vol magnitude % is computedas

LV,
Vi=Vi ( i = N V + l , N V* 2 , . . . , N B )
ir,
15. Set bus count i = 2.
16. If the bus is PQ, then k the limits of V; and ser accordingro Eq. (2.137),i.e.

vi = v n if Y,
Vi = Vi^^x if Vi

17. If the bus is PV, then pute B; using Eq. (2.120b)and check the limits of ei and ser
accordingto Eq. (2.13 ), i.e.

ei - gmin if ei < efi"

ei = efo* if ei > ef^*

:--1
 Load Flow Studies 113

If any limit is vioJatedthen the PV bus is temporarily convertedto PQ bus. So, compute
L;p with the updated of Qi,.Vi, and 6;. Using Eq. (2.136), calculate change in
voltage,i.e.

NB
I,
& = NV+l
k*i

and specifiedvoltage itude of the PV bus is uPdatedas

V ; = V f+ L V ;
18. Incrementthe bus i + I
If t < NB, then GOTO Step 16.
or (2.161).
19. Calculatedc residuals ing Eq. (2,1'59)
Calculatethe dc J J*,= aRtA{usingF-q.(2-168)or Eq. (2.169).
20. ComputeAX and x
X=X+AX X is a vector of X = [Va", 16,a, cos A, 4]r
2 r . Advance the count r r * l
lf r < R then GOTO 5 and repeat.

22. Compute powers on s bus, i.e.

NB
Pt= cos(fi - 61)+Brr sin(d1 - 6t)]
V1V*[G11
k=l
NB
Qr- t VrV*[Gpsin(d1- 6p) - Bw cos(61- 6t)]
k=l

23. StoP.

2.16 CONCLUSION
In this chapter,load flow of power systemshas been discussed.Important methods, namely
Gauss-Seidel,N o (Nn), Decoupled Newton (DLF) and Fast Decoupled Load
Flow (IFDLF), have been ibed. It is difficult to say which one of the exisring methods is
dictateil by the tyPes and si of the problems to be solved, as well as the precise details of
implemrentations. Choice of a rticular method in any given situation is normally a compromise
would not be incorrect to
between the various criteria o goodness,of the load flow methods.It
say that among the existing hods, no single methodmeets all the desirablerequirementsof an
ideal load flow method, n y high speed,low storage,reliability for ill-conditioned problems,
not all the
versatility in handling various iajurttn"nts and simplicity in programming. Fortunately,
desirable features of a load fl method are needed in all situations'
Despite a large number load flow methodsavailable,it is easy to see ttrat only the NR .
and FDLF load flow methods the most important ones for generalpurposeload flow analysis.
The FDLF method is clearlY ior to the NR methodfrom the point of view of speedas well as
' ll4 Power SystemOpti

storage.Yet, the NR methodis still in use becauseof its high versatility, accuracyand reliability
and,as such,is beingwidely ;ed for a variety of system optimization calculations.

SampleSystem2.1
Line data consistingof line ging and line impedance of, a power system are given in
Table 2|,21.The scheduled ion, load, and specified voltage on various types of busesare
given in Table 2.22.

Table 2.21 Line data

Line Line charging Intpedance
nQ. Yro zrq
l- j0.0 0.10+ jO.4
l- /0.0 0 . 1 5+ , p . 6
l- j0.0 0.05 + j0.2
2- j0.0 0.05 + j0.2
2- /0.0 ' 0.10+ j0.4
3- J0.0 0.05 + j0.2

Generation,load, and voltage at buses

Bus Generation Voltage Type

ne. Pr, Pai Vi
sr Qo, 4 of bus
(p.u.) u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p,u.) (rad)
l - 0.00 0.00 r.02 0.00 Slack
2 0.0 0 1.00 0.00 1.00 PV
3 .o.o 0t0 0.60 0.30 PQ
4 0.0 010 0.40 0.10 PQ
5 0.0 010 0.60 0.20 PQ
Rearctivepower limit of PV-bus is given as
0 . 0< Q z < 0 . 2
Decoupled Ne method is employed and convergence (e = 0.00001) is
achieved.iin l l iterations. Vol magnitudes,voltage angles and power injected at all busesare
tabulatedin Table 2.23. Line fl are given in Table 2.24.

Voltage and power injected at buses

Buti vi 6i Pi Q i l
no. (p.u.) (rad) (p.u.) (p.u.)|
I r.o2 0.0 2.9175840 r.370567
0
2 0.86r2t35 -0.4462322 - 0:9994068 0.s000000
3 0.786277| -0.4350828 0.5996794 - 0.2986889
4 0.83859I 3 -0.36907L7 - 0.4000205 - 0.0991933
5 0.8380031 -0.2634329 -0.6002641 -0.1998347
 Load Flow Studi l15

Table 2.24 Line flows

Line Branch )i& Line Branch S,&

no. i-k no. i-k
I r-2 t.0378870+ j0.36M762 6 3-5 -0.5660844- N. 1 3 4 1 8 6
| 2-t -0.9218592+ 70.1036347 6 5-3 0.5920158+ r7 t440
"O.
2 t-4 0.5791855 + jO.2595949
2 4-r -0.521105l- j0.o272735
3 l-5 1.30051 l0 + 70.7504954
3 5-t - 1 . 1 9 2 1 6 0- 0 j0.3r70906
4 2-3 0.MO4465+ y0.312780r
4 3-2 -0.03374t0 - jo.28s9583
5 2-4 -0.1182650+ j0.0836448
5 4-2 0.t210941- j0.072328s

SampleSystem2.2
Line datarconsisting of line c arging and line impedance of a pciwer system are iven in
Table 2.25. The scheduledgene ltion, load, and specified voltage on various types of $es are
given in 'Iable 2.76.

Table 2.25 Line data

Lhte B h Line charging Impedanct

n0. Yrn z*;
I r-2 '
70.06 0.02+p.0
2 l-3 70.05 0.08+ 10.2
3 2-3 j0.04 0.06+ p;I
4 24 jO.O4 0.06+ "p.1
5 2-5 70.03 0.04+.p.1
6 3-4 j0.02 0.01.
+.O.0
7 4-5 70.05 0.08+ j0.2

Table 2. Generation, load, and voltage at buses

Bus Generation Load Voltage Type
no. Pr, 0 Pai Qo, vi 4 f bus
, (p.u.) (p. .) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (rad)
I 0.00 0.00 1.06 0.00 Slack
2 it o.l 0.00 0.00 PQ
3 0.0 0. ) 0.45 0.15 PQ
4 0.0 0. ) 0.40 0.05 PQ
5 0.0 0. ) 0.60 0.10 PQ
a
 116 lPower System O ton

DecoupledNewton-Raphson :thodis employedand copvergence (e = 0.0001)is ac,ievedin

five iterations.Voltagemagni :s, voltageanglesand powerinjectedat all busesare tal rlatedin
Thble2.it7. Line flows are q in Table2;28.

27 Voltageand power injectedat buses

Blts Vi 6i Pi Qt
n0. (p.u.) Gad) (p.u.) (p.u)
r 1.0600000 0.0 r.2958920 - 0.399 62
2t, 1.0586840 - 0.0519997 0.1999401 0.200 05
3i 1.0400140 -0.0906581 -0.4499944 -0.150t 08
4i 1.0403200 - 0.0965536 - 0.3999603 - 0.050t 75
5 r.0347s60 -0.1104136 -0.5999067 -0.100r

Thble 2.28 Line flows

Line Branch S;p Line Branch Sa

no. i-k no. i-k

I r-2 0.8894789- j0.3r53776 5 2-s 0.5476638 + j0.( rM937

| 2-t -0.8743017r j0.2262M6 5 s-2 -0.5368901- j0.( 439186
2 l-3 0.q&n5 - j0.0845r81 6 3-4 0.1883627- j0.()43952
2 3-1 -0.3945952r 70.0097086 6 4-3 -0.1879857+ ,r0.(522482
3 2-3 0.2470838- jo.or28r77 7 4-5 0.0633137- jO.{506,671
3 3-2. -0.2437607 - j0.06s3108 7 s4 -0.0630165- j0.( 560906
4 2-4 0.2794943- j0.0239r8l
4 4=2 -0.2752891 - j0.0s15893

SamplerSystem2.3
Line data consisting of line arging, line impedance and off-nominal turn-ratio of power
system is given in Thble 2.29. he scheduledgeneration, load, and specified voltage ot various
types of buses are given in Ti t 2.30.

Thble 2,29 Line data

Line Branch Line charging Impedance Tur rratio

no. p-q Yoo zo, a
I L4 {0.01s 0.080+ 70.370 1.
2 r-6 +j0.021 0.123+ .70.518 1.
3 2-3 +70.000 0.123+ jr.050 1.
, " 4 2-5 +j0.000 0.282+ j0.640 1.
F 5 4-3 +j0.000 0.000+ ;0.133 0.
r -
I . O 4-6 +j0.015 o.W1 + j0.407 1.
l 7 6-5 +J'0.000 0.000+ 70.300 0. 5

J
 I-osd Flow Studies

Thble 2.30 Generation,,load, and voltage at buses

Bw Generation
no. o
(P

0.00 0.00 1.05 0.0 lack

; 0. 0.00 0.00 l.l0 PV
o'.0 0. 0.55 0.13 PQ
0.0 0. 0.00 0.00 PQ
0.0 0. 0.30 0.t 8 PQ
0.0 0. 0.50 0.0s PQ

Reactivepowerlimit of PV.bus is givenas

0 . 0s Q 2 s 0 . 2
Decoupled Newton- method is employed and convergence (e = 0.
achieved in eight iterations. magnitudes, voltage angles and porver injer;ted at'
are tabulaledin Table23L Line flows are givenin Table2.32.

Table Voltageand power injectedat buses

Bus vi 4 P i Q i
no. (p,u.) (rad) (p.u.) (p.u.)

r.05 0.0 a.9521295 0.43

1.10 - 0.0584521
1.0007640 -0.2231306 -0.5500m1 -0.13
0.9297400 - 0.17 16732
0.9197770 -0.2152802 -0.3000000 - 0,I
0.919r 896 - 0 . 2 1 3 61 8 - 0.5000000 '- 0.0

Thble 232 Line flows

Line Branch Branch

no. i-k i-k

r-4 0.5091050 jo.2s3m83 s 4-3 - i0. 72383

0.3598305
4-r -0.4850085 j0.1715056 5 34 -0.3598305+.,r0. 36867
t-6 0.4302M j0.t79t546 6 4-6 -
0.0891556 i0. 2673
-0.41,65614 6-4 - i0.0 36196
-0.0882611
6-t "10.10860++ 6
2-3 0.1717787j0.0001369 7 6-5 0.0047020- i0. 17959
3-2 -0.t54r47r jo.02s7a29 7 5-6 -0.C[47020+ 70. 18049
2-5 0.32822W y0.1845368
5-2 -0.2951773 j0.t0954.3 !
118 Power SYstemOPti,

SanrpleSyst-em2.4
Line data consistingof li e chargingand line impedanceof a poWersystem lre glven ln
Table:2.33. The scheduled eneration, load, and specified voltage on various types of buses are
givenrin Table 2.34.

Table 2,33 Line data

Line lranch Line charging Imped e
no p-cl Yoo Zp
1 t-9 j0.030 0.15+ y0.50
2 l-l l j0.010 0.05+ 70.16
3 2-3 j0.030 0.15+ 70.50
4 2-7 j0.020 0.10+ j0.28
5 2-r0 j0.010 0.05+ ;0.l6
6 34 70.015 0.08+ j0.24
7 4-6 j0.020 0.10+ i0.28
8 4-8 i0.020 0.10+ j0.28
9 4-9 70.030 b.ts+ ;0.50
10 5-6 ja.02s 0.12+ ;0.36
11 5-9 j0.010 0.05+ j0. 16
t2 7*8 j0.010 0.05+ 7 0 . 1 6
.13 7-r0 j0.01s 0.08+ j0.24
l4 8-9 j0.02s 0.12+ j0.36
l5 8-10 j0.015 0.08+ j0.24
r6 8-1 I j0.020 0.10+ jo.za
':17
0-11 j0.02s 0.12+ .p.36

load, and voltageat buses

2.34 Generation,
Bns Genera Load Tlpe
no. Pr, Qr, Pd, Qa, Vi 4 of bus
_ (p.p) (P'u') (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (rad)
I : 0.00 0.00 1.070 0.0 SIack
trZ
o.sozs PV
3 0.6625 0.00 0.00 1.095 PV
{ 0.4778 0.00 0.00 r.062 PV
:i 0.4778 0.00 0.00 r.046 PV
t5 0"0 0.0 0.10 0.02 PQ
,7 '
0,0 0.0 0.40 0.10 PQ
B 0.0 0.0 0.90 0.4s PQ
9 0.0 0.0 0.t0 0.35 PQ
10 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.05 PQ
l1 0.0 0.0 0.25, 0.05 PQ
 rr9
Reactivepowerlimits of PV. ses are glvon as
I
- 0 . 1s Q z < 0 . 5
- 0 . 13 Q s < 0 . 5
!

- 0 . 13 Q + < 0 . 5
- 0.1s Qs< 0.5

i Decoupled Newton-RaPhs method is employed and convergence (e = 0.00q l ) i s

lachievedin seven iterations. Volt magnitudes,voltage angles and power injected at all buses
ws are given in Table 2.36.
[re t*Uulatedin Thble 2.35. Line
Table 2.35 Voltage and power injected at buses
Bus vi 4 P i Q i
no. (p.u.) Gad) 0.u.) (P.u.)
0.0 0.4296081 0.19989E2
1 , 1.070 . :
2 1.088 o.og14,549 0.6625003 ' : 0. . 3 6 5 0I 1 1 7
....

3 t.095 0.149824r 0.6625000 - 0.0680686

4 r.062 0.a704/,48 . 0.4777996 0.0s97918
5 I .046 0.0405004 0.4778001 0.0833654
6 1.0538600 0.0418368 - 0.1000002 - 0.0200001
7 1.0160200 -0.0532843 - 0.4000000 - 0.0999998
8 0.9949282 - 0.0592053 - 0.899998s - 0,45000q6
9 1.0033960 -0.0272797 - 0.7000003 - 0.3500005
10 | .036rr20 - 0.0349548 - 0.2500006 - 0.0500000
1l r.0357370 -a.0427044 - 0.2500002 :0.0500000

Table 2.36 Line flows

Line tBranch S,: Line Branch Sir
no. .i-k no. i-k
I 1-9 0.0931827+ j0.0810305 l0 5-6 -0.0105336- 10.04t6769
1 9-r -0.0903010- j0.r359760 t0 6-5 0.0105867-i0.00l282r
2 l-1 I 0.3364255+ j0.1188675 II 5-9 0.4883338 + i0.13(043t
2 I l-l -0.3307410= j0.r22853s 1l 9-5 -0.4765216-i0.11: 2725
3 2-3 -0.2577526+ j0.o43254 12 7-8 0.0722417+ i0.10 r454
3 3-2 - j0.0840549
0.2669573 L2 8-7 - 0,0713871- i0. I 1l 6324
4 2-7 0.3894258+ j0.13110s9 13 7-rQ -0.0976511 - i0.06',2555
4 7-2 -0.3745907- 70.1338884 13 rO-7 0.0985978 + 70.035082
5 2-10 0.5308269+ j0.1906501 14 8-9 -0.0862617- .10.01' 9814
5 rvz -0.5171931- j0.r695946 14 9-8 0.0871694- i0.02'2129
6 3-4 0.3955428+ j0.0159869 15 8-10 -0.14s756- 70.13r2r2
'ontd.)
r20 Power SystemOptimi

Table 2.36 Line flows (Contd.)

Sit Line Branch Sit
Line' Branch
i-k no. i-k
no.
-0. - 70.0193427 l 5 10-8 o.1474535+ j0.1138036
6 4-3
-0.0996269 j0.r2872r8
7 4-6 0 . 1 1 I 1 - j0.0299398 r 6 8-11
6-4 -0.1105 - j0.011718s 1 6 1r-8 0.l0l 8282+ j0.093
6327
7
0.0211412 - j0.a327r70
8 4-8 0.5232 + j0.0766r57 t 7 10-11
- 0.498144 - j0.048544t t7 11-10 -0.02t0874- j0.020778s
8 8-4
9 4-9 0.2278 I + j0.0324603
9 9-4 -0. 2 - j0.0715401

SampleSYstem2'5
and off-nominal turn-ratio of a power
Line data consisting of line charging, line impedance
lold, arndspecified voltage on various
$ystennis givenin Teble2.3 Td scheduledglneration,
typesqf buqEqar-egivelt in ble 2,38.

Table 2.37 LinP data

Line charging Impedance Tum-ratio
Line Branc
p-q Yrn zon a
t10.

t-2 j0.0264 0.01938+ ;0.05917 1.0

1
1-5 j0.a264 0.05403+ i0.223M 1.0
2
2-3 j0.0219, 0.04699+ J0.19797 1.0
3
24 j0.0187 0.05811+ i0.r7632 1.0
4
2-5 j0.0170 0.05695+ ;0.17388 1.0
5
3-4 j0.0173 0.06701+ J0.17t03 I .0
6
4-5 j0.0064 0.01335+ i0.042rr 1.0
7
4-7 j0,0 0.0 + i0.2WI2 0.932
8
4-9 j0.0 0.0 + i0.55618 0.978
5-6 j0.0 0.0 + i0.25202 1.0
t0
6-1 j0.0 0.09498+ J0.19890 0.969
t1
6-r j0.0 0.12?9r+ 70.25581 1.0
L2
T3 6-1 j0.0 + io.r3o27
o.oodts l.o
7-8 j0.0 0.0 + i0.r76r5 l'.0
l4
15 7-9 j0.0 0.0 + 70.11001 1.0
t6 9-l j0.0 0.03181 +,10.08450 1.0
t7 9-r j0.0 0.I97ll + i0.27038 1.0
r8 l0-l j0.0 0.08205+ i0.r9207 1.0
l9 L2-l j0.0 0.22092+ i0.19988 1.0
20 13-1 j0.0 0.17093+ i0.34802 1.0

*rd
 Load FIow Studier r21

Generation;load, and voltage at buses

Bus Generation Voltage Type

no. P,, Qo, V; 4 of bus
(p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) Gad)
I 0.0 0.0 1.06 0.0 Slack
2 0.0 - 0 . 18 3 0.297 PQ
3 0.0 0.942 -0.044 PQ
4 0.0 0.478 - 0.039 P8
5 0,,0 0.076 0.0r6 PQ
6 0.0 0.112 -0.0i474 PQ
7 0.0 0.0 0.0 PQ
8 0.0 0.0 -0.174 PQ
9 0.0 0.295 -0.046' - PQ
10 0.0 0.090 0.0s8 PQ
11 0.0 0.035 0.018 PQ
t2 0.0 0.060 0.016 PQ
t3 0.0 0.r35 0.0s9 PQ
t4 0.0 0.r49 0.0s0 PQ

Decoupled Newton- n method is employedand convergence (e = 0.00001)is

achievedin 20 iterations. Vol voltageanglesand powerinjectedat all busesare
magnitudes,
tabulatedin Table 2.39. Line are given in Thble 2.40.

Voltage and power injected at buses

Bus Vi 6i Pi Qi
no. (p.u.) (rad) (p.u.) (p'u.)
t 1.06 0.0 2.3303080 o.4607337
,2 1.0r5003 -0.08m955 0.1829994 4.2969987
3 0.9813243 4.223's264 -0,94t9996 0.0439997
,4 0.9932188 -0.180i I 38 -0.4i79998 0.0389987
5 0.99707| -0.1 524515 -0.0760006 -0,0160021
6 1.04333 -0.2518152 -0.1119988 0.0473992
7 r.036625 -0.2362034 -0.0000001 0.0000001
8 1.06539 -0.236i2034 0.0000000 0.1739998
9 1.03101 -0.2652050 -0.2949985 0.0460000
10 1,025573 -0.2680944 -0.0900005 -0.0580009
1l 1.030798 -0.2623896 -0.0350000 -0.0179997
t2 r.027883 -0.2673156 -0.0599925 -0.0159998
13 r.02257 -0.2686943 -0. l 350083 -0.0579995
t4 1.005183 -0.2840871 -0. r4900r0 -0.0500003
 ,O.
P.ewer System

Table 2.40 Line flows

Ltn,e Branch Si* Line Branch .Sit
no. i-k no. i-k
I l-2 1.569 + j0.3206484 11 6-1I 0.0722568+ i0.0315819
| 2-l -t.524 - j0.24r3r2s ll l r-6 - 0.07r7 r43 - i0.03044s7
2 1-5 0.7 M + j0.1400845 rz 6-r2 0.0775966+,j0.0262592
2 5-t - 0.73l5 67 - j0.0753964 t2 r2-6 - 0.0768389- i0.0246822
3 2-3 0.731 + 13 6-1,3 0.1775005+ j0.0773352
"10.0282107
3 3-2 -0.7067 8 1 + 70.0313790 l3 l3-6 - 0.r7s222s - j0.0728490
4 2 4 0.s6r2& - j0.0502135 14 7-8 0.0000000 - t0.1693013
4 4-2 -0.54 32 + y0.0665812 14 8-7 0.0000000+,j0.1739998
5 2-5 0,41 75 - j0.0336869 '15 7-9 0.28r7r7r + 40.0569965
'5 5-2 - 0.4059L2 + j0.0284499 15 9-7 - 0.281717| - i0.048539t
6 3 4 -0.235 1 3+ .,10.0126209 16 9- 10 0.0535518+ ,j0.M62236
6 4-3 0.239t 30 - j0.036363r 16 10-9 - 0.0534020- i0.0458258
7 4-5 -0.6167 r6 + y0.1074161 l7 9-14 0.0941612+ t0.0303033
7 5 4 0. 43 -;0.1033027 17 r4-9 -0.09263U - t0.0278001
8 4-7 0.2t55 94 - j0. r98M32 18 10-1r -0.0365981- i0.0121743
8 7 4 -0.2755 94 + j0.2228831 I8 l1-10 0.0367141+ 70.012M60
9 4-9 0 . 1 5 6 5 - j0.0608410 19 t2-13 0.0168462+ .10.0086827
9 9 4 -o.1562 5 + y0.0767004 19 13-12 -0.01677rr - y0.0086147
10 5-6 0.4c/94 - j0.1626914 20 t3-t4 0.0569854 + 1j0.0234643
r0 6-5 -0.4094 + j0.2rr9064 20 t4-13 - 0.0563646 - i0.0222002

Sample'System2.6
:'i. .- . , : .,
Lino datd consistingof lin charging, rline
. t
irhpedanceand off-nominal turn-ratio of a power
systenn'isgiven in Table 2.4 The scheduledgeneration,load, and specified voltage on various
typesof busesare givenin' le 2.42.
Table 2.41 Line data
Line Line charging Impedance Tum-ratio
f,lo. Yro zoo a
1-3 j0.0r79 0.0720+ j0.2876 1.0
L-r6 ;0.0337 0.0290+ J0.1379 r.0
t-17 "10.0148 0.1012+ j0.2794 1.0
1-19 j0.0224 0.1487+ p.3897 1.0
(Contd.)
 Iffid Flow Stwdies t23

2.4L Line data(Contd.)

Line Branch Line cltarging Impedance Turn-ratio

no. -p-q Yon zoo a

5 r-23 jo.os13 0.1085+ iO.2245 1.0

6 L-25 j0.0873 0.0753+ 70.3593 1.0
7 2-6 j0.0186 0.0617+ i0.2935 1.0
8 /-7 j0.0155 0.0511+ i0.2M2 1.0
9 2-8 j0.017s 0.0579+ i0.2763 1.0
10 3-13 j0.0085 0.0564+ J0.1487 1.0
1l 3-r4 j0.018s 0.1183+ j0.3573 1.0
L2 4-t9 j 0 . 0 11 3 0.0196+ 70.0514 1.0
13 4-20 j0"0220 0.0382+ i0.1007 1.0
t4 4-21 j0.0s58 0.0970+ i0.2547 r.0
15 5-10 j0.oss7 0.0497+ j0.2372 1.0
1,6 5-17 j0.1,335 0.011-/+ J0.1269 1.0

t7 5-19 j0.0140 0.0929+ i0.2442 1.0

18 6-13 j0.0040 0.0263+ 70.0691 1.0
19 7-8 j0.0078 0.0529+ /0.1465 1.0
20 7 -12 j0.0110 0.0364+ i0.1736 1.0

2l 8-9 j0.0118 0,0387+ i0.1847 1.0

22 8-17 j0.0s72 0.0497+ i0.2372 1.0
23 9-10 j0.008s 0.0973+ i0.269r 1.0
24 10-t1 j0.0135 0.0898+ iO.2359 1.0

25 rl-t7 j0.0161 0.1068+ i0.2807 1.0

26 t2-t7 j0.0135 0.0460+ i0.2r96 1.0

27 t4-15 j0.0044 0,0281+ i0.0764 1.0

28 l5-16 j0.0148 0.0256+ i0.0673 1.0
29 17-18 j0.01,22 0.0806+ io.2Ir9 1.0

30 18-19 j0.0132 0.0872+ i0.2294 1.0

31 20-21 j0.03s4 0 . 0 6 1 5+ i 0 . 1 6 1 3 1.0

32 2r-22 j0.0238 +'J0,1087

0.041,4 1.0

33 22-23 j0.0169 0.2250+ 70.3559 1.0

34 22-24 j0.0s67 0.0970+ i0.2595 1.0
35 24-25 j0.0317 0.0472+ i0.1458 1.0
 Power System O

Thble 2 Generation,load, and voltage at buses

Bus' Load Voltage Tlpe
no. P,, Qr, Vi 4 of bus
(p.u.) (p.u.) G.u.) (rad)
I 0.00 0.00 r.030 0.0 Slack
2 0.936 0.10 0.03 1.002 PV
3 r.5r3 0.50 o.r7 1.050 PV
4 0.480 0.30 0.r0 1.015 PV
5 t.t84 0.5 0.25 0.08 1.007 PV
6 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
7 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
8 0.0 0.0 4.25 0.00 P8
9 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
10 0.0 0.0 0.r5 0.05 PQ
1l 0.0 0.0 0.05 0.00 PQ
t2 0.0 0.0 0.10 0.00 PQ
l3 0.0 0.o 0.25 0.08 PQ
t4 0.0 0.0 0.20 0.07 PQ
t5 0.0 0.0 0.30 0.r0 PQ
r6 0.0 0.0 0.30 0.10 PQ
t7 0.0 0.0 0.60 0.20 PQ
18 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
r9 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
20 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.08 PQ
2l 0.0 0.0 0.20 0.07 PQ
22 0.0 0.0 0.20 0.07 PQ
23 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.0s P8
24 0.0 0.0 0.15 0.05 PQ
25 0.0 0.0 0.25 0,08 PQ

Decoupled Newton-Ra (e = 0.0001)is achieved

methodis employedand convergence
in eighit iterations. Voltage gnitudes, voltage angles and power injected at all buses are
tabulatedin Thble 2.43.
 Load Flow Studies l2s

Voltageand power injected at buses

Bus V1 6i Pi Qi
no. (p,u,) Gad) (p.u.) (p.u.)

1 1,0300000 0.0000000 0.7240468 0.0779707

0.1317326 0.8360000 -0.1865165
2 1.0020000
3 1,0500000 0.0973678 I .0130000 0.1948333
4 I ,0150000 -0.04791r4 0.1800069 0.1,539479
0.1r 50286 1.5340000 - 0.444007
6
5 1.0070000
0,0777504 - 0.1500006 - 0.0500004
6 1.0083200
0,0487078 -0.t499998 - 0.0500001
7 0,9975652
8 0.9995552 0.0380560 -0.2499998 0.0000006
0,0249825 - 0.I 500001 - 0.0500001
9 0.9926407
0.0444859 - 0.1500002 - 0.0500006
r0 1.0026400
11 1.0054140 0.0266034 -0.0499998 0.0000004
0.0268849 - 0.1000001 - 0.0000003
12 1.0014450
0.0739145 -0.2499987 - 0.0799992
T3 1.0139090
-0.0377593 - 0.1999998 - 0.0699996
l4 0.9862s0s
-0,0540977 - 0.300001
1 - 0.1000007
15 0.9830649
- 0.0498755 -0.2999990 - 0.0999990
16 0.9936035
0.0224340 - 0.5999998 - 0.2000007
L7 1.0058740
-0.0145077 - 0.1500000 - 0.0499995
18 0.9983927
-0.022337
5 - 0.1500007 - 0.0500009
L9 1.0098490
-0.084454r - 0.2500004 - 0.0800000
20 r.0016820
- 0.1049661 - 0.2000009 - 0.0699991
2l 1.0004880
- 0.1199480 - 0.2000258 - 0.0700003
22 0.9978289
- 0.066s098 -0.1499694 - 0.0500006
23 r.0118770
- 0.1374826 -0.1499978 -0.0499999
24 r.0037240
-0.r2350r4 -0.2499990 - 0.0800005
25 1.0089770

SamplelSystem2.7
of a power
Line data consistingof line ch ing, line irnpedanceand off-nominal turn-ratio
system is given in Table 2 M scheduledgeneration,load, and specifiedvoltage on various
types of b'usesare given in Table 2 . 4 5 .
t26 Power SiystemO,

Thble 2.44 Line data

Line Branch Line charging Impedance Turn-ratio

no. p-q Yrn zoo a
1 1-11 j0.050 0.060+ j0.206 1.0
2 rt-tz j0.014 0.160+ j0.524 1.0
3 Lt-t7 j0.018 0.210+ j0.694 1.0
4 lr-24 ja.$2 0.084+ 70.280 1.0
5 r2-t7 j0.006 0.066+ j0.236 1.0
6 24-r3 ja.02r 0.066+ 70.208 1.0
7 r3-14 ja.02r 0.060+ j0.200 1.0
8 13-16 j0.020 0.268+ 70.802 1.0
9 t4-t5 j0.000 0.065+ j0.r94 1.0
10 t44 j0.038 0.078+ 70.350 1.0
11 15-9 ja.02r 0.074+ j0.2r2 1.0
L2 15-10 ja.026 0.192+ 70.950 1.0
r3 15-18 j0.010 0.066+ 70.186 1.0
t4 9-r6 j0.006 0.084+ j0.256 1.0
r5 18-2.0 j0.003 0.038+ 70.108 1.0
16 18 - 1 0 j0.018 0.168+ 70.680 1.0
t7 10-19 j0.018 0.r74 + j0.704 1.0
18 19-20 j0.00s 0.058+ j0.164 1.0
l9 20-2 ja.026 0.054+ j0.242 1.0
20 20-4 j0.0s2 0.118+ j0.334 1.0
2l 20-23 j0.026 0.094+ j0.256 1.0
22 2-21 j0.000 0.000+ j0.r46 1.0
23 2t-22 i0.000 0.146+ j0.248 1.0
24 22-23 j0.000 0.000+ 70.064 1.0
25 23-3 j0.000 0.000+ 70.058 1.0
26 +5 j0.038 0.108+ 70.358 1.0
27 5-26 j0.028 Oo78_,+ j0.266 1:0
28 5-27 j0.024 0.060+ jo.22o 1.0
29 26-25 j0.016 0.046+ 70.154 1.0
30 26-27 jo.02s 0.066+ j0.2r6 1.0
31 25-17 i0.085 0.212+ 70.806 1.0
32 27-6 j0.orx 0.024+ 70.076 1.0
33 27-7 j0.01e 0.066+ 70.184 1.0
34 7-28 j0.023 0.066+ j0.224 1.0
35 28-8 j0.0r4 0.038+ 70.128 1.0
 Load Flow Studies t27

Thble 2.45 Generation,load, and voltage at buses

Bus Generation Load Voltage Type
no, Pu, o Qo, vi 4 of bus
(p.u.) (p. (p.u.) (p.u.) (rad)

I 0.0000 0.0000 r.0r2 0.0 Slack

2 0.758 0. 0.2550 0.1250 r.002 PV
3 0.201 0.1 0.0000 0.0000 I .001 PV
4 1.190 0.1 0.4050 0.1940 1.040 PV
5 r.425 -0.1 0.0255 0.0155 1.050 PV
6 0.580 0.2 0.s850 0.r 400 r.036 PV
7 0.229 0.1 0.4200 0.0515 1.028 PV
8 0.235 0.1 0.2190 0.0200 1.040 PV
9 0.0 0.0 0.0520 0.0075 PQ
10 0.0 0.0 0.0555 0.2150 PQ
11 0.0 0.0 0.2365 0.1590 PQ
L2 0.0 0.0 0.0895 0.0760 PQ
13 0.0 0.0 0.0750 0.0400 PQ
t4 0.0 0.0 0.1255 0.0750 PQ
15 0.0 0.0 0.1150 0.0650 PQ
r6 0.0 0.0 0.0850 0.0400 PQ
T7 0.0 0.0 0 .1 91 0 0.l 250 PQ
18 0.0 0.0 0.0845 0.0145 PQ
r9 0.0 0.0 0 . 15 0 0 0.0250 PQ
20 0.0 0.0 0.6350 0.4300 PQ
2l 0.0 0.0 0.0000 0.0000 PQ
22 0.0 0.0 0.0000 0.0000 PQ
23 0.0 0.0 5
0.237 0.1230 PQ
24 0.0 0.0 0.1600 0.0750 PQ
25 0.0 0.0 0.14r0 0.0500 PQ
26 0.0 0.0 0.2670 0.1000 PQ
27 0.0 0.0 0.t455 0.0800 PQ
28 0.0 0.0 0.2750 0.1245 PQ

Decoupled Newton-Raphso method is employed and convergence(e = 0.00001) is

achievedin eight iterations.Vol e magnitudes,voltage anglesand power injected at all buses
are tabulatedin Thble 2.46.
128 Power System Op

Thb 2.46 Voltageand power injectedat buses

Bus V; 4 Pi Qi
no. (p.u.) (rad) (p.u.) (p.u.)
1 t.012 0.0000000 0.6380979 0.1490656
2 r.002 -0.1044606 0.5029998 0.2108777
J 1.001 - 0.1604965 0.2009998 0.2940157
4 1.040 -0.0250462 0.7849998 0.3107s86
5 1.0s0 0.0402329 1.3995000 -0. l 395139
6 1.036 -0.1026045 - 0.0049999 0.0714689
7 1.028 - 0.1969713 -0.1910000 0.t0 r4r32
8 1.040 -0.2702140 - 0.0140001 0.1395656
9 0.908935 - 0.2274lll -0.0520002 -0.0075003
10 0.8576 I -0.2101920 -0.0554945 -0.2149965
11 0.940831 - 0.1257688 -0.2365004 - 0.159000I
T2 0.906652 - 0.1856025 -0.0894994 -0.07s9997
t3 0.92935 - 0.1904876 - 0.0750007 -0.0400000
1,4 0.9434 8 - 0.1676937 -0.1255015 -0.0750012
15 0.914624 - 0.2051 60I - 0.1149993 - 0.06s0001
r6 0 . 9 0 3 5 12 -0.2368435 -0.0849994 -0.0399996
t7 0.9147 6 3 - 0.19275r5 -0.1910003 -0.1 250004
18 0 . 9 1 5 s 48 - 0.1991368 - 0.0845001 -0.0145009
T9 0.905450 - 0 . 2 111 8 6 8 - 0.1499998 -0.0250006
20 0.927907 - 0.1837509 -0.6350048 -0.430003r0
2I 1.002520 - 0 .r 2 5 5 8 6 8 0.0000004 0.0000005
22 0.98331 2 - 0.1629218 -0.0000006 -0.000000,6
23 0.984031 - 0.172332r -0.2375002 -0.1 230007
24 0.92355 - 0.1835407 -0.1 599999 -0.0749996
25 0.9940 1 - 0.1268076 -0.1 409999 -0.049999r8
26 1.009550 - 0.0918859 -0.2669999 -0. I 000003
27 r.029530 -0.1002295 -0.t454994 -0.0800003
28 1.0214 0 -0.2629933 -0.2749998 -0.1 245002

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-l
130 Power SystemO,

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