EE 505: POWER SYSTEMS ENGINEERING II (3 UNITS)

COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction to power system: Structure of Power System, Per Unit Quantities. Representation of power systems,
power system equation and analysis, load flow studies, load forecasting, economic operation of power systems,
symmetrical components, symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults, various types of relays used in power systems,
protection systems of power transmission lines, principles of faults detection, discrimination and clearance, elements
of power systems stability.

REFERENCES
Search for books on: www.pdfdrive.com
1) Electrical Power Systems Technology Third Edition by Stephen W. Fardo Dale R. Patrick Chapters 4 & 5.
2) A Textbook Of Electrical Technology By B. L. THERAJA and A.K. THERAJA Revised by : S.G.
TARNEKAR, Chapters 24 and 50
3) Power System I by U.A, Bakshi & M. V. Bakshi, First Edition, Chapter 1
4) Introduction to Electric Power System by Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Willey IEEE Press
5) Modern Power System Analysis D, P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath
6) Power Generation, Operation and Control by A.J. Wood, B.F. Wollenberg and G.B. Sheble, Chapter 1
7) Elements of Power System Analysis by William D. Stevenson Jr.
8) Computer Aided Power System Operation & Analysis by R.N Dhar.
9) Electric Energy; its generation, transmission & use by E.R. Laithwaile & L.L. Freris.
10) Electric Energy System Theory by O.I. Elgerd.
11) Power System Analysis by H. Saadat.
12) Computer Methods in Power System Analysis by G.W. Stagg and A.H. El-Abiad.

Page 1 of 21
 13) Computer Techniques in Power System Analysis by M.A. Pai.

Assessments Criteria
i. Continuous Assessments
i. Test I 12%
ii. Test II 12%
iii. Assignments & Attendance : 6%
CA 30%
ii. Examinations 70%
Total 100%

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 Chapter I: Introduction to Electric Power System
A major part of the energy which the human society needs today is handled in the form of electrical energy and the

system which generates, control, dispatches and finally consumes this energy is known as the electrical power

system. The objective of a power system is to generate electrical energy economically and with minimum ecological

disturbance and to transmit it in bulk quantities to the load centers over the transmission lines with maximum

efficiency and then distribute it to the individual consumers at virtually fixed voltage and frequency.

This power system consists of three principal divisions (components); the generating stations, the transmission

lines and the distribution systems (load). Transmission lines are the connecting links between the generating station

and the distribution systems and lead to other power systems over interconnections. A distribution system connects

all the individual load to the transmission lines at sub-stations which perform voltage transformation and switching.

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 Figure 1: Structure of Power System

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  Electric power is produced at lower voltages (10 to 38 kV) at
generators from various fuel sources, such as nuclear, coal,
oil, natural gas, hydro power, geothermal, photovoltaic, wind-
powered systems, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) systems,
nuclear fusion systems, and fuel cells.
o Some generators are owned by the same electric utilities
that serve the end-use customer
o Some are owned by independent power producers (IPPs);
and others are owned by customers themselves-
particularly large industrial customers.
•Electricity from generators is "stepped up" to higher voltages for
transportation in bulk over transmission lines.
•Operating the transmission lines at high voltage (i.e., 230-
765kV, AC) reduces the losses of electricity from conductor
heating and allows power to be shipped economically over long
distances.
•Transmission lines are interconnected at switching stations and
substations to form a network of lines and stations called a power
"grid."
 When the power arrives near a load center, it is "stepped
down" to lower voltages for distribution to customers.
•The bulk power system is predominantly an alternating current
(AC) system, as opposed to a direct current (DC) system, because
of the ease and low cost with which voltages in AC systems can
be converted from one level to another.
• Some larger industrial and commercial customers take
service at intermediate voltage levels (11-115kV), but most
residential customers take their electrical service at 230/415 V.

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 Symbols used in power systems

Representation of Electrical Power System

A three phase (3 - ∅) system is expected to operate under a balanced
condition i.e. every phase should carry equal load. Balanced condition reduces
the computation aspect by using only single phase for the purpose of analysis.
The electrical power system is often represented by a conventional one-line
(single-line) diagram. A simple power system is shown in Fig.2.
 Fig. 2: Single-Line Diagram of Electric Power System
Impedance and Reactance diagrams
In order to compute the performance of a system under load conditions or upon
the occurrence of a fault, the single-line diagram is used. A diagram showing the
circuits and their impedance is known as an impedance diagram and can be
readily built up from the single-line diagram provided the equivalent circuit of
different components are available. Power system equivalent circuits during
normal operating conditions are:
1. Generator: A synchronous generator is represented by its generated voltage
(no-load voltage), E in series with an impedance 𝑧𝑠 known as synchronous
impedance.

Fig. 3: Synchronous generator representation

2. Transmission lines: Electrical lines consist of impedances which are not

lumped but distributed throughout its length. Nominal Pi-circuit
representation is used for long and medium length line.

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 Fig: Nominal Pi-Representation of Transmission Line
3. Transformer:
The equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer is shown below:

The shunt impedance being magnetizing in nature are very high and hence their
effect may be neglected. The equivalent circuit is then reduced to a simple series
impedance referred to either primary or secondary side.

Fig: Equivalent Circuit of Two Winding Transformer.

Three winding transformers are used in bulk power (transmission) sub-stations to

reduce the transmission voltage to the sub-transmission voltage level. The tertiary
winding of a three phase and three winding transformer bank is usually connected
in delta and may be used:
i. to provide voltage for auxiliary power purpose in the sub-station or to supply
a local distribution system.
ii. the switched reactor or capacitors are connected to the tertiary bus for the
purpose of reactive power compensation.
iii. for providing a path for zero sequence currents.
iv. interconnection of two transmission systems of different voltages.

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Fig: A single phase three winding: (a) winding diagram (b) equivalent circuit.

The impedance of any of the branches shown in the fig. above can be determined
by considering the short-circuit impedance between pairs of winding with the
third open.

𝑍𝑃𝑆 = 𝑍𝑃 + 𝑍𝑆

𝑍𝑇𝑆 = 𝑍𝑇 + 𝑍𝑆

𝑍𝑃𝑇 = 𝑍𝑃 + 𝑍𝑇
𝑍𝑃𝑆 + 𝑍𝑃𝑇 − 𝑍𝑇𝑆
𝑍𝑃 =
2

𝑍𝑃𝑆 + 𝑍𝑇𝑆 − 𝑍𝑃𝑇

𝑍𝑆 =
2

𝑍𝑃𝑇 + 𝑍𝑇𝑆 − 𝑍𝑃𝑆

𝑍𝑇 =
2

Where;

𝑍𝑃𝑆 = Leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary short

circuited and tertiary open.

𝑍𝑃𝑇 = Leakage impedance measured in primary with tertiary short

circuited and secondary open.

𝑍𝑇𝑆 = Leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary short

circuited and primary open.

𝑍𝑃 , 𝑍𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑇 are primary, secondary and tertiary winding impedance

respectively.
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 Auto-Transformers
An auto-transformer differs from the ordinary transformer in that the windings of
the auto-transformer are electrically connected as well as being coupled by a
mutual flux. Consider the two winding transformer shown in the figure below
converted to one auto-transformer by connecting the two windings electrically in
series so that the polarities are additive.

(a) (b)
Fig: Two winding transformer reconnected as an auto-transformer
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼2 𝑁1
= =𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = =𝑎
𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼1 𝑁2

Where, a is the turn ratio.

𝑁1
From fig. (b) 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉
𝑁2 2

𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐿
𝑁1
 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉 = (1 + 𝑎) 𝑉𝐿
𝑁2 𝐿

𝑉𝐻
= (1 + 𝑎)
𝑉𝐿

𝑁2 𝐼2 = 𝑁1 𝐼1 ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼1

 𝑁2 (𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼1 ) = 𝑁1 𝐼1
(𝑁1 + 𝑁2 )𝐼1
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑁2

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 𝐼𝐿
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐻 => = (1 + 𝑎)
𝐼𝐻

The power rating advantage is given by;

𝑆𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )𝐼1 𝑁2 1

= =1+ =1+
𝑆2−𝑤 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑁1 𝑎

Fig: Auto-transformer equivalent circuit.

Tap-changing transformers
Tap-changing transformers are used for controlling the line voltages at all levels.
The tap-changing is done by altering the voltage magnitudes as it affects the
distribution of vars (reactive power) and may be used to control the flow of
reactive power. They have built-in voltage sensing circuitry that automatically
changes the taps to keep the system voltage constant. Tap-changing transformers
could be:
- Off-load tap-changing transformers.
- Tap-changing under load (TCUL) transformers.
The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the
transformer when the tap-setting is to be changed. This is used when the ratio is
to be changed infrequently because of load growth or some seasonal changes.
Basically, a TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to change
taps while power is connected.

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 Regulating Transformers or Boosters
These are used to change the voltage magnitude and phase angle at a certain point
in the system by a small amount. Phase shifting is used to control the active power
flow at major inter-tie-buses. It consists of an exciting transformer and a series
transformer.

4. Loads:
Loads in power system are represented collectively. Loads other than
synchronous motor are represented mostly by constant inductive impedances.
Other forms such as constant complex powers (P + jQ) and constant current at
fixed power factor are also used.
In case of synchronous motor, the representation is similar to that of the
synchronous generator. The impedance diagram of the single line diagram is
therefore show below:

Fig: Impedance diagram corresponding to the single line diagram.

If all static loads, resistances, magnetizing current of each transformer and

the capacitance of the transmission line are omitted, the impedance diagram
reduces to the reactance diagram shown in the figure below.

Page 12 of 21
 Fig: Reactance diagram adapted from the figure above.

The per unit (P.U) quantities

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Quantity in p.u =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

Voltage, current, kilovoltampere and impedance are so related that selection of

base values for any two of them determines the base value of the remaining two.
Two obvious base quantities are apparent power and voltage.
For single phase,
base KVA1 ∅ 𝑆𝐵
Base current, 𝐼𝐵 = = (Amps)
base voltage KV𝐿𝑁 𝑉𝐵

base voltages 𝑉𝐿𝑁 𝑉𝐵

Phase impedance, 𝑍𝐵 = =
base current A 𝐼𝐵

(base voltage, 𝐾𝑉𝐿𝑁 )^2

= ∗ 1000
base KVA1 ∅

(base voltage, 𝐾𝑉𝐿𝑁 )^2

=
base MVA1 ∅

Base power, 𝐾𝑤1 ∅ (𝑀𝑤1 ∅ ) =SB

actual impedance,ohms
Per-unit impedance Z𝑝.𝑢 =
base impedance,ohms
𝑍 𝑆𝐵
= = Z.
𝑍𝐵 𝑉𝐵2

For three phase system,

base kVA3 ∅
Base current, Amp =
√3 base voltage KV𝐿𝐿

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 (base voltage kV𝐿𝐿 / √3)2
Base impedance = ∗ 1000
base kVA3 ∅ /3

(base voltage kV𝐿𝐿 )2

= ∗ 1000
base kVA3 ∅

(base voltage KV𝐿𝐿 )2

=
base MVA3 ∅

1
P.u admittance, Y𝑝.𝑢 =
Z𝑝.𝑢

Change of Base Quantities

Normally, the impedances are specified on the rating of the equipment. Hence,
there is a need to change the pu values from the base of the equipment rating (old
value) to that of the chosen system base (new value).

Example: Convert the impedance and admittance values given below on old base
of 100MVA, 735kV to the new base of 200 MVA and 345 kV.

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 , Ypu,o=5.97524

Example:

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 Advantages of p.u system
 The per-unit values of impedance, voltage and current of a transformer are
the same regardless of whether they are referred to the primary or the
secondary.
 The use of per-unit quantities are ideal for the computerized analysis and
simulation of complex power system problems.
 The per-unit system gives us a clear ideal of relating magnitudes of various
quantities such as voltage, current, power and impedance.
 Usually, the impedance of an electrical apparatus is given as per-unit by its
manufacturer based on its name plate ratings.
 It eliminates the √3 multiplication and division required when balanced
3-∅ system are represented by per-phase system. Therefore, the factors √3
and 3 associated with delta wye quantities in a balanced 3-∅ system are
directly taken into account by the base quantities.

Example: A two- winding transformer is rated at 60kVA 240/1200V, 60Hz.

When operated as a conventional two winding transformer at rated load, 0.8
power factor its efficiency is 0.96. This transformer is to be used as a 1440/1200V
step-down auto-transformer in a distribution system.
(a) Assuming ideal transformer, find the transformer kVA rating when used as
an auto-transformer
(b) Find the efficiency with the kVA loading in (a) and 0.8 power factor.
SOLUTION:
(a)The two winding rated currents are:
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 60000
I1 = = 250 A
240
60000
I2 = = 50 A
1200

The auto-transformer rating S = 1200*300 = 360kVA

The power advantage of the auto-transformer is;
𝑆𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 360
= =6
𝑆2−𝑤 60
(c) When operated as a two-winding transformer at full load 0.8 power factor
60∗0.8
 0.96 =
60∗0.8 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2.0 kW

Efficiency of the auto-transformer is

360∗0.8
ŋ= = 0.9931
360∗0.8+2

Example: The single-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown below.

Select a common base of 100MVA and 22kV on the generator side. Draw an
impedance diagram with all impedances including the load impedance mark in
per-unit. The manufacturer data for each component is given as follows:

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 Fig: Single-line diagram
G: 90MVA 22kV x=18%

T1:50MVA 22/220kV x=10%

T2:40MVA 220/11kV x=6%

T3:40MVA 22/110kV x=6.4%

T4:40MVA 110/11kV x=8%

M: 66.5MVA 10.5kV x=18.5%

The three-phase load at bus 4 absorbs 57MVA, 0.6 power factor lagging at
10.5kV. Lines 1 and 2 have reactances of 48.4 and 65.43 ohms respectively.

SOLUTION:
The generator rated voltage is given as the base voltage at bus 1. This
determines the voltage bases for the remaining buses in accordance to the
transformer turns ratio. The base voltage 𝑉𝐵1 on the low voltage sides of 𝑇1 is
22kV.
220
Hence the base on its HV side is 𝑉𝐵2 = 22( ) = 220kV
22

This fixes the base on the HV side of 𝑇2 at 𝑉𝐵3 = 220KV and on its LV
side at
11
𝑉𝐵4 = 220( ) = 11kV
220

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 110
Similarly, the voltage base at buses 5 and 6 are 𝑉𝐵5 = 𝑉𝐵6 = 22( ) =
22

110kV

Since the generator and transformer voltage bases are the same as their
rated values; the p.u reactances on a 100MVA base are:

G: x=0.18(100/90) =0.2p. u

T1: x=0.10(100/50) =0.2p. u

T2: x=0.06(100/40) =0.15p. u

T3: x=0.064(100/40) =0.16p. u

T4: x=0.08(100/40) =0.2p. u

For motor:
100 10.45 2
M: x=0.185∗ ( )( ) =0.25p. u
66.5 11

Impedance bases for lines 1 and 2 are

2202
𝑍𝐵𝐿1 = = 484 ohms
100
1102
𝑍𝐵𝐿2 = = 121 ohms
100

Lines 1 and 2 p.u reactances are:

Line 1: x=48.4/484 =0.1p. u
Line 2: x=65.43\121 =0.54p. u
The load apparent power at 0.6 p.f lagging
𝑆3∅ = 57∠53.13 0 MVA
𝑉LL 2 10.452
𝑍L = ∗ =
𝑆L3∅ 57∠ − 53.13 0
=1.1495 + j1.53267 ohms
112
𝑍𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 1.21ohms
100
1.1495 + j1.53267
p.u load impedance 𝑍𝐿𝑝.𝑢 =
1.21

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 = 0.95 + j1.2667 p.u
p.u impedance diagram is shown below:

Example: The motor of example 2 operates at full load 0.8p.f leading at a terminal
voltage of 10.45kV.
(a) determine the voltage at the generator busbar (bus 1)
(b) determine the generator and the motor internal e.m.fs.
Solution:
(a) Taking bus 4 as the reference
10.45
V4 (p.u) = = 0.95∠0𝑜 p.u
11

𝑆𝑚 at 0.8 p.f leading is given by:

66.5
𝑆𝑚 = ∠−36.87𝑜 p.u
100
+
𝑆𝑚 0.665∠36.87𝑜
𝐼𝑚 = + = p.u
𝑉4 0.95∠0𝑜

= 0.56 + j0.42 p.u

𝑉𝐿 0.95∠0𝑜
𝐼𝐿 = =
𝑍𝐿 0.95 + j1.2667 p. u
= 0.36 - j0.48 p.u
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑀 + 𝐼𝐿 = 0.56 + 𝑗0.42 + 0.3 − 𝑗0.48
= 0.92 – j0.06 p.u
The equivalent reactance of the parallel branches is;

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 0.45∗0.9
𝑋𝐼𝐼 = = 0.3𝑝. 𝑢
0.45 + 0.9

The generator terminal voltage is;

𝑉1 = 𝑉4 + 𝑍𝐼𝐼 𝐼 = 0.95∠0𝑜 + 𝑗03(0.92 − 𝑗0.06)
= 0.968 + j0.276
= 1.0∠15.91𝑜 p.u

= 22∠15.91𝑜 kV

b) The operator internal e.m.f is;

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉1 + 𝑍𝑔 𝐼
= 0.968 + j0.276 + j0.20 (0.92 - j0.06)
=1.0826∠24.14𝑜 p.u
=23.82∠24.14𝑜 kV

The motor internal e.m.f is;

𝐸𝑚 = 𝑉4 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 0.95 + j0 – j0.25(0.56 + j0.42)
= 1.064∠−7.56𝑜 p.u
= 11.71∠−7.56𝑜 kV

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