TESOL Foundation - Online - Unit - 2

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Online TESOL Course – Unit 2
Unit 2 – Study of the English Language
Introduction
Yes, you got it! This unit deals with English grammar. We will try to make it as painless as possible.
First things first: remember that as a native or fluent speaker of English you know grammar very well, that is, you
know what sounds right and what sounds wrong, and you can easily correct any problems. Where native speakers
are stumped is generally with the rules and grammatical terminology. This is natural and you will REALLY start to
learn about English grammar when you start teaching it.
A few rules of thumb:
1. Don’t panic! You do not need to know the universe of grammar to teach a lesson! You only need to know
about the grammar you will be teaching that lesson.
2. Get a book. Purchasing a grammar reference book is imperative for any TESOL teacher. There are many
well-known grammar books available; the best way to choose one is to have a look at a few different ones
and decide which one makes sense TO YOU. Below is a short list of some we recommend.
3. 2 + 2 = 4… not here! Remember that language is not an exact science: different authors, teachers, and
students often have differing opinions on what is right and what is wrong, what is acceptable and what is
not… some people like language to remain true to its pure form – “the English of the Queen” – and others
are more accepting of change. Your students don’t need to know the ins and outs of grammar; they need
to know how to communicate effectively.
4. You may find that the ‘grammar’ covered here is a bit different to what you learned in school (if you can
remember!); the terminology and aspects we cover here are in accordance with the terminology and areas
covered in EFL/ESL course books. Grammar has many facets, but here we choose to relate it to how it
will appear in common course books for ESL/EFL.
5. Some grammar points are finite and some are infinite (or less finite): for example, there are a set number
of subject pronouns (8) but there are an almost infinite number of phrasal verbs. We shall use ‘etc’ when
the latter is the case or otherwise make it clear.
6. Finally. This unit is designed to help you – the teacher – become more aware of the structure of the
English language. You will learn HOW to teach grammar in Unit 5.
Recommended grammar authors and books:
“English Grammar in Use – Intermediate” by Raymond Murphy – Cambridge University Press (Designed
for students but loved by teachers as explanations are easy to understand; a good choice)
“Grammar for English Language Teachers” by Martin Parrott – Cambridge University Press, Sixth
Printing 2002 (This is the recommended grammar reference book for the Unit on Advanced Grammar of Teach
International’s Certificate IV in TESOL. Also a good choice for teachers, but quite high level.)
“A Practical English Grammar” by Thomson and Martinet – Oxford University Press “Practical
English Usage” by Michael Swan – Oxford University Press
“Fundamentals of English Grammar with Answer Key” by Betty Azar – Pearson ESL
What is grammar?
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To put it simply, ‘grammar’ is the way in which we organise language so that it makes sense.
Penny Ur (1988) defines grammar as “the way a language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in
order to form longer units of meaning.” Therefore, we could say that to ‘know grammar’ means being able to apply
the rules of grammar and to express oneself in a grammatically acceptable way. For example:
My name is Veronica. Correct grammar
My name are Veronica. Incorrect grammar
It is also said that grammar is the study of forms or structures. Look at the following:
“Hi, thank you for your e-mail. I will be out of the office this week and will respond when I get back. Regards, Joe
Bloggs”
This text is an e-mail auto-reply; it is made up of three sentences which are made up of words. These words,
when spoken, consist of sounds. These are the forms that language takes.
The rules which cover the order in which words are placed in a sentence are called syntax while the rules which
govern the formation of the words are called morphology.
Grammar also has the important purpose of communicating meaning. A good rule to remember is: the more
context, the less grammar. What does this mean? Have a look:
Situation 1: You are at the airport waiting in line to check in. All the people in front of you are being helped. A
check-in counter becomes available and the employee yells out “Next!”
In this situation, although the utterance by the employee contains no grammar at all – it is one single word – you
immediately know what it means: that you are next so you should move to the counter. But:
Situation 2: You arrive at the airport a long time before your flight is scheduled to depart. You want to ask whether
it is possible to catch the next available flight instead of waiting for yours. You go up to the counter and say to the
employee: “Next!”
Does that communicate meaning? No! The employee will likely think you have gone crazy. Can you see how
context is important? The more you know about the context, the less grammar you need. Therefore, students need
to know, not only the grammar forms, but which forms are necessary to get their intended meaning across.
Finally, grammar is also linked to communicative functions. This means that not only do we need to interpret the
words and the grammar for meaning, but we also need to understand the function, or the speaker’s intention. For
example, the word ‘can’ can be used to express ability (Can you swim?) but also to ask for something (Can I have
some chocolate?), amongst other functions. It follows then, that grammar cannot be taught out of context.
But more on teaching grammar later in the course; let’s now get into some English grammar!

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English word classes 1
Words belong to different grammatical classes; some of the different word classes (also called Parts of Speech)
in English are as follows:
• Nouns (things, places, people) – apple, Tom, France, children, love, table, sugar
• Pronouns (usually used to replace nouns) – he, they, me, us, it, this, those, mine, theirs
• Adjectives (used to describe nouns) – pretty, impossible, terrible, dangerous, new
• Verbs (also describe nouns, but in terms of what the noun is doing) – tell, run, sent, singing, cry, e-mailing
• Adverbs (used to describe verbs) – quickly, horribly, fast, usually, very,
• Articles (used to determine or define nouns) – a, an, the
• Quantifiers (used to measure nouns) – some, a little, any, few
• Prepositions (used to show the relationship between two things, e.g. between two nouns) – to, before, in,
between, by
• Conjunctions (used to join words or ideas) – because, and, but, therefore, so, although
You may find that different grammar books categorise word classes differently, but the above is a good idea of the
main classes. Let’s look at each of them in a bit more detail.
Nouns
You may not have learnt a great deal of grammar in school, but you have most likely learnt that nouns are usually
people, places and things. Nouns usually carry a lot of meaning in a sentence, which make them an important
part of speech for your students to know. For example:
“I would like to buy a sandwich please.” This would be a correct way to express the desire to purchase some food.
However, an ESL/EFL student with little English could easily be understood by saying: “Sandwich, please.”
So, you can see how nouns are of great importance in carrying meaning.
Nouns can be categorised in different ways. Let’s have a look at the most common:
Common – not capitalised vs. Proper – capitalised (names, places, titles, etc.)
rain, biscuit, computer, plant, fish, sadness, etc. Priscilla, Hong Kong, the Herald Sun, Mr. Lee, etc.
Concrete – can be seen or touched vs. Abstract – cannot be seen or touched
water, car, bridge, lemon, girl, desk, bottle, etc. friendship, conflict, arrogance, pleasure, relief, etc.
Countable – can be counted vs. Uncountable – cannot be counted
one dress, two potatoes, ten lollies, 100 days, etc. (some) salt, (a little) wine, love, homework, etc.
Singular vs. Plural
tree, person, chair, boot, truck, etc. man, trees, persons, chairs, boots, trucks, etc. (regular)
child, mouse, foot, sheep, etc. men, children, mice, feet, sheep, etc. (irregular)
Other categories:
Compound nouns – made up of two or more words cross-country, battlefield, weekday, daylight, etc.
Collective nouns – refer to a group of people/things company, family, flock, furniture, cattle, people, etc.
Possessive nouns Sue’s computer, the house’s furniture, etc.

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Points to consider
While most of the categories above are quite easy to distinguish, a few points should be made on countable and
uncountable nouns, especially since they can be difficult for students, so it is important for us to know them well.
• “can be counted” means exactly that: 1, 2, 3… uncountable nouns can be measured, but not counted 1, 2, 3.
For example, you cannot say “one bacon, two bacons” but you can say “some bacon, two strips of bacon”. So,
this is the first test when determining whether a noun is countable or uncountable.
• Countable nouns can be used with indefinite and definite articles (a, an, the). You can say “the/a couch; the/an
orange”. If you use quantifiers, you usually put the noun in the plural form: “some couches; any trees; a few
birds; a lot of flowers”.
• Uncountable nouns do not take the indefinite articles “a” or “an”. You cannot say “pass me a wine”. Note: you
could say that in colloquial language, but it is a shortened version of “pass me a [glass of] wine”; it doesn’t mean
“wine” is countable. The same applies for some other uncountable nouns: coffee (We’ll have two coffees [cups
of coffee]), sugar, etc.
• To measure uncountable nouns, we use quantifiers “eggs with some/ two strips of / a lot of / a little / bacon”
• Some nouns are both countable and uncountable! Confusing? No! Look: “Can I have some chicken in my
sandwich?” chicken = uncountable “Can I have two chickens please?” chicken = countable
• Finally, the no-fail test to determining whether a noun is countable, uncountable or both: put it into a question.
To ask about the quantity of nouns we use “How much” for uncountable or “How many” for countable nouns.
You will know right away which one sounds correct:
How much money does he have? Correct, so “money” IS uncountable.
How many money does he have? Incorrect, so “money” IS NOT countable.
How much houses does he have? Incorrect, so “houses” IS NOT uncountable.
How many houses does he have? Correct, so “houses” IS countable.
How much paper does he have? Correct, so “paper” IS uncountable.
How many papers does he have to write? Correct, so “papers” IS ALSO countable! So,
whenever you are not sure, just ask the question: how much, how many, or both?
Possessive Nouns
Another area that is usually unclear is that of possessive nouns, or apostrophe + ‘s’ words:
I am going to my friend’s house for dinner. (my friend’s house = the house of my friend)
This is David’s dog’s leash. (David’s dog’s leash = the leash of the dog of David)
Can you see why we use them? It makes our language flow more naturally, rather than having to say ‘of’ all the
time. But many native English speakers get this wrong in written English! More often than not we see apostrophes
used incorrectly, such as in:
DVD’s for sale (the sale of DVD?? Nooooo, this is INCORRECT! This should be a plural: DVDs for sale)

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The childrens toys. (No! This needs an apostrophe: The children’s toys = The toys of the children
Both my parent’s parents were born in Europe. (No! This one is a bit tricky, it should be: Both my parents’ parents
were born in Europe.)
The rules for possessive nouns are as follows:
• Singular noun not ending in ‘s’: add apostrophe + ‘s’ [the man’s wallet; the table’s leg; the library’s staff]
• Singular noun ending in ‘s’: add apostrophe after ‘s’ [the Countess’ butler; the wilderness’ atmosphere]
• Plural nouns ending in ‘s’: add apostrophe after ‘s’ [my parents’ house; the apples’ taste; the friends’ plan]
• Plural nouns not ending in ‘s’: add apostrophe + ‘s’ [the children’s game; the sheep’s wool; the men’s club]
The key question to ask in order to determine whether an apostrophe should be used is: Is this a plural or a
possessive?
Pronouns
Simply put, pronouns take the place of a noun:
John likes music. He likes music. He likes it.
Naturally, in the examples above, a certain amount of context is necessary. If someone came up to you and said,
out of the blue, “He likes it” you would think them a bit crazy! But once the noun (person, thing, place) has been
established, we use pronouns to make our speech more natural, shorter and less repetitive. We would not, for
instance, speak like this:
John likes music. John listens to music every morning. John sometimes plays music. John does not like heavy
metal music though.
Types of pronouns
There are different types of pronouns. Have a look at the table below:
Type of pronoun Examples

Personal pronouns – refer to something or someone
already mentioned. They can be:
Subject pronouns
Subject pronouns – used as the subject of a verb. I / you / he / she / it / we/ you / they
Object pronouns – used as an object of a verb. Object pronouns

me / you / him / her / it / us / you / them
Possessive pronouns – used to show who the person mine / yours / his / hers / its/ yours / theirs
or thing belongs to or is connected with.
Demonstrative pronouns – used to point to or identify this / that / these / those

a noun or other pronoun.
Reflexive pronouns – used as the object of the verb myself / yourself / himself / herself / itself / ourselves /
when the person or thing affected by an action is the yourselves / themselves
same as the one doing it.
Remember! Different grammar books and authors may categorise pronouns differently or argue about whether a
certain word is a pronoun or not. Ultimately, this is NOT IMPORTANT for your students. What they need from you
is to learn HOW to use them correctly. (If it is important to you, join a grammar discussion forum or newsgroup!)

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Let’s look at some examples:
I cooked lunch. You should go to the doctor if you don’t feel well. We like to go camping on weekends.
These are all examples of subject pronouns.
He lent me a book. David suspected her of stealing. The cake was all for us! I gave it to them.
These are all examples of object pronouns.
That car is mine. The idea was his. Is this sandwich yours? It’s your life, not theirs!
These are all examples of possessive pronouns.
Important!
Its is commonly misspelt and misused by native speakers:
Its = possessive pronoun [the house and its furniture; the government and its policies.]
It’s = It is [It’s a pleasure to meet you. = It is a pleasure to meet you. It’s cold. = It is cold.
I cooked myself a great meal. She drove herself to the hospital. Did you make that yourself? The children formed
themselves into two teams.
These are all examples of reflexive pronouns.
That was a great movie! These are the worst cherries I have ever eaten. This is a good time to change jobs.
These are all examples of demonstrative pronouns.
Adjectives
Simply put, adjectives are describing words, and they usually describe nouns: beautiful, light, old, green, first,
youngest, mean, bad, good. In English, the form of an adjective is always the same, i.e. we use the same word for
plural, singular, male, female, subject and object: a good girl; a good boy; good children; This school is good.
There are, of course, different types of adjectives.
Type of adjective Some examples

Qualitative – indicate a particular quality of the noun pretty, bad, scary, interesting, expensive, good, hard
Classifying – to indicate ‘type’ monetary aid; preventative medicine; daily nap
Colour – self-explanatory! blue; pink; light green; pale brown; dark purple
Emphasising – used to emphasise the description or absolute nonsense; entire world; real problem
degree of the noun
Specifying – to indicate what you are referring to the following year; my usual lunch; the next game
Compound – made up of two or more words hard-working; well-known; open-minded
Demonstrative – identical to demonstrative pronouns, This book is very good. = demonstrative adjective
but perform a different function. They modify the noun. modifies book
This is a very good book. = demonstrative pronoun
identifies or points out the noun book.
Comparative – to indicate something has more of a faster; nicer; worse; more intelligent; busier
quality than something else
Superlative – to indicate something has more of a the fastest; the worst; the most intelligent; the busiest
quality than anything else of its kind or in a group

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Some points to consider Order
When you use many adjectives to describe something, you naturally place them in the correct order and you
probably are not aware that there are rules that govern this order. For ESL/EFL students, this can be tough to
learn. In some languages, for example, the adjective comes after the noun, whereas in English, it usually comes
before: the big house NOT the house big.
The usual order is:
qualitative adjective – colour adjective – classifying adjective
… a small red brick cottage
… a big round park
… a brown leather jacket
The order of qualitative adjectives is usually as follows:
opinion – size – quality – age – shape
… charming slim figure
… short straight hair
… long curly fries
… cute young children
The order of classifying adjectives is as follows:
age – shape – nationality – material
… an old Italian villa
… a square wooden table
… a French cotton dress
Remember these are rules of thumb! Of course, you may find exceptions. Sometimes as native speakers we alter
the order because we want to add emphasis to a particular adjective. In the example a French, cotton dress, if we
want to emphasise that the dress is French, we might say a cotton French dress.

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Comparatives and Superlatives
These are your -er and -est words. Have a look:
Adjective Comparative form Superlative form

short shorter (than) (the) shortest
fast faster (than) (the) fastest
pretty prettier (than) (the) prettiest
dirty dirtier (than) (the) dirtiest
honest more honest (than) (the) most honest
serious more serious (than) (the) most serious
interesting more interesting (than) (the) most interesting
magnificent more magnificent (than) (the) most magnificent
good better (than) (the) best
bad worse (than) (the) worst
Easy! The rule is:
One-syllable adjective: add -er or -est after

Two-syllable adjective ending in ‘y’: add -er or -est after (usually, the ‘y’ turns into an ‘i’)
Two-syllable adjective not ending in ‘y’: add ‘more’ or ‘the most’ in front
Three or more syllable adjective: add ‘more’ or ‘the most’ in front
But what happens with irregulars? Ahhh… irregulars have their own rules. So, ‘good’ turns into ‘better’ (not
‘gooder!). Fortunately, there aren’t many irregular adjectives in English.
Verbs
We will have a look at verbs in detail under the “English Verbs” section ahead.
Adverbs
If adjectives describe nouns, we can say that adverbs describe verbs; they give us more information about when,
where, why or how something happens:
… drive recklessly
… love passionately
… be lively
In the above examples, the adverb is formed by adding –ly to the adjective (passionate – passionately). This is a
very common ending for adverbs, but there are also adverbs which do not end in –ly:
… work hard
… look well
… and he was here
… have to go now
However, adverbs can also describe, or modify, adjectives or other adverbs:
… looking at him very carefully (adverb – adverb)

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… a rather unusual start to the season (adverb – adjective)
We usually use adverbs of degree to modify adjectives or adverbs as above; they are usually called sub-
modifiers.
When the adverb is reinforcing or emphasising, we call it intensifier:
… extremely grateful
… dreadfully painful
… highly recommended
Finally, like with most things in ‘grammar’, adverbs can also be categorised:
Categories Some examples
Adverbs of frequency sometimes; never

Adverbs of manner quickly; madly
Adverbs of time and place there; now
Adverbs of degree very; incredibly; quite
Adverbs of relative time yet; shortly; recently
Adverbs of quantity a bit; a lot
Adverbs of focusing only; as well; even
Adverbs of attitude markers seemingly; luckily
.
[Adapted from “Grammar for English Language Teachers” by Martin Parrott]

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English word classes 2

Let’s continue with word classes; we only have a few more of the most common word classes in English to cover.
Articles
Articles are part of a larger word class called determiners. A determiner is a word usually used in front of a noun
to show whether you are referring to something specific or to something of a particular kind.
There are two types of articles:
Definite article: the
Indefinite articles: a / an
The definite article ‘the’
‘The’ is called a definite article because it is used to refer to something or someone already mentioned, or that is
clear to the reader or listener:
The house on the corner is mine. (not any house, the one on the corner) I
am going to the Shakespeare play. (not any play, the Shakespeare one) We
also use ‘the’ to refer to something of which there is only one:
Let’s lie in the sun.
The sky is blue.
We also use it to make a statement about all the things belonging to one type – only with countable nouns though:
He likes going to the casino.
My favourite animal is the dog.
But note that if you used these nouns in the plural, you do not use ‘the’. (There are casinos in most major cities.
Dogs are lovable pets.)
We also use ‘the’ when referring to: the people of a country (the English, the Italian); systems or services (the
tram, the Internet); professions (the doctor; the German athlete); musical instruments (the piano, the violin).
The indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’
‘A’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles because, unlike ‘the’, they do not refer to something specific, but to
something which has not been as yet determined. Let’s see the difference:
‘I want to buy a house.’ (ANY house)
‘I want to buy the house next door.’ (not any house, a specific house)
‘Let’s go see a movie.’ (ANY movie)
‘Let’s go see the movie with Al Pacino.’ (not any movie, a specific one)

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A few points about indefinite articles:
• We only use ‘a’ and ‘an’ when referring to singular, countable nouns; we do NOT say: a love, a rice, a sand.
• We use ‘a’ and ‘an’ when referring to something for the first time. After that, you usually use ‘the’ because the
noun has already been defined:
‘She went to a soccer match. The match was fun!’
• We use ‘a’ before a word that starts with a consonant (a book, a house, a pirate) and we use ‘an’ before a word
that starts with a vowel (an apple, an egg, an ogre). This is a phonetic rule, i.e. it is easier to say ‘an apple’ than
it would be to say ‘a apple’. Therefore, there are a few exceptions:
Use ‘an’ in front of ‘h’ when the ‘h’ is not pronounced (and consequently sounds like a vowel): an heir, an honour,
an hour. Can you think of others?
Use ‘a’ in front of ‘u’ when it is pronounced like ‘you’: a unicorn, a usual answer, a universe.
Use ‘an’ in front of abbreviations and acronyms when the first letter starts with a vowel sound: an FBI agent, an
ASX report, an MD.

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Quantifiers
Quantifiers are a class of determiners (remember determiners are words used in front of nouns to refer to
specific things or things of a specific kind) and are used to show quantity, i.e. they answer the question ‘how
much?’ of something or ‘how many?’ things or people we are referring to.
‘Quantifiers’ is a big topic, but here we well mention a few general points only.
Some of the most common quantifiers are:
some any all a few a lot of both
any much little several enough no
Some quantifiers are used with countable nouns only, some with uncountable nouns only, some with singular
nouns, some with plural nouns, and yet some, with any combination of the above. So, let’s try to figure it out:
Look at the following phrases; some are correct and some are incorrect. After reading them carefully, choose the
most appropriate response from the options given: (This activity is included in the PRACTICE ACTIVITIES units;
you can check your answers there/then.)
List 1 List 2 List 3 List 4

some money some several item much wall any bacon
friends some sugar several things much misery any shoes
some banana several coffee much kids any pen no
some playground most days little* sympathy homework no
some chairs all most little* day little* socks no
sand all animals all weekend pencils a little* enemy
desk a little*
bag enough gifts most air few
salt a little*
enough book leaves few
candles
enough flour milk few photo (*NOT as an adjective,
enough intelligence many cup but as a QUANTIFIER)
many girls
many bread
Rule: some / all / enough Rule: several / most / Rule: much / little / a Rule: any / no are used in
are used in front of: few / many are used in little are used in front of: front of:
front of:
D countable nouns
D uncountable nouns D D singular countable D singular countable D countable nouns
countable plural nouns nouns nouns D uncountable nouns D
and uncountable nouns D D uncountable nouns D D uncountable nouns D countable plural nouns
all kinds of nouns countable and countable and and uncountable nouns D
uncountable nouns D uncountable nouns D all kinds of nouns
plural countable nouns plural countable nouns
So how do you know which are used when? Simple: do the test above. Try the quantifier, ideally in a sentence,
with all options, i.e. in front of a countable plural, countable singular and uncountable noun. Remember! There
may be exceptions.
Note 1: ‘Some’ CAN be used in front of a singular noun (as in the example above, ‘some banana’) but it isn’t really
used as a quantifier. You would not say to the shopkeeper ‘Could I have some banana, please?’ It can be used
with a different, quite colloquial, meaning like: ‘That is some banana you have there!’ expressing surprise or
amazement. Of course, that sentence sounds ridiculous (unless the banana was pink with red polka dots!); but
how about:

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That is some car you bought!’ or ‘That is some kid you raised!’ (Obviously, the context would be very important in
determining what function ‘some’ is playing.)
Can you think of other examples of ‘some’ used in this way?
Note 2: In negative sentences, you do not use ‘some’; you usually use ‘any’, like:
I don’t have some coffee. Incorrect
I don’t have any coffee. Correct
In certain affirmative sentences, e.g. requests, you would use ‘some’ instead of ‘any’:
I would like some coffee, please. (NOT ‘I would like any coffee’) But,
when referring to all of a kind, you use ‘any’:
I like any type of pizza.
Prepositions
‘Prepositions’ is another very large class of words covering many sub-functions, so we will stick to the basics here.
Prepositions are basically words that show the relationship or connection between two other words or phrases.
Some of the most common prepositions—and usually the ones ESL/EFL students learn first—are prepositions of
place and time, such as in, on, under, in front, behind, beneath, between, beside, next to, at, etc. Let’s see
some examples:
The sugar is in the kitchen. (shows the relationship between ‘sugar’ and ‘kitchen’)
The game is at 5 pm. (shows the relationship between ‘game’ and ‘5pm’)
The party is on Saturday. (shows the relationship between ‘party’ and ‘Saturday’)
Usually, prepositions are followed by a noun or a noun phrase, like in the examples above: Saturday; the kitchen.
Let’s look at some examples of common prepositions, some of which are usually taught at a beginner or upper-
beginner level:
1. Prepositions of Place in / on / 2. Prepositions of Time at 3. Prepositions of Movement and

at / under / between / next to, etc. / in / on, etc. Direction
to, toward, towards, around,
through, etc.
I live in Australia. The movie starts at 9 pm. Today I will walk to work.
The pencil is in the box. We parted ways at sunrise. Drive toward the city for 10
minutes.
My suitcase is in the basement. I will meet you at noon. Let’s move quickly through the
crowd.
The cat is on the mat. Let’s take a holiday in April. We’ll have to go around the park.
There is a fly on the wall. I was born in the 70s.
Drop me off at the lights. People read more in the old days.
We live at 20 Bourke St. NOTE: on We had a big family lunch on
is more commonly used in Christmas day.
American English (AmE)
I pay my bills at the bank. I went shopping on Monday.
Sit between Joe and Kate. He had a party on his birthday.
The post office is next to the pub. We saw fireworks on Labour Day.
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1. Prepositions of Place: Notice that ‘in’ is usually used for enclosed spaces, ‘on’ is usually used for surfaces
and ‘at’ is usually used for a specific point. With prepositions though, there are also some uses which are standard
for us, but for your students will be confusing until they hear them many times. For example:
on the left, on the right
on radio, on television
on my way at
Christmas at present
at the moment
2. Prepositions of Time: Notice that ‘at’ is used for a precise time, ‘in’ is used for months, years and other long
periods of time and ‘on’ is used for days and dates.
With the word ‘weekend’, you may find some people say ‘at the weekend’ and others may say ‘on the weekend’.
Generally speaking, ‘on the weekend’ is American usage; both are acceptable simply because they are both used!
A very common mistake for ESL/EFL students is to say phrases such as:
In Tuesday morning
In Saturday afternoon
They make this mistake because we've taught them to say ‘in the afternoon’ and ‘in the morning’.
But because the name of the day comes first, the rule ‘on Monday’ ‘on Tuesday’, etc. will apply.
So,
On Tuesday morning
On Saturday afternoon

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Some other common mistakes are:
Incorrect: on last Tuesday I went home on last Tuesday

Correct: last Tuesday I went home last Tuesday
Incorrect: at every Christmas I call my mum at every Christmas

Correct: every Christmas I call my mum every Christmas
Incorrect: in this morning Let's go to the market in this morning.

Correct: this morning Let's go to the market this morning.
The rule? When we use last, every, this and next, we do not use a preposition.
Sometimes prepositions are used after nouns, adjectives and verbs “to introduce phrases which give more
information about a thing, quality or action.” (Collins Cobuild English Usage, 1992). For example:
Jim is very fond of Sally. (adjective + preposition)
Sally is filled with love for Jim. (adjective + preposition)

Sally and Jim are devoted to each other. (adjective + preposition)
He has an appetite for destruction. (noun + preposition)
I have a solution to the problem. (noun + preposition)
It isn’t healthy to hold a grudge against people. (noun + preposition)
I apologise for the inconvenience. (verb + preposition)
They say he will amount to nothing. (verb + preposition)
She is often mistaken for Julia Roberts. (verb + preposition)
Like these there are many more combinations. Don’t panic! You know them naturally! But your students will often
be confused by these combinations, so it is important to teach them in context and to teach these together, i.e. if
you were teaching the adjective ‘fond’, it would be easier to teach it together with ‘of’ as that is how it is always
used.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are JOINERS. Basically, they connect ideas. They allow us to make longer, more complex
sentences. To help you remember, consider that the word conjunction comes from the base conjoin.
Some examples of conjunctions are:
and so but although therefore because while or yet
and many, many more. Let’s see some examples:
• I go to school because I want to learn. [Indicates reason]
• I go to school but I don’t like it. [Indicates contrast]
• I go to school, therefore, I will learn very much. [Indicates consequence]

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• I will go to school or I will get a job. [Indicates possibilities or alternatives]
• I go to school so I can get a better job. [Indicates purpose]
• I am sick so I can’t come to school. [Indicates result]
• Although I go to school, I am not getting any smarter! [To indicate contrast to the main statement]
Each conjunction can have one or more functions. Even though you know how to use them, a good grammar book
will help you express its function in an easy way like above.
Activities
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online course and you would like to find out more details, please visit our website to log in or sign up"

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English Verbs
Before we move on to verb tenses, let’s have a brief look at what verbs are. Even though verbs are also a word
class (like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs) we dedicate a whole section as they are a very important word class,
and can be more difficult to grasp.
Verbs are words used with a subject to tell us what the subject is doing, or what it is, or what is happening to it.
You may remember from primary school that “verbs are action words”. This is partly true: a verb can be an action
word, like run, eat, drive, paint but verbs can also be words like feel, be, like, belong or seem.
In this section, we will look at: verb forms; transitive vs. intransitive verbs; modal verbs; phrasal verbs; and,
auxiliary verbs.
Verb Forms
Although understanding verbs can be tricky, the good news is that in English a verb does not take many forms. If
you think about a language like Spanish or French, verbs take many, many different forms, but in English this is
not so; usually, the native teacher struggles more than the student does! Here are the forms verbs can take in
English:
• A base form: visit, look
The base form is also called the bare infinitive; the form ‘to visit; to look’ is called the full infinitive.
• An ‘s’ form: visits, looks
• An ‘ing’ form: visiting, looking
• A past form: visited, looked
• A past participle form: visited, looked
The above are regular verbs, so the past participle form is the same as the past form. But with irregular verbs,
the past and past participle forms are different. See the table below:
Base form Past form Past participle form

visit visited visited
I visit my Mum every Sunday. I visited my Mum last Sunday. I have visited my Mum every
Sunday since last year.
look looked looked
I look out the window as soon as I Yesterday, I looked out the window I have looked out the window every
wake up. when I woke up. morning for 5 years.
eat ate eaten
I eat cereal every day. I ate cereal yesterday. I have eaten cereal for breakfast
since I was a child.
See? Easy! We will look at verb tenses in the next section, so these terms will appear again.

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Transitive vs. Intransitive verbs
In basic terms, transitive verbs are followed by a direct object and intransitive verbs are not, i.e. they can stand
alone. The following examples will clarify this:
Transitive 1. She likes him.

2. He slammed the door behind him.
3. They noticed a man acting suspiciously.
4. Jane hates cockroaches.
In all these examples, the verb needs an object after it, or the sentence would not make sense.
The object can be a pronoun (1), a noun phrase (2, 3) or a noun (4).
Intransitive 1. David sneezed.

2. It was cold and the wind was blowing.
3. After the fight, the samurai’s body ached.
4. Sorry, did you say something? I was day-dreaming.
In all these examples, the verb in bold can stand on its own, it does not need an object after it.
However, as usual, there are some verbs that can be used transitively or intransitively, sometimes with the same
meaning and others with a different meaning:
Transitive Intransitive
He slammed the door. The door slammed.
They noticed a suspicious man. ‘That man looks suspicious.’ ‘Yes, we noticed.’
She blew him a kiss. The wind was blowing.
Remember! You know all of this naturally! But for some students, knowing the difference between transitive or
intransitive verbs may help them with sentence construction; as they progress and become more proficient, they
will gradually start to get a feel for this, i.e. they will be able to distinguish what sounds right and what sounds
wrong, just like you. Of course, this takes time and lots of practice.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs are a special kind of verb in that they do not have different forms, just one. Therefore, they do not
have an ‘s’ form or an ‘ing’ or a past participle form (although some modal verbs have a past form, such as can-
could, but bear in mind that in this case could has its own meanings that are completely unrelated to the past of
can).
The modal verbs are:
• Will
• Can
• Would
• Could
• Should
• May
• Might
• Must
• Shall
• Ought to
Modal verbs are used before a bare infinitive to add a certain meaning to the verb; it could be: a request;
permission; obligation; necessity; probability; possibility; ability; habit; willingness; amongst others.
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Let’s have a look at SOME of the functions modal verbs can perform:
Certainty I will be ready in ten minutes. (absolute certainty)

You must be tired after all that work! (absolute certainty) I
don’t believe it, it can’t be! (absolute certainty)
Chris should have the notes from yesterday’s class. (probability/possibility)

He might bring a friend to the party. (probability/possibility)
The keys could be on the kitchen table. (probability/possibility)
It can be tricky to understand modal verbs. (something that is generally true)

EFL students can get confused by verbs sometimes. (something that is generally true)
Obligation You must respect the traffic signals at all times.
You will eat all your vegetables before you can have dessert!
Prohibition You must not walk on the grass.

I’m sorry, but you can’t bring food in here.
Mobile phones may not be used during the flight.
Permission You may leave as soon as you have finished. ‘Can

I ask you a question?’ ‘Of course you can.’ May I
take this seat?
Advice or You should see a doctor about that cough.

recommendation Shall I serve dinner now?
You might try being nicer to people.
We ought to check out the new Sunday market.
Willingness or Shall I help you with your luggage?

offers I’ll drive you to the airport.
Would you like a drink while you wait?
Ability I can swim but I can’t dance!

Last year I couldn’t speak a word of French, but now I can have a basic conversation. I
think I can handle this job.
Habits He will always water the garden at sunset.

The teacher would give homework only if the students misbehaved.
Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are a combination of two or more words, which often makes up a new meaning different to the words
by which it is formed. Phrasal verbs are formed by a verb followed by a preposition, an adverb or both. Let’s see
some examples:
He broke up with me. (=ended the relationship)
The student came up with a very good idea. (=created, found)
He could not keep up with his studies, so he dropped out of school. (=stay on schedule, maintain the pace; =quit)
See how, for example, when you add up to the verb break it changes the meaning completely.

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Can you see the difference in meaning in the phrasal verbs below?
turn in turn on turn off turn out turn around turn up turn down
look out look into look away look down on look after look at look over
Phrasal verbs can be very confusing for students because one little word after the verb can change the meaning
completely. The best way for them to learn them is gradually—starting off with the most common ones—and in
context.
Some phrasal verbs are separable, while others are inseparable:
They broke off the engagement. They broke the engagement off. (separable)
The boss looked down on his employees. (inseparable – you cannot say ‘The boss looked his employees down
on’)
Auxiliary verbs
Last, but certainly not least, let’s look at auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs as
they don’t carry meaning themselves, but are used to support or add meaning to the main verb. They are used in
English mainly to make a negative statement or a question, to form some verb tenses, to form the passive voice
(covered later in this unit), for emphasis, to avoid repetition and in tag questions. They are:
• Be
• Do
• Have
These three auxiliary verbs are also verbs in their own right with their own meaning, of course!
We will look at these a bit more in the next section, but let’s see some examples now:
• I didn’t rob the bank! (negative statement)
• Did you rob the bank? (question/interrogative statement)
• I am running. / I have been running. (verb tense: present continuous and present perfect continuous)
• He was bitten by a shark. (passive voice—active voice would be ‘A shark bit him.’)
• It’s true! He did win the gold medal! (emphasis—instead of ‘He won the gold medal’)
• ‘Has he ever written a book?’ ‘Yes, he has.’ (written a book) (to avoid repetition)
• I haven’t been to see Pam, but John has (been to see Pam). (to avoid repetition)
• You went to Dan’s birthday, didn’t you? We haven’t met before, have we? (tag questions)

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English Verb Tenses
Now we are going to cover the verb tenses (and no, there are not just the three!). Simply put, verb tenses are
verb forms or groups that tell us whether the action is past, present or future, i.e. they tell us about time.
Let’s do this gradually, from simple to more complex.
Simple tenses
Simple tenses are those which do not require auxiliary verbs to form them (except for negative statements and
questions) and which do not use the –ing form. Usually, simple tenses are used to speak about more permanent
situations and actions, rather than temporary ones. So, technically speaking, the simple present tense does not
refer only to the present time, but usually encompasses a longer period of time, including the present.
The simple tenses are: simple present; simple past; and, future (or simple future). Note that sometimes they
are called present simple and past simple; both refer to the same tense.
The Simple Present Tense
The simple present tense is used to:
• Talk about routines or habitual actions (Every morning I brush my teeth. Where do you work? Our family
doesn’t travel much.)
• Talk about facts or things that are generally true (Water boils at 100 degrees C. The Earth is round.)
We form the simple present tense as follows:
Simple Present Tense

Affirmative Negative Yes-No (or Closed) Information (or Open)
Question Question
I play soccer. I don’t play soccer. Do I play soccer? What (sport) do I play?
You play soccer. You don’t play soccer. Do you play soccer? What (sport) do you play?
He/She/It plays soccer. He/She/It doesn’t play Does he/she/it play What (sport) does he/she/it
We play soccer. soccer. soccer? play?
You play soccer. We don’t play soccer. Do we play soccer? What (sport) do we play?
They play soccer. You don’t play soccer. Do you play soccer? What (sport) do you play?
They don’t play soccer. Do they play soccer? What (sport) do they play?
• As you can see, the only main difference in form comes with the third person singular (he/she/it), where we need
to add an ‘s’ to either the main verb (affirmative) or the auxiliary verb (negative and question). This is a common
mistake ESL/EFL speakers will make—forgetting about the added ‘s’ or, adding two ‘s’ for example: Does he
plays soccer?
• Naturally, you would not normally say “Do I play soccer?” unless you just woke up from an amnesiac coma!
What the table above is showing you is HOW TO FORM this tense, i.e. the structure or how it looks. Your
students need to learn the form AND the function to be competent speakers and this happens through the use
of language in context and situations. Don’t worry; we will cover this later in the course.
• Short answer: When answering a yes-no or closed question, we usually use a short answer. For this tense, it
would be “Yes, I do” or “No, I don’t”, according to the person (so, “Yes, he does” or “No, he doesn’t” for the third
person singular)
The Simple Past Tense
The simple past tense is used to describe something that happened in the past and, usually, finished in the past,
i.e. that generally there is no, or little, relation to the present time. When we want to be specific about when
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something happened, we use helping words or phrases, such as yesterday, last Monday, at 6 am this morning,
etc.
The simple past tense is formed as follows:
Simple Past Tense

Question Question
I played soccer. I didn’t play soccer. Did I play soccer? What did I do yesterday?
You played soccer. You didn’t play soccer. Did you play soccer? What did you do yesterday?
Can you fill in the rest? Can you fill in the rest? Can you fill in the rest? Can you fill in the rest?
He/She/ It …………… He/She/ It …………… Did he/she/it …………? What did he/she/it………..?
We …………… We …………… …… we ………………? …… we ……………………?
You …………… You …………… …… you ……………...? …… you …………………...?
They …………… They …………… …… they ……………..? …… they …………………..?
• Can you see the difference between this FORM and the simple present? Yes! First, second and third person,
singular and plural, all use the same form. Easy!
• Regular vs. Irregular verbs: in the example, played is a regular verb. Irregular verbs such as do/did,
drink/drank, eat/ate, sing/sang have a unique form in the past, but they still remain the same for all persons.
• Information question: as with the previous tense, the information question used above goes with the answer
“I played soccer”. Naturally, a variety of information questions using this verb are possible.
• As mentioned before, usually we would not say “I played soccer” in isolation, unless you are answering a
question. We would use other words or phrases to provide a bit more information.
• Short answer: What would be the short answer to “Did you play soccer?” both affirmative and negative?
The Simple Future Tense
Even though this tense involves adding a modal or auxiliary verb, we can still consider it a simple tense. There
are two ways in which the simple future can be formed: with will or with be + going to + base form Let’s see
how we form them:
Simple Future Tense – WILL
Affirmative Negative Yes-No (or Closed) Information (or
Question Open) Question
I will play soccer. I will not (or won’t) play soccer. Will I play soccer? What will I do?
You will play soccer.
Can you do the rest? Can you do the rest? Can you do the rest? Can you do the rest?
• See how easy it is? Because will does not change, for every person the structure is the same.
Simple Future Tense – BE + GOING TO + VERB

Affirmative Negative Yes-No (or Closed) Question Information (or Open)
Question
I am going to play I am not going to play Am I going to play soccer? What am I going to do?
soccer. soccer.
What about the rest? What about the rest? What about the rest? What about the rest?

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• Ahhhh, what happens here? If you did the rest correctly (of course you did!) then you noticed that, because the
form of be does change, then the form is different for first person singular (am), second person singular (are)
and third person singular (is). The plural forms are the same as the second person singular, i.e. they use are.
So, when do we use will and when do we use going to?
‘Will’ is used when:
• Making a spur of the moment decision
The doorbell rings, and you say “I’ll get it.” (I’ll = I will)
‘Oh no, I missed my train.’ ‘Don’t worry, I’ll drive you.’
• Making a promise
I will always be there for you.
I won’t disappoint you! • When
making a prediction
I think Argentina will win the World Cup.
The party will not be as fun without Greg.
‘Going to’ is used when:
• Stating a plan or intention for the future (something you know will happen)
On Monday, I am going to buy a car.
My son is going to visit the museum on the school field trip.
Next week, Dan and Monica are going to help us move.

IMPORTANT! None of the rules above are absolute! Obviously, it would not be incorrect to say “Next week, Dan
and Monica will help us move”; often, we use them interchangeably. But the rules are important for your students
to start off with, until they can attain a more native-like proficiency. Sometimes, using one or the other, even though
not grammatically incorrect, might sound a bit awkward or ‘funny’, like in the example:
The phone rings…Do you say:
I’ll get it! OR
I’m going to get it!
Grammatically speaking, both are correct, but which one SOUNDS right? The first one of course!

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Continuous Tenses
Continuous tenses are those in which the main verb takes the –ing form and the auxiliary verb be is used. Just
like we did for the simple tenses, we will look at: present continuous, past continuous and future continuous.
In general, continuous tenses express less permanent situations or actions.
Note: ‘Continuous’ is also known as ‘progressive’, i.e. present progressive, past progressive, etc.
The Present Continuous Tense
The present continuous tense is used to express:
• Something that is happening right now (I am writing about grammar. Is the audience reading attentively?)
• Something that is more or less temporary (We are living in London this year. Is James waiting for you outside?)
• Change or progress (The political situation is not improving.)
• Future (‘What are you doing this weekend?’ ‘I am going to the country.’)
Let’s see how it is formed:
Present Continuous Tense

Question Question
I am playing soccer. I am not playing soccer. Am I playing soccer? What am I doing?
You are playing soccer. You are not playing soccer. Are you playing soccer? What are you doing?
And the rest…? And the rest…? And the rest…? And the rest…?
• As with the future with ‘going to’, the form of the auxiliary verb ‘be’ changes according to the person.
• The use of the present continuous to express future is very common. Although it is correct to say, for instance,
“I am going to go to the beach this weekend” we would usually say “I am going to the beach this weekend.”
• A common mistake for students is to forget the auxiliary verb, e.g. “I going to the beach this weekend.”
The Past Continuous Tense
If the present continuous tense is used to express something happening now, then we can say that the past
continuous is used to express something happening at some time in the past. More specifically, we use it to
express:
• Something in progress (What were you doing when the fire broke out?)
• Something happening over a longer period of time (Susan was studying all weekend.)
• Something that was interrupted (We were eating lunch when we were called by the boss.)
• Something that was happening at the time of another event (She was dancing at the nightclub when her car
got broken into.)

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The past continuous is formed just like the present continuous, but the auxiliary verb be is formed in the past:
Past Continuous Tense

Question Question
I was playing soccer. I was not playing soccer. Was I playing soccer? What was I doing?
You were playing soccer. You were not playing Were you playing soccer? What were you doing?
soccer.
• Can you start to see how these tenses almost build on each other?
The Future Continuous Tense
So, if the present and past continuous are formed using the auxiliary verb be and the –ing form, how do you think
the future continuous is formed? Yes! Just like that too, but using will; since we can only use the base form of a
verb after will, the auxiliary verb be stays the same… how easy!
Future Continuous Tense

Question Question
I will be playing soccer. I will not be playing Will I be playing soccer? What will I be doing?
You will be playing soccer. soccer. Will you be playing What will you be
You will not be playing soccer? doing?
And the rest…? soccer.
And the rest…? And the rest…?
And the rest…?
• The future continuous is used when talking about continuous situations in the future or something that will be
in progress in the future:
I can’t make your party on Saturday; I will be flying out to Hawaii!
Simone and I will be writing a course in the next few months. • It is also
used to say that something is expected or scheduled to happen:
I will be catching the 2pm train.
Will David be finishing his thesis in March?
Perfect Tenses
Perfect tenses are those that are formed using the auxiliary verb have and a past participle. Just like before,
we will look at the: present perfect, past perfect and future perfect.
The Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is usually a tricky one to grasp, both for our students and for us! One of the tricky parts
is that even though it is present it is used mainly to talk about the past! However, there is usually a connection to
the present. We use it to:
• Talk about something that started in the past and continues into the present:
I have lived in Melbourne for 5 years. (and I still live in Melbourne)

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Fiona has worked for Teach International since last year. (and she still works for Teach International)
• Talk about accomplishments and experiences:
I have been to every continent.
She has finally completed her Master’s degree.
• Talk about a change that has happened over time: Beer prices have steadily risen in the last few years.
The tree has slowly lost all its foliage.
This is how it is formed:
Present Perfect Tense

Question Question
I have played soccer. I have not played soccer. Have I played soccer? What (sport) have I
You have played soccer. You have not played Have you played soccer? played?
He/She/It has played soccer. Has he/she/it played What (sport) have you
soccer. He/She/It has not played soccer? played?
soccer. What (sport) has he
Can you finish it? Can you finish it? played.
Can you finish it?
Can you finish it?
• Obviously, the sentence I have played soccer (and the others) doesn’t really make much sense, does it?! We
keep using the same example for each tense to focus only on the FORM. When you teach your students, you
will teach them how to use each tense in context. So, you might say something more like I have played soccer
since I was 10.
• It is really common to teach the first function (as above) of the present perfect with for and since and to use
never for the negative, such as I have never lived in Melbourne or He has never been to Africa.
• Often, the present perfect and the simple past are used interchangeably—sometimes correctly and sometimes
incorrectly! Think about this example:
‘What’s the matter, you look upset?’ ‘Oh, I’ve lost my keys.’ – implies losing the keys and not finding them yet;
can you see the connection to the present? The keys were lost in the past, and in the present time, they are still
lost! But look:
‘What’s the matter, you look upset?’ ‘Oh, I lost my keys.’ – well, technically this implies that the keys were lost in
the past, but are no longer lost now, in the present. This sentence could very well be ‘I lost my keys, but now I’ve
found them.’ However, native speakers of English might use one or the other and, in this case, there is practically
no difference. So, ‘I lost my keys’, from what we can gather from that context, probably means they are still lost.
Confusing? Yes! That is the beauty of grammar… the point we are trying to make, though, is that often with such
subtleties the context helps a lot to decide which should be used, and also, just what ‘sounds right’ to you, the
expert! Don’t dwell on these little things, remember you want to teach your students real and communicative
English, which means that sometimes you need to bend the rules a little.
The Past Perfect Tense
So, if the present perfect tense is formed using have in the present (have played) then how do you think we form
the past perfect tense? Yes, you got it! In the same way, but with have in the past tense: had.
Let’s see:

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Past Perfect Tense
Question Question
I had played soccer. I had not played soccer. Had I played soccer? What had I played?
You had played soccer. You had not played soccer. Had you played soccer? What had you played?
And the rest? And the rest? And the rest? And the rest?
• We use the past perfect to talk about the past, yes, but usually a ‘past before another past’. Huh? Well, look at
this example:
I completed the exam quickly as I had studied really hard.
‘Completed’ is the second event in the past, and ‘studied’ is the first, i.e. first I studied for the exam, then I
completed the exam. We use the past perfect for the OLDEST event, or the one that happened first, and if the
newer event is mentioned, we usually use the simple past. More examples:
The runner hadn’t prepared well for the race, so he lost.
The teacher asked for my homework, but I hadn’t done it.
Had you met Kate before last night?
The Future Perfect Tense
If we form the present and past perfect using have (either in the present or past form), how do you suppose we
form the future perfect tense? Right again! We use will have. Have a look:
Future Perfect Tense

Question Question
I will have played soccer. I will not have played soccer. Will I have played What will you have
soccer? done?
What about the rest? Is What about the rest?
there any change in the What about the rest? What about the rest?
verb form?
We use the future perfect tense when we want to say that we expect something to happen or to be true at some
point in the future. Some examples:
• By this time next year, I will have graduated.
• Will they have visited every country by the time they stop travelling?
• At 8 o’clock, they will have gone.

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Perfect Continuous Tenses
Finally, we will add just a bit more to what we have learnt so far; basically, perfect continuous tenses are a
combination of continuous and perfect tenses. Let’s see:
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Sometimes the present perfect and the present perfect continuous are used interchangeably. Don’t let this
frustrate you! When you are unsure, just think about how you would normally or naturally say it.
First, let’s see how we form it; I am sure you figured it out by now! If the present perfect uses the auxiliary verb
have + past participle, then the present perfect continuous takes the same auxiliary verb, but, the main verb
takes the -ing form, therefore it needs an extra auxiliary verb: be
Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Question Question
I have been playing I have not been playing Have I been playing What have I been doing?
soccer. soccer. soccer? What have you been
You have been playing You have not been Have you been playing doing?
soccer. playing soccer. soccer?
Can you finish it? Does Can you finish it? Can you finish it? Can you finish it?
the verb change form at
all? (The answer is YES!)
We use this tense when:
• saying that something started in the past and still continues now or has just stopped, i.e. it covers the situation
up to now or so far:
‘Has it been raining long?’ ‘So far I have been taking phone calls and sending emails.’
• talking about recent activities, where the result is in the present:
‘The dog smells; it has been running all day.’ ‘Has Mum been cleaning? The house looks great!’
• talking about temporary situations:
‘She has been crying all day.’ ‘I haven’t been feeling well today.’
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
So, if the present perfect continuous is formed using the present form of have, then the past perfect continuous
is formed using… the past form of have: had

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Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Question Question
I had been playing I had not been playing Had I been playing What had I been doing?
soccer. soccer. soccer? What had you been
You had been playing You had not been Had you been playing doing?
soccer. playing soccer. soccer?
Can you finish it?
Can you finish it? Does Can you finish it? Can you finish it?
the verb change form at
all?
So, when do we use this tense? Easy! The uses are the same as for the present perfect continuous, but in a past
context. Let’s see some examples:
• Her eyes were red because she had been crying all day.
• John went to the hospital because he hadn’t been feeling well all day.
• We had been living together for years before we got married.
• Had the team been training harder for the final they won yesterday?

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The Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Yes! We made it to the last one! I am sure you can work out how we form the future perfect continuous by now!
Let’s have a look:
Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Question Question
I will have been playing I will not have been Will I have been playing What will I have been
soccer. playing soccer. soccer? doing?
You will have been You will not have been Will you have been What will you have been
playing soccer. playing soccer. playing soccer? doing?
Does the form change?
We use this tense in a similar way to the future perfect but since it is a continuous tense, the situations will
generally be of a more temporary nature. Let’s see:
• In December, they will have been working together for 1 year. (Note: you could also use the future perfect
here: In December, they will have worked together for 1 year. Which is right? Both! You would usually use one
or the other depending on the context)
• I will have been enjoying London for a long time before I move somewhere else.
• The world will have been living in blissful ignorance for years before they discover my evil plans. (this from an
evil genius, of course!)
Tips for teaching verb tenses
• Students need to know affirmative statements as much as negative statements and questions. Don’t ONLY
teach them how to say ‘I’ sentences, but also teach them how to ask questions, how to use the other persons
(first, second, third—singular and plural) and how to use short answers.
• Most tenses perform more than one function, so don’t feel overwhelmed by this! You will usually teach each
verb tense over a number of lessons—not necessarily consecutively—to cover all the functions. Don’t try to
teach every single use at once; this will confuse your students. Best to teach them gradually, and allow for lots
of practice. Here we showed you the most common functions of the tenses.
• Contractions: it is useful to teach contractions when you teach a verb tense. So, when you teach something like
“I was not playing soccer” you should also teach “I wasn’t playing soccer.” This will help your students sound
much more natural when they speak.
Now that we have covered the verb tenses—it wasn’t that hard, was it? —we can move on.
Other important forms
In this section we will cover only SOME other important structures. Remember you will learn much more about
English grammar once you start teaching it!
The Imperative
We normally use imperatives to give orders or instructions. The imperative is the base form of the verb, without
to and usually, no subject is needed:
• Listen to your teachers.

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• Please, sit down.
• Don’t walk on the grass.
As you can see, they can be used in the affirmative or the negative with don’t. The subject (‘you’) is implied: you
do not usually say ‘You open the window’. The examples above are in the second person (singular or plural) ‘you’.
The imperative cannot be used on its own with the first or third person. Instead you need a helper:
let for the third person, or let’s (let us) for the first person; have a look:
• ‘Let’s walk through the park.’ ‘Let me see...’ ‘Let’s hurry!’ (all first person, singular and plural)
• ‘Let her decide on her own.’ ‘Come on, let them go to the party!’ ‘Let the dog run around a bit more.’ (all third
person, singular and plural)
We don’t only use imperatives to give orders, though. Here are a few more functions:
• Please, forgive me! – to beg or plead
• Call your Mum; I am sure she will give you permission. – to make a suggestion
• Come on, fight for her! – to encourage someone
• Please, have some coffee. – to offer something
• Have a great time! – to offer good wishes
• Get lost! – to express comments or requests of a rude nature
Conditionals
Native English speakers often find understanding conditionals a bit difficult. We will try to simplify it here as much
as possible.
We will cover the four main types of conditionals: zero, first, second and third type.
Conditionals normally have an ‘if’ clause and a main clause. First, we will look at how they are formed:
Conditional Type ‘If’ Clause Main clause
Zero If I comb my hair… …I look pretty.

‘If’ + present form of verb present form of verb
First If I comb my hair… …I will look pretty.

‘If’ + present form of verb future simple form of verb (will + verb)
Second If I combed my hair… ‘If’ …I would look pretty.

+ past form of verb would + verb (can also use ‘should’, ‘could’, ‘might’)
Third If I had combed my hair… …I would have looked pretty.

‘If’ + past perfect form of verb would + present perfect form of verb
The zero conditional is usually, like in the example above, a statement of fact or belief. That is, it is an accepted
fact or belief that if I comb my hair, I look pretty! It means the same as ‘When I comb my hair, I look pretty’. More
examples include:
• If you pay with a credit card, you don’t get a receipt.
• If you think you can do that, you are crazy!

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• If they go to the Irish pub, they always drink Guinness.
Pretty straightforward, right? Let’s move on to the other three types.
First, second and third conditionals are different in their degree of possibility. The first conditional is the most
'possible' with the third conditional being 'impossible'. This degree of possibility does NOT refer to the event or
situation actually being possible (i.e. being physically possible); it refers to whether it is possible in time. Have a
look:
1. First Conditional:
If I comb my hair, I will look pretty.
2. Second Conditional:
If I combed my hair, I would look pretty.
3. Third conditional:
If I had combed my hair, I would have looked pretty.
What does this all mean? Let's see:
Number 1 is similar to the zero conditional; I am stating a fact of sorts, but rather than a general statement of
fact, it is related to now (what will happen if I comb my hair? Well, I will look pretty). Is this possible in time? Yes!
I can comb my hair now and look pretty in the future.
So, we can say that the zero and first conditionals refer to real conditions: things that can happen in the present
time given a certain condition.
The second and third conditionals are said to refer to unreal conditions. They can relate to the present or the
past:
In number 2, you can see that I haven’t, and most likely won’t, comb my hair. What I am saying is that IF I DID, I
WOULD look pretty. Other examples are:
• If you did your homework, you would learn more. (but he doesn’t do his homework)
• If I had a dollar for every time I explain conditionals, I would be rich. (but I don’t have a dollar for every…) It
is often said that the second conditional is used for hypothetical situations.
In number 3, the unreal condition refers to the past and it is completely impossible... number 3 means I am at the
party, looking like a slob because I didn't comb my hair, so, after no one wants to dance with me, I might say
"Geez, IF I HAD COMBED my hair, I WOULD HAVE LOOKED pretty (but I DIDN'T comb my hair, so I looked like
a slob). I can't do anything about it now, because I can't change the past.
Make sense? Of course, it is not always so clear cut, and native speakers often use one where they should use
the other... but that is OK. There is a basic structure to them.
Look at the following and think about which type they might be:
- My mother will let me sleep over if your mother calls her first.
- If Daisy had thought of it sooner, she would have brought her camera to the expo.
- What would I do if I won a million dollars?

The following are a bit tricky, but think about them and see the structures above to figure them out (almost like a
maths equation):
- If I get an A on the test, I might throw a party.

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- If I had any extra time, I could study a language.
- If the fishermen had left earlier, they could have caught more fish.
- If they had known, they may have done something about it.
- If they knew, they may do something about it.
Remembering how verb tenses are formed will help you remember the conditionals too.
Used to-be used to / Be able to
These structures are very common so we will briefly cover them here:
Used to-be used to
Students often misuse these two structures; common mistakes include:
• I used to this job now. (meaning: I am used to this job now.)
• I am used to live in China, but now I live in Singapore. (meaning: I used to live in China…)
‘Used to’ is used to express habit in the past, i.e. habits that are no longer:
• I used to smoke, but I quit last year.
• My mum always used to make us go to bed really early when we were kids.
• Paris used to be my favourite city until I went to New York.
The structure is simple: used to + base form of verb. We often use it in combination with ‘would’ if we are talking
about more than one event which happened habitually in the past:
When I was growing up, I used to live in a farm. In the morning, we would get up at the crack of dawn and milk
the cows. After that, Dad would make up a hearty breakfast. We would ride horses and play in the barn….
In an example like the one above, you usually use ‘used to’ in the first instance, and then continue with ‘would’
(although it is possible to use ‘used to’ again too!)
‘Be used to’, on the other hand, expresses that someone has grown accustomed to something, and it can refer to
the present, past or future:
• I didn’t like wearing a suit to work, but I am used to it now.
• The team was not used to the coach being late.
• Are you used to driving on the left-hand side of the road yet?
• I will never be used to driving on the left-hand side!
It is also commonly used with ‘get’:
• The child is slowly getting used to his new nanny.
• I couldn’t stand my mother-in-law, but I got used to her.
The structures are:

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• ‘be’ in the appropriate form + ‘used to’ (i.e. ‘be’ can be in the present, past or future, although for the past
and the future, it is more common to use ‘get’)
• ‘get’ in the correct form + ‘used to’ (I will get used to it. I got used to it. I have got/gotten used to it. Etc.)
Be able to
This structure expresses having knowledge, ability, power, strength, opportunity, time, resources to do something.
Often, it is used like ‘can’ and ‘could’.
• I was able to extract the necessary information from the suspect. = I could extract…
• James is able to juggle up to four objects! = James can juggle…
The negative form is unable:
• I am unable to finish the report by the end of today.
• She was in shock and unable to speak.
Note: You can use other words instead of ‘be’ with ‘able to’ or ‘unable’, such as: ‘He seems able to handle the
job’ or ‘I felt unable to meet with him after such a long time.’
Finally, where ‘can’ and ‘could’ cannot be used in the future, you can use ‘able to’:
• Don’t worry; I will be able to give you a detailed report.
Active voice – Passive voice
When we talk about the “voice” of a sentence, we are indicating whether the subject of the sentence is either
performing or receiving the action.
It is actually quite simple to determine if a sentence is written in passive or active. Take a look:
The boy kicked the ball. 7 The subject (boy) performs the action 7 active voice
The ball was kicked by the boy. 7 The subject (ball) receives the action 7 passive voice
More examples of active voice:
The man rode his bike to the store.

I watched TV all night.
Yesterday, my mum cut my hair.
The computer broke down early this morning.
I think it's on the table.
More examples of passive voice:
The baby was taken to the doctor.

Our garbage is usually collected on Wednesdays. Three
people were hit by the truck.
The entire class was given a one-week extension. Her
books were left on the table.
The choice of using active or passive voice is not a matter of which is grammatically correct (both can be), but a
matter of style – deciding what the implication of the sentence is.
We use passive voice when:

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1. The performer of the action is not as important as the receiver:
My hair was cut much too short last summer!
My computer was fixed by the technician earlier in the day.
2. The performer of the action is unknown.
The posters will be removed late tonight. The

doors have not been locked.
Often a sentence using passive voice is much weaker or too wordy (hence the name “passive”!).
The trip was enjoyed by me.

The history exam was completed by the high school students.
They don’t sound quite right, do they? We use the active voice to bring attention to the subject.
Passive and active voices can be used in all the tenses. Here are some examples:
Present Continuous:
Brenda is helping Adrianne. 7 active

Adrianne is being helped by Brenda. 7passive
Present Perfect:
Sandy and Scott have completed the mowing. 7 active

The mowing has been completed by Sandy and Scott. 7 passive
Here are some examples where both the active and passive voices can be used well, depending on the speaker’s
intentions:
I have sent the gifts. 7 active

The gifts have been sent. 7 passive
My company gave me a new office. 7 active

I was given a new office by my company. 7 passive
She must practise Spanish regularly. 7 active

Spanish has to be regularly practised (to be learnt). 7 passive
Remember: Do not use the expressions “Passive Tense” or “Active Tense”. These are voices, not tenses!
How do we form the passive voice?
If you have been paying attention to the examples above, then you will have realised that we form the passive
voice, in any tense, by adding the verb ‘be’ in the appropriate tense and using the past participle of the verb:
Simple Present:
Penguins inhabit Antarctica. 7 active
Antarctica is inhabited by penguins. 7 passive
Simple Past:
The Jamaican runner won the race. 7 active
The race was won by the Jamaican runner. 7 passive

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Present Perfect:
The thief has stolen the Monet painting. 7 active

The Monet painting has been stolen by the thief. 7 passive
And so on…
Direct and Indirect (or Reported) Speech
Andrew says he is sick. Later that day you see Andrew’s brother and want to tell him what Andrew said.
You can say: “Andrew
is sick.”
That is direct speech, because you are repeating exactly what Andrew said.
Or you can say:
“Andrew said he was sick.”
That is reported speech (also called “indirect speech”), and you usually talk about it in the past (because obviously
the person—Andrew—said it in the past).
It is okay to use “that” but not necessary. Andrew said that he was sick.
In general, when we use reported speech, we switch to a tense that is “further back” on the timeline. For example,
simple present tense would change to simple past tense:
There are several things Adam says on the phone to you:
Direct Speech Reported Speech

“I am hungry.” 7 He said that he was hungry.
“I have to go.” 7 He said that he had to go.
“It’s late.” 7 He said that it was late.
As present changes to past, present continuous changes to past continuous, and so on… Have
a look at the following and take note of the connections:
Simple Present Simple Past
I am hungry. She said that she was hungry.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
I’m waiting for the bus. He said that he was waiting for the bus.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
I have been to Europe three times. She said that she had been to Europe three times.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
She has been watching TV for twenty minutes. She said that she had been watching TV for twenty minutes.
Simple Past Past Perfect
I cooked dinner for my mum. She said that she had cooked dinner for her mum.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
I was watching TV when you called. He said that he had been watching TV when I called.
Past Perfect Past Perfect (no change)
They had completed the entire exam. He said that they had completed the entire exam.
Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous (no change)
I had been studying Latin for 15 years. She said that she had been studying Latin for 15 years.
There are some other verb forms that change too:

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Will becomes would
I will help you.
She said that she would help me.
Can becomes could

I can’t see.
She said that she couldn’t see.
May becomes might

I may be late.
She said that she might be late.
Time references also change:
Today becomes that day

I have to go to the dentist today.
She said that she had to go to the dentist that day. (unless it is still today!)
Tomorrow becomes the next day I

will call you tomorrow.
He said that he would call me the next day. (unless it is still the same day!)
Here becomes there I

want to stay here.
She said that she wanted to stay there. (unless you are in the same place!)
Now becomes then I

am eating now.
He said that he was eating then. (unless it is still now or close to now!)
This year becomes that year This

year is cold!
He said that that year was cold. (unless it is still the same year!)
Yesterday becomes the day before

Yesterday we watched three movies.
They said they had watched three movies the day before. (unless it is still the same day!) When
we're giving orders (imperatives), we introduce the infinitive forms (i.e. to go, to walk, etc):
Go home.
He told me to go home.
Please go home. (or ‘Could you please go home?’) She

asked me to go home.
Don’t smoke in here.

He told me not to smoke in here.
Now, let’s look at some examples where verbs don’t follow the rules.
Again, Andrew says, “I’m sick.”
Two days later you meet Andrew’s brother and you say to him, “Andrew said that he was sick” because you don’t
know if he is still sick; all you know is what he said to you two days ago. You’re reporting.

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But what if it wasn’t two days later… what if it was two minutes later? You would say, “Andrew said that he is
sick” Because you can be quite sure he’s still sick.
Usually we can use the time context to help us understand what is said.
Sometimes things get confusing when more than one verb is used in a sentence.
For example, Mayumi tells you:
“I was working at Universal Studios when I got married.”
She said that she had been working at Universal Studios when she had got married. Hmmm.
Sounds a bit wordy and awkward, right?
How about:
She said she was working at Universal Studios when she got married.
It doesn’t exactly follow the rules we laid out, but sounds more comfortable, right?
This is another perfect example of how you as a native or fluent English speaker can tell your students what
“sounds right”.
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Lexis: Word Roots, Affixes and Compound Words

Now that we have covered some of the most common grammatical structures, including the verb tenses, we shall
have a look at other areas of English which you and your students also need to know… knowing these will actually
help your students’ vocabulary building.
Word Roots and Affixes
The root of a word is the basic form of the word, whereas the affixes are extra parts added to the root to convey a
certain meaning. For example:
unhappiness
Which is the root, or basic form, of this word?
un-happi-ness
‘happi’ is the root and ‘un’ and ‘ness’ are affixes, in this case a prefix and suffix. A prefix comes before the root
and a suffix comes after the root. So, ‘un’ is the prefix and ‘ness’ is the suffix.
How can knowing this help us and our students?
Knowing the common affixes is very useful to understand what type of word we are dealing with. In the example
above, if the student knows that the prefix ‘un’ generally means ‘opposite’, then, even if they have not seen the
word ‘unhappiness’ before, they can tell its meaning: the opposite of ‘happiness’.
If they know that the suffix ‘ness’ is used for nouns, then that information can help them use the word correctly.
Therefore, they would be able to see that saying “I am unhappiness” would be incorrect.
Common Prefixes Prefix

+ Verb:
Prefix Meaning Examples
Re- Back or again resell; reconstruct; reiterate; revamp
Over- Too much overdo; overexert; overcharge; overstay
Un- Reverse the meaning undo; untie; undress; untidy
Mis- Badly or wrongly misunderstand; misinterpret; misuse; mistake
Out- More or better than outlive; outrun; outdo; outwit
Co- Together coordinate; co-write; coexist; co-advise
Sub- Under or below sublet; subcontract; submerge; submerse
Under- Not enough underpay; undersize; understate
De- Do the opposite of decompress; deviate; demoralise; degenerate
Can you think of some others? Can you think of some exceptions to the rules above?
Prefix + Noun:
Prefix Meaning Examples

Anti- Against antihero; antiwar; anti-Semitic
Bi- Two bicycle; biathlon; bicentennial
Ex- Former ex-boyfriend; ex-president; ex-wife
Hyper- Extreme hypertension; hypercritical; hyperphysical
Mal- Bad maladministration; maladjustment; malpractice
Re- Again reconstruction; restructure; reconsideration
Super- More than or above superpower; supersaturation; superstructure
Tri- Three triathlon; triangle; trimaran
Vice- Deputy vice-president; vice-chancellor; vice-chairman

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Can you think of some others? Can you think of some exceptions to the rules above?
Common Suffixes
Suffixes are very useful generally to determine what class the word is, i.e. if it is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb.
Let’s see only some examples:
Adverbs:
The most common suffix for adverbs is –ly: badly, correctly, immediately, alternatively, quickly, heavily, etc.
Adjectives:
There are many suffixes that imply the word is an adjective:
-al: diabolical, theatrical, comical, central, political, historical, geographical, etc.

-less: powerless, fearless, endless, shameless, soulless, etc.
-ful: wilful, soulful, wistful, playful, shameful, plentiful, bashful, etc.
-ous: humorous, courageous, advantageous, dangerous, infamous, blasphemous, etc. -able:
amicable, dependable, avoidable, manageable, etc.
-ent: intelligent, violent, ambivalent, different, etc. -ive:
emotive, evocative, affective, repetitive, etc.
Nouns:
The following suffixes added to a verb, noun, or adjective turn the word into a noun:
-tion/sion: expression, admiration, fusion, temptation, etc.

-er: stenographer, programmer, provider, maker, etc.
-ment: assessment, deployment, government, employment, etc.
-al: survival, proposal, arrival, revival, etc.
-ence/ance: offence, pretence, decadence, remembrance, etc.
-ism: heroism, communism, volunteerism, fascism, etc.
-ship: leadership, partnership, scholarship, friendship, etc. -ness:
willingness, happiness, sadness, wilderness, etc.
There are more prefixes and suffixes in English but it would be impossible to list them all here. There are also
exceptions to the general rules that govern their use. That said, knowing and making your students aware of this
is an effective way to help them understand words they have not seen before (from the affixes and the context)
and expand their vocabulary.
Compound words
A compound word is made when two words are joined to form a new word. In English there are many compound
words.
Compound words are one word—newsstand—or two words hyphenated—baby-sit.
Let’s look at some examples according to their word class:

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Compound Nouns
Two words come together to form a noun:
• cross-reference; father-in-law; T-shirt; newspaper; ladybug; flowerpot; copperhead; thumbprint; handbag; etc.
Compound Verbs
Two words come together to form a verb:
• baby-sit; undertake; overbook; blacklist; manhandle; upgrade; underline; downsize; sidestep; etc.
Compound Adjectives
Two words come together to make an adjective:
• part-time; good-looking; antisocial; well-behaved; blue-green, downtown, twofold, feel-good, etc.
To hyphenate or not to hyphenate… that is the question!
Yes! This can be tricky to determine. Although there are some basic rules about this, the fact that English is
constantly evolving means that over time, two words that were written completely separately started to be written
with a hyphen, and later, with continued use—especially if they became common terms—started to be written all
together. Another consideration is whether we are writing in British or American English (or any of the others!).
Generally speaking, British English tends to be more traditional, while American English tends to make things
simpler, therefore, in this case, reducing the use of hyphens.
So, when in doubt, consult a dictionary, but above all, be flexible! English is flexible, so you as a teacher of English
need to be too. Common usage, over time, determines changes in rules, but those new rules are not always
‘formally’ adopted or written—they are just commonly used!

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Lexis: Language Appropriacy and Frequency, Idioms, Slang
So, after looking at the more formal aspects of grammar, we reach the final section which looks at language
appropriacy, frequency and usage.
Which English?
You might be wondering whether you will be expected to change the way you speak in the classroom according
to the country or school in which you are working. Even though there are differences between the ‘Englishes’, in
today’s world there are also many, many speakers of English as a second or foreign language, which makes the
matter of clearly classifying each English more difficult. Luckily, we don’t have to!
You should not be expected to change your accent to an American or British model, for example.
In some cases though, you will have to adapt to American or British course books which you may be asked to use.
Mainly, this will be in terms of vocabulary and spelling. There are a few other differences between American and
British English, such as an aversion to using the passive in American English. You will discover these differences
as you come across them.
If your school uses a British based course book, then the word ‘colour’ will be spelt ‘colour’ whereas if the book is
American based, that word would be spelt ‘color’. Naturally, it is much easier for you to adapt to this, than it is for
your students. However, it is also important for your students to know that English vocabulary, spelling and
pronunciation can vary between Englishes; don’t impose your own way in the classroom. In the example above,
well, both are correctly spelt! And normally it doesn’t really matter whether they either use British English or
American English spelling, but they should be using one or the other.
Let's suggest you slow down your normal speech rate by about five (5) percent. So, you will be speaking a little
more clearly than normal. When your students copy you, they will unavoidably add in their own first language
pronunciation and intonation variants. So, the end result will be that your students’ pronunciation is balanced out
to what can be generally understood by others. You do not need to adapt the rate at which you speak any further
according to class level, but you should monitor your vocabulary level, so that the language used is about the level
of the course book and a bit higher. Remember, we are only talking about your own speech, as a teacher. Your
lessons should include listening activities which will have other speakers and you can also have activities where
your own speaking is deliberately sped up in order to train them to understand real world spoken English.
It is important to minimise slang. Slang is considered to be poor English in general usage, like "Gidday", instead
of "Hello". In particular local environments, it may be fully accepted, but this is not the case for English use across
different countries. "Hi" on the other hand is considered colloquial, being used in common everyday informal
speech in many countries. Modelling slang is not good practice, whereas modelling colloquial English is. This does
not mean you totally avoid teaching slang, because there will be cases where it is useful to understand slang
expressions.
Teaching expressions and colloquial language
This is actually a very important part of your job. As native or fluent teachers, one of our strengths is that we know
colloquial, every-day language and expressions that make our language natural and colourful.

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Have a look at the two dialogues below:
Dialogue 1: Two good friends run into each other Dialogue 2: Two good friends run into each other
A: Hello Martin, I have not seen you in a long time. A: Hey Martin, I haven’t seen you in ages. How are
How have you been? you, mate?
B: I have been very well, thank you. I have been B: I’m great, thanks. I’ve been travelling heaps with my
travelling with my job. How have you been? job. How about you?
A: I have also been very well. I quit my old job and now A: Yeah, very well too. I quit my old job and now I’ve
I have a very good new job. How is your family? got a fantastic new job. How’s the family?
B: They are fine. Susan is completing her university B: Oh, they’re fine. Susan’s completing her uni degree
degree and Darren plays with his musical group every and Darren is playing with his band every weekend.
weekend.
A: Sounds great. Listen, I’ve got to go now but how
A: That is great. I have to go now. Should we arrange about we catch up soon…
a gathering soon?
B: Sure, I’ll give you a buzz.
B: Yes, I will call you.
A: OK, look forward to it.
A: Fine, goodbye.
B: Yeah, me too, see you!
B: Goodbye.
What is the problem here? They are both perfect grammatically speaking… so what’s wrong? The first sounds a
little stiff and rigid, doesn’t it? While the second one is more natural, and uses the type of language that two friends
might use when speaking to each other.
This is exactly why you are so valuable as an English teacher! Because you are able to bring this naturalness to
the language you teach.
If you are lucky to be working from a modern course book, you will find some of them include little expressions and
idioms in their dialogues and texts. This is great, but it is up to you to make sure your students use them correctly
and appropriately. Sometimes, students may use language that is too colloquial in a situation that requires more
formal language, and vice versa. This is where your knowledge comes in.
What about idioms?
Native speakers of English use idioms all the time, often without realising it. For students, this can sometimes be
very confusing!
An idiom is a group of words which, when used together, has a different meaning from the one which the individual
words have. For example:
A: How did you know John was getting fired? B:

Oh, I heard it on the grapevine.
Think about this for a second… if the student has never heard that before, they may actually think that this person
had their ear glued to the grapevine!
Normally, you would not teach idioms to beginner or upper beginner students, because they would be too confused.
But at approximately intermediate level, you can slowly start introducing some. At higher levels, you will be using
and teaching quite a few, and this will help expand the students’ vocabulary and their range of language.

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Sometimes they are taught in categories, such as ‘animal idioms’ (alley cat; blind as a bat; quiet as a mouse)
or ‘colour idioms’ (black and white; blue in the face; green with envy)
Have a look at the following websites for huge lists of English idioms:
• Idiom Connection - http://www.idiomconnection.com/ [Viewed: October 2008]
• Idiom Site - http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/ [Viewed: October 2008]
What about slang?
Some teachers feel funny or awkward about teaching slang. Don’t! Slang is a very important part of a language,
and most languages have it. In English, slang is an every-day occurrence and if we did not teach it to our students,
they would be completely lost if they ever came to our country!
However, there are a few Dos and Don’ts before launching into teaching slang:
Don’ts
• Don’t use slang indiscriminately or to address your class! There is a place and a time to teach it, so you
should not be using it left, right and centre.
• Don’t teach slang to beginner students! They need to have a good, correct base first!
• Don’t teach slang out of context! Make sure when you teach any slang, you also teach how and when to use
it. Would it be appropriate for your students to use slang, say, at a job interview?
• Don’t teach slang for the sake it! Set your students up for success. For example, if they enjoy watching
Hollywood movies, then maybe they would like to learn some common American slang; if they are going to
travel to Australia, then they might need a bit of Aussie slang.
Dos
• Do teach slang in situations! As mentioned above, show students in which situations slang is OK, and in
which it isn’t.
• Do make it clear that THIS is slang! Make sure your students understand that they are going to learn some
slang so they don’t use it inappropriately later.
• Do teach some of your native slang! Slang can be a very local thing, so Canadian slang will be different to
Australian slang. Your students will be interested to know a bit about the slang where you come from; just don’t
overdo it!
• Do have fun teaching slang! Normally, students love learning slang, so it can be great fun in the classroom.
Tip: leave it for the end of the class, as a reward for all their hard work during the lesson!
Being flexible, being appropriate
A final note in this section:
The use of slang, idioms, and colloquial language as features of language conversation is governed by the context,
situation, relationship and roles of the communicators and reason for the communication. This sociolinguistic
knowledge is a big part of what language teachers contribute. It is up to you as a language teacher to judge the
context of communication and provide relevant language.

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TESOL Foundation - Online - Unit - 2

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Online TESOL Course – Unit 2

Unit 2 – Study of the English Language

A few rules of thumb:

Recommended grammar authors and books:

English Usage” by Michael Swan – Oxford University Press

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My name is Veronica. Correct grammar

My name are Veronica. Incorrect grammar

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• Adjectives (used to describe nouns) – pretty, impossible, terrible, dangerous, new

• Adverbs (used to describe verbs) – quickly, horribly, fast, usually, very,

• Articles (used to determine or define nouns) – a, an, the

• Quantifiers (used to measure nouns) – some, a little, any, few

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How much money does he have? Correct, so “money” IS uncountable.

How many money does he have? Incorrect, so “money” IS NOT countable.

How much houses does he have? Incorrect, so “houses” IS NOT uncountable.

How many houses does he have? Correct, so “houses” IS countable.

How much paper does he have? Correct, so “paper” IS uncountable.

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Simply put, pronouns take the place of a noun:

John likes music. He likes music. He likes it.

Type of pronoun Examples

Object pronouns – used as an object of a verb. Object pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns – used to point to or identify this / that / these / those

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Let’s look at some examples:

These are all examples of subject pronouns.

These are all examples of possessive pronouns.

Its is commonly misspelt and misused by native speakers:

These are all examples of reflexive pronouns.

These are all examples of demonstrative pronouns.

There are, of course, different types of adjectives.

Type of adjective Some examples

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Some points to consider Order

The usual order is:

qualitative adjective – colour adjective – classifying adjective

… a small red brick cottage

… a big round park

… a brown leather jacket

The order of qualitative adjectives is usually as follows:

opinion – size – quality – age – shape

… charming slim figure

… short straight hair

… long curly fries

… cute young children

The order of classifying adjectives is as follows:

age – shape – nationality – material

… an old Italian villa

… a square wooden table

… a French cotton dress

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Comparatives and Superlatives

These are your -er and -est words. Have a look:

Adjective Comparative form Superlative form

Easy! The rule is:

One-syllable adjective: add -er or -est after

… and he was here

However, adverbs can also describe, or modify, adjectives or other adverbs:

… looking at him very carefully (adverb – adverb)

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