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p41-53 - Sand Control - Why and How
p41-53 - Sand Control - Why and How
Jon Carlson Derrel Gurley George King Colin Price-Smith Frank Waters
Chevron Services Co. Houston, Texas, USA Amoco Production Co. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA BP Exploration Inc.
Houston, Texas, USA Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA Houston, Texas, USA
stones in an arched doorway—that is stable using the laboratory core data, empirical
at constant drawdown and flow rate, pre- correlations are derived to obtain the
venting sand movement (above ). Changes desired rock strength parameters from log-
in flow rate or production shut-in may result derived elastic properties. The IMPACT soft-
in collapse of the arch, causing sand to be ware has several empirical correlations to
produced until a new arch forms.5 Cement Perforation tunnel choose from.
Other causes of sanding include water Compacted zone The earth’s in-situ stresses are due to
influx, which commonly causes sand pro- many factors including the weight of the
duction by reducing capillary pressure overburden, tectonic forces and pore pres-
After cleanup
between sand grains. After water break- sure. While the vertical stresses may be esti-
through, sand particles are dislodged by mated using bulk density logs, horizontal
flow friction. Additionally, perforating may stresses are more problematic. In IMPACT
reduce permeability around the surface of a processing, accurate estimates of horizontal
perforation cavity and weaken the formation stresses are integrated with logs and, using a
(right ). Weakened zones may then become nDebris and damage in the perforation geologic model, a continuous profile of
susceptible to failure at sudden changes in tunnel. Before cleanup, a perforation earth stresses is created. Various geologic
flow rate. tunnel may be filled with pulverized models have been developed to cope with
sand and shaped-charge debris. First
flow may remove this debris, but a the different environments encountered.
compacted zone can remain around Reservoir pore pressure information is also
the surface of the cavity that is weak- needed and this may be estimated using
ened and likely to suffer tensile failure. wireline formation testing tools or DSTs.
42 Oilfield Review
Finally, rocks either fail in tension when Slotted Liners and Prepacked Screens: Slot- Resin-Coated Gravel Without Screens:
they are pulled apart or they fail in shear ted pipes, screens and prepacked screens Resin-coated gravel may be used as a
when they are crushed. IMPACT analysis offer the lowest-cost downhole filtering. downhole filter without installing a screen.
enables the interpreter to pick the most Slotted liners have the largest holes, wire- The gravel is circulated into position as a
likely failure mechanism. From this, the wrapped screens have smaller openings, slurry, either inside casing or open hole and
program predicts sanding potential. while screens prepacked with resin-coated then squeezed to form a plug across the
sand offer the finest filtering. Each type can production zone. Adjacent particles are
Completion Options be run as part of the completion string and bonded together by the resin, strengthening
Once it has been established that at planned are particularly suited for high-angle wells, the pack.
production rates sand is likely to be pro- which cannot be easily completed other- In cased hole, the plug may be com-
duced, the next step is to choose a comple- wise (see “Screening Horizontal Wells,” pletely drilled out to leave gravel-filled per-
tion strategy to limit sanding. A first option page 45 ). forations. Alternatively, the pack may be
is to treat the well with “tender loving care,” Slots are typically sized to cause bridging drilled out to the top of the perforations/
minimizing shocks to the reservoir by of the largest 10% of the formation particles, open hole so that hydrocarbons are pro-
changing drawdown and production rate filling the annulus between the screen and duced through the pack. A narrow hole can
slowly and in small increments. Production casing, or open hole, with formation sand be drilled through the pack to provide a
rate may be reduced to ensure that draw- creating a filter for remaining particles. conduit to reduce drawdown through the
down is below the the point at which the However, production can be restricted by pack. This can be achieved using coiled
formation grains become detached. More this relatively low-permeability, sand- tubing if a conventional rig is not available.
subtly, selective perforation may avoid packed annulus. Also, production of even a Resin-coated gravel has the advantage of
zones where sanding is most likely. How- small amount of fines can plug many needing no special hardware. But the pack
ever, both options reduce production, which screens, particularly prepacked screens, creates significant additional drawdown that
may adversely affect field economics.9 within a few hours of installation. may affect productivity. If the drillout tech-
The most popular options for completing Slotted liners and screens are best suited nique is employed to reduce drawdown, all
sand-prone reservoirs physically restrain to formations that are friable rather than perforations must be evenly packed and the
sand movement. The four main classes of completely unconsolidated. They are mostly resulting pack may be fragile. Complete
completion are resin injection, slotted liners used in California, USA, and some Gulf of coverage of intervals longer than about 20 ft
and prepacked screens, resin-coated gravel Mexico, USA fields where permeabilities [6 m] is difficult to achieve. The technique
without screens and gravel packing. are greater than 1 darcy. Slotted liners and represents about 5% of sand-control treat-
prepacked screens are used in only about ments, mainly concentrated on low-cost
Resin Injection: To cement the sand grains 5% of sand-control completions. onshore markets.
in situ, a resin is injected into the formation,
generally through perforations, and then 3. Morita N and Boyd PA: “Typical Sand Production 9. Massie I, Nygaard O and Morita N: “Gullfaks Subsea
flushed with a catalyst. Most commercially Problems: Case Studies and Strategies for Sand Con- Wells: An Operator’s Implementation of a New Sand
trol,” paper SPE 22739, presented at the 66th SPE Production Prediction Model,” paper SPE 16893,
available systems employ phenolic, furan or Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, presented at the 62nd SPE Annual Technical Confer-
epoxy resins. They bind rock particles Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991. ence and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, September
4. Winchester PH: “The Cardinal Rules of Gravel Pack- 27-30, 1987.
together creating a stable matrix of perme-
ing to Avoid Formation Damage,” paper SPE 19476, Unneland T and Waage RI: “Experience and Evalua-
able, consolidated grains around the casing. presented at the SPE Asia-Pacific Conference, Sydney, tion of Production Through High-Rate Gravel-
Clay concentration can hinder the effec- Australia, September 13-15, 1989. Packed Oil Wells, Gullfaks Field, North Sea,” paper
tiveness of the consolidation process, so a 5. Bratli R K and Risnes R: “Stability and Failure of Sand SPE 22795, presented at the 66th SPE Annual Tech-
Arches,” paper SPE 8427, presented at the 54th SPE nical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
clay stabilizer is often used as a preflush. Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las USA, October 6-9, 1991.
Residual water may also interfere with the Vegas, Nevada, USA, September 23-26, 1979. 10. Pelgrom J and Wilson RA: “Completion Develop-
development of consolidation strength and Tippie DB and Kohlhaas CA: “Variation of Skin Dam- ments in Unconsolidated Oil-Rim Reservoirs,” paper
age with Flow Rate Associated With Sand Flow or Sta- OSEA 90123, presented at the Eighth Offshore South
may necessitate use of increased quantities East Asia Conference, Singapore, December 4-7,
bility in Unconsolidated-Sand Reservoirs,” paper SPE
of resin.10 The quantity of resin injected is a 4886, presented at the 44th SPE Annual California 1990.
compromise between enhancing consolida- Regional Meeting, San Francisco, California, USA, 11. Davies, DR: “Applications of Polymers in Sand Con-
April 4-5, 1974. trol,” paper presented at Use of Polymers in Drilling
tion strength and reducing permeability. For and Oilfield Fluids, organized by the Offshore Engi-
Morita N, Whitfill DL, Massie I and Knudsen TW:
example, if an 8-darcy unconsolidated sand “Realistic Sand-Production Prediction: Numerical neering Group of the Plastics and Rubber Institute,
is resin treated to give a compressive Approach,” SPE Production Engineering 4, no. 1 London, England, December 9, 1991.
strength of up to 3300 psi, permeability may (February 1989): 15-24.
6. Deruyck B, Ehlig-Economides C and Joseph J: “Testing
be reduced by 25% and productivity cut by Design and Analysis,” Oilfield Review 4, no. 2 (April
up to 10%.11 1992): 28-45.
Further, sand production will not be pre- 7. Morita and Boyd, reference 3.
vented if chemical injection is uneven and 8. Santarelli FJ, Ouadfel H and Zundel JP: “Optimizing
the Completion Procedure to Minimize Sand Produc-
some exposed sand is uncoated. Because of tion Risk,” paper SPE 22797, presented at the 66th
this, the technique tends to be reserved for SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
short intervals, up to 10 to 15 ft [3 to 4 m]. Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.
Complete coverage of larger zones is diffi- Tixier MP, Loveless GW and Anderson RA: “Estima-
tion of Formation Strength From the Mechanical Prop-
cult unless selective placement tools are erties Log,” Journal of Petroleum Technology 27
used. Although resin consolidation is used (March 1975): 283-293.
successfully, it accounts for no more than Stein N: “Determine Properties of Friable Formation
Sands,” World Oil 206, no. 3 (March 1988): 33-37.
about 10% of sand-control completions.
October 1992 43
Gravel Packing: Gravel packing has been Designing Gravel Packs
Water breakthrough
used by the oil industry since the 1930s. For a gravel pack to maintain long-term
Today, it is the most widely employed sand productivity, the gravel must be clean,
pack-permeability ratio
ration tunnels increases drawdown which using a reservoir simulator and predictions .8
Effective/initial
may seriously affect productivity.13 Gravel of sand movement and how this affects
packs reduce the operating wellbore diame- drawdown (above ). .6
ter, usually necessitating artificial lift equip- Although gravel packing has these draw-
.4
ment to be set above the zone. Completing backs, it is the most effective method of
multiple zones with gravel packs is difficult, stopping sand movement and permitting .2
and almost all well repairs involve the production, albeit at a reduced rate.
0
removal of the screen and pack. Because of this, gravel packing is the pre- 0 4 8 12 16
dominant method in use today and warrants Gravel/grain-size ratio
a detailed examination.
nChoosing gravel size range. The ratio of
the effective pack permeability and the
initial pack permeability represents the
effect of the formation sand particles as
Casing they partially plug the gravel pack. When
Cement the gravel size/grain-size ratio reaches
about six, the particles can enter the pack
Gravel pack
and seriously diminish pack permeability.
Formation samples from cores are passed
Screen through successively smaller sieves to sepa-
Perforation rate particles into a number of size groups
Gravel-packed perforations
Formation sand that are then weighed and plotted. If the sam-
ples are aggregated, they need to be broken
up before the analysis—clay and silt particles
Perforated casing
Studies generally conclude that the most effec- nHorizontal well com-
tive technique for excluding sand in high-angle pletion design for the
Alba field.
and horizontal wells is gravel packing.1 Although
430-ft water depth
there have been some notable operational suc-
cesses, the technical complexities of high-angle
gravel packing and its relatively high cost mean
that alternative techniques are often considered.2
A case in point in the UK North Sea is the Alba
30-in. casing, 800 ft MD/TVD
field which is operated by Chevron UK Ltd. The
350-ft [107-m] thick Eocene sand reservoir is
completely unconsolidated and currently under
development. Most of the field’s production wells 20-in. casing, 1200 ft MD/TVD
will have horizontal sections of up to 2600 ft.
When the field comes onstream, each well will
103/4-in. casing, 1500 ft MD/TVD
produce up to 30,000 B/D using electric sub-
mersible pumps.
Water breakthrough is expected after only two
months of production and 40% water cut is
133/8-in. casing set between: 2500 ft -4000 ft MD
expected by the end of the first year. Early water 2500 ft -3500 ft TVD
production will exacerbate sand production by
reducing the interstitial tension between sand
grains, making sand control a major factor of the
development plan.
Initial plans called for horizontal cased-hole
gravel packs. However, the company continued to 95/8-in. casing set ± 200 ft into horizontal:
Service tool
Permanent-retrievable
packer
Ported housing
Sealbore housing
Locating collars
Blank pipe
Primary screen
Lower telltale
Sump packer
Seal unit
nThe four positions for gravel packing. In In lower circulating position, slurry is However, if the interval being packed is
squeeze position, the service tool seals into also pumped down the casing-screen longer than 25 ft [8 m], backpressure on
the packer and does not allow circulation. annulus, but returns of carrier fluid have to the fluid may cause the fluid to bypass the
When slurry is pumped in this mode, all pass through the bottom of the pack where pack and pass down the well via the
the carrier fluid leaks off into the formation. the washpipe is sealed into the lower tell- screen/washpipe annulus, which may
In upper circulating position, slurry is tale—a sealbore with a short piece of encourage bridging off higher up the well.
pumped down the casing-screen annulus screen below—located below the main Reverse circulation involves pumping
and the carrier fluid can be squeezed screen. The aim is try to maintain flow in fluid through the washpipe, up the screen/
through any part of the screen, into the the casing-screen annulus and ensure that washpipe annulus and back up to surface.
washpipe at the bottom of the service tool there is not a void in the gravel in the
and back to surface via the service tool- annulus below the screen.
casing annulus above the packer.
46 Oilfield Review
Recently, work by B.W. Hainey and J.C. Once the method of completion is Wire-wrapped screens are usually used to
Troncoso of ARCO points to the possibility selected, the hardware may be chosen. At retain the gravel. Selection of wire spacing
of using larger gravel, offering higher pack its simplest, a packer and screen assembly is not subject to any hard and fast rules, but
permeability.15 To explain this, Hainey and with a washpipe inside are usually run in a common rule of thumb calls for the slots
Troncoso argue that in some cases formation hole with a service tool. However, when to be 75% of the smallest gravel diameter.
sand grains move as larger agglomerates multiple zones are to be completed in Screen diameter depends on the inlet area,
rather than as individual grains.16 stages, the hardware becomes a complex the pack thickness and the ability to fish the
Average grain size is not the only determi- series of screens and packers. screen out of the hole. This normally leads
nant of gravel-pack permeability. The best The service tool is then used to set the to using screens with at least 1-in. [2.5 cm]
gravel-pack sands are round and evenly packer above the zone to be completed. annular clearance. Screens are normally
sized. The most common way of estimating Thereafter, the positions of the service tool run 5 ft [1.5 m] above and below the pro-
roundness and sphericity is by examining in the packer and washpipe in the screen ducing zone and centralized every 15 ft [5
the gravel through a 10- to 20-power micro- assembly determine the flow direction of m] to improve the chances of a consistent
scope and comparing the shapes with a ref- fluids pumped downhole. Sophisticated sys- gravel fill.
erence chart. Gravel-size distribution can be tems have four positions: squeeze, upper Transporting gravel into the perforations
monitored by sieve analysis. circulating, lower circulating and reverse and annulus is the next consideration.
The next decision facing the engineer is circulating and therefore allow single-trip Gravel can sometimes bridge off prema-
whether the completion should be cased or treatments (previous page). turely, leaving voids in the annulus. In verti-
openhole. Openhole gravel packs have no In a single-trip gravel-pack treatment, the cal wells, incomplete fill may be rectified
perforations and therefore offer the mini- perforation guns are fired and lowered into when pumping stops and gravel in the
mum pressure drop across the pack. But the rathole. The perforations may be filled annulus collapses into the voids. This ceases
placement may be time-consuming. Care with gravel with the packer in the squeeze to be the case in wells deviated more than
must be taken to remove the filter cake position and the annulus is filled with it in 50°, where voids below a bridge are likely
deposited on the formation by drilling fluid either the upper or lower circulating posi- to remain. Transport is a function of the sus-
and to avoid abrading the formation and tions. Excess gravel is then reversed out. pension properties of the fluid and the
contaminating the gravel. Cased-hole gravel However, the hardware used in many energy required to move the slurry. Impor-
packs present the additional challenge of gravel-pack operations does not permit sin- tant factors determining settling are pump
properly packing the perforations. gle-trip operations. For a cased-hole gravel rate, the relative densities of the gravel and
To check that a well is suitable for cased- pack, the TCP guns must be retrieved and the carrier fluid, gravel diameter and the
hole gravel packing, productivity may be then the workstring must removed after apparent viscosity of the fluid when
calculated using NODAL production system gravel packing so that the completion string pumped downhole.17
analysis. This models the pressure drop as may be run. During these trips, the service There is also a relationship between
reservoir fluid flows through the perforations tool and the washpipe are withdrawn from gravel concentration and carrier fluid vis-
into the completion hardware to surface. the packer, exposing the relatively high-per- cosity when it comes to “turning the corner”
Pressure drop in perforation tunnels is a meability formation to the hydrostatic pres- in the annulus and entering perforations.
major impediment to production and varies sure of the completion fluid above the Fluid viscosity must increase if gravel con-
with tunnel length, perforation area, pack packer. This usually causes fluid to be lost centration in the slurry increases, otherwise
permeability, viscosity of the produced flu- into the formation. the gravel will tend to sink to the bottom of
ids and reservoir pressure (see “Choosing a To reduce losses, particulate loss control the well. Packing efficiency is also affected
Perforation Strategy,” page 54). The gravel material (LCM) suspended in a viscous fluid by the rate the carrier fluid leaks off into the
size range determines pack permeability— is commonly pumped downhole before formation. If leakoff is rapid, the gravel is
the smaller the grains, the more the pack each trip. The LCM plugs the completion likely to be carried to the perforation tunnel-
restricts formation flow—and is fixed by the fluid’s flow path into the formation. After the formation interface and held there as the
size of the formation sand. Formation fluid trip, the LCM is removed. Common LCMs fluid leaks off. If leakoff is slow, the gravel
viscosity and reservoir pressure are also include marble chips (calcium carbonate, has more time to settle and will not effec-
fixed. To reduce pressure drop, inflow area removable with acid), oil-soluble resins or tively pack the perforations.
may be raised by increasing perforation salt pills (see “Gravel Packing Forth Field
diameter and/or increasing the number of Exploration Wells,” next page ). 15. According to American Petroleum Institute recom-
perforations. If the well is perforated with Each time LCM is used, there is a danger mended practices (RP 58), the designation 40/60
indicates that not more than 2% of the gravel should
tubing-conveyed perforating (TCP), high of incomplete removal damaging the reser- be smaller than the 40-mesh sieve and not more
shot density guns, gravel packs can nearly voir. To avoid the need to pump LCM when than 0.1% should be larger than the 20-mesh sieve.
match the inflow performance of openhole the washpipe and workstring are removed 16. Hainey BW and Troncoso JC: “Frac-Pack: An Inno-
vative Stimulation and Sand Control Technique,”
packs for many reservoirs. Pressure drop from the packer, a flapper valve can be paper SPE 23777, presented at the SPE International
may also be reduced by increasing the employed below the packer. This valve is Symposium on Formation Damage Control,
diameter of casing in which the gravel pack capable of accommodating a large-diameter Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 26-27, 1992.
is to be placed. If sufficient inflow area can- washpipe to direct flow to the casing-screen 17. Gurley DG and Hudson TE: “Factors Affecting
Gravel Placement in Long Deviated Intervals,” paper
not be achieved through perforation, open- annulus. It closes after the service tool and SPE 19400, presented at the SPE Formation Damage
hole completion is required. washpipe are removed, preventing comple- Control Symposium, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 22-23, 1990.
tion fluid from passing through the pack and
into the permeable formation. When the
completion string is run, the flapper valve is
opened—either mechanically, with wireline
or using pressure.
October 1992 47
Gravel Packing Forth Field Exploration Wells
48 Oilfield Review
There is no industry consensus on govern- tling is not a major problem when the densi-
ing choice of fluid viscosity and gravel con- ties are matched, the pump rate can be
centration, but the following three combina- slowed, improving tightness of the pack and
tions are the most common: increasing the time available to pack all the
•In conventional, circulating gravel packs, perforations (below and next page). The
most of the carrier fluid squeezed out of reduced viscosity increases the rate of
the slurry is circulated back to surface. leakoff and reduces the potential for forma-
The slurry usually has a low-viscosity car- tion damage.
Packer
rier fluid of less than 50 centipoise (cp) ISOPAC particles have been used in over
Gravel pack and ungelled water is a common carrier. 30 Gulf of Mexico and North Sea jobs since
extension Gravel concentration can range from 0.25 introduction in 1991. The efficiency with
with sliding sleeve
to 15 lbm/gal depending on the carrier which perforations have been packed can-
Sliding sleeve closed
fluid viscosity and company preference. not be measured directly. One indirect diag-
Crossover The technique is generally employed for nostic method is based on the average vol-
intervals of more than 50 ft [15 m] and ume of gravel placed per foot of interval
Washpipe deviated holes up to horizontal. Fluid (ft3/ft). Rules of thumb derived from experi-
leakoff is essential to ensure that perfora- ence consider the placement efficiency of
Blank pipe tions are packed, but excessive leakoff about 0.25 ft3/ft of conventional gravel as
may lead to bridging. being satisfactory for intervals of less than
•High-density circulating gravel packs are 60 ft [18 m]. For longer intervals it is more
used for medium to long intervals—25 ft difficult to fill all the perforations equally
Main gravel [8 m] to more than 100 ft [30 m]. The and, if the interval is 100 ft or so, an average
pack screen slurry usually has a viscosity of more than placement efficiency of only about 0.1 ft3/ft
50 cp and a gravel concentration of 7 to
15 lbm/gal. ISOPAC particle
‘O’ ring seal sub •Squeeze packs, in which all the carrier Low-density Polymer coating
Tell tale screen fluid leaks off into the formation, are used ceramic core to resist acid
for short intervals of less than 25 ft.
Washpipe bottom
The conventional approach to controlling 100
at
settling—decreasing gravel concentration
les flo
Sump packer
and increasing carrier-fluid viscosity—has
Packing efficiency, %
Partic
drawbacks. To place an equivalent quantity
Pa
90
rtic
of gravel, more carrier fluid must be lost,
les
Logging reference increasing the potential for formation dam-
sin
screen age. However, increased viscosity slows the
k
80
Wireline reentry rate of leakoff—a 250-cp fluid will leak off
guide more than six times slower than a 40-cp
fluid.18 Increasing carrier-fluid viscosity may
nDissolving the loss control material and circulating also increase formation damage. 70
0.8 1.2 1.8 2.2 2.8
an annular gravel pack. Sometimes, in an effort to improve place- Particle density/carrier fluid density, Dp:Dc
ment, carrier-fluid viscosity and gravel con-
centration are both increased to create a Optimum Dp:Dc ratio using ISOPAC
plug of slurry. But increased slurry viscosity particles
raises friction pressure and may increase the Standard Dp:Dc ratio using gravel
possibility of bridging in the annulus.
Another way of reducing settling, helping nEffect of particle-carrier fluid density ratio
gravel to turn the corner and efficiently pack on perforation-pack efficiency—percent
perforations is to use a gravel and carrier volume of perforation filled with gravel.
Efficient packing may be achieved with a
fluid of closely matched densities—not the density ratio between 1.05 and 1.8. This
case when using conventional gravels or range may be designed using low-density
low-density brines. For this purpose, Dowell ISOPAC particles. ISOPAC particles have a
Schlumberger has developed ISOPAC low- polymer coating with a low-density
ceramic core. Conventional gravel pro-
density, high-strength particles. Because set- vides a ratio of about 2.4.
October 1992 49
Treatment A Treatment B
Downhole hardware
Crossover Sump packer Crossover Sump packer
Gravel deposition
1.00
Normalized radius
0.50
0
−0.50
−1.00
8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658 8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658
Measured depth, ft Measured depth, ft
Time to pack, min Time to pack, min
1.00
0.50
0
−0.50
−1.00
8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658 8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658
0-6 6 -12 12 - 24
24 - 36 36 - 48 Packed
Final pack efficiency
1.00
Efficiency, %
0.50
0 Annular Packing Perforation
−0.50 packing
−1.00
8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658 8427 8460 8493 8526 8559 8592 8625 8658
Measured depth, ft Measured depth, ft
nComparing conventional (treatment A) and ISOPAC particle (treatment B) placement. To aid the design of gravel-pack treatments, Dow-
ell Schlumberger has developed PacCADE computer-aided design and evaluation software that can simulate gravel-packing opera-
tions. Plots of gravel deposition time to pack, final gravel concentration and final pack efficiency—all versus depth—may be used to
compare proposed gravel-pack treatment designs. In treatment A using conventional gravel, the lowermost perforations have not been
completely packed. In treatment B using lightweight ISOPAC particles in a prepack, good perforation packing efficiency has been
maintained for the whole interval.
50 Oilfield Review
has been found to be common using con- PERMPAC fluid in brine environment PERMPAC fluid in oil environment
ventional gravel. However, long-interval + + +
+ + Water + + + +
+ +
gravel packs using ISOPAC particles have + +
Hydrocarbon + + + - -
easily exceeded these figures. For example, core + + Activator - + +
+
+ + - + -
in the Norwegian North Sea, a 400 ft [122 + + + ++
+ - + + + + +
m] interval was packed with an efficiency of + + + + +
+ +
0.64 ft3/ft. + + + + + +- Oil
+ + ++ + + +
+ + - + + +
While gravel and placement technique + + - + + + + +
+ + + + +
are being selected, the carrier fluid must - + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
also be chosen. In some cases, plain water + + + + -
+
+ + + + + +
is used. In others, additives are used to + + + -+
+ +
+
increase carrier-fluid viscosity. High-viscos-
ity fluids are commonly water-base, Surfactant
although oil-base fluids are used for Hydrophilic + Hydrophobic
severely water-sensitive formations. Water- 160 nLeakoff tests (left) for different carrier
Volume of fluid through core, ml
base fluids are gelled with familiar stimula- PERMPAC fluid fluids. The leakoff for three fluids—
2.5% by volume containing respectively the PERMPAC
tion chemicals like hydroxyethyl cellulose
120 system, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC)
(HEC) or xanthan polymer. To reduce the and xanthan polymer, in concentra-
concentration of nonhydrated polymer that tions that give equivalent viscos-
may damage the formation, fluids gelled 80
ity—were tested on Berea sandstone
with these polymers are often sheared using cores with nominal air permeabilities
HEC 40 lbm/1000 gal of 300 millidarcies. The PERMPAC
a pump and filtered prior to blending with fluid shows an enhanced leakoff,
40
the gravel. Xanthan polymer because contact with oil causes the
Breaker is added to reduce fluid viscosity 36 lbm/1000 gal fluid’s micelles to break up (above).
once the job is complete and therefore min- 0
Final leakoff rate becomes constant
imize formation damage.19 HEC is normally 0 10 20 30 40 as contact with oil is reduced.
Time, min
the polymer of choice because it has low
residue after breaking and does not build a
filter cake on the formation, minimizing per- using either water or gelled fluid provided results when the higher viscosity carrier
meability damage. fluid loss into the formation is finite.20 fluid leaks off into the formation. Diversion
A radically different type of gelling agent, Prepacking prior to running the screen, as ensures that more perforations are acidized
developed by Dowell Schlumberger, uses outlined in the Forth field example (see and then prepacked than would normally
PERMPAC viscoelastic surfactant-based car- “Gravel Packing Forth Field Exploration be the case.21
rier fluid. This fluid forms rod-shaped Wells,” page 48 ), is used to limit the pene- Sometimes acidization is carried out as a
micelles that have a high viscosity in low- tration of LCM into the perforation tunnels separate stage, prior to the gravel pack. The
concentration aqueous solution. It shows during tripping. Determining the prepack primary aim of this treatment is to increase
high rates of leakoff into the formation, and volume is important. Too little gravel will the rate at which the carrier fluid will leak
has good suspending capabilities compared result in the LCM penetrating unpacked per- off during the subsequent gravel pack,
to conventional polymers. Unlike HEC, forations. Too much may necessitate a trip although the acid also stimulates the well.
PERMPAC fluids do not require a breaker to clean out the excess in the sump and When stimulation is required that matrix
because they are thinned by temperature covering perforations. Volume depends on a treatments cannot deliver, one alternative is
and shear, and by crude oil or organic sol- number of factors, such as the competence to create short, wide fractures by carrying
vents, all of which tend to increase as the of the formation, the quality of the cement out a tip-screenout fracturing treatment fol-
fluid penetrates deeper into the formation job, the design and size of the perforation lowed by a circulating gravel pack (see
(above, right ). charges, the extent of cleanup flow after “Rewriting the Rules for High-Permeability
To improve perforation packing, both perforation and the formation permeability. Stimulation,” page 18).
conventional and high-density circulating Prepacking with the screen in place is car-
gravel packs may be preceded by ried out with the service tool in the squeeze 19. Gulbis J, Hawkins G, King M, Pulsinelli R, Brown E
prepacks—where the perforations are filled position before the annular pack is circu- and Elphick J: “Taking the Breaks Off Proppant-Pack
Conductivity,” Oilfield Review 3, no. 1 (January
with gravel either before the screen has lated into place. The process takes less time 1991): 18-26.
been run in hole or as a separate operation than the alternative prescreen technique. 20. Penberthy WL Jr and Echols EE: “Gravel Placement
prior to packing the casing-screen annulus. The prepack may be pumped as several in Wells,” paper SPE 22793, presented at the 66th
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Perforations can be prepacked effectively stages of gravel slurry interspersed with Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.
stages of acid to clean up damage around 21. Matherne BB and Hall BE: “A Field Evaluation of a
the perforations. The gravel slurry not only Gravel-Diverted Acid Stimulation Prior to Gravel
prepacks the perforations but also acts as a Packing,” paper SPE 19741, presented at the 64th
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
diverter, probably because of pressure that San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 8-11, 1989.
October 1992 51
Evaluating the Gravel Pack be used. The neutron activation logging near-detector curve, toward decreasing count
With the gravel pack in place, there are two technique uses a pulsed-neutron logging rate (next page, top right ).
elements to be evaluated: that gravel has tool modified to allow a gamma ray device Once voids in the pack are identified, a
been packed everywhere it was supposed to to be mounted below it. The pack is bom- wireline shaking device attached to the
go, and that the well is producing hydrocar- barded with fast neutrons. Silicon and alu- evaluation tools may be used to break up
bons satisfactorily. minum in the gravel are activated and bridges and allow the pack to settle. The
Since voids in the pack may lead to early gamma rays are emitted as the elements shakes create local turbulence in the fluid
completion failure, postpack evaluation is return to their natural stable state. The num- which agitates the bridged gravel until it set-
essential to detect incomplete fill and allow ber of gamma rays is proportional to the tles into the void.24
repairs to be undertaken. Prior to place- amount of silicon and aluminum activated, The other main strategy for testing gravel
ment, gravel may be coated with radioac- and pack quality may be inferred. 23 packs centers on assessing performance
tive isotopes and the pack assessed using In openhole packs, a compensated neutron using well tests and production logging. In
gamma ray logging. However, the coating is log can be used to detect hydrogen-rich flu- assessing gravel pack performance a num-
usually inconsistent and may wash off, mak- ids in the gravel-pack pore space, making it ber of diagnostics are available, including
ing quantitative analysis unreliable. sensitive to changes in pack porosity. The skin factor (which measures formation dam-
One way to improve the accuracy of such tool’s near and far detectors are used to partly age as a function of its permeability) and
logs is to use ISOPAC particles that have eliminate the effects of hole conditions. The multirate flow tests.25
been manufactured with isotope encapsu- curves of the two detectors are scaled to Differentiating between the effects of the
lated within each particle’s resistant shell. overlay in areas of low porosity—good pack. formation and the gravel pack, often
This also offers increased subtlety through Areas of high porosity—poor pack—are indi- requires a DST prior to packing. With these
use of multiple isotopes. The perforations cated by a shift of the curves, especially the data it is possible to identify the pressure
may be prepacked using particles contain-
ing scandium followed by particles contain- Multiple Isotope Log
ing iridium. Packing placement efficiency nIsotope logging of
Depth, ft
can be monitored, using a multiple-isotope, Cumulative Completion schematic Cumulative Scandium Iridium a prepack using
gamma spectroscopy tracer log (right ). ISOPAC particles
containing scan-
Alternatively, the effectiveness of fill may dium and iridium.
be gauged using nuclear density logging to The initial slurry
5550
estimate the density of material in the annu- with particles con-
lus. However, not all changes in density are taining scandium
related to changes in gravel-pack quality— tracer packed the
three high-perme-
changes in the screen, pipe base, casing, ability zones. Then a
tubing and formation sand all affect the slurry with particles
reading. A base log run prior to the gravel incorporating iridium
packing can iron out these discrepancies was pumped that
filled in the zone at
(next page, left). In addition, a reference 5630 ft and diverted
screen may be set below the sump packer to 5600 to the remainder of
register zero pack response.22 the perforated inter-
Density measurement is not appropriate val. The cumulative
when the completion fluid has a high den- tracks—the superpo-
sition of scandium
sity (more than 14 lbm/gal) or where low- and iridium— indi-
density particles have been employed. In cate 100% perfora-
these cases, neutron activation logging can 5630 tion packing over
the entire interval.
22. Gilchrist JM and Gilchrist AL: “A Review of Gravel
Packing in the Forth Field,” paper SPE 23128, pre- 5650
sented at the Offshore Europe Conference,
Aberdeen, Scotland, September 3-6, 1991.
23. Watson JT, Carpenter WW, Carroll JF and Smith BC:
“Gravel Pack Field Examples of a New Pulsed Neu-
tron Activation Logging Technique,” paper OTC
6464, presented at the 22nd Annual Offshore Tech-
nology Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, May 7-
10, 1990.
24. “Jim Carroll: The Gulf Coast WID Kid,” The Techni-
cal Review 35, no. 2, (April 1987): 19-26.
25. Deruyck B, Ehlig-Economides C and Joseph J: “Test- 5700
ing Design and Analysis,” Oilfield Review 4, no. 2
(April 1992): 28-45.
26. Unneland and Waage, reference 9. High-permeability zones
52 Oilfield Review
drop caused by the gravel pack. Production Compensated Neutron Log
logging may be used to evaluate each layer Far detector
in the formation assessing the flow profile
across the interval.26 Gravel-pack perfor- Gamma ray 75 Near detector 300 Pack %
mance versus time is another indication of 25 API 125 26.667 CPS 3877 0 100
performance. Pressure drop across the pack
is one measure. An increase could indicate
4500
Gamma ray before Top of partial sand pack
Depth, ft
Screen
4600
5700
Top of sand
4700
nCompensated neutron log of a gravel pack using near and far detectors. The near
detector is affected mostly by the screen and wellbore fluids. The far detector is affected
After gravel pack run by the gravel pack, the casing, and in some cases the formation and its fluids.
Base run
Top of screen
5800
October 1992 53