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TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL 2021

FEATURING PAPERS ON
Multiscale molecular modeling
Tire-road interaction analysis
Sensing technology concepts
Evaluating viscoelasticity
Impact characterization

2021
• UKi Media & Events •

Annual Review

The Annual Review of Tire Materials and Tire Manufacturing Technology

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
CONTENTS
5 Foreword
by Gerald R (Jerry) Potts, PhD, principal of GRP Dynamics
SECTION 1: DESIGN, MATERIALS,
TESTING AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
10 Testing tires and consumption
Eric Mallet, Frederic Biesse and
Florian Bremond, Michelin, France
Measuring fuel consumption in vehicles in convoy
is an efficient method to experimentally demonstrate
the benefit of low-rolling-resistance tires
16 Tire-road investigations
Utkarsh Gupta, Rajvardhan Nalawade, Arash
Nouri and Saied Taheri, Center for Tire
Research (CenTiRe), Virginia Tech, USA
Vehicle and road surface parameter estimation using an
intelligent-tire-based setup is key to exploration of the
dynamic interactions at the tire-road contact interface
20 Tire impact characterization
Mihar Ved and Bharatkumar Makwana,
Apollo Tyres Global R&D, Netherlands
Studying and analyzing testing methods for tire impact
characterization can result in valuable insight for use
in future tire development
26 Computer-aided research
Toshio Tada and Ken-ichi Uesaka, Material R&D
HQ; Masato Naito and Masaya Tsunoda, Research &
Development HQ, Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Japan
Exploring the advances in tire materials development and
how progress has been accompanied by improvements in
computer modeling
30 Tire sensing concepts
Kazuhiro Sakakibara, Toyo Tire Corporation, Japan
Detection of tire force represents the next evolution of
tire-sensing technology, and will be at the heart of future
automotive mobility advances
36 Multiscale molecular modeling
N Gajos and L Guy, Solvay, France;
T Zushi and A Baba, SRI, Japan
A new simulation approach for silica-reinforced rubber,
based on ab initio and coarse-grained simulations, models
the real silica surface
40 Wax dosage and paraffin ratio
Kuan-Ting Liu, Shih-Yu Huang,
Nankang Rubber Tire Corp, Taiwan
Wax is used as an antiozonant in rubber products as
it can migrate to the surface and form a physical film
against ozone attack
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TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL 2021
FEATURING PAPERS ON
Multiscale molecular modeling
Tire-road interaction analysis
Sensing technology concepts
Evaluating viscoelasticity
Impact characterization
2021
• UKi Media & Events •
Annual Review
The Annual Review of Tire Materials and Tire Manufacturing Technology
46 Studying rubber epoxidation
Siti Salina Sarkawi, Roland Ngeow, Ahmad Kifli Che
Aziz, Rassimi Abdul Ghani, Rohaidah Abd Rahim and
Teku Zakwan Zaeimoedin, Malaysian Rubber Board,
Technology & Engineering Division, Malaysia
Development of highly dispersible silica and silica-silane
systems is enabling improvements in tire performance
characteristics, extending the magic triangle
50 Elastomer blends for Mars tires
Rafal Anyszkaa and Anke Blume, University of Twente,
Faculty of Engineering Technology, Department of
Mechanics of Solids, Surfaces & Systems (MS3), Chair
of Elastomer Technology & Engineering, Netherlands
a
Lodz University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry,
Institute of Polymer and Dye Technology, Poland
With metal-based wheel designs proving to be of limited
use on Martian rovers, rubber solutions could represent
the future of planet-based colonization missions
54 Cut and chip measurement
Radek Stoček, PRL Polymer Research Lab and
Centre of Polymer Systems, Tomas Bata University
in Zlin, Czech Republic; Gert Heinrich, Technische
Universität Dresden, Institut für Textilmaschinen
und Textile Hochleistungswerkstofftechnik,
Germany; Reinhold Kipscholl, Coesfeld, Germany
Investigating laboratory testing methodologies to enable
development of highly cut-and-chip-resistant rubber
compounds before undertaking further tire development
58 Evaluating viscoelasticity
Francesco Carputo, Flavio Farroni, Andrea Genovese,
Antonio Maiorano, Aleksandr Sakhnevych and
Francesco Timpone, Vehicle Dynamics Research
Group, Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Detailing a new, non-invasive and portable
instrument to characterize the viscoelastic
properties of tires
62 Silica surface properties
G Schmaucks, GS Chemconsult, Germany;
C Maczkiewitz, Elkem ASA Silicon Products,
Germany; and A Freitag, Elkem Silicon
Product Development AS, Norway
An investigation into the influence of silica
surface properties on physical performance
of tire tread compounds
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
66 Silane-functionalized resins
T Yoo, D Simmons and S Henning,
Total Petrochemicals & Refining Inc, USA
An investigation into how functional group
placement can affect tire traction and rolling
resistance performance
70 Studying reactive plasticizers
Sankar Raman Vaikuntam, André Wehmeier and
Jens Kiesewetter, Evonik Operations – Smart
Materials, Applied Technology – Tire & Rubber;
Sara Liebana Vinas, Evonik Operations – Smart
Materials, Coating & Adhesive Resins, Germany
An examination of the influence of reactive plasticizers
on the migration of rubber ingredients and the performance
in tire tread compounds
74 Alternate raw materials for tires
K Alavi, P Salomonsson, T Ibert, Nynas, Sweden
An investigation into increased sustainability via the
development of tire rubbers that utilize raw materials
from renewable sources
SECTION 2: PRODUCTION,
QUALITY AND RECYCLING
88 Simulating tire manufacturing
Wonhyuck Lee, Seongtaek Heo, Dongjin Park, Mingjun
Piao, Antoine Boyadjian, Jaeho Paek, Hankook Tire,
South Korea; Sanghyub Kim, Thomas Berger, Michael
Kaliske, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
The application of finite element analysis can yield
a range of vital insights into the intricacies of the
tire production process
92 Tire identification technology
Amirhossein Shahdadi, Barez Innovation Center
and School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Iran; Afshin Ashofteh,
Mahallat Institute of Higher Education, Iran
Unique identification codes can be used to encode
individual tires with a wealth of specific information,
which can then be used by all levels of the industry
96 Developing manufacturing
Yusuke (Tony) Tanaka, Kobelco, Japan
Innovations in rotor technology thermocouples, drop
door design, anti-wear and anti-corrosion materials, and
machine connectivity are enhancing tire production
Editor-in-chief: Matt Ross
Assistant editor: Callum Brook-Jones
Web editor: Lawrence Butcher
Technical consultant: Joe Walter
Production editor: Alex Bradley
Sub editors: Sarah Lee, Alasdair
Published by:
UKi Media & Events, Morton, Mary Russell
a division of UKIP Media
& Events Ltd Art director: Craig Marshall
Art editor: Nicola Turner
Follow us on Twitter for news, views and more: @TireTechMag
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Head of data and production:
Lauren Floyd
Production assistant: Catia Rocha
Publication director: Colin Scott
Publication manager: Olivia Campbell
CEO: Tony Robinson
Managing director, magazines:
Anthony James
General manager: Lewis Hopkins
78 Naphthenic process oils
Mary Ann Abney, Kerry Collins, Nick White,
Dr Edward Casserly, Austin McCann, Silvia
Carvalho and Staci Springer, Ergon, USA
High-viscosity naphthenic and naphthenic black
oils evaluated in tread compounds suggest a range
of performance benefits
82 Testing tire contact patch
Matthew Van Gennip, A&D Technology, USA
Technology to dynamically measure tire forces at
the contact patch can yield important data that is
key to the development of future tire designs
84 Recovered carbon black
Igor Levenberg, Makrochem, Poland
An investigation into the consistency of characteristics
of recovered carbon black produced in continuous
pyrolysis on an industrial scale
100 Multi-process calendering
Mentasti Alessandro, Comerio Ercole, Italy
Flexible machinery can offer multi-process calendering
suitable for rubberized fabric and steel cord, or rubber
sheeting, and is designed in line with Industry 4.0
104 Hydraulic drive systems
Davide Borroni, Bosch Rexroth, Italy
Upgrading motor systems in rubber production machinery
can yield a plethora of advances in flexibility and ease of
further improvements
106 Upgrading tire production
Ann Swinderman, The Poling Group, USA
A post-pandemic trend is seeing manufacturers
upgrade tire testing machines to increase production
and accuracy
108 Factory modernization
Aki Nurminen, Black Donuts, Finland
A strategic approach to digitalization, modernization
and automation can reveal the best places to start,
and how to realize a successful program
110 Thickness measurement
Achim Sonntag, Micro-Epsilon, Germany
An all-in-one in-line measuring system offers reliable
and flexible performance for strip and plate materials
Tire Technology International, Tire Technology International is published quarterly together
with an Annual Review. ISSN 1462-4729 (Print). ISSN 2397-6373
Abinger House, Church Street, (Online). Tire Technology International. This publication is
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t: +44 1306 743744 Printed by William Gibbons, Willenhall, West Midlands,
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Foreword
Retro-research versus disruption
by Gerald R (Jerry) Potts, PhD, principal of GRP Dynamics
P
ast industry discussions have
centered on whether the tire
would become a low-tech
commodity or a high-tech ‘smart’
system component for the vehicle.
Until now, the high-tech opinion
was winning out, but Covid-19 has slowed
advancement toward this option. Smart tires
are being proposed to connect with and inform
a vehicle’s central computer about the physical
condition and the traction available at each tire.
The vehicle controller can decide upon driving
speed and safety measures. Many research
papers have been published giving examples
of what transducers might be employed to
generate such data. One big hurdle for each of
these systems is the transducer life expectancy,
given that a passenger tire may execute 50
million revolutions in its lifetime. Transducers
and their wiring may not enjoy such a long life,
thus making the condition of the information
system as much of a question as the tire’s
condition. Although such concerns are for the
future, when autonomous vehicles become
common, smart tires must then be dependable
and available – either that, or some simpler
alternative will fill the need for AV tires.
So, what has the pandemic done to slow
smart tire progress? Most tire companies and
university laboratories have been closed for
the past year-and-a-half, forcing R&D projects
that involve tire test machines to retreat into
computer simulation, or simply scientific
thought experiments. Some test projects
involving small-scale tests have been pursued,
as discussed in several of the papers in this
Annual Review. Another activity has emerged,
one that I call Retro-Research, and is apparent
in applying modern computer analysis to
production problems. An example of this
is the application of finite element analysis
to production steps, such as in modeling tire
deformations during mold insertion. Such R&D
activity has been neglected in the past, in favor
of more dramatic productions of full-scale
cornering or other tire performance tests. Also,
production testing has remained available
while labs have been closed, as tire production
has not ceased and facilities are available for
examination. New chemistry and compounding
combinations are also reported to give improved
rolling resistance and wear resistance.
Enter the disruptor?
All this work is going toward making existing
tires better, which is commendable, but
what about a disruptive product entering
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
the tire world? The pneumatic tire has had
a continuous run of over 100 years. Only the
phonograph record has had a similar run before
a new technology replaced it insofar as it being
the predominant form of sound recording.
Now, the non-pneumatic tire threatens to cause
such a disruption. Hardly, you say. Look at
the prices; mostly over five times the price of
a pneumatic, so no pressing threat yet. But, as
the electric vehicle becomes the autonomous
vehicle, and Transportation as a Service (TaaS)
becomes popular, non-pneumatics may be the
tire of choice, especially if smart tires cannot
keep pace in terms of availability, dependability
and price – yes, smart tires will cost more
than today’s tires, and a lot of work toward
standardization of communication and signal
conditioning will be required before all tire
brands are acceptable across all vehicle brands,
and then in limited numbers, adding to the cost
of production on a per-unit basis. Major tire
manufacturers have sensed this possibility with
the advent of Tweel and now UPTIS (Unique
Puncture-proof Tire System), both from
Michelin, while others have created their
own versions of these non-pneumatics.
Where would such a disruption start? AVs
require the continual assurance of healthy tires.
Smart tires seem like the obvious choice to
supply the required information and assurance
– however, an alternative solution could be
passive tires that can be quickly inspected
and cannot lose air, whether due to a puncture
or rapid air loss following a structural failure.
After all, there is no air to deflate on a non-
pneumatic, and even a casual bystander can
instantly see the tire structure. Furthermore,
there are no electronics to fail or software to
debug or modify over time. Accelerometers
can sense a loss of traction inside the vehicle,
so there’s no requirement for smart sensing
inside the tire. Finally, non-pneumatics
improve sustainability, as much of the product
can be made from biomass or petroleum
products. Only the tread is made of rubber,
thus spreading existing rubber supplies over
a larger number of tires.
Bumpy roads ahead?
There are solid advantages for this kind
of disruptor. But what are the drawbacks?
Material hysteresis is the first. Deformation
of the supporting spokes in a non-pneumatic
creates more energy loss than air compression
in pneumatic tires. Such low hysteresis of air
makes sound transmission possible so that we
can hear each other speak and enjoy music
5
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
in open venues, and became immediately
apparent when pneumatics replaced solid
rubber tires (which were the non-pneumatics
of old). Improved rolling resistance of today’s
non-pneumatics and improved EV batteries
will minimize this disadvantage. Solar array
electricity will reduce the cost importance of
rolling resistance.
Sound and vibration form a second
disadvantage that I call a ‘siren effect’ – a
low-frequency sound, symptomatic of the
open-spoke design of today’s non-pneumatics.
There are typically 64 evenly spaced spokes in
each tire, making for an annoying monotone
siren sound. Evenly spaced spokes are required
for structural symmetry – contrary to tread
element spacing over several ribs which allows
variable-sized elements that spread tread noise
over a broad frequency range, even at constant
vehicle speeds. There is no siren problem at
low speeds when the frequency and intensity
of spoke-generated pressure pulses are low.
But at highway speeds, both become much
greater, and rolling resistance may even increase
exponentially due to spoke drag. The latter
is exacerbated by the fact that spokes in the
top of the wheel advance at twice the vehicle’s
speed. Such is also true for pneumatics, but the
aerodynamic drag is only minimally increased
and is quiet thanks to smooth sidewalls.
One interesting by-product of utilizing
64 evenly spaced spokes is that, thanks to
the fact that 64 is a power of 2, spoke passage
could be used as a data clock to perform Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) analyses through 32
harmonics of noise and vibration on each tire
for on-vehicle studies.
Snow and mud can enter the spoke array,
‘caking up’ and leading to an unbalanced wheel
assembly, so frequent observation and cleaning
will be required as part of the visual inspection
of tire/wheel integrity. Visual inspection of the
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spokes by a lot driver will be less costly than
a daily inspection of smart tire systems by an
electronics technician.
Once manufactured, a non-pneumatic tire
cannot be tuned for stiffness in its radial, lateral,
torsional and circumferential directions. This
is not a problem for vehicles where the weight
or road surface roughness does not vary by
a large percentage during regular operation
– for instance, with passenger or sports cars.
However, for transport trucks, dump trucks,
and military Humvees operating over variable
terrain, stiffness tunability during use is an
advantage. For military vehicles negotiating
rough terrain, tire pressures as low as 8psi allow
ride improvements and operation at speeds
twice that of fully inflated tires – and reinflating
the tires to 50psi when reaching paved roads
decreases drag and tire temperature. Radial,
lateral and circumferential directional tuning
may be designed into non-pneumatic tires
intended for specific types of roads, primarily
by increasing the thickness and width of the
spokes. But it’s a one-time tune, set for the life
of the tire. There’s no variable tuning to meet
operating conditions, so a maximum stiffness
value must be designed for each tire line.
In conclusion, my take is that smart tires
may overcomplicate a need to adjust vehicle
operation to traction limits and structural
integrity of the tires. They cost more and are
subject to transducer or electronic failures in
the tire’s circuits. But that does not mean that
non-pneumatic tires will take over completely.
Rather, they will replace pneumatics where
they show advantages, leaving air-filled tires
to continue their current role in vehicle
support, ride and handling. Tire companies
that are mindful of and heed this possibility
will prosper; those that refuse will contract
and possibly fail, depending upon their
current and planned product mix. tire
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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Section 1
Design, materials, testing
and future possibilities

9
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Testing tires and consumption

Measuring fuel consumption in vehicles in convoy is an efficient method
to experimentally demonstrate the benefit of low-rolling-resistance tires
by Eric Mallet, Frederic Biesse and Florian Bremond, Michelin, France

C
limate change is
a major issue of
our times. Limiting
the global warming
increase to 2°C
Figure 1: Michelin’s 2
e.Primacy tire
Figure 2: Vehicle
position, driver and
tire rotation rules in a
four-vehicle convoy test

by 2050 implies
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The transport sector is responsible
for approximately 23% of total
energy-related CO2 emissions
(6.7 GtCO2).1 The European
Commission has targeted a 90%
reduction in CO2 emissions from
transport by 2050 (compared
with 1990 levels) and has voted
in regulations to reduce the CO2
emissions of new vehicles on the
market in the coming years.
Low-rolling-resistance tires
demand less energy from the
Table 1: Summary of the test protocol
powertrain, thereby reducing fuel
consumption and CO2 emissions Trip Open road, imposed usage severity (accelerations, speed)
of vehicles in use. This reduction Vehicles Two convoys of three vehicles (Volkswagen Golf 7 2.0l TDI 150hp)
in fuel consumption is often difficult Tires Michelin e.Primacy and four premium summer tires
for end users to perceive, as it can
Average ambient temperature 24°C
be hidden by strong variations due
to usage and weather conditions. Average speed 70km/h
Measuring fuel consumption in Distance traveled Five cycles, 14,460km
conditions close to customer usage, Specific instructions Windows closed
with sufficient control of influent Automatic A/C with the same temperature request
parameters to observe the effect of Follow the gearshift indicators
low-rolling-resistance tires, is not an Rotation of tire on each vehicle, and rotation of drivers
easy task. Guillou and Bradley have Fuel consumption measurement Refueling
developed a constant speed method Dashboard display

using flow meters,2 which works Fuel consumption method

well but is not exactly representative
of real driving conditions. This article
describes a method to experimentally
assess the impact of tire rolling
resistance on fuel consumption
in real usage conditions.
This method was used to
compare e.Primacy (the latest
generation of Michelin’s energy-
efficient tires, launched in November
2020) with premium summer tires
on the replacement market. These
summer tires, designed for ICE,
hybrid and electric passenger cars,
had an A grade in European labeling
for rolling resistance.
The method consists of measuring
fuel consumption in vehicles of the
same model, driven in convoys on
open roads. The tests were performed
by DEKRA Test Center for this study.
Every day (or shift), the convoys
followed the same 482km open-road
circuit, with a usage severity (speed
and accelerations) representative of
average driving in Europe. Drivers
changed vehicle periodically to
average out the driver effect. After
every shift, tires were moved from
one vehicle to another to average out
the vehicle effect (Figure 2). Convoys
comprised three or four vehicles.

10
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

3a 4
Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption based on real distance (14460
(14,460km)
km)
4.90
4.80
C1-Tire 4
[L/100km]

4.70 C2-Tire 5
[l/100km]

C1-Tire 3
4.60
C2-e.Primacy C2-Tire 1
4.50
consumption

3b C1-e.Primacy
Fuelconsumption

4.40 y = 0.0961x + 3.9805

R² = 0.8662 C2-Tire 5
C1-Tire 4
4.30
C2-Tire 1
C1-Tire 3
4.20 C2-e.Primacy
Fuel

4.10 C1-e.Primacy
y = 0.0939x + 3.6226
4.00 R² = 0.9854
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Rolling
Rollingresistance coefficient
resistance [kg/t]
coefficient [kg/t]

FC dashboard [L/100km]
[l/100km] FC refueling [L/100km]
[l/100km]
Linear
Linéaire(FC
(FCdashboard
dashboard[l/100km])
[L/100km]) Linear
Linéaire(FC
(FCrefueling
refueling[l/100km])
[L/100km])

For this study, four tires were Figure 3a: effect of tires on fuel consumption by the total real driven distance,
Refueling method
compared with the e.Primacy. The with the same usage and the which was the same for all tires.
Figure 3b: Dashboard
test was composed of two convoys display method same weather. But other influent With the dashboard display
of three vehicles; in each convoy, Figure 4: Fuel parameters must also be considered, method, the volume of consumed
e.Primacy was the reference tire, consumption such as auxiliary energy consumers fuel was computed after every shift
compared with two other tires. Tires versus rolling (air-conditioning, lights, and so on), for each vehicle by multiplying the
resistance coefficient
were rotated every two shifts, so six aerodynamic modifications (such average fuel consumption displayed
shifts were necessary to complete a as open windows) and engine speed. on the dashboard by the distance on
cycle (2,892km). Overall, five cycles To minimize the influence of these the odometer and dividing by the real
(14,460km) were undertaken. factors, drivers were asked to keep driven distance.
The convoy method is designed the windows closed, to use automatic
to reduce the factors of dispersion A/C with the same temperature Tire selection
(usage, weather) as much as possible. request, and to follow the gear- Michelin’s e.Primacy was compared
This is necessary to evaluate the shift indicators to have the same with a selection of premium summer
engine speeds. tires on the replacement market. All
Table 2: Results of RR labeling tests performed by Applus Two different metrics were used to tires were of the same size: 205/55
Idiada and tire selection for fuel consumption test measure fuel consumption: refueling R16 91V. First, rolling resistance
RR [kg/t] Base 100 Label Convoy C1 Convoy C2 and dashboard display (Figure 3). tests in European labeling conditions
Michelin e.Primacy 5.6 100 A x x Refueling consists of filling the tank were performed by the Applus Idiada
after every shift with special care to laboratory. With a rolling resistance
Tire 1 6.4 87 A x
fill it completely. The same operator of 5.6kg/t, the e.Primacy dissipates
Tire 2 7.0 80 B filled all the cars to eliminate operator 27% less energy (-2kg/t of rolling
Tire 3 7.0 80 B x effect. Dashboard display consists resistance coefficient) than the
Tire 4 7.2 78 B x of simply resetting the vehicle average of premium summer tires
dashboard display before every shift on the market.
Tire 5 7.7 72 C x
and taking note of the displayed fuel Then a subselection was done
Tire 6 8.0 70 C consumption after every shift. to constitute the convoys for the
Tire 7 8.8 63 C With the refueling method, fuel consumption test.
fuel consumption was obtained by
Tire 8 8.9 62 C
summing the volume of fuel added Theoretical fuel savings
Average other tires 7.6 73 at the pump for each tire, over all the Based on the theoretical formula
shifts, and dividing the total volume developed by J Barrand and J Bokar,3

11
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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Figure 5: Inaccurate
the fuel savings obtained for a given fuel consumption Table 3: Theoretical estimation of fuel savings
rolling resistance variation is equal to: computed with α M ΔCRR ΔFC
odometer distance
instead of real distance Diesel: VW Golf 7 – TDI 150 0.056 1.545t -2.0kg/t -0.18l/100 km
∆FC = α.M.∆CRR
Gasoline: VW Golf 7 – 1.5 TSI EVO 130 0.071 1.440t -2.0kg/t -0.21l/100km
With ∆FC as variation of fuel
consumption in l/100km; α as a
coefficient mainly dependent on
Table 4: Fuel consumption test results
engine type and fuel; M as vehicle
mass in t; ∆CRR as variation of rolling Convoy C1 CRR labeling Fuel consumption Fuel consumption
[kg/t] dashboard display refueling [l/100km]
resistance coefficient in kg/t. [l/100km]
Numerical applications on
Tire 4 7.2 4.30 4.72
diesel and gasoline Golf 7s give,
respectively, -0.18 l/100km and Tire 3 7.0 4.27 4.68
-0.21 l/100km. This corresponds e.Primacy 5.6 4.13 4.51
to a significant reduction of CO2
emissions (-5g/km, i.e. -175kg of
Convoy C1 CRR labelling Fuel consumption Fuel consumption
CO2 per 35,000km driven) and [kg/t] dashboard display refueling [l/100km]
financial savings for the driver [l/100km]
(more than €80 [US$95] per Tire 5 7.7 4.35 4.68
35,000km driven, with a fuel
Tire 1 6.4 4.24 4.58
price of €1.46 [US$1.73] per liter).4
e.Primacy 5.6 4.15 4.51
Fuel consumption test results
Even if the tables included in this
article show the global positive
impact of low-rolling-resistance very good linear regression (Figure From the experimental slope and
tires on fuel savings and CO2 4). The determination coefficient vehicle mass, we deduce α equals
emissions, those benefits are hardly is 0.98 with the dashboard display 0.061, which is close to the theoretical
perceivable by the users. As a matter method and 0.87 with the refueling coefficient for diesel cars.
of fact, car drivers who carefully method, which has higher dispersion. The result of this test is a very
compute their fuel consumption There is a significant offset clear experimental demonstration
know that it can vary by much more between the two methods, which is of the fuel savings obtained with low-
than 0.2 l/100km from one refueling not yet clearly understood. It is not rolling-resistance tires measured in
to the next, depending on usage unusual, however, to observe higher European RR labeling conditions.
(urban, extra-urban, motorway) and fuel consumption from refueling than Another important point when
external parameters (temperature, from the dashboard display. tires are compared is to compute fuel
wind, and so on). Both methods give a similar slope, consumption based on real driven
The fuel consumption test about 0.095. This slope corresponds distance and not the distance from
results clearly confirmed the to the product of vehicle mass and the odometer. Tires from different
theoretical fuel savings. sensitivity coefficient α previously brands and models have slight
Plotting fuel consumption versus defined. Vehicles used for the test differences in rolling circumference
rolling resistance coefficient shows a are diesel vehicles weighing 1,545kg. (up to 1% among the tires used in
this test), inducing dispersion in
distances displayed by the odometer
5 (14,565km for the smallest tire and
Fuel
Fuelconsumption
consumptionbased
basedononodometer
odometer distance 14,787km for the largest).
(from 14565 to 14787 km)
(from 14,565km to 14,787km) The regression between rolling
4.90
resistance coefficient and fuel
consumption based on distance
4.80
[L/100km]

from the odometer is not as good

4.70
(R²=0.90 instead of 0.98) and the
[l/100km]

4.60 slope is changed (Figure 5). Small

4.50 variations in rolling circumference
consumption
Fuelconsumption

4.40 y = 0.075x + 4.0544

are a source of inaccuracy in a fuel
4.30 R² = 0.85 consumption test comparing tires.
4.20
Further analyses of the intermediate
results were done (Figure 6).
Fuel

4.10
y = 0.0745x + 3.6905
First, cumulated fuel consumption
4.00
R² = 0.9056 was computed after every shift of
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
482km. A full cycle of six shifts was
Rolling
Rollingresistance
resistancecoefficient
coefficient[kg/t]
[kg/t]
necessary to get stabilized results. As
a matter of fact, after one cycle, all the
FC dashboard [L/100km]
[l/100km] FC refueling [L/100km]
[l/100km]
tires had been driven on all the cars,
Linear (FC
Linéaire (FCdashboard
dashboard[l/100km])
[L/100km]) Linear
Linéaire(FC
(FCrefueling
refueling[l/100km])
[L/100km]) and the vehicle effect was eliminated.

13
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Figure 6: Evolution
Then, cumulated fuel
Fuel consumption dashboard cumulated after
6a
of fuel consumption Fuel consumption dashboard
consumption was computed after after every shift (6a)
and every cycle (6b) cumulated
everyafter
shiftevery shift of 482
of 482km km (6 shifts
(6 shifts x 5 cycles)
x 5 cycles)
every cycle. Much smaller evolutions
can be observed, without any ranking 4.80
change. With a closer look, small 4.70

[L/100km]
Consumption[l/100km]
differences appear between the 4.60
two convoys: tires in convoy C1
4.50
have steady values at cycle 1 and

Fuel consumption
cycle 2, whereas tires in convoy 4.40

C2 have higher fuel consumption 4.30

at cycle 2 than at cycle 1. Convoy 4.20
C2 was probably driven in a more

Fuel
4.10
energy-demanding way (faster or
4.00
with more frequent accelerations)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
in cycle 2 than in cycle 1.
Shift #
In conclusion, cumulating over
five cycles brings more stabilized C1-Tire 4 C1-Tire 3 C1-e.Primacy
results but the correct ranking was
C2-Tire 5 C2-Tire 1 C2-e.Primacy
already obtained after the first cycle.

Fuel consumption dashboard

dashboardcumulated
6b
Conclusions Fuel consumption
The test method described in this cumulated after every cycle of 6x482 km (5 cycles)
article makes it possible to obtain after every cycle of 6 x 482km (5 cycles)
4.80
a good correlation between tire
rolling resistance measured in 4.70
[L/100km]
Consumption[l/100km]

European labeling conditions and 4.60

fuel consumption in real driving 4.50
conditions. Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption

4.40
is measured on vehicles driven
4.30
in convoy, with specific rules to
minimize the effects of external 4.20
influent parameters.
Fuel

4.10
Contrary to previous similar 4.00
trials based on refueling in convoy 1 2 3 4 5
tests, which did not give such a good Cycle# #
Cycle
alignment, the proposed method
is more accurate. The dispersion C1-Tire 4 C1-Tire 3 C1-e.Primacy
was reduced by giving specific C2-Tire 5 C2-Tire 1 C2-e.Primacy
instructions to the drivers, by using
the dashboard display rather than
refueling, and by computing fuel the average overall improvement in University Press, Cambridge, UK
consumption based on real distance rolling resistance, which is one of and New York, NY, USA - https://
instead of odometer. Finally, a good the four components of the Michelin www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/
regression line between rolling Total Performance indicator.5 2) M Guillou and C Bradley, Fuel
resistance coefficient and fuel Consumption Testing to Verify the
consumption is obtained, and the Acknowledgments Effect of Tire Rolling Resistance
slope is close to the theoretical one. The authors thank Applus Idiada on Fuel Economy, Michelin, SAE
The fuel savings predicted for for the rolling resistance tests and 2010 – https://www.sae.org/
the Michelin e.Primacy, a very low- DEKRA Test Center for the fuel publications/technical-papers/
rolling-resistance tire, compared with consumption tests. tire content/2010-01-0763/
the average of premium summer tires 3) J Barrand and J Bokar, Reducing
on the market, were experimentally References Tire Rolling Resistance to Save Fuel
demonstrated with this test method. 1) O Edenhofer, R Pichs-Madruga, and Lower Emissions, Michelin,
Developing energy-efficient Y Sokona, E Farahani, S Kadner, SAE 2008 – https://www.sae.org/
tires has always been key to K Seyboth, A Adler, I Baum, publications/technical-papers/
Michelin’s development. In 1992, S Brunner, P Eickemeier, B content/2008-01-0154/
the tire maker introduced silica in Kriemann, J Savolainen, S 4) Michelin e.Primacy - https://www.
tire compounds, a major innovation Schlömer, C von Stechow, T michelin.com/en/documents/
for lower rolling resistance and Zwickel and J C Minx (eds.), the-eco-responsible-michelin-e-
maintaining the other performances. Climate Change 2014: Mitigation primacy-tire-made-to-last/
In 2015, the group committed of Climate Change. Contribution 5) Michelin 2020 Universal
to reduce the amount of energy of Working Group III to the Registration Document -
associated with tires in use by 20% by Fifth Assessment Report of the https://www.michelin.com/en/
2030 compared with 2010. Progress Intergovernmental Panel on documents/2020-universal-
on this commitment is measured by Climate Change , Cambridge registration-document/

14
ERU_202021_210x297_Tire_Technology_International_RZ2_ZW.indd 1 10.12.20 10:53
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Tire-road investigations
Vehicle and road surface parameter estimation using an intelligent-tire-based setup
is key to exploration of the dynamic interactions at the tire-road contact interface
by Utkarsh Gupta*, Rajvardhan Nalawade*, Arash Nouri* and Saied Taheri, Center for Tire Research (CenTiRe), Virginia Tech, USA

O
ver the past few

*Equal contribution
1
years, vehicle
performance
and safety have
been greatly
improved, mainly
due to advanced chassis control
systems built on the real-time
measurement and estimation of
various vehicle and environmental
parameters. Even with such advanced
systems, improvements can be made
by estimating and including tire-
road contact parameters. To reach
this goal, intelligent tire technology
was developed. These are sensor-
embedded tires that utilize the
tire-road contact interaction data to
predict various dynamic features such
as the road surface characteristics,
friction, tire forces, contact patch Figure 1: Intelligent- 2
length, tire-noise characteristics and tires-based test setup
so on. At the Center for Tire Research Figure 2: Cleaned
acceleration data
(CenTiRe), this technology has been from intelligent tires
explored for over 10 years, leading
to the development of a robust
intelligent-tire system that can be
used to predict various tire, road,
and vehicle parameters.
The aim of the research at
CenTiRe is to provide much-
needed tire-road interaction data
to advanced chassis control units
(including autonomous), using
accelerometer-embedded intelligent
tires. Thus, the possibility of having
one sensor (intelligent tire) to predict
multiple dynamic characteristics is
of interest and consequently fuels
the research in this domain. Several
vehicle dynamics and road surface
characteristics – such as road surface
type, vehicle longitudinal speed,
structure-borne noise, unsprung control. An enormous data bank was in tire characteristics were induced
mass accelerations, dynamic wheel generated covering the variations by varying not only the tire sizes
forces, and tire normal load – have of multiple key factors such as tire (15-18in) but also the tire operating
been estimated and analyzed using an size and construction, vehicle type, parameters – such as tire pressure,
intelligent-tire-based approach and road surfaces, axles used, and so on. normal load, tread depths, and so
are described briefly in this article. The inclusion of different tire and on – with at least three different levels
vehicle types was established using of each of these parameters. The test
Experimental setup two test vehicles – a mid-size sedan vehicles were instrumented with an
On-road test data is the core (Class D) and full-size SUV (Class J), array of sensory systems including
ingredient for the involvement which fit up to 15in and up to 20in accelerometer-embedded intelligent
of intelligent tires in automotive tires, respectively. The variations tires, an IMU, wheel encoders,

16

GPS-based speedometers, spindle
accelerometers, a steering wheel
sensor, and others, as shown in Figure
1. The fusion of all these sensors was
facilitated by a Speedgoat real-time
system that adds real-time processing
and controlling capabilities to this
application. A detailed account of
this hardware setup can be found
in our previous publication.1
With the developed hardware
setup, some permutations were
added during the on-road testing.
This mixture comprised the road
surfaces, vehicle speed, driving
maneuvers, road banking, and
so on. Multiple road surfaces –
such as asphalt, concrete, jennite,
ceramic and basalt tiles – topped
with fluctuating weather conditions
– dry, rain, snow and ice – helped
to capture the heterogeneity of road
surfaces that might be encountered
in real-world driving. The test
vehicles were driven in all these
road conditions at a range of speeds,
from city limits of 20km/h to highway
limits of 100km/h with variations
in driving maneuvers involving
steering actions, braking, constant-
speed driving, and many more. The
inclusion of such diversity in the tire
characteristics, vehicle parameters,
road conditions, driving states, and
others helped build robustness in
the developed algorithms.
Road surface estimation
A significant number of vehicle-
related crashes are caused by
improper road conditions resulting
in insufficient friction at the tire-road
interface. A reduction in the number
of such accidents and the fatalities
they cause can be induced by the
identification of road conditions (dry,
wet, ice, snow) or the friction. Thus,
the intelligent tire was leveraged
to analyze the diversity introduced
by the changing road surfaces
and road conditions based on the
changing weather. The raw data from
these tires with embedded sensors
underwent certain data cleaning and
processing stages before its utility for
this algorithm. These pre-algorithm
stages involved the separation of
individual tire revolutions, inspection
and removal of bad data, and cross-
correlation assessment between
multiple tire revolutions (in some
cases). The output of these processes
was a clean single-tire-revolution data
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
bank for all three axes (longitudinal 3
[X], lateral [Y] and vertical [Z]) of the
accelerometers used. A sample of this
clean data is shown in Figure 2.
The clean data was analyzed
by employing different time and
frequency domain signal processing
techniques to classify road surfaces,
such as dry, wet, snow, ice, and
concrete. The frequency domain,
assessed by Welch’s transformation
methods, reflected key differences
seen in the tire acceleration signals
due to the changing road conditions.
These differences were quantized in
the form of the energies possessed
by specific regions of the tire signals
marked by certain frequency bounds.
The computed energies served as
the crucial inputs to a random-
forest-based classification model.
The simple implementation of
this complex differentiation
algorithm aided in its execution
in a real-time setting with an
accuracy of at least 93% for all
five road surface conditions. The
calculated energies and power
spectrums that characterize these
road conditions had a subtle but
consistent demarcating pattern,
which can be seen in Figure 3.
Vehicle parameter estimation
Apart from road characterization,
intelligent tires have also been
employed for the estimation
of vehicle states and dynamic
parameters. Several parameters,
such as the structure-borne noise,2
vehicle payload,3 longitudinal Figure 3: Power was worked on by employing
velocity,4 unsprung-mass spectrum and energy various advanced signal processing
plots for different
acceleration,5 and dynamic wheel road conditions and feature extraction techniques
forces6 have been estimated using the on the accelerometer data from
intelligent tire data. The published these tires. For instance, in the
work on such estimations utilizes case of payload estimation, frequency
inputs from several onboard domain information, via Welch’s
sensors from the tire pressure method, was analyzed and certain
monitoring system (TPMS), vehicle frequencies sensitive to the payload
speedometer, and the ABS modules, changes were identified using
along with information from some statistics-based data processing
external sensors for mapping these and thresholding methods.7 The
characteristics. However, the goal of power spectrum densities at these
CenTiRe’s research has always been identified frequencies served as
to estimate these vehicle parameters inputs for the machine learning
using just the intelligent tire data, algorithms, which yielded a mean
thus treating the intelligent tires as error of 11% (as shown in Figure 4)
a universal sensor for estimating for the payload estimation.
multiple vehicle-related parameters Another advanced signal
and reducing the dependency on processing technique – mode
any onboard or external sensors. extraction – was adopted for the
This goal of leveraging intelligent velocity estimation. This processing
tires for vehicle parameters estimation technique identified spectral energies
17
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
4 Conclusions
5 tire-road contact data, several
of some low-frequency modes as the
machine learning features, with the
longitudinal velocity of the vehicle as
the output. The goal of this project
was to develop intelligent-tire-based
velocity estimation fused with the
IMU’s data, which can supplement
the vehicle’s velocity data during cases
involving loss of the GPS signals. Such
an approach yielded quite an accurate
estimate of the vehicle’s velocity, as
shown in Figure 5, with a root mean
squared error of 0.28m/s (1km/h).
Yet another technique, powered
by complex time-frequency
characteristics of the tire signals,
was used for the estimation of
dynamic wheel forces, unsprung
mass accelerations and structure-
borne vehicle noise. These
parameters were not detected
using the subtle features found
in the data as analyzed using the
techniques adopted for the prior
projects. The one-dimensional
intelligent tire signals were
transformed into higher-order
signals and the spectral energies
of these high-resolution signals
were extracted for the machine
learning tasks. An accuracy of 90%
was achieved for the estimation of
structure-borne noise and dynamic
wheel force, whereas it was 98%
for unsprung mass acceleration
estimation using intelligent tires.
18
The information from the
tire-road contact interface is a
significant source of knowledge
about the vehicle’s dynamic response
characteristics. This information,
recorded using an intelligent-tire-
based setup, has been leveraged
at CenTiRe for the estimation
of multiple vehicle-dynamics-
related parameters. The estimation
of such parameters using only the
intelligent tire data promotes the
development of this technology
as a universal sensor that would
aid the performance of vehicle
control systems by providing
accurate estimates of the dynamic
vehicle responses based on the
tire-road contact interactions.
In addition, intelligent tires can
be employed as a backup sensor
to aid in the estimation of vehicle
parameters when the current
onboard sensors fail.
With the aim of supplementing
the vehicle control systems with
vehicle parameter estimation
Figure 4: Vehicle schemes were developed. The
payload estimation estimation algorithms for parameters
Figure 5: Fused
intelligent-tire-
such as road surface, tire-borne noise,
based and IMU-based vehicle payload, dynamic tire forces,
vehicle longitudinal and others have been discussed in
velocity estimation
this article. These parameters could
aid in the enhancement of active
driving assistance systems to improve
vehicle safety and performance.
For instance, the developed payload
estimation algorithm can be used to
obtain a dynamic measurement of
the total payload on the car along
with an understanding of the weight
distribution. This information can
better tune systems such as active
suspension systems, electronic
stability programs (ESP) and others.
Similarly, vehicle unsprung
mass acceleration estimation using
intelligent tires is directly applicable
to several active and semi-active
suspension control algorithms.
Standard control algorithms –
such as skyhook, groundhook,
acceleration-driven and power
-driven semi-active control – feed
on the unsprung mass acceleration
as one of the control inputs. The
dynamic wheel force estimation
and the road surface classification
serve as valuable inputs for a friction
estimation algorithm that would help
improve the performance of the anti-
lock braking systems (ABS). With the
growing interest in electric vehicles,
the tire-pavement interaction noise
is regarded as the major in-cabin
noise source. The structure-borne
noise estimation is thus crucial for
the development of active noise
cancellation systems inside the
cabin of the vehicle.
These upgrades to the vehicle
control systems would boost their
performance and bolster the safety
of these automobiles. Hence, the
use of intelligent tires for the
estimation of such parameters is
significant in further improving
modern-day vehicles. The estimation
schemes discussed in this article
serve as a rationale for a more
in-depth exploration of this
intelligent tire technology to
extract more features from the
plethora of dynamic features in the
tire-road contact interactions. tire
References
1) U Gupta, A Nouri, C Subramanian,
S Taheri, M-T Kim and H Lee,
Developing an Experimental
Setup for Real-Time Road Surface
Identification Using Intelligent
Tires, SAE Int. J. Veh. Dyn. Stability,
NVH, vol. 5, no. 3, Apr. 2021, doi:
10.4271/10-05-03-0024
2) A Nouri, Characterization of
Structure-Borne Tire Noise Using
Virtual Sensing, Virginia Tech, 2020
3) D Krier, G S Zanardo and L Del
Re, A PCA-based Modeling
Approach for Estimation of
Road-tire Forces by In-tire
Accelerometers, IFAC Proc. Vol.,
vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 12029–12034,
Jan. 2014, doi: 10.3182/
20140824-6-ZA-1003.02293
4) M Tanelli, S M Savaresi and
C Cantoni, Longitudinal vehicle
speed estimation for traction and
braking control systems, Proc.
IEEE Int. Conf. Control Appl.,
pp. 2790–2795, 2006, doi: 10.1109/
CACSD-CCA-ISIC.2006.4777080
5) Z Li, W Yu and X Cui, Online
Classification of Road Roughness
Conditions with Vehicle Unsprung
Mass Acceleration by Sliding Time
Window, Shock Vib., vol. 2018, 2018,
doi: 10.1155/2018/5131434
6) A Patel, J M Fenkanyn, K B Singh
and P J Suh, Load estimation
system and method for a vehicle
tire, US9120356B2, 27-Jun-2012
7) R Nalawade, Suspension
Controls and Parameter
Estimation Using Accelerometer
Based Intelligent Tires,
Virginia Tech, 2021
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Tire impact characterization

Studying and analyzing testing methods for tire impact characterization
can result in valuable insight for use in future tire development
by Mihar Ved and Bharatkumar Makwana, Apollo Tyres Global R&D, Netherlands

1a

R
ecent times have seen
the auto industry
go through drastic
changes due to
disruptive technology
trends. Electric and
autonomous vehicles are new focus
areas where major automotive
companies are working around the
globe. However, these changes will
bring new challenges (as shown in
Figure 1) for the tire industry as OE
suppliers. Today’s biggest challenges
for EVs are the battery charging
time and the availability of charging
stations. Due to these issues, EVs
need to cover the maximum possible
distance on a single charge. To
achieve ultra-low rolling resistance,
Figure 1: Tire perspective in-cabin comfort, because the
challenges. Too many attention of the occupants will
components are in focus
in the conventional ICE not be on the driving but rather
car; there are fewer on working, networking, reading
components in a typical
electric vehicle
or simply enjoying the ride.
Figure 2: Understanding
impact phenomena Tire impact phenomena
When the tire rolls over macro
uneven road surfaces or obstacles
such as bumps, manhole covers,
pavement joints, bridge joints, speed
bumps and potholes, it starts to
vibrate. These vibrations cause a
chain reaction of different vehicle-
level excitations as shown in Figure
2. The amplitude of these low-
2
frequency transient impacts depends
on multiple factors – such as the
road parameters explained earlier –
and multiple tire parameters – such
as cavity design, tire construction
parameters, reinforcement elements,
tread pattern stiffness and compounds.
Operating parameters – such as
inflation pressure, vehicle pre-load
and vehicle speed – also play a vital
role in spindle force amplification.
This spindle force reaches the
interior of the vehicle through
the structure-borne transfer path.
Excessive force transmission and
its combination with tire resonances

tires for EVs either feature very low

material damping compounds or
reduced structural weight. These tire
design changes, in combination with
typical EV vehicle platforms (which
differ from ICE vehicles), will bring
more challenges in terms of noise
and vibration requirements, simply
because the current knowledge about
conventional ICE vehicles cannot be
directly transferred to EVs. On the
other hand, autonomous vehicles
must be designed to have maximum

20

2D cross-section
4 Figure 3 explains a simulation
can cause discomfort to the
vehicle occupants in terms of
high-amplitude transient noise
(impact boom). Characterization
of tire impact forces can be useful
for understanding low-frequency
impact noise on electric vehicles,
pressure monitoring sensors, and
ride and comfort behavior through
F-tire characterization. Studies
on various tire parameters have
been conducted through virtual
and experimental routes, and the
importance of virtual prototyping
for tire and vehicle development
is explained with application cases.
5 Table 1: Experimental test conditions
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Impact characterization
Virtual product development is
becoming more and more important
to shorten new product development
times and generate a cost advantage.
Nowadays, there is also a big push
from OEMs to integrate virtual
tire development into the vehicle
development process. However, the
idea is not to replace physical testing
but to minimize it. With the use of
virtual tools, it is possible to provide
more information to designers, tire
engineers and automotive engineers
to make informed, in-depth, know-
how-based decisions.
routine used for impact noise
prediction. First, half of the 2D cross-
section of a summer passenger car
tire with lightweight construction
(size 215/55 R17) was modeled using
Abaqus commercial FEA software.
The tire tread pattern was modeled
using an in-house meshing tool
and later combined into the Abaqus
tire model. In the FE model, the
road was defined as an analytical
rigid surface since the road stiffness
Figure 3: Impact is usually much higher than the
characterization stiffness of the tire. After the model
using virtual tools
preparation, the sequential steps
Figure 4: Correlation
curves between of rim mounting, inflation, static
experimental and loading and steady-state rolling were
simulation data
followed. These steps were performed
Figure 5: Impact
parameters. The impact
using the implicit solver. To simulate
can be characterized the tire impact scenario, two cases
by taking a fixed interval were considered: one where the tire
around the maximum
peak and comparing is rolled over an obstacle, and
this against other a second where the tire is rolled over
specifications as seen a rough road surface. These transient
in Table 2 (next page)
simulations were performed using
the explicit solver after importing
steady-state results. A special road
surface scanner was used to generate
Tire sizes 215/55 R17 Sportrac 5 and 205/50 R17 Quatrac 5
Drum diameter 1,590mm
Cleat dimensions 20 x 10mm
Surface information Blank steel
Speeds 30km/h and 60m/h
Loads 340kg and 485kg
Inflation pressure 180kPa and 230kPa
21
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Figure 1: Finite element

the rough road surface. Several Tableof2:anImpact
model characterization
aircraft tire 1 of summer and all-season tire under various conditions
parameters that can influence impact Influence of speed Influence of load Influence of construction
noise were studied.
Overall impulse Overall impulse Overall impulse
The experiments were performed
at an Apollo indoor test facility Specification 340-30 340-60 Specification 340-30 485-30 Specification 340-30
under a range of conditions, with L2 100% 50% L2 100% 142% L2 100%
varying speeds, inflation pressures L9 100% 50% L9 100% 141% L9 100%
and loads. The rim-mounted tire
B3 100% 50% B3 100% 142% B3 100%
can be optionally warmed up and
inflation pressure adjusted and B4 100% 51% B4 100% 142% B4 100%
capped as required. Cleat dimensions
were 20 x 10mm. The wheel load Averaged impulse Averaged impulse Averaged impulse
is first applied. The vertical degree
of freedom of the test rig’s wheel Specification 340-30 340-60 Specification 340-30 485-30 Specification 340-30
hub is fixed to ensure that only L2 100% 179% L2 100% 126% L2 100%
the tire deflects when hitting the L9 100% 178% L9 100% 140% L9 102%
cleat obstacle. The tests are
B3 100% 176% B3 100% 132% B3 100%
performed at room temperature.
Each cleat test run is performed for B4 100% 180% B4 100% 133% B4 102%
at least 30 seconds, which can lead to
between 50 and 100 obstacle crossings, Impulse around maximum peak Impulse around maximum peak Impulse around maximum peak
depending on the tire speed.
Specification 340-30 340-60 Specification 340-30 485-30 Specification 340-30
Validation L2 100% 139% L2 100% 103% L2 100%
To validate the FE procedure, the L9 100% 142% L9 100% 106% L9 99%
experiments were performed using B3 100% 139% B3 100% 104% B3 100%
the settings in Table 1. Tires of the
same construction and size were B4 100% 141% B4 100% 105% B4 101%
simulated under the same conditions
as the experimental conditions.
6
Three values can be obtained from
the measured and simulated data:
impulse response at overall area,
impulse response of curve under
zeroed average, and impulse response
around 0.05s of the maximum peak.
The curves in Figure 4 show the
variation of vertical force against
the time. For experimental data, this
curve would be a mean of all impacts,
whereas for the simulations this
would be the curve for one impact.
A comparison between one impact
versus an average of multiple impacts
in the simulations resulted in negligible
differences. Further, a comparison
between a detailed tread pattern model
and only a circumferential groove 7
model also resulted in the same
ranking. Therefore, all results shown
are obtained from the circumferential
groove model simulations.
The graphs in Figure 4 show
the R-squared value for the different
measurement values that can be
obtained from the experimental
and simulation data. Each data point
represents an experiment or simulation
at a given speed, load and inflation
pressure. As seen, the simulated data
correlates well with the experimental
data for this set of tires.
In addition, the FE procedure was
used to correlate impact forces with
the harshness rating of tires with

23
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

different constructions. Experimental 8

subjective noise testing of three
construction variants was performed
at an outdoor facility. A professional,
subjective driver provided the ratings
on interior comfort. The data obtained
from impact force simulations
was converted into the frequency
domain and ranking compared
with experimental ratings. The same
ranking trend between experimental Caption 1: Finite
and simulated results were seen. element model of an
aircraft tire1

Parameter influence
on impact phenomena
To investigate the influence of
different operating conditions and
tire construction, two specifications
of a summer tire, Sportrac 5 (205/50
R17), and two specifications of an
all-season tire, Quatrac 5 (215/55
R17), were tested and simulated.
Findings are reported in tabular 9
and pictorial manner and discussed.
To understand impact phenomena,
three parameters – overall impulse
forces, averaged impulse and impact
around maximum peak – were
studied, as shown in Figure 5. The
values in Table 2 correspond to the
different curves in Figures 6, 7 and 8.

Use cases: pressure sensor

behavior using impact forces
The influence of inflation pressure
on impact behavior is quite different.
Figure 9 represents the frequency
versus vertical force response, which
shows that there is frequency and
amplitude shift happening when
there is a change in the tire inflation
pressure. Tuning a specification to
show this shift can help sensors in
vehicles detect if there is a loss of
inflation pressure, and hence inform
the driver. This can therefore ensure
that rider comfort is maintained.
Tire characterization
Tire impact testing can be used for
virtual rigid-ring and flexible-ring
model characterization. Therefore,
the above-described tools and
methods can be used for the same.
In addition, the impact forces can
be generated for both in-plane and
out-of-plane cleat impact scenarios.
This characterization can be useful
for further multibody dynamic
simulations to tune and improve
ride and comfort behavior.
Impact noise on EV platforms
As current electric vehicle platforms
are heavier due to the heavy battery
Figure 6: Influence of packs, the impact behavior of the tire. By understanding the impact
speed. When comparing tire can be very different, as shown phenomena, it is possible to fine-
different speeds, it
is observed that the in Table 2. Reducing the impact tune a tire specification for the
impact amplitude varies. noise, therefore, becomes of utmost applications mentioned above.
In this case, a lower
speed results in a lower
importance to ensure a comfortable Validated virtual tools give greater
overall impact force ride experience for the occupants insights into what is happening to
Figure 7: Influence of the car. the tire during such a transient event
of load. A higher load In addition, combining extra-load and provide the necessary know-how
results in a higher
impact force with ultra-low-rolling-resistance tires for tuning the tire at a much earlier
Figure 8: Influence can be a challenging task for the tire stage of the development cycle.
of construction. As industry. By using the various tools
observed in the and methods described above, out- Acknowledgements
curve on the right,
the construction can of-the-box ideas can be implemented We would like to sincerely thank and
influence the area to come up with innovative tires for acknowledge Apollo Tyres Global
under the curve and,
therefore, the impulse
the future. R&D management for approving
value obtained this publication and sponsoring the
Figure 9: Influence Conclusions participation. We would also like
of inflation pressure With ongoing shifts in automotive to thank all the Pre-Development
on impact behavior
trends, it has become more colleagues who extended their
important to pay attention to support during the execution of
impact characterization of the various work packages. tire

24
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Computer-aided research
Exploring the advances in tire materials development and how progress
has been accompanied by improvements in computer modeling
by Toshio Tada and Ken-ichi Uesaka, Material R&D HQ; Masato Naito and Masaya Tsunoda, Research & Development HQ, Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Japan
I
n response to growing
international attention,
the automotive industry is
increasingly acknowledging
the part it must play in the
efforts to achieve a sustainable
society. The EU commission has
set out the EU Green Deal to tackle
issues of global climate change by
2050. Recently, the US government
decided to return to the Paris
agreement to reduce CO2 emissions.
Tire manufacturers are also driven to
reduce CO2 emissions – during the
manufacturing process and product
performance – and adhere to the
targets set by the UN’s 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development.
Sumitomo Rubber Industries
(SRI) has developed the Smart
Tyre Concept to ensure the safety
and satisfaction of customers,
addressing the requirements
of new mobility, such as CASE
(connected, autonomous, shared,
electric). The company has been
tackling improvements in rolling
resistance and wet-grip performance.
Consequently, the level of rolling
resistance on treads for typical
tires has become so low that it is
close to the theoretical lowest limit.
To overcome further obstacles,
computer simulation is one of the
essential tools in improving rolling
resistance without losing high-level
wet-grip performance. The history of
computer-aided research employed
by SRI is summarized here in terms
of tire development.
Figure 1 highlights the history
of computer-aided science at SRI.
The research department, engaged
in computer-aided research, was
founded in 1992, nearly 30 years
ago. Computer-aided science at SRI
consists of two main streams: tire
simulation and material simulation.
The first simulation project was
named Digital Rolling Simulation I
(DRS I) and focused on phenomena
related to tire dynamics, such as
cornering force, NVH and uneven
and irregular wear of tire treads.
26
1
DIGI- DIGI-
TYRE II TYRE III
DIGI-
TYRE
Noise
Tire Various roads,
dynamics vehicle
RR Grip Deformation Silica dispersion
Rubber deformation Molecular behavior
at micrometer scale at nanometer scale
Figure 1: History In 1998, the Digi-Tyre series was
of computer-aided
research at SRI launched as the first tire product
line with the DRS I name. The
second tire simulation project (DRS
II) dealt with tire and pavement
interaction properties and predicted
those interactions in various
conditions, including aquaplaning,
snow, sand and mud. Digi-Tyre II,
a product developed with DRS II,
was launched in 2002.
Following DRS II, vehicle
dynamics projects, in which tires
were equipped to a vehicle, began.
The final project in the series,
DRS III, started in 2006 and was
intended to solve the issue of tire-
pavement interaction noise, such as
cavity resonance and pattern noise.
Along with tire simulation, material
simulation also began in the early
2000s, building on the knowledge
and experience accumulated through
the DRS projects. The first material
simulation, Digi-Compound, was
established in 2003. A simple two-
dimensional model consisting of
filler particles and rubber matrix was
employed to visualize the distribution
of energy loss to consider how to
maximize the balance between
rolling resistance and wet grip with
ADVANCED 4D NANO
DESIGN
4D NANO
DESIGN
DRS: Digital Rolling
Simulation
Silica/polymer Dynamic viscoelasticity
Void nucleation at
nanometer scale
respect to the strain concentration.
The 4D Nano Design project was the
second in the material simulation
series, followed by the latest project,
Advanced 4D Nano Design. The
major advance from the Digi-
Compound project is the fact that
the simulation model is prepared
based on fine structural analysis
by national facilities, including
synchrotron radiation facilities such
as SPring-8. The local distribution
of filler particles and filler-polymer
interfaces is more precisely reflected
in the simulation model to obtain
more reliable results.
Another remarkable improvement
integrated into the 4D Nano Design
project is molecular simulation.
The development of supercomputer
systems, led by the Japanese
government-backed research
institute Riken, made it possible
to carry out molecular simulation
at a practical scale. SRI used Earth
Simulator and Riken’s K computer
for the material simulations.1
Time dependence of material can
be introduced in the latest platform,
Advanced 4D Nano Design. While
4D Nano Design aims to maximize
research into rolling resistance and

2 simulation technologies are expected
wet grip, Advanced 4D Nano Design
is more focused on time dependence
of tire performance, through molecular
degradation and wear.
Material simulation
Tires are composite structures
comprised of many components with
different functions. The tire tread is
a component that interacts with a
road surface, determining the grip
performance. It consists of many
materials including polymers, fillers
and oils. The mechanical properties
of tread compounds strongly depend
on the structures of the materials over
a wide range of scale.
Material simulation was needed
to visualize the complex mechanisms
behind the mechanical properties
of rubber. In the early 2000s, FEA
visualized the effect of the phase
structure of polymer blend systems
on stress concentration over a
micrometer scale. The dramatic
advance in computational technology
drives the application of molecular
simulation. High-performance
supercomputer systems are capable
of extending the time and spatial
scale of simulation models. Coarse-
grained molecular dynamic (CG
MD) simulation and quantum
chemical calculation (QCC)
become applicable for the system
consisting of polymer molecules.
In addition, molecular dynamics
simulation is used to elucidate the
fundamental mechanism of rubber
dynamics in filled rubbers. These
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
to link the tire performance to the
molecular structure.
The durability of compounds
is commonly the most important
performance aspect for tire
manufacturers. It is not easy to
implement CG MD simulation on
the durability of rubber compounds
due to a lack of simulated chemical
reactions. To add the chemical
structure into the coarse-grain
molecular dynamics model, full
atomistic molecular dynamics
simulation is a solution. However,
it is not possible to implement
full atomistic MD simulation for
the analysis covering molecular
reaction and large deformation.
The concept of multi-scale
simulation emerged in the historical
background. Figure 3 illustrates the
Figure 2: Effect concept of multi-scale simulation at
of chemical structure
on bonding energy SRI. The ordinate and the abscissa
as a function of represent time scale and length
bonding distance (a). scale respectively. Here, the
The molecular models
used in QCC (b)2 multi-scale simulation is defined as
Figure 3: The concept a combination of different simulation
of multi-scale simulation platforms to fully cover the modeling
implemented at SRI
scale, ranging from electronic clouds
of single atoms to a whole tire. The
finest scale, including electrons
responsible for chemical reactions,
is analyzed by QCC. The QCC
solves a molecular orbital equation
and is responsible for the smallest
structure, including chemical
reactions, while the FEA is
responsible for the largest scale.
Various types of molecular
dynamics simulations exist for
the intermediate scale between
QCC and FEA. Full-atom MD
and CG MD simulations are often
3
employed to analyze the dynamics
of rubber molecules. The former can
simulate the chemical properties of
the atoms that make up the rubber
molecules. The spatial scale of full-
atom MD is not large enough to
consider complex structures such as
inhomogeneities in the cross-linking
density or filler particles dispersion,
for example. CG MD is a suitable
simulation to deal with a larger-
scale model containing entangled
polymer network structures to
analyze the segmental motion
within the micro-Brownian
motion around glass transition
temperature, rubbery plateau
and terminal flow regions. However,
there is no longer chemistry in the
coarse-grained MD simulation.
Novel polymer
SRI announced Smart Tyre Concept
2017 as a new technology concept.
‘Safety Technology’ is one of the
key technology platforms from the
Smart Tyre Concept and is scaffolded
by fine simulation and analysis
known as ‘Core Technologies’. The
material simulation contributes to
Safety Technology developing novel
polymers for tire compounds. In
general, the mechanical properties
of tire tread compounds decline
gradually in use. The changes
in the mechanical properties of
a tire compound could potentially
have a negative influence on wet-
grip performance.
There are various factors that
cause the change in mechanical
properties as a function of time.
An increase in the hardness of
the tire tread, caused by changes
27
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
in phase structure and molecular
structure over a wide length scale,
affects the performance. Here, we
are focusing on the mechanism of
the time dependence of mechanical
properties. It is clear that among the
tire components, the tread surface
undergoes the harshest treatment
due to high local pressure at the
contact patch and heat generated
during braking or cornering. SRI’s
Safety Technology, addressed at
Tire Technology Expo 2020, is
responsible for the improvement
of the durability of tread. Not only
the grip performance but also the
wear performance are expected to be
improved by increasing the durability.
Degradation of rubber molecules
at the tread surface is caused
by mechanochemical reactions
resulting from oxidation of rubber
molecules following the chain
scission by the mechanical forces.
Rubber molecules have reactive
double bonds that are essential to
vulcanized rubber. However, double
bonds are susceptible to oxidation
or heat. Therefore, SRI used QCC
to investigate the effect of types of
chemical bonding on the ability to
withstand mechanical chain scission.
Two polymer models were tested:
conventional SBR (the backbone of
which consists of carbon-carbon
double bonds) and hydrogenated
SBR, or H-SBR (the backbone of
which consists of carbon-carbon
single bonds). The reactivity of
polymer free radicals with oxygen
molecules under stretched conditions
was evaluated by QCC.
Figure 2a shows the bonding
energy as a function of the bonding
distance between neighboring
carbon atoms for the monomer
repeating unit of SBR and H-SBR.
The difference between them was
modeled as the difference of bond
type; the SBR and H-SBR consist of
a pair of butadiene and styrene, and
a pair of butane, as a hydrogenated
butadiene, and styrene, respectively.
The bonding energy was evaluated
for each chemical bond as a potential
minimum depth while the bond
is stretched until molecular chain
scission. The weakest bond was
determined based on the bonding
energy. The weakest bonding
energy for the H-SBR and the
SBR was compared as an index
of mechanical strength.
We focused on the bond energy
potential curve of the weakest bond
28
4
(Available only in Japan)
Highly balanced LRR and wet performance tire
Figure 4: Long-
time performance
of Enasave Next III in
the Japanese market
Previous tire New flagship
tire
in the SBR, as a reference state.
We also analyzed the bond energy
potential curve for the H-SBR at the
chemical bond, corresponding to
the weakest bond in the SBR model.
The bonding energy potential curve
for the H-SBR molecule was steeper
than that of the SBR molecule. A
lower minimum energy means higher
bonding energy. The bonding energy
of the single bond neighboring a
double bond becomes weak because
of the allylic resonance.
The QCC results revealed that
the chemical bonds for the H-SBR
molecule have nearly an identical
energy level without particularly
weaker bonds, while the SBR
molecule has weak chemical bonds
that are attributed to the double
bonds. This result indicates that
the H-SBR molecule is highly
resistant to mechanical scission.
QCC was also used to investigate
the reactivity of polymer free radicals
with the oxygen molecules. Oxidation
of a polymer chain was studied with
the QCC in such a way that oxygen
molecules are approaching the radical
of the polymer chain, as a molecular
model after a chain scission. As
shown in Figure 2b, polymer free
radicals of the SBR tended to react
with oxygen molecules after chain
scission. On the other hand, the
polymer free radical of the H-SBR
tended to recombine with the other
free radical end rather than reacting
with the oxygen molecules. The
SBR forms more stable polymer free
radicals compared with the H-SBR
due to the allyl radical resonance.
Thus, due to the longer lifetime of
free radicals for the SBR, there is
enough time to react with the oxygen
molecules. In contrast, the lifetime
of free radicals for the H-SBR is
too short to encounter the oxygen
molecules and immediately bonds
with the other end of a free radical.
Previous tire New flagship
tire
As a result, a recombination
of two polymer free radicals
instantaneously occurred. This
calculation result indicates that
the H-SBR molecule is insensitive
to oxidation compared with the
non-hydrogenated SBR molecule.
In concert with SRI’s
compounding technology, the tire
maker realized the development of
a new compound with H-SBR and,
in 2020, launched Enasave Next III
as the first tire with H-SBR on the
Japanese market.3-5 The decline of
wear and wet-grip performance after
a certain time was improved by more
than 20% compared with the last
product line-up, as shown in Figure
4. In line with the aim of achieving
a sustainable society, low rolling
resistance is also realized.
SRI monitors safety and
sustainability, as well as following
the mobility revolution by utilizing
computer-aided research using the
newest Fugaku supercomputer.6
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Prof.
G Heinrich (Leibniz Institute for
Polymer Research Dresden eV,
Germany) for his constructive
discussion and valuable advice. tire
References
1) A Baba and Y Masubuchi, J. Chem.
Phys. 154, 044901 (2021)
2) S Nakano et al, KGK 56-61, 2021
3) https://www.srigroup.co.jp/
english/newsrelease/2021/
sri/2021_009.html
4) https://www.srigroup.co.jp/
english/newsrelease/2020/
sri/2020_064.html
5) https://www.srigroup.co.jp/
english/newsrelease/2020/
sri/2020_084.html
6) https://www.srigroup.co.jp/
english/newsrelease/2020/
sri/2020_084.html
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Tire sensing concepts

Detection of tire force represents the next evolution of tire-sensing technology,
and will be at the heart of future automotive mobility advances
by Kazuhiro Sakakibara, Toyo Tire Corporation, Japan

T
he automotive 1
industry has entered
a new phase since
the turn of the
century. This
transformation
can be summarized with the often-
used acronym CASE – connectivity,
autonomous driving, shared use and
electrification. For the automotive
industry, these technologies will
lead to connected cars, autonomous
vehicles, car/ride-sharing services and
electric vehicles. The combination
of these technologies has brought
significant changes to the industry,
and to wider society. 2
Considering these rapid
changes and the concept of next-
generation, auto-mobility-based
societies, Toyo Tire believes that the
98km/h
tire must likewise undergo changes.
The added value of tires required for
this next-generation CASE society
will be to support safer and more
secure auto-mobility. To this end,
a vehicle’s tire – considering the
four CASE elements – must
conform to each of these areas.
In terms of connectivity,
connected and intelligent tires
must use data communication.
For autonomous driving and
electrification, tires must provide
support for advanced vehicle control.
With regards to shared use, tires must
offer support for vehicle management
and maintenance. Figure 1: Tire-sensing technology, which has already condition of the road surface (such
technology concept
A common phrase (or added been established, is the tire-pressure as wet or frozen) and the condition
Figure 2: CG image
value) related to these requirements of the tire force monitoring system (TPMS). This of a tire (new, worn, defective, driving
is to ‘provide tire information’ visualization created system is capable of monitoring a speed, and so on) can be detected, the
to vehicles, users and company by simulation tire’s air pressure and temperature. information requested by the users
management. Talk of ‘detecting Additionally, technology to identify (such as drivers or vehicle control
tires’ or ‘detected by tires’ involves road surfaces (wet, frozen and so systems) concerns the performance
the application of tire-sensing on) has been developed, as well of the tire currently in use. With
technology. This concept is as systems to detect the load, wear this information, users are notified
presented in Figure 1. condition, and abnormalities in case a tire slips, stops, bends,
applied to a tire. and so on. This is the proposed
Tire-sensing technology Toyo’s tire-sensing technology concept of tire force. In other words,
Research on tire-sensing technology is capable of detecting tire force. it means the current grip force that
has been undertaken not only by Furthermore, this tire force can be a tire is exerting and the limit in
Toyo Tire but also by other tire detected in real time to assist vehicle grip force – or the availability. Tire
manufacturers and automotive safety. The concept of this technology force represents a tire’s performance
companies. An example of this is explained below. For example, if the during driving. It defines the tire’s

30

potential, which can be identified
after detecting the road conditions,
wear status, load, abnormalities,
and so on.
A visualized computer graphic
image of the tire force during driving
created by the simulation is shown
in Figure 2. The proposed tire force
concept is expressed by the tire’s
current grip force and limit in grip
force. In the tire force visualization,
dots and circles are used. The current
grip force is represented by dots,
3 graphs represent the tire force of
4 prediction model using data analysis/
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Figure 3: Overview whereas the limit in grip force is
diagram of the
mechanism for tire represented by circles.
force estimation In Figure 2, (1) Dot represents
Figure 4: a tire’s current grip force. The dot
Implementation can move forward, backward, left
of a prediction
model and a tire- and right according to the vehicle
force estimation model (tire) behavior (acceleration and
using machine learning
deceleration, braking, cornering,
and so on). In the same figure, (2)
Circle represents a tire’s grip-limit
force. The diameter of the circle
varies according to the slipperiness
of the road surface and the tire. For
example, the diameter of the circle
decreases when driving on frozen
and wet roads with worn tires.
A tire’s condition is considered
as safe when the dot can move in
a large enough circle. On the other
hand, if the circle becomes small or
the dot is about to exceed the edge
of the circle, this is considered a
dangerous condition – that is, the
tire is in a slippery condition.
Using this visualization, the potential
of a tire’s grip force can be estimated
from the position of the dot with
respect to the circle. In Figure 2,
four sets of dots, circles and bar
the four tires in a passenger car.
Toyo plans to reproduce this output
image in an actual vehicle.
Sensors attached to the tires
are used to detect the tire force.
The tire force can be estimated
by processing the acquired sensor
data. An overview of the mechanism
for estimating the tire force is
illustrated in Figure 3. The tire-force
estimation model, which uses sensor
data as its input and tire force as its
output, is the core of this technology.
Data analysis/AI technology
is used to construct the tire-force
estimation model.
The flow for implementing a
AI technology is shown in Figure 4a.
As shown in Figure 4b, the
data from a sensor attached to
the tire is collected in conjunction
with the corresponding tire force.
Subsequently, this data is used
for learning. This method can be
implemented in an actual vehicle
by collecting data. The type of
information obtained from the
sensor attached to the tire is the
vehicle’s acceleration. The tire
behavior is related to its deformation
during driving, and the deformation
is related to acceleration. This is
the concept behind this method.
During tests, data was collected
under various conditions (such as
the condition of tires, vehicle, road
31
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
surface, driving conditions) and a
proof of concept was performed.
Thus, the feasibility of this method
was confirmed. In February 2020, this
concept technology was announced.1
Benefits of detecting tire force
The emerging benefits of this
technology are shown in Figure 5.
The detection and visualization of
the tire force can be valuable as it
provides an understanding of how
to use tires, tires’ grip margin,
and other factors. In addition, it
is anticipated that further benefits
(added value) may emerge by
combining the tire force with other
technologies and information data.
For example, Benefit (1) in
Figure 5 is the reinforcement
of automatic braking.
The detection of tire force
enables the calculation of the distance
a vehicle travels between braking and
stopping (braking distance). Case
(1) in Figure 5 represents activation
of the automatic brake when an
obstacle is detected. In this case, it
is determined whether it is possible
for the vehicle to safely stop before
the obstacle. If stopping is not
possible, vehicle control is notified
to take action and make the vehicle
avoid the obstacle. Additionally, the
detection of tire force can be adapted
to define the proper distance between
vehicles on highways (automated
vehicle platooning).
Benefit (2) in Figure 5 is the
reinforcement of provided map
information. The cornering force is
the grip force applied to a tire when
a vehicle needs to corner. Case (2)
represents the case of detecting a
curve in the vehicle’s path using the
map information provided by the
32
Figure 5: The benefits vehicle’s navigation system. In this
of detecting tire force case, it is determined whether it is
possible for the vehicle to corner
safely under the current tire condition
and speed. If cornering is not
possible, deceleration alerts, or taking
over of vehicle control is performed.
As a result, a safer and more secure
driving operation is provided.
Benefit (3) in Figure 5 is related
to weather information. Case (3)
in Figure 5 represents the case of
predicting the behavior of tires with
respect to the weather conditions in
the vehicle’s path. The prediction is
based on the map information. In
this case, it is determined whether
it is possible for the vehicle to move
safely under the current conditions
(vehicle speed, use of winter tires, and
others) with respect to the possibility
that the road surface is covered by
snow or frost.
Benefit (4) in Figure 5 is related
to the condition of a tire. It is possible
to trace the tire’s history and usage up
to its current condition (traceability).
Case (4) in Figure 5 represents
tracing how the tire came to the
market or how it became worn or
why it failed. In this case, changes in
the tire market and tire-development
process can also be applied.
Furthermore, by using this data,
tire wear and abnormalities can be
predicted. Tire-sensing technology
is capable of providing significant
benefits such as maintenance
planning and tire replacement.
Specific tires suitable to a user’s
driving environment can also
be proposed and developed.
Future prospects
Currently, as a next step, data
from various conditions (including
public roads) is being collected
to promote improvements in the
proposed technology. Additionally,
initiatives (such as open innovation
as a means of accelerating the
practical application of this
technology) are sought.
It is desirable to use this
open innovation initiative as an
opportunity to explore co-creation
partners and further added value
that can be provided to the next-
generation auto-mobility society.
Conclusions
In this paper, a new initiative,
which uses data analysis/
AI technology in tire use, was
introduced. Many other attempts
to use AI-related technology in
various departments of Toyo
Tire (using data accumulated
from the past) are also in progress.
Tires are the only part of
a vehicle that make contact with
the road surface, and they play
an important role in satisfying
a variety of performance
requirements. In recent years, the
race for technological innovation
in next-generation auto-mobility,
such as the introduction of electric
vehicles and automated driving,
has been dominating the industrial
world. As a result, the functions and
performance required of tires have
become increasingly important.
Toyo Tire believes that continuous
technological innovation using AI
and other technologies is essential
for realizing sustainability in the
auto-mobility society. tire
References
1) https://www.toyotires-global.com/
press/2020/200214_e.html
 HALLS21
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Multiscale molecular modeling

A new simulation approach for silica-reinforced rubber, based on ab
initio and coarse-grained simulations, models the real silica surface
by N Gajos and L Guy, Solvay, France; T Zushi and A Baba, SRI, Japan

C
omputer simulation
has become a
powerful tool for
the mathematical
modeling of
many natural
systems in physics, chemistry
and manufacturing, as well as
engineering. It is widely used to
explore and gain new insights into
new technology, and to estimate the
performance of systems too complex
for analytical solutions. A tire is
one of the most complex composite
structures, and to predict tire
properties it is necessary to perform
a huge number of experiments.
However, the world is changing
very fast and the tire requirements
are becoming increasingly complex.
Support for computer modeling may
efficient tool for computer simulation 2a
of tire compounds.
To predict the physical and
chemical properties of the silica/
polymer interface, improvement
based on atomistic simulation is
indispensable. Solvay and SRI’s
work, therefore, aims at establishing
multiscale modeling with the aim
of understanding and predicting
tire properties, starting from an
atomistic-level description as
illustrated in Figure 1.
Simulation at atomistic level
The work plan was to simulate the
surface of Solvay’s precipitated silica
Zeosil 1165MP and the grafting
process with 3-octanoylthio-1-
propyltriethoxysilane (NXT) at a
nanometer scale. At the beginning 2b

bring about solutions to speed up the
development process for new tires.
To enhance the computer simulation
process, collaboration between
experts in different fields is a key
enabler in obtaining the best results
and optimizing development time.
Silica materials are integrated
into tires to reduce rolling noise and
wear and improve wet grip to reduce
braking distances. In addition, lower
rolling resistance leads to an up to
7.5% reduction in fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions. However,
little is known about the interface
of silica and polymer at atomistic
levels and nanoscales. Thanks to
joint development, Solvay Silica
and Sumitomo Rubber Industries
were able to bring together experts
from different areas to create an
1 unit cell.
of the project, the silica model was
prepared. Then the team investigated
the interaction between the silica
surface and silane. Prediction of the
reaction mechanism was based on
the dynamics performed in the space
defined by the collective variables to
provide a description of the system.
The width and length of the
simulation box were equal; the
height was the same as the length
for the box without silane, and
two times higher for the box
with silane molecules (Figure 2).
Solvay’s silica was characterized
both with and without the silane
by experimental solid-state NMR.
The silanol density in silica volume
was measured by TGA, and the
concentration on the surface was
detected by MeOH. In addition,
Figure 1: The time 29Si solid-state NMR was adopted
and length scales
of the silica-silane- to determine silanol types Q2/Q3/Q4
elastomer models connectivity assessment as shown in
Figure 2a: Sketch Figure 3.
of the Zeosil 1165MP A special workflow was designed
model – from the top. Si
in yellow, O in red, H in to build a realistic silica model.
white, H-bonds in blue First, at the bottom of a simulation
Figure 2b: A side box, a monolayer of silica was placed
view of the Zeosil
1165MP model
at fixed positions to prevent ‘free’
atoms from crossing the bottom
of the box.
Second, SiO2 units were randomly
distributed as building blocks in the
Third, after geometry optimization,
the model underwent several cycles
of heating and annealing processes.
The model was fine-tuned to fit
the solid-state NMR spectra of the
sample. The silica model was grafted
by the silane. The atom positions
for silica alone were then delivered
to Sumitomo Rubber Industries.
Since the silane acts as the coupling
agent between silica and elastomer,

36
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

3 Figure 3: Sketches
the question arises: if we double
the silane dosage, will it help the
coupling? Here, simulation models
may provide some hints.
Equilibration of the Zeosil
1165MP model was undertaken.
After this, the three different
models were prepared. The first
saw NXT silane molecules added
on top of the silica surface to study
the silane grafting mechanism in
the next section. The second saw
additional NXT molecules included
to represent concentration in the
real mixing conditions. To increase
the silane concentration, a third
model was prepared.
All three models were then
heated to simulate the behavior
of the samples in lab conditions.
of the Q2, Q3, and rubber properties due to the lack of
Q4 silanol types precise atomistic description, until
Figure 4: The Solvay developed the realistic silica
second (left) and
third (right) models
surface model.
Figure 5: Interaction
In this work, to implement
energies between (left) Solvay’s atomistic model with a
polymer and silica and coarse-grained model to predict
(right) polymer and
NXT-grafted silica, the viscoelastic properties, all-atom
calculated by means MD simulations were performed
of classical all-atom and interaction energies between the
MD simulation with
COMPASS II force field silica and polymer were calculated.
Figure 6: The Then, the interaction energies were
coarse-grained model converted to the coarse-grained
constructed for Zeosil
1165MP silica-reinforced
MD parameters that represent the
rubber. The model interaction strength at the interface.
consists of three major The obtained parameters are based
tire materials: polymer,
silica and silane on Solvay’s silica model. Therefore,
conducting MD simulation with these
parameters makes it possible to predict
more realistic physical properties.
A classic all-atom MD simulation
with COMPASS II force field
was used to obtain the interaction
energies between Solvay’s silica and
4
polymer model. First, geometry
optimization was performed on the
silica/polymer interface structure,
which was built by combining a
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)
model with Solvay’s silica with
appropriate density. The NVT
ensemble was run for 100ps after MD
simulation annealing on the interface
model. During the MD simulation,
the silica/polymer interaction
energies – which were estimated by
subtracting the potential energies of
the silica and polymer model from
the potential energy of the interface
model – were monitored. Calculated
interaction energies of the interface
structures with silica and NXT-
grafted silica are shown in Figure 5.
Using our original technique,
these interaction energies can be
converted to the coarse-grained
MD parameters that represent the
strength of interaction between

After equilibration, all silane

molecules in all models were found
to be confined close to the silica
surface. The coupling agent links the
silica surface by the - Si(silica) - O -
Si(silane) - bond with the formation
of one equivalent of ethanol. Starting
from one NXT model, the silane was
found to be physisorbed on the silica
surface. By employing computer 5
modeling, it was possible to follow
the complete reaction path. This
represented an important milestone
in the joint development project.

Coarse-grained level
As shown in Figure 4, a high-
fidelity silica surface model was
obtained by employing Solvay’s
simulation technology. In the next
step, Sumitomo Rubber Industries
evaluated the impacts of the atomistic
structure of the silica interface
on the viscoelastic properties of
rubber based on Solvay’s atomistic
silica model. This work was 6
done by combining all-atom and
coarse-grained molecular dynamic
simulation techniques. SRI’s experts
have aggressively employed materials
simulations to improve the magic
triangle and successfully developed
new classes of materials – for
example, a silane coupling agent
that achieves a greater than 50%
increase in wear resistance compared
with its predecessor. However, there
has not been a full evaluation of the
effects of the silica surface state on

37
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
7
silica and polymer. Thanks to the
parameter estimation method with
Solvay’s model, more precise coarse-
grained parameters that reflect the
atomistic structure of the silica
surface were obtained.
Figure 6 shows the coarse-grained
model constructed in this study for
Zeosil 1165MP silica-reinforced
rubber. The model consists of three
major tire materials: polymer, silica
and silane.
SBR was assumed for the
polymer model – 128 coarse-grained
beads were connected for a chain,
corresponding to 200 monomer
units of SBR, and 100 chains were
in the simulation box.
Two aggregates were included for
the silica model, and aggregates were
randomly oriented without collision.
The aggregates were constructed
by Monte Carlo simulations of
diffusion-limited cluster aggregation.
The fractal dimension was about
1.8, and the size distribution of
aggregates of experiment was
reproduced for Zeosil 1165MP.
In addition, 50phr of silica with
two million beads was modeled.
The silane molecule is represented
as one bead, and silane beads are
randomly oriented on the silica
surface. Silane beads are uniformly
distributed with coverage of 0.8
molecule/nm2. Silane beads are
assumed to perfectly bond with
polymer beads.
The coarse-grained MD
simulation with the parameters
obtained in the previous section
was conducted on the silica-
reinforced rubber model explicitly
including the silane molecule
(Figure 6). Oscillatory deformation
was submitted at a frequency of
1/1500tHz and of 10% amplitude
(5 cycle). It can be observed that
the deformation response of polymer
dynamics (Figures 7a and 7b) depicts
the simulation results of coarse-
grained MD based on the Kremer-
38
Figure 7: Coarse- Grest model, true stress as a function
grained MD simulation
results. On the left, true
of time, and strain-stress curve,
stress as a function of respectively. The G' obtained from
time. On the right, the this simulation is the same order of
strain-stress curve
magnitude as that in the experiment
Figure 8: Dependence
of G’ on the parameters (1% deformation at a frequency of
of silane surface density 10Hz at 0K). The coarse-grained
and strength of
physisorption
MD simulation was successfully
conducted based on Solvay’s silica
model. The advantage of this joint
research is that new simulation
methodology for accurate estimation
of the viscoelastic properties of silica-
reinforced rubber is successfully
established by connecting the
ReaxFF simulation results with
coarse-grained MD simulation.
The developed simulation
approach can be employed, for
example, for parametric study
such as that shown in Figure
8. The impact of silane surface
density and physisorption strength
was investigated by changing the
parameters of coarse-grained MD
simulation. Silane surface density
is defined as the number of silane
molecules per square nanometer,
and physisorption strength
corresponds to the interaction
strength between polymer and
silica. The parametric study results
indicate that an increase in silane
8
surface density would be the crucial
factor, leading to the G' increase, as
shown in Figure 8. The increased
physisorption strength also increases
the G' value but impact of the
physisorption may be less than the
silane surface density. This means
that chemisorption is important
for G'. However, it should be noted
that we are now addressing how
to estimate the magnitude of the
statistical error originating from
the limitation of coarse-grained
MD simulation. Therefore, these
results are reference data.
The simulation results imply
that this simulation methodology
is very useful in analyzing the silica
and polymer behavior through
considering the atomistic structure
of the silica surface.
Conclusions
In this paper, a joint effort by
Solvay and Sumitomo Rubber has
seen successful development of a
new simulation methodology for
accurate estimation of the physical
properties of silica-reinforced rubber,
from ab initio to coarse-grained
MD simulation. The realistic silica
surface was simulated by all-atom
reactive force field molecular
dynamics, and the impact of the
silica interface on the viscoelastic
properties was evaluated by coarse-
grained simulation. The parametric
study of the impacts of surface
atomistic structure on the viscoelastic
properties demonstrated the
usefulness of the methodology.
This approach can be expanded
to other materials and it is believed
that it will contribute to the design
of new tire materials for future
development projects. tire
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Wax dosage and paraffin ratio

Wax is used as an antiozonant in rubber products as it can migrate
to the surface and form a physical film against ozone attack
by Kuan-Ting Liu, Shih-Yu Huang, Nankang Rubber Tire Corp, Taiwan

I
t is well known that ozone
attack causes cracking on Wax A
10
the surface of rubber, and in Microcrystalline waxes % Paraffin waxes % Total %
8
tire applications can lead to
product malfunction. Ozone, 6
%

as an oxidant, will react with 4

carbon-carbon double bonds in the 2

polymer chain, which results in chain 0
scission and polymer decomposition.1 C20
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C26
C27
C28
C29
C30
C31
C32
C33
C34
C35
C36
C37
C38
C39
C40
C41
C42
C43
C44
C45
C46
C47
C48
C49

However, when compounding wax C#

in rubber products, this long carbon
Wax B
chain chemical will migrate to the 10
Microcrystalline waxes % Paraffin waxes % Total %
surface of the rubber and form a 8
physical film for protection, as a 6
%

result of its low solubility at room 4

temperature. According to published 2
literature, the physical film formation 0
is a function of the temperature and C21 C23 C25 C27 C29 C31 C33 C35 C37 C39 C41 C43 C45 C47 C49
molecular weight of wax.2 Normally, C20 C22 C24 C26 C28 C30 C32 C34
C#
C36 C38 C40 C42 C44 C46 C48

the temperature is higher than 140°C

when processing rubber compounds. 10
Wax C
Thus, the solubility of the wax 8
Microcrystalline waxes % Paraffin waxes % Total %
is extremely high. However, this
6
solubility reduces when temperature
%

4
decreases and the wax begins to
migrate to the surface of the rubber. 2

The migration rate correlates closely 0

C21 C23 C25 C27 C29 C31 C33 C35 C37 C39 C41 C43 C45 C47 C49
with molecular weight.3,4 In the tire C20 C22 C24 C26 C28 C30 C32 C34 C36 C38 C40 C42 C44 C46 C48
C#
industry, commercial wax products
are composed of paraffin waxes and
microcrystalline waxes. Paraffin wax 10
Wax D
Microcrystalline waxes % Paraffin waxes % Total %
mainly consists of straight carbon 8
chains with average molecular weight 6
(350-420), while microcrystalline
%

4
wax is highly branched with relatively 2
higher molecular weight (490-800).5
0
Thus, paraffin wax is considered C21 C23 C25 C27 C29 C31 C33 C35 C37 C39 C41 C43 C45 C47 C49
as the main migration component C20 C22 C24 C26 C28 C30 C32
C#
C34 C36 C38 C40 C42 C44 C46 C48
1
due to its low molecular weight and Figure 1 Carbon distribution of the select waxes in this study.
linear structure. Table 1 illustrates the
specific carbon number of paraffin
waxes on the surface of the blended Figure 1: Carbon
distribution of the Table 1: C# of paraffin waxes on the surface of rubber at given temperature
rubber at given temperatures.3 It
selected waxes °C NR/BR
shows a clear relationship between in this study
the storage temperature and the main 0 22-23
carbon number of paraffin waxes 10 25-26
on the surface of the rubber. At low
20 27-30
temperatures, for example 0°C or
10°C, small-molecular-weight carbon 30 30-33
chains migrate to the surface easily 40 33-36
according to their low solubility
50 38-40
and linear structure. The carbon
number of the paraffin wax increases 60 44-51
when the temperature is increased,

40
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

as the solubility of small-molecular- Figure 2: Photos

weight paraffin waxes in rubber gets
of blooming test Compound A Compound B
results from compound
higher.6 So, it makes sense to choose A to compound D
a broad-carbon distribution of wax
for all-temperature protection against
ozone attack. However, with regard
to the physical protection film, it is
not true that the thicker the better: a
thicker film sometimes contaminates
the appearance of the rubber product,
such as the tire sidewall, which is
not acceptable for customers. It is
crucial that tire compound designers,
in order to balance the quality of
protection and appearance, choose Compound C Compound D
a suitable wax product and dosage
for the tire recipe. The aim of this
paper is to investigate efforts to
balance anti-ozone capability and
product appearance with different
paraffin wax ratios.

The experiment
Four different types of wax used
in this study were analyzed by gas
chromatography via ASTM D5442-
2
93 and the result illustrated in Table
Figure 2 The photos of blooming test results from compound A to compound D.
2. For the ratio of individual carbon
numbers in each wax, it is easier to
identify the difference in Figure 1. Table 2: Carbon distribution of the selected wax in this study
The sidewall formulation is given Wax A Wax B Wax C Wax D
in Table 3. Four different kinds of Paraffin waxes (%) 52.96 60.07 70.21 87.46
wax were tested in this recipe. The
C22~C23 0.59 0.58 1.47 2.35
rubber sample was cured at 165°C
for 10 minutes. The blooming test C25~C26 3.01 3.56 4.25 5.50
was performed in a convection oven C27~C30 11.96 17.53 12.82 17.32
at 40°C for 30 days. The weight-loss C30~C33 15.45 22.43 18.38 21.30
experiment was performed in a
C33~C36 15.64 16.63 18.86 22.08
convection oven at 30°C, 40°C and
50°C for 30 days respectively, then C38~C40 5.93 3.93 8.54 11.15
the weight of the rubber samples > C44 1.20 1.19 2.87 4.55
was measured before and after an
n-hexane clean. The dimension
of the rubber sample was 5 x 5cm, Microcrystalline wax(%) 47.04 39.93 29.79 12.55
with 2mm thickness. C22~C23 0 0 0 0
Mooney viscosity ML(1+4) at C25~C26 0.10 0.11 0.17 0.25
100°C was measured using an EKT-
C27~C30 1.80 2.34 0.96 1.33
2000M from Ektron Tek, following
ASTM D1646. The rheometer data C30~C33 6.35 8.17 4.36 2.38
was measured using an EKT-2000S C33~C36 13.83 12.64 8.69 3.55
from Ektron Tek, following ASTM C38~C40 12.30 7.51 7.50 2.70
D5289. The tensile properties were
measured in Ektron Tek’s TS-2000 > C44 1.20 1.19 2.67 1.04
following ASTM D412 and ASTM

41
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

BLOOMING
of accumulated wax on the surface of
14 the rubber, the anti-ozone capability
M icro cry stallin e w ax es % P a raffin w ax es % T o tal %
12 will be poorer than other samples.
10 Figure 2 shows the results of a
blooming test. It is easy to identify
%

8
white particles in the photos of
6
compound C and compound D after
4 storage at 40°C for one month. Wax,
2 as an antiozonant, is composed of
0 paraffin waxes and microcrystalline
Figure
C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C27 C28 C29 C30 C311: C32
FiniteC33
element
C34 C35 C36 C37 C38 C39 C40 C41 C42 C43 C44 C45
waxes, in which paraffin waxes
model of an aircraft tire1
3 C# dominate the migration rate of the
wax in the rubber sample thanks
Figure 3 Carbon distribution of the blooming sample on the surface of the rubber
Figure 3: Carbon
D624. Hardness was measured using so on. ML(1+4) at 100°C and to its linear structure and smaller
distribution of the
Teclock Japan’s GS-706N, following Mooney scorch at 125°C represent blooming sample molecular weight.7 Once wax
Compound
ASTM D2240A. A test was
The ozone the processing Compound
properties,16.5A
which on the surface migrates to the surface of the rubber,
measured using an EKT-2001OZ- were at a similar level. Also, the of the rubber a physical film will be formed to
HPSSX from Ektron Tek, following variation of physical properties – protect the rubber product in case
ASTM D1149. including hardness, tensile strength, of ozone attack. Since compound
elongation at break, tear, 100% and C and compound D have higher
Results and discussion 300% modulus – were small. Table paraffin waxes (higher than 70%),
Four different kinds of waxes were 4 also shows the results of a static leading to higher migration rate,
chosen for this study. As can be seen anti-ozone test. Under 1.65phr wax the physical film (which is brittle
from Table 2, wax D has the highest dosage, all the compounds were at and cracks easily under strain) will
ratio of paraffin wax, while wax A level A-2 after 72 hours of storage, be thicker than others. Once it cracks,
(with 52.96% paraffin wax) is the which means very few cracks can the appearance of the physical film
lowest in this study. The carbon be seen using a 10x microscope. will change from transparent to white
distribution of the waxes in this After 96 hours of storage, most – the thicker, the clearer. Figure 3
study are shown in Figure
Figure 1. of the
Theblooming test
4 The compounds
results of compoundwere
A andincompound
a good 16.5A. shows the carbon distribution of
peak high of wax A is 36, wax B condition (level A-3, a little worse the wax sample that was scraped
is 33, wax C is 36 and wax D is than 72 hours storage under 10x from the surface of compound B.
34. Although the peak highs of microscope) except for compound The peak high was located at carbon
waxes A and C were the same, the A. Some cracks, less than 3mm, number 33, in which nearly 90% was
ratios between paraffin wax and can be seen via visual observation paraffin wax. This is consistent with
microcrystalline wax were quite at level B-2. The reason for the the results in Table 1 that, when stored
different. In wax A, the amount relatively worse anti-ozone capability at less than 40°C, most of the paraffin
of microcrystalline wax in carbon of compound A is attributed to the waxes on the surface of the rubber
number 36 was higher than paraffin lower paraffin waxes of wax A. At were around carbon number 33. So,
wax, while wax C was not. The 40°C storage, paraffin wax 33-36 will with minor modifications – shifting
physical properties and anti-ozone be the major portion on the surface the peak to higher carbon number or
test results after compounding are of the rubber. Among the selected increasing the ratio of microcrystalline
shown in Table 4, where compound waxes, wax A is the lowest in not waxes at carbon number 33, for
A was the provided formulation only carbon number 33-36 but also example – the appearance could
mixed with 1.65phr wax A and 30-33. With relatively lower levels be further improved.

Table 3: Formulations (phr) Table 4: The physical properties and anti-ozone test results of the compounds in this study
Product Amount Compound Compound Compound Compound
A B C D
NR 45
ML1+4’, 100°C 56.97 59.61 57.78 58.28
BR 55
Mooney Scorch 125°C, T5(min) 57.02 55.15 56.27 57.02
N550 53
Rheometer 165°C, T95(min) 10.63 10.45 10.08 10.73
Zinc oxide 3
Hardness 58 59 59 58
Stearic acid 1
Tensile Strength (kgf/cm ) 2
176 170 165 163
Wax 1.65/16.5
Elongation at break (%) 570 560 510 530
Antioxidants 4
100% Modulus(kgf/cm ) 2
19 19 21 18
TDAE 6
300% Modulus(kgf/cm2) 75 77 86 75
NS 0.8
Tear(kgf/cm )
2
53 52 61 57
PVI 0.3
Static antiozone 48hr A-2 A-2 A-2 A-2
Sulfur 1.7
Static antiozone 72hr A-2 A-2 A-2 A-2
NS, N-Tert-Butyl-2-Benzothiazole Sulfenamide
PVI, N-(Cyclohexylthio)phtalimide Static antiozone 96hr B-2 A-3 A-3 A-3

43
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Table 5: The physical properties and anti-ozone test results of compound A and compound 16.5A
Compound A Compound 16.5A
ML1+4’, 100°C 56.97 35.62
Mooney Scorch 125°C, T5(min) 57.02 72.45
Rheometer 165°C, T95(min) 10.63 11.03
Hardness 58 52
Tensile Strength (kgf/cm ) 2
176 137
BLOOMING
14 Elongation at break (%) 570 770
M icro cry stallin e w ax es % P a raffin w ax es % T o tal %
100% Modulus(kgf/cm ) 2 Caption 1: Finite
19 10
12 element model of an
300% Modulus(kgf/cm2) aircraft tire1 75 37
10
Tear(kgf/cm )
2
53 49
%

8
Static antiozone 48hr A-2 A-2
6
Static antiozone 72hr A-2 A-2
4
Static antiozone 96hr B-2 A-3
2
30°C storage Solvent Clean (WL%) ND ND
0 40°C storage Solvent Clean (WL%) ND 2.4
C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C27 C28 C29 C30 C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 C37 C38 C39 C40 C41 C42 C43 C44 C45
50°C storage Solvent Clean (WL%) ND 2.7
C#
ND (Non Detected)
Figure 3 Carbon distribution of the blooming sample on the surface of the rubber

method, since it can provide physical

Compound A
4 40°C for one month. tire
Figure 4 The blooming test results of compound A and compound 16.5A.
It is well known that the thickness
of wax film is a function of carbon
distribution, structure, storage
temperature, dosage, and so on. To
further understand the migration
behavior, wax A was chosen in
the high dosage study since it has
the lowest paraffin wax ratio. As
can be seen from Table 5, 10 times
the dosage of wax A (defined as
compound 16.5A) does affect the
physical properties of the compound,
for example Mooney viscosity,
which was around 40% lower than
compound A. Tensile strength
and modulus were also lower than
compound A. Long-carbon-chain
wax, for example, acts like a lubricant
in the rubber compound, weakening
the polymer interaction and leading
to reduced physical properties. The
static anti-ozone test result was better
than compound A, as expected,
Compound 16.5A
Figure 4: The due to the high dosage of wax
blooming test results introduction. However, compound
of compound A and
compound 16.5A 16.5A had 2.4% weight loss after a
solvent clean and 40°C storage for
30 days. The weight loss was even
higher after 50°C storage. A high
dosage of wax in the rubber compound
leads to a high concentration gradient
between the surface of the rubber
and the bulk. More wax will migrate
to the surface of the rubber, as can
be seen from Figure 4. The large-
scale white areas are wax deposited
on the surface of the rubber under
1,000x microscope, indicating that
not only the carbon distribution but
also the dosage should be considered
when applying wax as an antiozonant
in rubber products.
Conclusions
Using wax as an antiozonant in
rubber products is an effective
protection via migration to the
surface of the rubber. It is crucial for
compound designers to completely
understand the storage conditions
of the product so that they can
choose a suitable wax – including
the dosage, paraffin ratio and
carbon distribution. According
to the experiment result, 1.65phr in
tire sidewall compounds with around
60% paraffin (40% microcrystalline)
wax can not only provide good anti-
ozone capability but also result in
good appearance after storage at
References
1) Im S H and Choi S S, Elastomers
and Composites, 2009, Vol. 44,
397-400
2) Morche K, The Los Angeles Rubber
Group (TLARGI), Inc. Conference,
1984
3) Cataldo F, Polymer Degradation
and Stability, 2001, Vol. 72, 287-296
4) Choi S S, Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, 1999, Vol. 73,
2587-2593
5) Agrawal S L, Mandot S,
Bandyopadhyay S, Mukhopadhyay
R and Deuri A S, Progress in
Rubber, Plastics and Recycling
Technology, 2005, Vol. 21, 139-153
6) Nah S H and Thomas A G, Journal
of Polymer Science, 1980, Vol. 18,
511-521
7) Sharj-Sharifi M, Taghvaei-Ganjali
S, Motiee F, Journal of Rubber
Research, 2020

44
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Studying rubber epoxidation

Development of highly dispersible silica and silica-silane systems is enabling
improvements in tire performance characteristics, extending the magic triangle
by Siti Salina Sarkawi, Roland Ngeow, Ahmad Kifli Che Aziz, Rassimi Abdul Ghani, Rohaidah Abd Rahim and Teku Zakwan Zaeimoedin,
Malaysian Rubber Board, Technology & Engineering Division, Malaysia

R
olling resistance, wet
grip and tread wear
are often referred to
as the magic triangle
of tire performance.1,2
Improvement in one
conventionally leads to a trade-off
in the other two. Enhancements in
wet grip usually result in increased
rolling resistance for general-purpose
elastomers.3 The development of
modified elastomers, such as solution
styrene butadiene rubber (S-SBR),
and epoxidized natural rubber
(ENR), as well as the development
of highly dispersible silica1,4,5 and
silica-silane systems4,6,7 have made
it possible to expand the tire magic
triangle. Modified elastomers with
silica-silane systems have the best
of both properties: high wet grip
and low rolling resistance, without
sacrificing wear potential.8-10
As rubber is a viscoelastic
material, its behavior can be
characterized by the curve
of loss tangent (tanδ) against
temperature,11,12 normally measured
using dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA). During the DMA test, a
viscoelastic material is undergoing
sinusoidal shear deformation, where
storage modulus (E’) is the stored
energy representing the elastic
characteristic of the material, and
loss modulus (E”) is the energy
dissipated as heat, representing the
viscous characteristic of the material.
From this data, the ratio of the loss
modulus to the storage modulus
(E”/E’) is defined as the tan delta (δ).
The wet grip and rolling
resistance mechanisms have
different temperature–frequency
characteristics and hysteresis
profiles.9,13 Hence, from tanδ
as a function of temperature,14
predictions about the important
properties of tread rubber can be
made as presented in Table 1. It
has been demonstrated that there
is a correlation between the glass
transition temperature and abrasion
resistance.14 In the temperature range
from 0°C to ambient temperature,
Figure 1: Prediction of 1
tread properties from
tanδ curve as function
of temperature for NR
and ENR compounds.
The curve is from
DMA testing at 10Hz
tanδ relates to skid behavior, such
as grip and traction of the tire on
wet or dry roads.14 The temperature
range between 30°C and 70°C (which
is the operating temperature of the
tire) gives the tire’s relationship
with rolling resistance. Hence,
it is common to use the tanδ value
at 0°C as an indication of wet grip,
and the tanδ value at 60°C as an
indication of rolling resistance.15
The relationship of these tire
performances from the tanδ curve as
a function of temperature for NR and
ENR25 compounds is schematically
demonstrated in Figure 1.
Research work on ENR compounds
and their blends for tire applications
has been extensively carried out by
the Malaysian Rubber Board. A
comparison of carbon black and
silica reinforced NR, ENR25 and
Table 1: The indication of tire performance from tanδ temperature curve
Tire performance indicator
Abrasion resistance
Low-temperature properties
Wet traction
Rolling resistance
Heat build-up
*Range depends on the peak of tanδ
ENR50 – as well as ENR blends on
the wet grip and rolling resistance
ratings – are summarized in Figure
2 (STAR3 plot). The ratings are
calculated from the tanδ at 0°C and
60°C values from DMA temperature
sweep testing at 10Hz. NR filled
with 55phr carbon black is taken
as the reference and other rubber
compounds are rated accordingly.
The higher wet grip rating implies
higher tanδ at 0°C than the reference
compound, which signifies better
wet traction. On the other hand, the
higher rolling resistance rating means
lower tanδ at 60°C than the reference
compound, and implies lower rolling
resistance, which resulted in better
fuel economy.
The Morton and Krol3 line
is included in the STAR3 plot for
comparison. It is worth noting that
Temperature zone (°C)
-100 to -20*
-20
+20
+20 to +60
+80 to +100

46

Table 2: Performance of ENR-silica tire*
Test ENR25/silica Rating
Wet grip index 1.57 A 1.27
Rolling resistance 9.44 E 10.4
coefficient, Cr
Rolling noise, dB(A) 70 2 waves
*195/55R15 85V
in the plots published by Morton
and Krol3 and Baker,16,17 the higher
rating for wet grip of a particular tire
tread compound indicates better wet
traction. However, the lower rating
for rolling resistance in their plot3,16,17
indicates lower fuel consumption,
which is an inverse for the rolling
resistance rating shown in the STAR3
plot. Higher rolling resistance rating
in the STAR3 plot shows lower fuel
consumption of a compound.
The carbon black-filled NR,
silica-filled NR compound and gum
NR (unfilled NR) crosses the Morton
and Krol3 line in the STAR3 plot
(Figure 2). This line shows that, with
general-purpose elastomers like NR,
improved wet grip rating usually results
in decreased rolling resistance rating.9
The gum NR compound also exhibits
the highest rolling resistance rating
and gum ENR25 compound exhibits
one of the highest wet grip ratings.
The STAR3 plot consists of two
distinct lines – namely carbon black
(solid line) and silica (dashed line). A
silane coupling agent was used for all
the silica-filled compounds prepared
in this study. Improvement in wet
grip and rolling resistance ratings
for the silica-silane ENR compound
(compared with the carbon black
and carbon black/silica compounds)
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
2
Control Rating
C
E
71 2 waves
Figure 2: STAR3 plot can clearly be seen in the STAR3
of rolling resistance
and wet grip ratings
plot where the silica line is shifted
of ENR compounds from the carbon black line. Most of
compared with NR the dual filler systems with blends
and other blends
of ENR25 and other elastomers fall
around the carbon black line region.
The observation in the STAR3
plot is consistent with the previous
comparison study by Baker et al16 on
ENR25 filled with various loadings
of silica and carbon black. They
measured the wet grip and rolling
resistance ratings using two-wheel
Schallamach trailers and Heenan
& Froude tire test rigs respectively.
Their results showed that silica-
filled ENR25 compounds behaved
differently compared with general-
purpose elastomers,3 where the silica-
filled ENR compound has both high
wet grip and low rolling resistance,
which have potential for use in tire
tread compounds. There was interest
from tire companies at the time, but
manufacturers did not take up these
technologies because fuel prices
were low and the environment
was not a major issue.18
The effect of epoxidation can
be clearly observed from the STAR3
plot (Figure 2). Both carbon black-
filled ENR50 and silica-filled ENR50
compounds exhibit high wet grip
ratings. The range of wet grip rating
can be separated between ENR50,
ENR25 and NR, indicating the
major influence of the epoxidation
level. The range of wet grip rating
for ENR25 and its blends is located
in the middle of the STAR3 plot
and is basically higher than that
for NR compounds. By comparison,
the ENR25 gum is shown to have
wet grip rating comparable to filled
ENR50. The ENR25 compound
also exhibited better rolling
resistance ratings compared
with the ENR50 compound,
which exhibited the highest wet
grip rating measured in this study.
The top right quadrant in
the STAR3 plot is the preference
for all tire tread compounders –
although it is challenging to achieve
this in practice. A balance of wet
grip and rolling resistance ratings
needs to be considered; at the same
time, it is key to maintain the third
important property of a tire tread:
wear resistance.
ENR25 filled with 50phr silica has
the best combination of wet grip and
rolling resistance ratings compared
with NR filled with 55phr carbon
black (the reference compound).
The ENR25 compound also exhibits
better wet grip ratings compared
with the NR silica compound. The
47
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
excellent wet grip and low rolling
resistance ratings of the silica-
reinforced ENR25 tread compound
was verified when the actual
passenger car tires were tested.19
The performance of silica-filled
ENR25-based tread tires in terms of
wet grip – compared with a control
tire tread size of 195/55R15 85V –
has been conducted according to
UNECE R11720 requirements on
wet adhesion at the IDIADA proving
ground in Spain. The control tire
tread is based on an S-SBR/BR/
NR tread filled with carbon black/
silica with similar tread pattern
and construction to the silica-filled
ENR-tread tire. The silica-filled
ENR PCR tire achieves excellence
performance in terms of wet grip
(A rating) as shown in Table 2.19
The silica-filled ENR tread
gives shorter stopping braking
distances compared with the
control tread, especially on
wet asphalt as shown in Figure
3. The braking performance test,
conducted at various speeds, has
shown that the silica-filled ENR
tread exhibits better grip and
stopping distances than the S-SBR/
BR/NR filled with carbon black/
silica control tread.19 On wet surfaces,
the silica-filled ENR tire stops 8.1m
shorter than the control tire when
tested at a speed of 80km/h.
The results from this study
demonstrate that the silica-filled
ENR25 tread compound successfully
extends the magic triangle of a
tire. The improvement in the tire
performance provided by ENR25
suggests it is an attractive choice
of elastomer in tire applications. tire
48
Figure 3: Comparison References
of test car stopping
distance between 1) Luginsland H-D, A Review on the
silica-filled ENR and Chemistry and the Reinforcement
control tread on dry of the Silica-Silane Filler System
and wet asphalt
for Rubber Applications, Aachen:
Shaker, ISBN 3-8322-0950-6
(2002)
2) Tullo A, Stretching Tires’ Magic
Triangle. Chem. Eng. News.
87(46):10 (2009)
3) Morton G F, Krol L H, A New Tread
Rubber for Radial Tyres. Paper
Presented at 122nd Meeting of the
Rubber Division of the American
Chemical Society, Chicago,
October (1982)
4) Meon W, Blume A, Luginsland H D,
Uhrlandt S, Chapter 7 - Silica and
Silanes in Rubber Compounding:
Chemistry and Applications, 2nd
Ed., Boca Raton, CRC Press, 251-
332 (2016)
5) Roy R, Green Light, Tire
Technology International, July 2011;
47-53 (2011)
6) Noordermeer J W M, Dierkes
W K, Chapter 3 - Silica-Filled
Rubber Compounds in Rubber
Technologist’s Handbook, Volume
2, Shawbury, UK, Smithers-Rapra
Technology, 59-95 (2009)
7) Kaewsakul W, Sahakaro
K, Dierkes W K, Noordermeer
J W M, Optimization of Mixing
Conditions for Silica-Reinforced
Natural Rubber Tire Tread
Compounds. Presented at the
180th Technical Meeting of the
Rubber Division of the American
Chemical Society, Cleveland (2011)
8) Che Aziz A K, Sarkawi S S, Abd
Rahim R, Green Retreaded Tyre
Based on Epoxidised Natural
Rubber (ENR) Blends in Urban
Buses, J. Polym. Sci. Tech. 2(1):
45-55, (2017)
9) Gelling I R, Epoxidised Natural
Rubber, NR Technology, 18(2): 21-29
(1987)
10) Martin P J, Brown P, Chapman
A V, Cook S, Silica-Reinforced
Epoxidised Natural Rubber
Tire Treads - Performance and
Durability, Rub. Chem. and Tech,
88(3): 390-411 (2015)
11) Guy L, Daudey S, Cochet L, Bomal
Y, New Insights in the Dynamic
Properties of Precipitated Silica
Filled Rubber Using a New High
Surface Silica, Kautschuk Gummi
Kunststoffe, July/ August 2009;
383-391 (2009)
12) Wang M J, Effect of Polymer-
Filler and Filler-Filler Interactions
on Dynamic Properties of Filled
Vulcanizates, Rubb Chem. and
Tech, 71(3):520-589 (1998)
13) Baker C S L, Gelling I R, Newell R,
Epoxidized Natural Rubber, Rub.
Chem. and Tech. 58(1): 67-85 (1985)
14) Nordsiek K H, The Integral Rubber
Concept – an approach to an
ideal tire tread rubber, Kautschuk
Gummi Kunststoffe 38, Jahrgang Nr
3/85 (1985)
15) Terrill E R, Centea M, Evans L
R, MacIsaac Jr J D, Dynamic
Mechanical Properties of
Passenger and Light Truck
Tire Treads, US Department of
Transportation, National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration,
Washington DC (2010)
16) Baker C S L, Gelling I R, Samsuri A,
Epoxidised Natural Rubber. J. Nat.
Rubb. Res. 1(2): 135-144 (1986)
17) Gelling IR, Epoxidised Natural
Rubber, J. Nat. Rubb. Res.
6(3):184-205, (1991)
18) Ab-Malek K and Roberts A D,
Chapter 8: Green Tyres in The Role
of Natural Rubber - Turning Tyres
Green, Malaysian Rubber Board,
Kuala Lumpur, 159-182 (2015)
19) Che Aziz A K, Sarkawi S S, Abdul
Ghani R, Kamaruddin A, Abdul
Rahim R, Yen Wan N, Mohd
Rasdi F R, Silica Reinforced ENR
Tires, Tire Technology International,
90-93 (2018)
20) UNECE Regulation No 117 Uniform
Provisions Concerning the
Approval of Tyres with Regard to
rolling Sound emissions and to
adhesion on wet surfaces (2007)
 Change to the Best.

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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Elastomer blends for Mars tires

With metal-based wheel designs proving to be of limited use on Martian rovers,
rubber solutions could represent the future of planet-based colonization missions
by Rafal Anyszkaa and Anke Blume, University of Twente, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Department of Mechanics of Solids, Surfaces & Systems (MS3),
Chair of Elastomer Technology & Engineering, Netherlands

a
Lodz University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Polymer and Dye Technology, Poland

A
lthough interest in Right: Advances in
rubber development
Mars exploration is could prove vital to
growing very rapidly the success of future
missions on Mars
due to societal,
commercial and
scientific benefits,
the availability of materials tailor-
made for the Martian environment
is limited. The conditions on the
surface of Mars differ significantly
from the Earth’s environment.
The density of its atmosphere is
significantly lower, resulting in lower
pressure and a higher temperature
range. The distance between Mars
and the sun is much higher than that
of Earth so the average temperature
is significantly lower, approximately
-60°C, ranging from -120°C to 30°C.
Erosive dust storms consisting of
sharp-edged particles are frequent on
its surface. On top of this, the biggest
destructive factor is the cosmic
radiation, which easily reaches
the Martian surface due to the lack
of a magnetosphere. Because of all
these reasons, materials used for
Martian missions should be properly
designed and tested to ensure good
and long-lasting performance in the rovers, but with the start of the weight capacity that can be delivered
Martian environment. Curiosity mission, it turned out that to the planet’s surface. In light of this,
Currently, the materials used for aluminum is not able to carry the a new lightweight tire design must
Martian missions are chosen from load of a rover weighing almost 1 also be taken into consideration.
commercially available materials ton. To overcome this issue, NASA Nevertheless, application of
(mostly metal alloys or ceramics), proposed a completely new concept2 rubber in Martian rover wheel design
which exhibit good radiation, thermal based on a shape-memory nickel- could bring certain benefits. Rubber
and aging resistance. However, titanium alloy called nitinol.3 NASA returns to its original shape after
in view of long-term exploration studies conducted on nitinol alloys deformation, which gives it high
missions and future colonization, date back to the late 1960s, when it elastic and damping performance.
many of these are expected to fail due was determined that they exhibit Currently, the rovers need to move
to their limited performance – as was promising shape-memory properties at very low speeds to minimize
recently evidenced by the Curiosity for potential space applications.4 dynamic shocks, which may damage
rover’s wheel damage.1 Its wheels Rubber has been excluded for a long their sensitive equipment. Thus, they
are made of a single block of thin time from this discussion – mainly are designed to trek around 100m
aluminum sheet, which makes them because the low temperatures present a day – with maximum speeds of
lightweight. However, in contact with on Mars are far below the glass 0.18km/h. Application of rubber tires
pointy rocks and frequent dynamic transition temperature of rubber with good damping performance
deformation, the thin sheets of blends used in tires on Earth. In would make it possible to increase
aluminum received severe damage. At addition, the weight of rubber wheels the speed of Martian rovers, enabling
the beginning of Martian exploration is a point of concern.5 Current tire exploration without posing a threat
missions, aluminum wheels provided designs are far too heavy for Martian to the sensitive equipment. Moreover,
sufficient performance for Martian rover missions, which have limited for future crewed missions and

50

colonization, the performance of
rovers (speed, reducing vibrations,
capacity) necessitates the use of
rubber, which provides the best
elastic and damping properties.
Facing the Martian cold
The glass transition temperature
(Tg) indicates the lowest working
temperature before the elastomer
loses its elasticity and become brittle.
Tg depends mainly on the molecular
structure of the rubber chain and
can be tailored during its synthesis.
Not many elastomers can withstand
the minimal Martian temperatures.
From the commercially available
rubbers, only butadiene rubber (BR)
and silicone rubber (VMQ) can offer
such a low Tg. In fact, the lowest
Tg value measured for an elastomer
belongs to poly(diethylsiloxane) (Tg
= -143°C)6 from the silicone family.
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
To facilitate good low-temperature
performance, a blend of BR and
VMQ could be used. BR compounds
exhibit high wear resistance and
better mechanical properties,
whereas VMQ compounds show very
good thermal and aging resistance.
Therefore, BR/VMQ blending
could be performed to combine
their advantageous properties. In
such an arrangement, BR should
comprise the continuous phase in the
blend to assure sufficient abrasion
resistance. However, BR/VMQ
blending is a challenging task due
to their low chemical compatibility.
To overcome this issue, a chemical
coupling based on the thiol-ene click
reaction between the elastomers
can be developed, as investigated
in a preliminary study.7 In such an
arrangement, a high-vinyl VMQ
rubber is required to be reactive
with the thiols of the coupling agent.
One of the widely known thiol
coupling agents is trimethylolpropane
tris(3-mercaptopropionate), which
was successfully used in silicone/
organic rubber coupling.7,8 Another
approach to compatibilize VMQ
with BR can be a chemical grafting
of organic hydrocarbon moieties
onto silicone macromolecules that
exhibit better chemical affinity to
organic rubber chains. This solution
was already successfully used for
VMQ compatibilization with natural
rubber.9 In fact, compatibilization of
silicones with hydrocarbon organic
elastomers has garnered significant
attention recently due to profitable
combinations of both rubber properties
resulting in often synergistic effects.
Compatibilization of VMQ/BR
blends as matrices for Martian tire
compounds could be a next step in
the development of this technology.
Protecting against radiation
Mars does not have a protective
ozone layer, nor a magnetosphere,
which could protect the surface of
the planet from UV and high-energy
particles, respectively. Therefore,
all objects present on the Martian
surface are exposed to much higher
radiation doses than on Earth.
High-energy radiation causes severe
damage to rubber macromolecules,
leading either to chain scission or
cross-linking, resulting in polymer
softening or hardening, respectively.
Both effects are of a radical nature
and pose a significant threat to the
viscoelastic behavior of rubber,
which can affect its properties
very significantly. As a result,
the designed elastic or damping
properties of the rubber compound
could change rapidly resulting in
deterioration of the performance.
To ensure long-lasting
performance of a rubber compound
in this radiation environment,
radical annihilators containing
51
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

aromatic groups can be added to material solutions seem to have 8) Sun, Z., Huang, Q., Wang, Y., Zhang,
reduce the rate of the radiation- reached an edge of their applicability L., & Wu, Y. (2017). Structure and
initiated radical reactions. For in view of Martian crewed missions properties of silicone rubber/
example, a tetraphenylphenyl group and colonization. Aluminum alloys styrene–butadiene rubber blends
can be grafted to the rubber chains provide only limited performance with in situ interface coupling by
facilitating better resistance to the for small Martian rovers, whereas thiol-ene click reaction. Industrial &
irradiation effects.10 The solar and the new, heavy rovers need wheels Engineering Chemistry Research,
galactic cosmic rays consist mainly with much better viscoelastic 56(6), 1471-1477
of high-energy protons. Therefore, properties. In the future, the 9) Li, M., Li, Y., Zhang, J., & Feng, S.
nanofillers improving the proton rovers will need to carry much (2014). Effect of compatibilizers
radiation resistance can be added, for higher loads and reach much on the miscibility of natural
example, nano-TiO2,11 nanodiamonds greater speeds. Considering such rubber/silicone rubber blends.
or graphene nano-platelets,12 carbon conditions, the design of new types Polymer Engineering & Science,
nanotubes, or nano-ZnO.13 of rubber compounds, capable 54(2), 355-363
However, the application of of withstanding the Martian 10) Jiang, Z., et al. (2007). Journal of
the radiation-protecting additives environment, is forthcoming. applied polymer science, 104(6),
only slows down the chemical The low temperatures of Mars 4144-4148
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macromolecules by inhibiting the becomes brittle below its Tg. This Instruments and Methods in
radical reactions. Once the damage can be solved by application of a Physics Research B 252, 212 218.
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properties of the rubber. Currently, of radical-scavenging fillers and 13) Borjanović, V., et al. (2012).
a plethora of techniques have been application of self-healing groups Journal of Vacuum Science &
investigated which might facilitate preserving the molecular structure Technology B, Nanotechnology
the self-healing of polymer chains. of the rubber chains. and Microelectronics: Materials,
To preserve the dynamic There is still a huge, developing Processing, Measurement, and
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promising solutions seem to be enabling their application in severe 10.1116/1.4724310
application of: conditions – all that is required is 14) Guo, H., Han, Y., Zhao, W., Yang,
• Aromatic disulfide its discovery. tire J., & Zhang, L. (2020). Universally
metathesis,14-16 based on a autonomous self-healing elastomer
dynamic exchange of covalent References with high stretchability. Nature
bonds between sulfur atoms 1) https://www.planetary.org/ Communications, 11(1), 1-9
connected to aromatic rings. articles/08190630-curiosity-wheel- 15) Balaji, K., Singh, M., Pathasarthy, V.,
• Benzaldehyde and amine damage (access July 19, 2021). Park, C., Sahoo, N. G., Yun, G. J., &
reaction forming imine dynamic 2) Ross, M. (2019), Space race, Rana, S. (2020). Disulfide exchange
bonds that can easily reform Tire Technology International, assisted self-healing epoxy/PDMS/
after breakage even at room March, 20-24 graphene oxide nanocomposites.
temperature.17,18 3) Pelton, A. R. (2011). Nitinol fatigue: Nanoscale Advances
• Aromatic alcohol reaction a review of microstructures and 16) Chang, K., Jia, H., & Gu, S. Y. (2019).
with isocyanate to form a mechanisms. Journal of Materials A transparent, highly stretchable,
weak urethane bond that can Engineering and Performance, self-healing polyurethane based on
easily break and reconnect.19 20(4), 613-617 disulfide bonds. European Polymer
All these bonds can relatively easily 4) Cross, W. B., Kariotis, A. H., Journal, 112, 822-831
break and reform, preserving the & Stimler, F. J. (1969). Nitinol 17) Zhao, P. C., Li, W., Huang, W., & Li,
molecular structure of polymers. characterization study (Vol. 1433). C. H. (2020). A self-healing polymer
However, the self-healing performance NASA, Langley Research Center. with fast elastic recovery upon
of all these systems have, until 5) https://www.pirelli.com/global/ stretching. Molecules, 25(3), 597
now, only been tested by means of en-ww/life/why-rubber-tyres-don- 18) Feng, Z., Yu, B., Hu, J., Zuo, H., Li,
recovery from mechanical damage, t-work-on-mars (access July 19, J., Sun, H., ... & Zhang, L. (2019).
such as a cut. Therefore, there is still 2021) Multifunctional vitrimer-like
a knowledge gap that needs to be 6) Beatty, C. L. & Karasz, F. E. polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS):
filled with the results of investigations (1975). Transitions in poly (diethyl recyclable, self-healable, and
into self-healing systems after their siloxane). Journal of Polymer water-driven malleable covalent
exposure to radiation. Science: Polymer Physics Edition, networks
13(5), 971-975 19) Li, M., Ding, H., Yang, X., Xu, L.,
Summary 7) Anyszka R., Blume A. (2020). Xia, J., & Li, S. (2019). Preparation
Within this paper, the potential Will Martian rovers ever run on and properties of self-healing
application of rubber for Martian rubber tires?, TireTechnology polyurethane elastomer derived
rover tires development was EXPO, Hanover, DOI: 10.13140/ from tung-oil-based polyphenol.
discussed. The currently applied RG.2.2.15137.56161 ACS omega, 5(1), 529-536

52
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Bio-based alternative – on natural, renewable resources

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elastomer@kuraray.com www.elastomer.kuraray.com
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Cut and chip measurement
Investigating laboratory testing methodologies to enable development of highly cut-
and-chip-resistant rubber compounds before undertaking further tire development
by Radek Stoček, PRL Polymer Research Lab and Centre of Polymer Systems, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Czech Republic; Gert Heinrich, Technische
Universität Dresden, Institut für Textilmaschinen und Textile Hochleistungswerkstofftechnik, Germany; Reinhold Kipscholl, Coesfeld, Germany
T
ire development is
a complicated and
highly sophisticated
process in which many
conflicting properties
must be balanced
with the aid of design, choice of
materials, requirements on complex
physical properties and, especially,
their dynamic-mechanical and
thermal behavior. The most intensive
processes affecting the tire behavior
are caused by interactions between
tire tread and road surface. Therefore,
the composition, structure and thus
the roughness of the road surfaces
play a crucial role when designing
suitable tread rubber compounds
with long-term durability. When tires
are exposed to harsh conditions on a
subgrade, the tread rubber operates
close to its critical mechanical
behavior, with locally increased
dissipated energy around the
asperities, compared with operating
conditions on a common, more or
less smooth road surface. Due to the
2 observed on highway commercial
54
Figure 1: The cut and
chip wear phenomena
of a truck tire tread, left
[1] and combination of
classical and cut and
chip wear of motocross
tire tread, right
Figure 2: Scheme of
tread deformation and
initiation of CC process
during tire rolling3
1
Classical wear
tire’s exposure to harsh conditions,
one observes considerable cut and
chip (CC) wear phenomena as shown
in Figure 1, left.1 Sometimes, these
wear phenomena are also known as
CCC, which stands for cut, chip and
chunk wear field conditions.2 In the
case of tires, CC wear refers to the
detachment or breakage of rubber
material from the treads when riding
on a rough road surface (for example,
gravel roads, roots, stalks). This is
most commonly associated with off-
the-road tires (OTR), agricultural,
industrial, light truck (LTT), SUV
and motocross/enduro (MX) tires.
Moreover, this phenomenon is also
trucks as well as all-season passenger
cars and touring motorbike tires. In
Figure 1, right, a photograph of a
typically worn tread of an MX tire
is presented as an example, where
a combination of generated classical
wear during rolling over common
roads and partial CC damage due to
operating on hard terrain, are visible.
From this wide range of different
types of tires that are affected by
CC damage in daily operation, it
is obvious that this issue affects all
tire manufacturers and their R&D
CC damage
strategies. The CC wear process
determines the lifetime of the tire
and also directly influences the safety
of operating tires due to grip losses.
As a tire performs its function
on the hard terrain, each surface
area element of the tread undergoes
mechanical loading over the tire
footprint. It generates friction
along with heat generation during
tread deformation around the
road asperity, resulting in CC
wear processes. Figure 2 presents
a simplified visualization of local
tread deformation and CC initiation
when a tread block rolls over a single
distinct road asperity, where the block
is firmly fixed with its top part to the
tire. There are five phases in moving
the block over the footprint. As the
tire rotates and moves forward, the
block first approaches the asperity.
In the second phase, the block creates
contact and adheres to the asperity.
In the third phase, the bottom part of
the block initially sticks to the surface
of the asperity due to sticking friction
(static friction) characterized by
the shearing stress, τss, defined
via local pressure, p, and sticking
force transmission coefficient, µ,
along the footprint:
τss=μ∙p.
If the upper part of the block
slips relative to the asperity surface,
then the block with bottom part
adhering to the asperity surface
is deformed, and the deformation
induces shearing stress acting against
the static friction. If the induced
shearing stress exceeds the static
friction limit, the block changes from

sticking to sliding, which may occur
in phase four. This phase represents
the key mechanism predominantly
contributing to CC phenomena,
where the frictional forces during
slipping of the block over the asperity
cause a significant increase of stress
concentration behind the asperity,
which leads to crack initiation and
its subsequent propagation. Phase
four occurs close to the exit of the
footprint, when the block leaves the
footprint, as presented in phase five.
Due to permanent rolling and thus
cyclic loading/unloading processes
over harsh terrain, the initiated
cracks grow up to total release of
rubber particles, with sizes ranging
from hundreds of micrometers up
to a few centimeters. Contrary to
this, in the case of fatigue abrasion
while driving on concrete or asphalt
road surfaces under low-slip
conditions, the size of the detached
particles is in the micrometer
range (~1-100μm).4 Moreover, the
dimensions of the detached particles
depend on the applied loading, the
geometry of the asperity and the
resulting dissipation energy behind
the asperity during the slipping
phase. From the fracture mechanical
point of view, it is obvious that the
CC process is caused by a high
tearing energy level close to the
ultimate strength, whereas the
fatigue abrasion proceeds at much
lower tearing energies close to the
endurance limit respective to the
intrinsic strength of the rubber.5-8
A reliable direct laboratory
prediction of the CC behavior of
different rubber compounds, before
the final fabrication of the tire, is
of great importance due to the high
cost of producing experimental tires
and testing them in the field. Typical
CC field tests are performed with a
minimum of two and a maximum of
four experimental tires of identical
composition, dimension and design,
which are mounted, for example, on a
light truck. The tire inflation pressure
of about 6 bar is kept constant for all
tested tires and the load of the truck
is adjusted in accordance with the
footprint shape. The test is run for
approximately 1,000km at a speed
of 40km/h, on a gravel road with
stone sizes of around 10-30mm,
where the stones are sharp and
hard. The final evaluation of a tire
with respect to CC phenomena is
performed via visual inspection
versus a reference tire. The evaluation
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Figure 3: The ICCA 3
(left) and the isolated
chamber in detail (right)
Figure 4: A schematic
of the ICCA measuring
principle (left), with: a
pneumatic actuator (A);
a two-axis load cell (B);
a holder + impactor
(C); a cylindrical rubber
test specimen (D); an IR
temperature sensor (E)
and a reflective surface
for the IR beam direction
(F), and a photograph
of the ICCA (right) with
the location of the
spot of temperature 4
measurement
is based on estimating the number
and extent of defects by a grading
scheme to generate qualitative
parameters that can be correlated
with material lab test quantitative
parameters. This is a very extensive,
time- and money-consuming process.
Therefore, to streamline the
development of highly cut- and chip-
resistant rubber compounds, the
realistic prediction of CC behavior
using lab experiments is considered
as a prospective, promising pursuit.
To this end, the lab test method must
account for the transient nature
of the contact between asperity
and rubber, including the abrupt
growth of apparent pressure- and
time-dependent material modulus
and slipping under friction.
Following these rules, the lab test,
in principle, would simulate the
real process occurring at the tire,
which is simply the pulling out of the
rubber piece from the tire surface
by a sharp asperity in two steps:
‘cutting’ and subsequent ‘chipping’.
In correspondence with the Figure 2
phase four, the cutting occurs when
the tire slips over a sharp asperity
with sufficient force that the surface
is cut and thus a new surface area is
generated. Chipping follows cutting,
and involves fracturing away a piece
of rubber from the surface.
Traditional lab CC test methods
with small rotating rubber wheels –
presented, for example, in references,2,
9-12
– employ simple devices during
which loading conditions cannot be
applied sufficiently and reproducibly
(due to the very low applied impact
energy) and are not comparable with
the real loading conditions of a tire.
Such simple CC test methods show,
for certain specimen geometries
and loading conditions, how the
rate of abrasion can be predicted
only in a qualitatively approximate
manner. In other words, standard
characterization of CC wear takes
into consideration only the wear loss
of a sample after a single fixed test
time. Standard CC tests provide only
a wear loss, which is a qualitative
parameter, and any physical
parameter directly describing the
CC process is missing. Additionally,
the wear rate is not considered
to be time dependent which, in
principle, is a misleading proposal
leading to adverse correlations
with field tests. For example, in
Cut and Chip Resistance of NR–BR
Blend Compounds,11 it was reported
that the rubber compound rating
obtained by means of a simple CC
test method showed a completely
opposite trend to that from the field
test. Nevertheless, Beatty & Miksch9, 10
performed valuable, pioneering work
corresponding with their time and
technical possibilities.
Therefore, an advanced testing
method and fully instrumented
equipment – Instrumented
Chip&Cut Analyzer (ICCA, Coesfeld,
Germany) has been introduced
by Stoček et al.13,14 The ICCA is
shown in Figure 3. It controls the
radial (normal force), FN, and
determines the tangential forces, Ft,
over controlled related impact time,
relating to contact distance, under
55
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

adjustable loading conditions at each Figure 5: Scheme 5

of sample deformation
impact by the indenter simulating and initiation of
asperity, where even indenters of CC process during
varied tip geometry to simulate a lab testing on ICCA
including forces acting
broad range of asperity types can be
Figure 6: An example
implemented. This general principle of the CC damage, P, in
enables realization of the shearing relation to the number
and slipping mechanisms. The testing of impacting cycles

principle is shown in Figure 4, left,

as a scheme of the ICCA, including
the setup for in situ measurements
of temperature developments during
a CC wear process. Figure 4, right,
presents the real location of the spot
of a temperature measurement on the
analyzed wear surface. The testing
principle is generally based on cyclic
impacting of a small, rotating, round
rubber sample (D) of diameter 55mm
with user-defined speed, while a
6
pneumatic actuator (A) actuates the
impactor (C), which hits the sample
with the given loading frequency,
f, where the normal force, FN, is
controlled during the defined impact
time. This impact time corresponds
with the contact time of the tire
tread with the footprint asperity,
and ranges from a few milliseconds
to tens of milliseconds. The normal
force, FN, and tangential forces, Ft
are measured continuously due to
a two-axis loading cell (B). After
the impact time lapse, the impactor
releases the test sample and the rotation of the sample to measure the an enwrapping curve is calculated,
loading cycle repeats with the given temperature development directly which is numerically integrated from
frequency. In Figure 5, the scheme behind the impact at the location of a certain starting point C(0) to a cycle
of the complex loading principle the significant stress concentration and count of interest, C(n). Each sum
representing one single impact is crack nucleation or even propagation. will be divided by the corresponding
shown. The diagram of the force How can the CC behavior of the cycle number C(k) (0 < k < n). This
versus impact time demonstrates rubber material analyzed utilizing (scalar) value quantifies the CC
the capability of the equipment the ICCA method be quantitatively damage at cycle count k and is called
to realize the force-controlled determined? This is the key point of ‘CC damage, P’. At least, the curve
measurement over a time range of the lab testing methodology, which P vs. cycle count (k; k = 0 to n) is a
milliseconds, and the measurement makes the prediction highly efficient description of the CC behavior under
of the resulting tangential force. and is based on the determination the given load conditions. More
Moreover, a photograph capturing of the rate of damage. As the details on the numerical calculation
the crack initiation and growth tangential force, Ft, is the resulting of the CC damage parameter, P, can
behind the impactor during slipping answer on impact force, FN, which is be found in previous papers.13,15
included in the scheme demonstrates assumed to increase proportionally In Figure 6, an example of the
the CC wear proceeding during the with increasing roughness, relating evaluated CC damage, P, in relation
lab analyses. From the scheme, it to the penetrated surface, it is to the number of impacting cycles, is
is obvious that the testing protocol taken to calculate the degree of visualized for two different materials,
and resulting mechanism completely damage in every load cycle. A CC whereas the evolution of CC wear
correspond with the tread wear damage parameter, P, is calculated, processes of the analyzed rubber
mechanism during rolling of a tire representing the reciprocal equivalent samples is displayed with the two
over harsh terrain as presented in to CC resistance. Thus, the key associated curves. Clearly, the right
Figure 2. During the complete test, characterization factor evaluated sample has higher CC damage and
the temperature development of the from a multi-channel data acquisition thus exhibits higher P value compared
wear process is determined in situ is the CC damage, which is calculated with the left sample. Moreover,
using the IR sensor (E) and directed using a numerical algorithm. The the evolution of CC damage with
with the adjustable reflecting area tangential force shows an increasing increasing time and respective impact
(F) to the worn surface visible in scattering with increasing time, cycles is clearly demonstrated.
Figure 4, right. Moreover, Figure 4, according to an increasing roughness To successfully integrate the ICCA
left, presents the counterclockwise of the sample surface. For this reason, method, as well as the equipment, as a

56

7 Figure 7: Photographs
standard lab method in the industry,
it was necessary to perform validation
tests that confirm the correlation
between the lab and field test. In Chip
& Cut Wear of Truck Tire Treads,16
a unique comparison between the
CC laboratory tests of four rubber
compounds with the (expensive)
CC evaluation of the corresponding
four truck tires operating under
off-the-road conditions has been
reported. A good correlation has been
achieved between the compound
ranking list of CC laboratory tests
with the corresponding ranking list
of the tire’s CC protocol.
The lab test has been performed
using the ICCA, whereas the real
tire field tests were carried out by
Continental Deutschland on tires
with dimensions 205/75 R17.5 CHS3
124 L. Figure 7 shows photographs
of two selected tire treads of different
compounds after CC real field testing
and the corresponding samples after
ICCA lab testing.
Additionally, fundamental
studies13-15 performed on basic
compounds consisting of natural
rubber (NR), styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR) or butadiene rubber
(BR) have confirmed the well-known
influence of these rubber polymers
on CC behavior – the wear resistance
trends NR > SBR > BR. This is in full
agreement with experience across the
tire industry. Therefore, the ICCA
method has since been successfully
introduced as a standard lab method.
The successful development of
highly cut- and chip-resistant tire
treads primarily requires improved
rubber compounds based on new
generations of raw materials and
additives. To make development
highly efficient and world leading
in this increasingly competitive
segment, the implementation of
predictive lab testing methods
is a key point. The ICCA lab
testing method will accelerate the
development process before the tire
has been produced – speeding up
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
rubber for tires. Tire Technology
of tire treads of two
International, 78-82
different compounds
after CC real field testing 8) Robertson C G, Stoček R, Mars W
and associated with V, (2020), The Fatigue Threshold
samples after lab test15
of Rubber and Its Characterization
Using the Cutting Method. In:
Heinrich G., Kipscholl R., Stoček
R. (eds) Fatigue Crack Growth
in Rubber Materials. Advances
in Polymer Science, vol 286.
Springer, Cham. https://doi.
org/10.1007/12_2020_71
development times and minimizing 9) Beatty J R, (1979), Testing Apparatus
costly, extensive field tests. and Method for Measuring Cutting,
Chipping and Abrasion Resistance,
Acknowledgements U.S. Patent 4,144,740
This work was supported by the 10) Beatty J R & Miksch B, (1982),
Ministry of Education, Youth and A Laboratory Cutting and
Sports of the Czech Republic— Chipping Tester for Evaluation
DKRVO (RP/CPS/2020/004). tire Off-the-road and Heavy-duty Tire
Treads, Rubber Chemistry and
References Technology, 55, 1531-1546. doi.
1) Wunde M, Klüppel M, Vatterott org/10.5254/1.3535947
C, Tschimmel J, Lacayo- 11) Nah C, Jo B W, Kaang S, (1998),
Pineda J, Schulze A, Heinrich Cut and Chip Resistance of NR–BR
G, (2019), Verbesserung Blend Compounds, Journal of
der Laborvorhersagen zum Applied Polymer Science. 68, 1537–
Risswachstum und Verschleiß von 1541. doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-
LKW-Reifenlaufflächen, Kautschuk 4628(19980531)68:9<1537::AID-
Gummi Kunststoffe 72, 72-78 APP17>3.0.CO;2-W
2) Scherbakov M, Gurvich M 12) Ma J-H, Wang Y-X, Zhang L-Q,
R, (2003), A Method of Wear Wu Y-P, (2012), Improvement of
Characterization Under Cut, Chip Cutting and Chipping Resistance
and Chunk Conditions. Journal of of Carbon Black-Filled Styrene
Elastomers & Plastics. 35, 73-84. Butadiene Rubber by Addition
doi:10.1177/009524403031097 of Nanodispersed Clay, Journal
3) Breuer S, Rohrbach-Kerl A, (2015), of Applied Polymer Science.
Fahrzeugdynamik, ATZ/MTZ- 125, 3484–3489. doi.org/10.1002/
Fachbuch, Springer Fachmedien app.36710
Wiesbaden, DOI 10.1007/978-3- 13) Stoček R, Mars W V, Robertson
658-09475-1_2 C G, Kipscholl R, (2018),
4) Persson B N J, (2009), Theory Characterizing rubber’s resistance
of powdery rubber wear. J. against chip and cut behaviour.
Phys.: Condens. Matter 21. RUBBER WORLD. 257, 38-40
485001. doi:10.1088/0953- 14) Stoček R, Mars W V, Kipscholl
8984/21/48/485001 R, Robertson C G, (2019),
5) Stoček R, Stěnička M, Zádrapa P, Characterisation of cut and chip
(2021), Future trends in predicting behaviour for NR, SBR and BR
the complex fracture behaviour compounds with an instrumented
of rubber materials. Continuum laboratory device, Plastics, Rubber
Mech. Thermodyn. 33, 291–305. doi. and Composites. 48, 14-23. doi.org/
org/10.1007/s00161-020-00887-z 10.1080/14658011.2018.1468161
6) Stoček R, Ghosh P, Machů A, 15) Kipscholl R, Stoček R, (2019),
Chanda J, Mukhopadhyay R, (2020), Quantification of chip and cut
Fatigue Crack Growth vs. Chip behaviour of basic rubber (NR,
and Cut Wear of NR and NR/SBR SBR), RFP Rubber Fibres Plastics.
Blend-Based Rubber Compounds. 02, 88-91
In: Heinrich G., Kipscholl R., Stoček 16) Stoček R, Heinrich G, Schulze A,
R. (eds) Fatigue Crack Growth in Wunde M, Klüppel M, Vatterott
Rubber Materials. Advances in C, Tschimmel J, Lacayo-Pineda
Polymer Science, vol 286. Springer, J, Kipscholl R, (2020), Chip &
Cham. doi.org/10.1007/12_2020_67 Cut Wear of Truck Tire Treads:
7) Robertson C G, Mars W V, Comparison between laboratory
Stoček R, Kipscholl R, (2019), and real Tire Testing. Kautschuk
Characterizing durability of Gummi Kunststoffe, 73, 6, 51-55
57
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Evaluating viscoelasticity
Detailing a new, non-invasive and portable instrument
to characterize the viscoelastic properties of tires
by Francesco Carputo, Flavio Farroni, Andrea Genovese, Antonio Maiorano, Aleksandr Sakhnevych and Francesco Timpone,
Vehicle Dynamics Research Group, Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Italy

V
ehicle dynamics is Figure 1a: VESevo 1a 1b
device on the tire
heavily influenced
Figure 1b: Device
by the phenomena together with the
occurring in the acquisition unit
interface between Figure 2:
tire and road. Many Displacement raw
signal of the rod on
of these phenomena – such as grip the tread surface at 24°C
performance, rolling resistance and
wear – are largely dependent on
the viscoelastic properties of the
tire tread compound.1,2 Gaining
knowledge of these viscoelastic
properties in a non-destructive way is
a key factor for several applications, at high resolution and frequency. and the first indentation. During
from development of polymers for Simultaneously, the tread surface the second phase, the rod reaches the
innovative compounds to vehicle temperature is measured for each test, maximum point of the curve after the
performance and road safety, and is thanks to a compact IR sensor. first indentation, and other bounces
gaining the attention of industries and To record and manage the VESevo can then be identified depending
academics from different sectors.3,4 signals, an acquisition unit, shown on the material’s properties and its
This paper details a new tool for in Figure 1b, supports the device. temperature. The last phase consists
the viscoelastic characterization of This unit is plugged into a laptop to of the established continuous contact
tires. The proposed methodology is acquire and analyze the signals in real between rod and surface at the end of
non-destructive and non-invasive time during the test sessions, thanks transient dynamics.
and, thanks to a compact layout, to a proprietary, user-friendly GUI,
enables the characterization in situ. shown in Figure 2. Viscoelasticity analysis
The VESevo (Viscoelasticity With this interface, it is possible The displacement signals of the
Evaluation System Evolved) is a to check the temperature at which rod can be acquired in a wide
patented technology5 developed every measurement is carried out temperature range to identify the
by the Vehicle Dynamics Research on the tread and the quality of the glass transition temperature of the
Group of the Department of bounce displacements. tread compound and characterize
Industrial Engineering at the For explanatory purposes, a the full viscoelastic master curves
University of Naples Federico II. displacement raw signal of the rod in terms of storage modulus and
The principal aim of this device is during a single test is shown in Figure loss factor, corresponding to a
the evaluation of the viscoelastic 2. The first phase of the motion reference frequency. The tire tread
properties of tire tread compounds via corresponds to the impact of the is defined as a viscoelastic material
a non-destructive testing procedure. sensor rod on the tire tread surfaces and is usually based on styrene-
The device, in its prototype
configuration, was developed with a 2
pistol-shaped handle with the main
purpose of guaranteeing ergonomics
and stability, as shown in Figure 1a.
The inner structure of the VESevo
is based on a steel rod with a semi-
spherical indenter. Via a trigger, the
rod is brought up to a proper release
height. After that, by means of a
semi-automatic system that enables
high repeatability, the rod is let free to
bounce on the tread surface, sliding
through a suitable zero-friction guide
so that the damping phenomena
during rod motion can be negated.
The motion of the rod is
measured by an optical laser sensor

58
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

butadiene rubber (SBR) compounded Figure 3: Acquired 3

curves at different
with silica, carbon black, oils and tire temperatures
other fillers during the manufacturing Figure 4: VESevo
process. A viscoelastic material master curves at 1Hz for
behaves halfway between a purely a tire tread compound
elastic solid and a purely viscous one. Figure 5: VESevo
master curves for
This means a phase angle between different tire tread
0° and 90° occurs, comparing the compounds
stress and strain toward the time,
and the constitutive relationship
is based on a complex dynamic
modulus E^*. The corresponding
real part, called storage modulus
E1, is a measure of the elasticity of
4
the material linked to the ability to
store energy during a solicitation
cycle; the imaginary part, loss
modulus E2, is associated with the
aptitude of the compound to dissipate
energy during a solicitation cycle as
heat. The ratio of the loss modulus
to storage modulus defines the loss
factor, tan(δ), which is a fundamental
tire tread property for the performance
analysis and grip estimation. The
properties mentioned depend on both
solicitation frequency and compound
temperature; this means the time-
temperature superposition is satisfied
for this kind of material and this
principle is described by the
William-Landel-Ferry relationship.
A typical VESevo test session is
based on the following phases:
• Performing experiments at 5
ambient temperature on the
tread area of interest;
• Cooling down the tire at least
-30°C through a climatic cell or
a freezing spray, then carrying
out the VESevo measurements
on the tread until the ambient
temperature is reached;
• Heating the tire to 80-100°C
(or higher, if necessary) through
use of a thermal blanket or a
professional heating gun, then
starting the VESevo experiments
until the ambient temperature is
reached again.
The displacement curves of
the VESevo rod on a tire tread at
different temperatures are shown in
Figure 3. Observing the shape of the

59
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
acquired displacement curves of
the indenter toward the temperature,
it is clear that the response of the
material is largely dependent on
its temperature, and the proposed
methodology is able to highlight
this phenomenon. Focusing on
the transient phase, it is possible
to observe that, starting from 40°C
until 100°C, the rebound phase is
longer, and several bounces occur
in 0.1 seconds.6
This means that at increasing
temperature, the compound behaves
as pure rubber and a low dissipation
of the potential energy of the rod
is observed. On the other hand,
by reducing the temperature from
40°C to -20°C, the transient phase
is shorter and low bounces occur:
the compound returns the highest
energy dissipation measured in terms
of rod displacement and this means
that the material moves to a glassy
6 shown in Figure 4.
7
60
behavior. From a qualitative point of
view, it is interesting to point out here
that the duration of the indentation
phase increases with the temperature
in accordance with the observation
that, at the low-temperature range,
the behavior of the compound is
similar to a glassy one – whereas,
at high range, it is analogous to
rubbery. The quantitative study
of the indentation phase is detailed
in the next paragraphs. Finally, is
it worth noting that, as concerns
the drop phase, it is independent
of the temperature as this phase
does not involve the material under
investigation but is only characterized
by the rod-spring mechanism.
The VESevo post-processing
algorithm is capable of analyzing
each displacement curve at the
corresponding temperature and of
extrapolating the features that are
most correlated to the viscoelastic
Figure 6: Wear/ behavior of the tire tread compound.
degradation effects
on FR tire properties
In particular, the storage and loss
Figure 7: Wear/
moduli can be defined as a function
degradation effects of the following magnitudes:
on RR tire properties
E1 = f(Ac, T, Kc ) [1]
E2 = f(Ac, ω, T, Sc ) [2]
where, Ac is the effective contact
area between the semi-spherical
indenter and the compound, ω is
the solicitation frequency linked
to the single VESevo test, T is the
compound temperature and Kc
and Sc are the equivalent contact
stiffness and damping coefficient,
which can match with the tire tread
ones being the VESevo spring
stiffness and rod guide damping
negligible. The loss factor, tan(δ),
is determined as the ratio of E2 and
E1; therefore, it depends on the same
magnitudes in equations [1] and [2].
The typical viscoelastic master curves
at 1Hz of a tire tread compound are
Results
One of the main advantages
of the VESevo is the ability to
run tests an unlimited number
of times. This opens up broad
application scenarios such as the
change in properties of a tire during
its life, or after a thermal cycle or,
furthermore, investigation of the
effects of aging, wear or monitoring
quality in production.
A fundamental capability
of the VESevo technology is the
ability to identify and characterize
different tire tread specifications
without affecting the tire integrity,
as shown in Figure 5, which reports
the results of VESevo measurements
for four tire tread compounds.
The testing procedure and the data
processing algorithm outlined in the
previous sections are able to identify
differences among the specifications,
enabling the building of a compounds
database to gather data useful for
feeding into correlative analysis and
physical friction models.
Then, the analysis of tire
modifications over the progressive
mileage is also presented, in order
to carry out a study on tread
performance degradation due to
wear phenomena. A non-destructive
and smart track testing procedure
is useful for obtaining data for the
optimization of the vehicle setup or
for predicting the limit adherence
at different tire statuses. In Figures

Center Inner
Outer rib
rib rib
6 and 7, the results of VESevo
measurements on the front and
rear tires (indicated as FR, front
right, and RR, rear right) illustrated
in Figure 4, related to such analysis,
are displayed. The results are
normalized with respect to the
maxima values of E1 and tan(δ)
of the front tire.
Analyzing the fit curves of
VESevo data, a relevant reduction
of the loss factor peak values can
be identified for both front and rear
tires together with slight variations
of the glass transition temperature.
On the other hand, the slope of the
storage modulus changes and, at high
temperatures, exhibits values greater
than the ones in the new conditions.
The highlighted phenomena, highly
depending on the amount of energy
absorbed by the tires during the run
distances, can have a significant effect
on vehicle balance in case of wide
differences between the two axles (as
in the high mileage case in Figures 6
and 7, acting more deeply at the rear
than at the front in the tested run).
The VESevo can be also
employed in the analysis of
viscoelastic properties uniformity
among different tires of the same
production series, thanks to its ability
to retain the tires’ integrity after the
test. As a result, tire manufacturers
using the device are able to save
money and time in testing the
quality of many products, replacing
the common testing procedures
requiring DMA machines and
specific rolling benches. In Figure 8,
10 tires of the same truck family
have been characterized by the
VESevo at ambient temperatures
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
OUTER RIB CENTER RIB INNER RIB
OUTER RIB CENTER RIB INNER RIB
Figure 8: Tire to compare the storage modulus and
series analysis
through the VESevo loss factor in the highlighted tread
(normalized data) areas. Analyzing the bar plots, it is
noticeable that Tire 3 exhibits the
lowest values of E1 and tan(δ) among
the tested specifications, which may
be due to issues in the vulcanization
procedure during the manufacturing
process. These kinds of results have
been achieved thanks to the VESevo
smart testing procedure, which is
merely the starting point for further
activities regarding the adoption of
the illustrated methodology in the
plastic materials industry and the
quality monitoring processes.
Conclusions
A portable device that enables a non-
destructive procedure for viscoelastic
properties characterization of tire
tread compounds has been described.
The proposed technology makes it
possible to test physical properties
directly on tires and can be
performed in various environmental
condition and during/after various
kinds of runs. Moreover, the VESevo
can be used to create a compounds
database, reporting the differences
among the thermal working ranges
and their adhesive/hysteretic
friction attitudes. The presented
results confirm the capability of the
VESevo to highlight the degradation
of a compound due to the mileage
and the differences that can occur
on different ribs of a tire due to
inhomogeneities in the vulcanization
and manufacturing process. tire
References
1) A Genovese, F Farroni,
A Papangelo, M Ciavarella,
A discussion on present theories
of rubber friction, with particular
reference to different possible
choices of arbitrary roughness
cutoff parameters, Lubricants.
7 (2019) 85. doi:10.3390/
lubricants7100085
2) F Farroni, A Sakhnevych, F
Timpone, Physical modelling of
tire wear for the analysis of the
influence of thermal and frictional
effects on vehicle performance,
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part L J.
Mater. Des. Appl. 231 (2017) 151–161.
doi:10.1177/1464420716666107
3) A Sakhnevych, A Genovese, A
Maiorano, F Timpone, F Farroni,
An ultrasound method for
characterization of viscoelastic
properties in frequency domain
at small deformations, Proc. Inst.
Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng.
Sci. (2021) 095440622110057.
doi:10.1177/09544062211005789
4) A Genovese, S R Pastore,
Development of a portable
instrument for non-destructive
characterization of the polymers
viscoelastic properties, Mech. Syst.
Signal Process. 150 (2021) 107259.
doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2020.107259
5) F Farroni, A Sakhnevych,
F Timpone, Snap button
device for non-destructive
characterization of materials.
Patent. WO2019171183A1, (2019)
6) F Farroni, A Genovese, A Maiorano,
A Sakhnevych, F Timpone,
Development of an innovative
instrument for non-destructive
viscoelasticity characterization:
VESevo, in: Mech. Mach. Sci.,
Springer, 2021: pp. 804–812.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55807-9_89
61
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Silica surface properties

An investigation into the influence of silica surface properties
on physical performance of tire tread compounds
by G Schmaucks, GS Chemconsult, Germany; C Maczkiewitz, Elkem ASA Silicon Products, Germany;
and A Freitag, Elkem Silicon Product Development AS, Norway

I
n an effort to improve the
fuel efficiency of automobiles,
new types of tire tread
compounds have been
designed and developed in
recent years to improve rolling
resistance performance and address
the limitations of the so-called ‘magic
triangle’ between rolling resistance,
wet grip and abrasion.
Results presented here show that
new tire tread formulations without
plasticizers, and the use of low-
that silica are very similar to those of 1
Sidistar products. Aside from the new
silica filler, the tire tread formulations
being patented are quite different
from traditional recipes in that the
plasticizer is substituted for a resin.
Following earlier efforts,2,4,5
results are presented here on a recent
series of formulations produced
with Sidistar products (a whole
series of which has been developed
in recent years), which can be best
described in terms of variation in 2

structure, low-specific-surface-area their surfaces. The results show that

silica, can contribute to solutions to the nature of the silica surface can
those challenges. Furthermore, it will have a significant impact on various
be shown that the silica surface and performance properties of the tire
silanization also play an important tread. Furthermore, for the first
role and can lead to significant time, instead of using Sidistar as a
improvements in relevant properties secondary filler in combination with
such as abrasion resistance. carbon blacks or precipitated silica, it
Tire producers have been was used as the primary reinforcing
exploring new formulation strategies filler. Publications describing other
to get a handle on the magic triangle advantages of Sidistar products – for Figure 1: Mixing energy surface area serves as a reference
for all compounds
challenge, working on solutions for example, in rubber processing, flame material. The variation in specific
Figure 2: Mooney
improved abrasion resistance of retardancy, electric properties and so viscosity, ML(1+4) surface area and microstructure of
‘green tires’, leading in consequence to on – were produced later.6-10 at 100°C all Sidistar products in the table is
patents such as that from Michelin.1 small. The main difference between
The patent involves a newly Raw materials them is the surface properties, which
developed silica with low specific and formulations were developed with proprietary
surface area/low structure from a The surface properties of the silica surface treatment processes (not
Japanese producer. From the data developed for different applications described here), also including
published in the patent, the specific are summarized in Table 1. A a process leaning on standard
surface area and microstructure of precipitated silica of similar specific silanization techniques used in the
industry, as for the Si69 surface-
modified Sidistar XP320ST69.
Table 1: Physio-chemical properties of the silica properties Compound recipes were designed
Trade name Spec. surface Spec. surface SiOH per pH Surface Particle morphology d50, leaning on a 2019 US patent by
area, m2/g, area, measured, (nm)2 nm Michelin, and are shown in Table 2.1
data sheet m2/g
Precipitated ca 35 N/A N/A 10.5, clean silica fractal aggregates N/A Test methods
silica data surface The physical properties of the
sheet compounds prepared were tested
Sidistar R300 ca 18-25 24 3.6 7.2 carbonaceous wide distribution of spherical 150 using standard rubber industry
molecular particles, no aggregate structure test methods listed in Table 3.
surface layer
Sidistar R320U ca 18-25 19 3.6 8.7 clean silica wide distribution of spherical 150 Compounding
surface particles, no aggregate structure Mixing steps 1 and 2 as shown in
Table 2 were performed with a
Sidistar ca 18-25 22 N/A 8.6 silica surface wide distribution of spherical 150
XP320ST69 modified particles, no aggregate structure laboratory-scale 1.6-liter Banbury
with Si69 internal mixer, and step 3 on an open
mill. The mixing energy for stages 1
Sidistar is a registered trademark of Elkem, Si69 is a registered trademark of Evonik
and 2 was calculated from the mixer
power used and is shown in Figure 1.

62
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

The mixing energy for compounds Table 2: Compound formulations

with Sidistar products is approximately
Sidistar
10% reduced compared with that with
precipitated silica. This may seem Silica Precipitated R300 R300, double R320U XP320ST69
silica Si69
a small reduction, but can be one
step in ongoing efforts in the rubber Mixing step Recipe Ref 1 4 5 7 8
industry toward development of CO2- Stage 1-1 Buna SL 4525 [phr] 100 100 100 100 100
neutral production processes. The
Stage 1-2 stearic acid [phr] 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Mooney viscosity of the compounds,
ML(1+4) at 100°C, is shown in Stage 1-2 Si-69 [phr] 2 1 2 2 -
Figure 2. As shown before in other Stage 1-2 precipitated [phr] 100 - - - -
publications, the Mooney viscosity silica
of compounds with Sidistar products Stage 1-2 Sidistar R300 [phr] - 100 100 - -
is reduced compared with that with
Stage 1-2 Sidistar R320U [phr] - - - 100 -
precipitated silica at the same loading
as a result of its special physical Stage 1-2 Sidistar [phr] - - - - 100
XP320ST69
properties, low specific surface
area and no aggregate structure.5,6 Stage 1-3 plasticizing resin [phr] 45 45 45 45 45
Stage 2-2 Zinc oxide RS [phr] 3 3 3 3 3
Cross-linking
Stage 2-2 6PPD [phr] 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
The rheometer curves (taken with
a moving die rheometer, MDR) are Stage 2-2 HAF- N330 [phr] 5 5 5 5 5
shown in Figure 3. The curves in the Stage 3 (mill) Sulfur [phr] 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
figure show that all Sidistar grades Stage 3 (mill) DPG-pdr-d [phr] 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4
increase scorch safety compared with
Stage 3 (mill) CBS-grs-2mm [phr] 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
precipitated silica, aside from the
surface-modified Sidistar product. Total phr [phr] 264.8 263.6 264.8 264.8 262.8
Furthermore, one can identify Buna is a registered trademark of Arlanxeo
differences in the position of the
torque plateau at times greater than
15 minutes. The increase in delta
torque as a measure of cross-link Figure 3: Rheometer 3
density of compound 5 with Sidistar curves of all compounds
R300, 2phr Si69 loading compared up to 30 minutes
with compound 4 (1phr Si69) could
be considered as an effect of the
additional sulfur originating from
Si69, and gives higher reinforcement.
However, compound 7 with Sidistar
R320U (clean silica surface) and 2phr
Si69 loading exhibits a maximum
torque even higher than that,
and close to that of the reference
compound 1 with precipitated silica,
even though Sidistar R320U has a
considerably lower specific surface
area (only approximately 60% of tread compounds. A typical Shore properties, which is the focus here,
that of the precipitated silica). It is A hardness for an SBR tire tread and which can be helpful in tire
interesting to note that the surface- compound would be around 65 ±5. tread formulation design with
modified Sidistar XP320ST69 This was unintended and is probably such low/no-structure silica.
(with around 2w% Si69 surface related to the rubber polymer used The compound hardness
modification) yields higher delta (the polymer specified in the patent differences observed between the
torque compared with the simple was unavailable at the time and different Sidistar grades can again
addition with the same Si69 loading had to be substituted; a polymer be related to their surface properties,
during compounding. with comparable styrene content the hardness being higher for
and viscosity was selected as a stronger interaction between the
Results replacement). The polymer specified rubber polymer and silica surface.
The physical properties of the in the patent is special and has a glass The somewhat greater hardness of
vulcanized compounds were transition temperature below -60°C. the compound with precipitated
measured according to standards With regard to comparability with silica compared with that with the
listed in Table 3 and are shown the data provided in the patent, no Sidistar product with the clean silica
in Figure 4. The hardness of this compound hardness was specified surface might be related to the larger
compound series, shown in Figure there. However, it is possible to specific surface area. In Figure 4b,
4a, turned out to be much lower observe and interpret trends for where the tensile properties are
than anticipated and typical for tire the series of different silica surface summarized, the data from the patent

63
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
4a
4c
for comparable formulations is shown
in addition (one of the compounds
described in the patent was made
with Sidistar R300). The tear strength
in Figure 4c shows results in the same
range compared with those obtained
for precipitated silica, indicating the
possibility to even increase it by using
the most suitable surface properties.
Compression set and rebound
resilience at 23°C, shown in Figure
4d, show (for the Sidistar series) a
reduction in compression set and an
increase in rebound resilience for
higher silica/polymer interaction in
agreement with the trends observed
for the other physical properties of
the vulcanizates.
It is very interesting to note the
large impact of the different silica
surfaces on the abrasion performance
of the compounds, shown in
Figure 5. Using Sidistar with Si69
modified surface can lead to abrasion
performance that is twice as good as
that obtained with precipitated silica.
Within the Sidistar compound series,
for equal Si69 loading, the difference
in abrasion performance is also as
large as a factor of two, emphasizing
the important role of the filler/surface
interaction for abrasion performance.
Viscoelastic behavior of the
compounds as a function of
temperature was measured using a
dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA)
from -70°C to 100°C. Normally, tan
(δ) at 60°C, plotted in Figure 6, is
taken as an indication for potential
rolling resistance performance for a
tire tread compound. It is important
to mention here that results in this
study were obtained with a polymer
higher in Tg compared with that in
64
4b
4d
Figure 4: Mechanical the patent with Tg below -60°C, as for rubber formulations where
properties of mentioned above. In Figure 6, the silanization is not required. Doubling
vulcanizates
tan (δ) at 60°C of the compounds, the loading of Si69 silane improves
for which data was published in the compatibility between the Sidistar
patent, is shown for comparison. R300 surface and SBR, but not quite
to the same level as obtained between
Discussion the clean silica surface of Sidistar
The results presented in the previous R320U and the SBR polymer at
sections indicate that the silica standard Si69 loading.
surface plays an important role in Best compatibility with the
the performance properties of tire SBR polymer was obtained with
tread compounds. Considering this, a the Si69 modified silica surface.
number of conclusions can be drawn. Depending on the exact
The silica surface topped with performance requirements for
carbonaceous surface groups has different types of tire tread, this
the lowest compatibility with formulation series of compounds
the polymer, leading to lowest with silica of different surface
reinforcement. Results show that characteristics can help to tailor
the surface modification with Si69 specific performance properties.
silane added during processing to Figure 7 shows various relevant
improve compatibility of the silica performance properties in a so-called
surface with the polymer is less spider plot. The performance is
(or not at all) efficient for Sidistar compared with the compound with
R300, exactly because of the precipitated silica, which is taken at
presence of the carbonaceous 100% for each property. Even though
molecular layer on its surface. It the spider plot might not cover all
is possible that the Sidistar R300 important/relevant performance
product leads to better compatibility properties for tire tread, it covers
with other rubber polymers or a good selection, and the magnitude
Table 3: Compound test methods
Measurement Standard
Cure characteristics at 160°C, 30 minutes, 0.5° oscillation ISO 6502:2016
Mooney viscosity - ML(1+4) 100°C 289-1:2015
Tensile properties ISO 37:2011
Tear strength, crescent+nick ISO 34-1:2015, method C
Compression set, 22 hours at 70°C ISO 815-1:2014, method A
Abrasion resistance ISO 4649:2010
Rebound resilience at 23°C (Schob, 12.5mm) ISO 4662:2009/Cor.1:2010
Temperature sweep, 1Hz, 1% static, 0.1% dynamic

5 Figure 5: Abrasion
6 formulations, measurement of
7 balance between processability
of the area enclosed by each curve can
be taken as a measure for expected
overall tire tread performance. Based
on this, the Sidistar R320U and
R320ST69 should be of great interest
for tire producers to test.
Conclusions
The results of the impact of the
silica surface properties on the
performance of newly developed
SBR tire tread formulations with
low-specific-surface-area/low-
structure silica fillers have been
presented, and the main results
can be determined.
Sidistar products can be exactly
characterized as low-specific-surface-
area/low-structure silica, and work
as expected in the new patented
formulations without plasticizer.
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
These results may enable
Figure 6: tanδ at 60°C formulation of tire tread compounds
Figure 7: Overview and with low-specific-surface-area/
comparison of various low-structure silica with a good
performance properties,
the compound with combination of performance
precipitated silica properties, addressing important
taken as 100%, all other
properties are scaled
factors such as the trade-off between
to be better (worse) for rolling resistance and abrasion, and
larger (smaller) 100% favorable in comparison with those
obtained with precipitated silica.
Acknowledgements
Sincere thanks are expressed
to ERT for compounding of the
the performance properties and
constructive discussions. tire
References
1) US 20190030953A1, Michelin patent
2) EP 2336231 A1, Goodyear patent
3) EP 1 551 912 Cl. C08K 3/34,
Elkem patent
4) US 8 053 507 B2 Cl. C01B33/113;
C08K3/36, Elkem patent
5) G Schmaucks, Tire Technology.
International Annual Review,
p. 58f, 2004, Optimizing the
and performance
6) G Schmaucks, Rubber World
241 (2010) 5, p. 27 - 30, Special
low surface silica as filler in
fluoroelastomers
7) E Gallo, B Schartel, G Schmaucks,
K von der Ehe and M Böhning,
Plastics, Rubber and Composites
Vol. 42 (2013) 1, p. 34 – 42, Effect of
well dispersed amorphous silicon
dioxide in flame retarded styrene
butadiene rubber
8) G Schmaucks, A Aamodt, A Freitag,
K Zoumis, Noxtite-Hochtemperatur
ACM und Spezialkieselsäure
Excellent dispersion in the SBR SIDISTAR R mit niedriger
matrix down to primary silica spheres Oberfläche; Gummi, Fasern
was observed. Kunststoffe 4/2013, p. 229 – 232
Silica fillers with similar specific 9) G Schmaucks, B Friede, H
surface area have shown that different Schreiner, J O Roszinski, R Ristic,
surface characteristics can have a N Djenadic, Tire Technology
significant impact on the performance International 2007 Annual Review,
of tire tread compounds. p. 90–92, The effect of specialty
The surface properties are rated silica on winter tread compound
in terms of their compatibility to the properties and performance
SBR matrix. 10) Eshwaran Subramani
Si69 surface modification of Bhagavatheswaran, Meenali
the silica before processing is more Parsekar, Amit Das, Hai Hong
effective than addition of the silane Le, Sven Wiessner, Klaus Werner
during compounding. Stöckelhuber, Gerd Schmaucks,
The best tire tread performance Gert Heinrich, Journal of Physical
was obtained with modified Chemistry C, 2015, Construction of
Sidistar XP320ST69, which shows an interconnected nanostructured
outstanding performance in the carbon black network:
combination of abrasion and development of highly stretchable
viscoelastic properties. and robust elastomeric conductors
65
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Silane-functionalized resins
An investigation into how functional group placement
affects tire traction and rolling resistance performance
by T Yoo, D Simmons and S Henning, Total Petrochemicals & Refining Inc, USA
A
round 1995, trade
groups, process
oil producers and
individual tire
manufacturers
in Europe started
working on solutions to replace
the aromatic process oils commonly
used in the tire industry. This was
due to legislation identifying
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
(PAH) content as carcinogenic.1
Liquid poly(butadiene) resins
have been used in the rubber
industry for many years, serving
as plasticizers and to modify the
viscoelastic properties of tire treads.
These additives became more
important as new formulating tools
when tire manufacturers updated
formulations and concurrently
sought improvements in traction
properties. Silane-terminated
liquid poly(butadiene) resins
were commercially introduced in
2017. This technology addressed
the increased hysteresis imparted
to a compound when applying
unfunctionalized resins. However,
there are many ways to add functional
groups (in this case, triethoxysilane
groups) to a polymer chain.
The purpose of this study
is to compare silane-grafted
poly(butadiene) resins with
a chain-end functionalized
counterpart. The synthesis of
both functionalized resins is
described, and the comparative
samples formulated into a model
silica tire tread formulation with
1 was introduced into a round-bottom
66
Figure 1: Tangent 1
delta indicators for
traction (tan delta 0°C)
and rolling resistance
(tan delta 60°C)
Scheme 1: MPTS and
the general thiol-ene
grafting reaction
Tangent delta @ 60°C
Table 1: Grafting reaction conditions
Sample Ricon 150
(g) (mol)
G2 100 0.0259
G3 100 0.0238
the resulting impact on the traction/
rolling resistance balance reported.
The objective is to determine if
the spatial placement of functional
groups influences the final properties.
A potential mechanistic theory is
then presented.
Silane-grafted samples were
prepared using peroxide (AIBN) and
mercapto-silane (3-mercaptopropyl)
triethoxysilane (MPTS).2 The typical
thiol-ene reaction pathway is shown
in Scheme 1. First, a high vinyl
poly(butadiene) resin (Ricon 150)
flask equipped with a mechanical
stirrer, thermocouple and nitrogen
inlet. The base resin was dried for
two hours at 90°C in a vacuum with
stirring and followed by nitrogen
purging. MPTS was added in variable
amounts (Table 1) with the first
portion of AIBN (0.04g per 100g
of polybutadiene). After one hour
of the reaction, the second portion
of AIBN was charged and the reaction
Tangent delta @ 0°C
MPETS AIBN [MPTES]/[PB]
(g) (mol) (g) (mol) (mol)
12.7 0.053 0.08 4.8x10-4 2.06
18.09 0.073 0.08 4.8x10 -4
3.06
proceeded for two additional
hours. The reaction was monitored
by FTIR to determine when the
grafting reactions were complete
(disappearance of thiol group).
Two samples with increasing
graft content were prepared.
A commercially available
chain-end functionalized resin
was also included. Ricon 603
is a triethoxysilane-terminated
poly(butadiene) resin with
similar molecular weight and
microstructure. It is prepared
through the quantitative reaction
between an anionically polymerized
well-defined poly(butadiene) diol
precursor and (3-isocyanatopropyl)
triethoxysilane.3 Table 2 summarizes
the characterization of the base resin
as well as grafted and chain-end
terminated samples.
A model silica-filled tire tread
formulation is provided in Table
3. Compounds were prepared in
three stages in an internal mixer
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Table 2: Characterization results of comparative resins

Resin Mn (g/mol) PD Tg (°C) F Type
Ricon 150 4160 1.1 -42 0 --
Ricon 603 3500 1.2 -44 2 Terminal
G2 4620 1.2 -39 2 Graft
G3 4730 1.2 -38 2.8 Graft

(Brabender Prep-Mixer, 420ml Figure 2: DMA tangent

Table 4: Tabulated summary of the compound test data
delta profiles
capacity), with Banbury blades
Sample TDAE Ricon 150 G2 G3 Ricon 603
using an Intelli-Torque Plasti-
Corder drive. TDAE oil (Plaxolene
TD346, Total) was used as a process G’ @ 14%, 1.0Hz, 100°C 205.6 287.7 256.9 276.5 323.6
oil control. The compounds were
calendered between mixing stages
using a lab-scale two-roll mill. Min S’ (ML) 3.6 3.5 2.7 2.8 3.3
Compounds were allowed to Max S’ (MH) 18.1 16.7 19.7 21.1 20.7
cool overnight prior to curing MH-ML 14.5 13.3 17.0 18.3 17.4
and analysis. All compounds were
cured and molded in a heated press
at 160°C for 20 minutes. Hardness (Shore A) 66.0 67.0 71.0 73.0 72.0
Uncured Mooney viscosity was
approximated using low-frequency, Modulus 100% (psi) 414 363 424 473 583
medium-strain oscillatory testing
Modulus 300% (psi) 1534 1319 1482 1550 1465
(1Hz, 14% strain, 100°C), and cure
properties such as delta torque (MH-
ML) were measured using a moving Tangent delta 0°C 0.357 0.387 0.396 0.386 0.464
die cure rheometer (PPA 2000, Alpha
Tangent delta 60°C 0.105 0.132 0.124 0.119 0.101
Technologies) at 160°C for 35 minutes

Table 3: Model silica-filled tire tread XLD 7.69E-05 6.54E-05 7.05E-05 7.36E-05 8.91E-05
formulation
Stage 1 BR 25.0
OE-SBR 103.0
at 1.667Hz frequency and 6.675% Storage shear moduli (G’) of the
Silica 90.0
deformation angle. Shore A hardness uncured compounds were measured
Silane 14.4 was measured according to ASTM under increasing strains (0.05-
Oil/resin 20.0 D2240. Physical properties of the 10.0%) to determine the differences
cured compounds were measured for between the response at low and high
comparison. A tensile tester (EJA deformation (Payne effect). Cross-
Stage 2 Stearic acid 2.3 Vantage 10, Thwing-Albert, 1,000N link density was calculated using
6PPD 2.0 load cell) was used to measure tensile Flory-Rehner methodology.4 The
modulus via ASTM D412 type C tabulated data for the uncured and
at a crosshead speed of 10in/min. cured tensile and viscoelastic testing
Productive Sulfur 1.3
Viscoelastic properties were measured is provided in Table 4.
Zinc oxide 2.3 via dynamic mechanical analysis It has been shown that terminal
TBBS 1.7 (DMA Q800, TA Instruments) of silane functionality typically results
TBzTD 0.5 the cured tread rubber compounds in improved traction and rolling
using a tension film clamp, oscillation resistance indicators compared with
DPG 2.0
amplitude of 6 microns, 14Hz a non-functional poly(butadiene)
frequency and static force of 0.05N. resin control.5 As a high-order view,

67
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
3 Figure 3: Storage
4 with the elastomer matrix.5,7 The
Figure 1 provides a comparison
of the functionalized and non-
functionalized samples on a plot of
tangent delta at 0°C versus tangent
delta at 60°C. Higher 0°C values
indicate better wet traction; lower
60°C values translate to improved
rolling resistance. The influence of
chain-end termination is evident:
much higher traction indicator (at
similar glass transition temperatures,
Tg) and a measurable improvement
in rolling resistance indicator over
the unfunctionalized base resin, with
values below that of the oil control.
While the grafted resins (G2, G3) did
show directional improvement over
the unfunctionalized control, the level
of improvement was not comparable
to chain-end modification.
The actual DMA tangent delta
traces are provided in Figure 2.
Qualitatively, you can see that the
shape of the chain-end functionalized
Ricon 603 peak, especially at higher
temperatures, shows a different
slope profile from the unfunctional
controls, with a relatively dramatic
decrease with increasing temperature
from a high peak value. The grafted
silane samples G2 and G3 show a
68
provides an improvement in mitigating
modulus (G’) as a filler-filler interactions compared
function of strain.
Payne effect measured with grafted functionalization or
as modulus @0.1% unfunctionalized resins.
strain – modulus
@7.0% strain (inset)
Graphing tangent delta
Figure 4: Cross-link
indicators and comparing the
density values Payne effect provides a quick
Figure 5: Graphic of summary of the comparative
ideal functional resin/ study. Other measurements also
silica-silane network
formation. A) Terminal provide differentiation between
silane functionality; the technologies. Mechanistically,
B) Grafted silane it is believed that silane-functional
functionality
resins are capable of interacting
with the silica/silane condensed
phase, as well as polycondensing
with each other, forming a secondary
network that is capable of entangling
result is an increase in effectively
bound rubber, with the resulting
increase in compound Tg (shift
to higher temperatures) but also
increases in those properties
correlating to higher cross-link
density (MH-ML, hardness,
moduli) compared with controls.
Measured cross-link density (XLD)
values are provided in a comparative
graph in Figure 4. Starting with the
TDAE control, you see a decrease
in XLD with the addition of the
unfunctionalized control. This
result is typical of unsaturated
resins capable of being sulfurated
slope profile somewhere in between during vulcanization but having
the control resin (Ricon 150) and molar masses below that of the
Ricon 603. average molecular weight between
The Payne effect is a measure cross-links. The grafted samples
of filler-filler interactions in uncured show increased cross-link density
compounds.6 Storage modulus
(G’) is an aggregate value of many 5
interactions, including the rubber
network itself, the hydrodynamic
effect of the filler, and filler-rubber
(bound rubber) and filler-filler
effects. However, it has been shown
that only the filler-filler contribution
is strain-dependent. Figure 3 provides
comparative Payne effect data, here
measured by the difference in G’ at
0.1% and 7% strain. The smaller the
difference in low- and high-shear
G’, the less filler-filler interaction
component. The model compound
contains the standard amount of
silane coupling agent, so the filler-
filler network should be minimized.
Functionalized resins can act
synergistically to further decrease
interactions. Based on the inset data
table in Figure 3, the Payne effect is
shown to decrease with the series
Ricon 150 > TDAE > G3 > G2 > Ricon
603. In concert with silane coupling
agents, chain-end functionalization
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

over the control resin, possibly silica surfaces by extending the case, either at the silica/silane surface
through some degree of secondary network into the elastomer matrix. or through a secondary network.
network formation. Ricon 603 The subpanels suggest differences Silane-functionalized low-
demonstrates a marked increase in the efficacy of network formation molecular-weight poly(butadiene)
in XLD, consistent with effective given the two topological models. resin additives are used commercially
secondary network formation, The grafted model is not efficient, to provide an optimized traction and
achieving XLD values even greater as the reactive functionality is more rolling resistance balance in tire tread
than the process oil control. The sterically hindered on the backbone, applications. A comparison of chain-
data suggests that chain-end likely resulting in a lower reactivity. end and backbone-grafted technology
functionality may be more efficient In addition, grafting technology is suggests that well-defined terminal
at interacting with the silica-silane random and produces an average functionality is a more effective
filler phase while also building cross- number of groups per chain. synthetic strategy for producing
link density through intra-functional Some chains have functionality the desired performance. tire
resin reactions. greater than the target amount,
At similar low molecular while some have no functional References
weights and Tgs, it has been shown groups. In addition, grafted silane 1) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
that grafting functionality is not as functionality is randomly attached LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L
effective in improving traction/rolling to the resin backbone, with only :2005:323:0051:0054:EN:PDF
resistance balance as chain-end a small percentage likely to be 2) F Shapman, J P Couvercelle and C
functionalization. Mechanistically, close enough to the chain end to Bunel, Polymer, 39(20), 4955 (1998)
it is believed that locating the silane effectively immobilize it and provide 3) F Shapman, J P Couvercelle and C
groups on the backbone of the chain the subsequent improvement in Bunel, Polymer, 39(4), 965 (1998)
rather than termini inhibits both hysteresis. Conversely, the synthesis 4) P J Flory and J J Rhener, J. Chem.
interaction with the silica-silane route employed to produce the chain- Phys. 11, 521 (1943)
phase and effective secondary end functional resin begins with a 5) S K Henning and F Salort, Rubber
network formation, which results in well-defined poly(butadiene) diol. Chem Technol., 94(1), 24 (2020)
subsequent compound performance The facile functionalization reaction 6) A R Payne and R E Whittaker,
improvements. Graphically, an produces a similarly well-defined Rubber Chem. Technol., 44,
idealized scheme outlining the key product with near quantitative chain- 440 (1971)
interactions is provided in Figure 5. end functionality. A high percentage 7) M Gruendken, M M Velencoso,
Here, silane-terminated functional of chain ends are expected to be tied D Koda and A Blume, Polymer
resins bridge the silane-coupled down in the terminally functional Testing, 93, 106997 (2021)

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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Studying reactive plasticizers

An examination of the influence of reactive plasticizers on the migration
of rubber ingredients and the performance in tire tread compounds
by Sankar Raman Vaikuntam, André Wehmeier and Jens Kiesewetter, Evonik Operations – Smart Materials, Applied Technology –
Tire & Rubber; Sara Liebana Vinas, Evonik Operations – Smart Materials, Coating & Adhesive Resins, Germany

W
hen discussing
rubber
technology,
the migration
of rubber
ingredients
from uncured or vulcanized rubber
compounds is often described using
technical terms such as blooming and
bleeding. The reasons for migration
tendencies include the miscibility or
compatibility and their synergistic
effect, the desired volume of
ingredients, and the reactivity to and
interaction with fillers, polymers and
many others. However, the migration
of ingredients is an unwanted process
that influences the performance
of finished articles in many ways.
For instance, in an uncured state,
the migration of plasticizer leads to
increased viscosities, changing the
building tack and the homogeneity
of the compound. In vulcanized
rubber, migration may negatively
affect the appearance and may
worsen the performance during
service conditions. Therefore, for
a better understanding of the
migration effect, the first step is
to quantify it using a suitable test.
In the last few decades, silica/
silane-based energy-efficient
tires have played a major role in
automotive applications due to
their environmental sensitivity
and safety aspects. Applying high-
molecular-weight rubbers with very
high loadings of precipitated silica,
such as Ultrasil, requires improved
processing aids. Bi-functional silanes
such as Si 69, Si 266 and Si 363
reduce the compound viscosities
and greatly improve the final
tire performance. Nevertheless,
for optimized processability,
these systems require additional
plasticizers. Treated distilled aromatic
extract (TDAE) with lower polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (<3.0%) is a
widely used processing aid for green
tires, and is currently believed to
be a non-carcinogenic substance.
But modern tire technology needs
1a 1b
Figure 1a: Schematic environmentally friendly, high-
diagram of migration performance, advanced processing
test setup
aids. Polyvest liquid polybutadiene
Figure 1b: Sandwich
structure of vulcanized rubbers can serve this purpose, as
test specimen- they can bring additional benefits
absorption membrane
with protecting foils
in tire performance.
Four Polyvest grades shown in
Table 1 are utilized for the following
investigations. A typical tread
formulation and its mixing procedure
are given in Table 2. Considering the
migration possibilities of other rubber
ingredients, anti-aging chemicals
are not added into these formulations.
Migration test method
The schematic diagram of developed
migration test setup is shown in
Figure 1. The three migration test
specimens are stamped out from a
6mm-thick vulcanized sheet with a
diameter of 40mm. The absorption
membranes are prepared separately
based on S-SBR/BR – N330 carbon
black compound and do not
contain any plasticizers or anti-
aging chemicals. The absorption
membranes are 2mm thick with
Table 1: Polyvest grades for the tire and rubber industry
Grade Functionalization Vinyl content (%)
Polyvest 110 - 1
Polyvest EP 130 S - 1
Polyvest EP MV - 61
Polyvest EP ST-E 60 Silane 22
a diameter of 47mm and stamped
out from the vulcanized sheets. The
migration test is carried out at 60°C
for 70 days under 2kg of static load
on the top of the sandwich setup.
The membranes are renewed every
week after measuring the Shore A
hardness and the mass loss of the
test specimens. The concentration
gradient between the test specimen
and the absorption membrane is
the driving force for the diffusion-
induced migration process. Besides
this, the elevated test temperature and
static load are the physical parameters
accelerating the migration process.
Migration test results
The migration weight loss during
the testing period and the calculated
final migration loss percentage is
illustrated in Figures 2a and 2b.
The test results reveal that the
migration loss increases with time,
and all test specimens exhibited a
significant weight loss. However, the
migration loss is varied regarding
various plasticizer types. The highest
Molecular weight range
Low
Medium, high
Low, medium
Medium, high

70
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

migration loss is observed for TDAE Figure 2a: Percentage 2a

of migration weight loss
vulcanizates and, as expected, the during testing period
higher the concentration of TDAE, Figure 2b: Percentage
the higher the migration tendency. of plasticizer loss in
vulcanizates after 10
The amount of TDAE used in the weeks at 60°C
vulcanizates is around 11.0% (25.0phr)
and 15.0% (35.0phr) and the migration
weight loss noticed for the TDAE
vulcanizates is around 10.0% and
12.0%. It proves that around 80-90%
of TDAE is lost within 10 weeks.
Next, the average migration loss
observed for Polyvest 110 and
Polyvest 130 S are approximately
4.9% and 4.5% respectively, which
is nearly two times lower than the
migration tendency of TDAE. The
migration loss difference between 2b
Polyvest 130 S and Polyvest 110
is only 0.4% and reveals that the
molecular weight has only a minor
impact. Polyvest MV vulcanizate
exhibits only 3.9% migration loss,

Table 2a: Compounding formulation

TDAE (phr) Polyvest (phr)
First stage
Europrene SOL R 72613 70.0 70.0
Buna CB 24 30.0 30.0
Ultrasil 7000 GR 80.0 80.0
Si 266 5.8 5.8
TDAE 35.0, 25.0 -
Polyvest - 25.0 probably due to the restricted diffusion for all vulcanizates due to the loss of
Carbon black – N330 5.0 5.0 tendency of the bulky vinyl group plasticizers and thermal aging. Both
and enhanced compatibility with TDAE vulcanizates show a drastic
Zinc oxide 2.0 2.0
high-vinyl S-SBR. Finally, the lowest increase in Shore A hardness of 16
Stearic acid 2.0 2.0 migration loss of 2.5% is observed and 19 points. All unfunctionalized
for the Polyvest ST-E 60 vulcanizate, Polyvest grades exhibit ΔShore A
which is nearly four times lower than values in the range of 9-11 points,
Second stage
the TDAE reference. The chemical which is approximately two times
Batch first stage interaction of the functionalized lower than TDAE. Polyvest ST-E
Rhenogran DPG 2.5 2.5 Polyvest ST-E 60 and its high affinity 60 exhibits the lowest ΔShore A
toward the silica/silane system is the hardness value. The flexibility and
key factor for this favorable behavior. performance of tread compounds
Third stage
can be maintained for a longer period
Batch second stage Plasticizer loss and aging when using these reactive plasticizers
Ricon TBzTD OP 0.2 0.2 The influence of migration loss with the lowest migration tendency.
Vulkacit CZ/EG-C 1.6 1.6 in rubber is studied by hardness
measurements, and the ΔShore A Performance analysis
Sulfur 2.0 2.0
hardness values are shown in Figure 3. Incorporation of Polyvest products in
The Shore A hardness is increased green tread formulations is extending

71
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
3a
3b
4
the magic triangle performance
indicators as depicted in Figure
4. Polyvest 110 and Polyvest 130
S grades are suitable for abrasion
resistance and winter performance
enhancement. Polyvest MV with
high Tg is mostly suitable for
achieving performances equivalent
to the TDAE system. Polyvest ST-E
60 is most favorable for achieving
excellent rolling resistance, winter
performance and abrasion resistance.
Summary
This study reveals that the migration
behavior of plasticizers is dependent
72
on various parameters, including
concentration of plasticizer (35.0phr
versus 25.0phr of TDAE); molecular
weight of plasticizers (TDAE versus
all Polyvest grades); microstructure
of plasticizer and the respective
compatibility with main polymer
matrices (Polyvest 110, 130 S
versus Polyvest MV); and the
reactivity of the plasticizer to
silica/silane/polymer (Polyvest
ST-E 60 versus TDAE, non-
functionalized Polyvest). The
magic triangle performances of
tire treads can be extended further
by the addition of Polyvest. tire
Figure 3a: Shore A
hardness measured
during migration test
Figure 3b: ΔShore A
hardness (change in
Shore A hardness =
Shore A hardness at 10th
week minus Shore A
hardness at start)
Figure 4: Performance
indicators enhancement
by using various
Polyvest grades
Table 2b: Mixing procedure
First stage GK 1.5 E, fill factor 0.66, 65rpm, chamber
temperature 70°C
Batch temperature 140-155°C
1 0.0-0.5’ Polymer, TDAE/Polyvest (5phr)
2 0.5-1.0’ TDAE/Polyvest (5phr)
3 1.0-2.0’ 1/2 silica, silane, ZnO, stearic acid, TDAE/Polyvest
(5phr)
4 2.0-2.0’ Clean
5 2.0-3.0’ a) Add CB, 1/2 silica, TDAE/Polyvest (5phr)
b) Add remaining chemicals
6 3.0-7.0’ TDAE/Polyvest (5phr)
Mix and keep temperature at 140-155°C by adjusting
rpm
Dump, check weight
Mill temperature 60°C, front speed 25rpm, rear
speed 18rpm
45 seconds on open mill (4mm nip), sheet out
Weigh compound for second stage, storage 24 hours
at 23°C
Second stage GK 1.5 E, fill factor 0.63, 70rpm, chamber
temperature 75°C
Batch temperature 140-155°C
1 0.0-1.0’ Batch stage 1 plasticize
2 1.0-3.0’ Add DPG-80, mix and keep temperature at 140-155°C
by adjusting rpm
3 3.0-3.0’ Dump, check weight
Mill temperature 60°C, front speed 25rpm, rear
speed 18rpm
45 seconds on open mill (4mm nip), sheet out
Weigh compound for third stage, storage 4-24 hours
at 23°C
Third stage GK 1.5 E, fill factor 0.60, 55rpm, chamber
temperature 50°C
Batch temperature 90-110°C
1 0.0-2.0’ Batch stage 2, add accelerators, sulfur
2 2.0-2.0’ Dump batch and process on mill
Mill temperature 80°C, front speed 16rpm, rear speed
11.5rpm
20 seconds with 3-4mm nip
Cut 3 x left, 3 x right with 3mm nip
Roll up and pass through a 3mm nip three times,
sheet off 5-6mm
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Alternate raw materials for tires

An investigation into increased sustainability via the development
of tire rubbers that utilize raw materials from renewable sources
by K Alavi, P Salomonsson, T Ibert, Nynas, Sweden

T
he tire industry’s Figure 1: Temperature 1a
profile in the mixer
quest for higher during the mixing stage.
levels of sustainability Compounds containing
has been gaining GNR show a somewhat
lower final temperature,
momentum in recent especially during the
years, and is reflected first mixing stage
(Figure 1a). The line
(among other things) in explicit at 145°C is marked in
sustainability targets communicated the diagrams as the
by several producers. Achieving target temperature
for the start of the
sustainability is a multifaceted silanization process
process, and one of the avenues that
looks set to meet the challenge is
the introduction of alternative raw
materials to the production of tires.
As the bulk of any rubber
compound is composed of Silanization SBR HNR HNR GNR GNR
polymers, fillers and plasticizing temperature NT4700 NT4700 NTB6200 NTB6200 NTB6200
RHS
oils, it is only logical that these
components should receive greater
attention in terms of seeking bio-
1b
based alternatives with additional
sustainability value. Polymer
producers have been introducing
bio-based alternatives to synthetic
rubbers such as polybutadiene
and EPDM rubbers. Hevea natural
rubber, itself a renewable polymer,
has been widely used in the rubber
industry – and particularly in tire
manufacturing – as one of the most
established polymers, though other
alternatives such as guayule and
dandelion natural rubbers are gaining
increased prominence.1,2 Fillers made
from agricultural by-products such
as eggshell3 and rice-husk-based Silanization SBR HNR HNR GNR GNR
silica4 have also been studied as temperature NT4700 NT4700 NTB6200 NTB6200 NTB6200
RHS
sustainable alternatives for rubber
reinforcement, with the latter having
been commercialized.
Regarding plasticizing oils, the bio-based content of the whole with a substantially increased amount
common vegetable oils such as tire rubber compound by replacing of bio-based raw material.
canola/rapeseed and soybean have key components of the rubber –
been used by the industry to partially from conventional to bio-based and Materials and
replace conventional mineral oils, sustainable alternatives. Compounds experiment outline
although a one-to-one replacement with alternative and sustainable raw For this work, a tire tread compound
has been more difficult to achieve. materials such as guayule natural formulation, developed at Nynas
In recent years, more intensive rubber (GNR), rice-husk silica and Technology Center (NTC-S), was
research, mostly performed by the bio-based tire oil, Nytex Bio selected. The amount of bio-based
established tire oil suppliers, has 6200, were developed and their and non-conventional key raw
been undertaken to find suitable tire performance in tire compounds materials – polymers, fillers and
oils with improved sustainability.5,6 evaluated. The results showed the plasticizing oil – was gradually
In this article, the target was a possibility of successfully moving increased by stepwise replacement
more holistic approach to increase toward high-performing compounds of standard alternatives, as shown in

74

2a
Table 1. The rest of the formulation
was kept the same for all compounds.
GNR was received from the
Department of Horticulture and
Crop Science (HCS) of the Ohio
State University (OSU). The Hevea
natural rubber (HNR) was a
commercially available, technically
specified grade (TSR 10). Key
properties of the polymers in
the study are given in Table 2.
The rice-husk silica, Oryzasil HD
165 MP, was supplied by Oryzasil.
The conventional silica and the
rice silica had a surface area of
approximately 160m2/g and were
therefore seen as comparable.
Two plasticizing oils were
used in this project: Nytex 4700
is a naphthenic black oil, a well-
established global tire oil; Nytex Bio
6200 is a bio-based tire oil launched
by Nynas in 2019.
All external raw materials were
used as received. The compounds
were mixed in a three-stage process
in a 1.5-liter double-screw internal
mixer with a fill factor of 70% at the
Table 1: Tire tread compound formulations used in the study
Compound name SBR-
NT4700
Component phr
Fx-SSBR 1 35
Fx-SSBR 2 35
Hevea natural rubber
Guayule natural rubber
BR 30
Conventional silica 90
Rice-husk silica
TESPT 7.92
Nytex 4700 36
Nytex Bio 6200
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
2b
Nynas Rubber Compounding lab. Table 2: Key properties of the polymers in the study
Vulcanization of subsequent test
SBR 1 SBR 2 HNR GNR BR
specimens occurred at 170°C
during a vulcanization time relevant Mooney viscosity (MU) 63.4* 70* 72* 19.7** 44*
for the sample geometry, in a hot Tg (°C) -25* - 62* -64 -62.5 <-100
press under a force of 300kN. * Stated by supplier
Characterization of the ** Measured at Nynas laboratories
compounds was undertaken
according to the information
in Table 4.
Figure 2: Progress The mixing behavior of the
Results and discussion of the vulcanization compounds is displayed in Figure
reaction through
The mixing process is of high rheological analysis. 1, where relatively small differences
importance, especially for silica- Differences in curing were observed between different
filled tire rubber compounds. speed as well as compounds. It was observed that
extent of vulcanization
During the mixing process, the (torque development) the target temperature of 145°C
silica filler agglomerates are dispersed could be observed was not reached by any compound.
between compounds
by the shear forces generated in This may be related to the fact
the mixer, and reagglomeration that the fill factor in the mixer
is prevented by the silanization was somewhat reduced in this
reactions between the coupling project. However, one trend could
agent (TESPT in this case) and the be observed: the compounds made
silica filler surface. This reaction with GNR as one of the polymers
is assisted by higher temperatures developed a lower temperature in
and is considered beneficial for the mixer in stage 1 (Figure 1a).
reaching efficient silanization to This may be an effect of the lower
mix compounds in a window of Mooney viscosity of the polymer.
145-155°C for a certain time. The progress of the vulcanization
reaction is seen in Figure 2. Torque
development diagrams (Figure 2a)
show that compounds with the
HNR- HNR- GNR- GNR- conventional tire oil, Nytex 4700, had
NT4700 NTB6200 NTB6200 NTB6200-RHS the highest torque development as
phr phr phr phr well as a high curing rate, where the
35 35 35 35 speed was highest in the compound
with HNR as one of the polymers;
substituting Nytex 4700 with Nytex
35 35 Bio 6200 in the same compound
35 35 leads to lower torque development.
30 30 30 30 This behavior was also observed
in earlier works5 and was easily
90 90 90
compensated for by an increase in
90 the vulcanization chemicals – namely
7.92 7.92 7.92 7.92 sulfur and accelerators. In this work,
however, it was decided to keep
36
the formulations unchanged for
36 36 36 all compounds, keeping formulae
optimizations for planned future
75
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
3 Table 3: Key properties of the oils in the study
Oil KV40 (mm2/s)
Nytex 4700 700
Nytex Bio 6200 150
Table 4: Characterization methods used in the study
Property Method
Curing characteristics ISO 6502
Hardness ISO 7619
Abrasion DIN ISO 4649
Tensile properties ISO 37
4 series + AVE 2
Dynamic properties Temperature sweep at 10Hz frequency
and 0.1% dynamic strain
studies. The introduction of GNR
and RHS leads to further lowering
of developed torque.
There was a relatively limited
variation in the hardness of the
studied compounds (Figure 3).
The change of SBR to HNR did not
change the hardness significantly,
and the introduction of Nytex Bio
6200 in place of the conventional
5a
oil led to a small increase. Although
one reason for this could be the
lower plasticizing power of the
oil, it is contradicted by the tensile
properties (Figure 5) where tensile
strength and elongation at break
are the highest in the range. GNR
seemed to have a lowering impact
on hardness, which could be related
to the intrinsic properties of the
polymer and the lower cross-link
density as observed by the torque
development (Figure 2a).
Abrasion of the studied
compounds is shown in Figure 4,
where the only significant differences
were seen in compounds with GNR
5b as one of the polymers. This could
be explained by the lower hardness
as well as a lower cross-link density
observed in these compounds.
However, it needs to be restated that
compensating for a lower cross-
link density is relatively easy via
optimization of the curing chemicals,
which was shown in an earlier work
by the same authors.5
Changing the polymer from SBR
to HNR leads to a higher elongation
at break, as well as a lower modulus
development (Figure 5). Further
replacement of the conventional
oil with Nytex Bio 6200 increased
76
KV100 (mm2/s) Aniline Point (°C) Tg (°C)
29 91 -55
12 57 -68
Equipment
MonTech D-MDR 3000
MonTech ABR 3000
Instron 5900 Universal Testing
Metravib DMA+300
tensile strength and elongation
at break, while displaying a high
value in tensile strength at 300%
elongation, despite indications of
somewhat lower cross-link density.
Furthermore, the difference between
compounds made with alternative
raw materials were within the normal
variations of the analysis. These
results show the promise of reaching
desired high-performance criteria
with non-conventional raw materials
in tire rubber compounds.
Dynamic properties, especially
the values of the loss factor, tan
δ, are often used to predict key
performance criteria regarding
traction and rolling resistance
properties of tire rubbers. Such
properties for the studied rubber
compounds are displayed in Figure
6 and Figure 7. Figure 6a shows the
tan δ curve on a temperature sweep
where the smooth shape of the curve
is indicative of a homogeneous
compound. This would confirm a
high degree of compatibility between
the alternative raw materials and the
rest of the compound components.
The peak tan δ (Figure 6b) often used
in place of Tg (peak loss modulus)
shows another interesting aspect.
As can be seen, despite the fact that
Nytex Bio 6200 has a significantly
lower Tg in the oil phase compared
with Nytex 4700, its replacement
in compound actually leads to a
marginal increase in the compound
Tg. This phenomenon was also
observed in earlier works by the same
authors5 and, while the fundamental
reason for this will be the subject of
future studies, it confirms previous

6a
7 Figure 3: Compound
Indicator tire key properties
Normalized values
observations and points to a
consistent trend. The higher Tg
is not, however, the result of a
lower plasticizing power of Nytex
Bio 6200, as witnessed by the
performance in hardness, as well
as tensile properties, of the rubber
material. The change from HNR to
GNR did also lead to a slightly higher
Tg, which, taking into account the
substantially lower Mooney viscosity
of the polymer (Table 3), could
possibly be a consequence of
a higher cross-link density.
Tan δ at 0°C and Tan δ at 60°C
are commonly used as indicators
for wet grip (WG) and rolling
resistance (RR) performance of the
tire. Such a comparison between
studied compounds can be seen
in Figure 7, where all values have
been normalized to that of the fully
conventional rubber compound.
The largest differences seem to be
dependent on the change of the
polymer (from SBR to HNR to GNR).
The replacement of Nytex 4700 with
Nytex Bio 6200 seems to result in
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
6b
relatively small differences, while an
adjustment of the curing additives is
expected to lower the values of rolling
resistance. The further introduction
of the rice husk silica did not cause
any significant change in the dynamic
performance of the rubber materials.
Conclusions
The main objective of this work
was to investigate the potential of
a few alternative raw materials as
part of an improved sustainability
profile – compared with conventional
counterparts – in tire rubber
applications. Although further
studies are required to achieve
a greater understanding of the
fundamentals, the results clearly show
the potential of such components
in providing high-performing
rubber materials with additional
benefits in overall sustainability
of the rubber compounds. The
relatively small differences between
the studied rubber materials are
expected to be addressed by relatively
simple reformulations, mainly
in the curatives package. This is
hardness where only
limited differences certainly true of Nytex Bio 6200, as
were observed demonstrated by previous studies.
Figure 4: DIN abrasion Furthermore, the increasing
of the studied rubber number of raw materials from
materials. The only
significant differences bio-based and other alternative
are for rubber materials sources confirms the efforts of the
made with GNR. The
same compounds also
raw material supply chain to meet the
showed a somewhat challenges of increased sustainability
lower hardness facing the entire industry.
(Figure 3)
Figure 5: Tensile
properties. Tensile Acknowledgements
strength and The authors would like to
elongation at break acknowledge Dr Katrina Cornish of
of all compounds
are relatively similar, Ohio State University for providing
while the modulus the Guayule natural rubber used
development shows
somewhat larger
in this study and for invaluable
differences discussions on the subject. tire
Figure 6: Dynamic
mechanical properties References
of studied rubber
materials. Smooth shape 1) K Cornish, Minimising risks around
of DMA curves (Figure NR through alternative crops, Tire
6a) indicates high Technology, Hannover, Germany,
compatibility between
all components in Feb 25-27, 2020
a given compound. 2) K Cornish, Valorization and
A relatively high
compound Tg was
scalability of alternative natural
observed in compounds rubber through tailoring properties,
with Nytex Bio 6200 Tire Technology, Hannover,
(Figure 6b) despite a
substantially lower oil Tg Germany, Feb 25-27, 2020
Figure 7: Key 3) X Ren, K Cornish, Eggshell
performance indicators improves dynamic properties of
for tire tread rubbers. durable guayule rubber composites
All values have been
normalized, by value, co-reinforced with silanized silica,
to that of the fully Industrial Crops & Products 138
conventional compound
(2019) 111440
4) P Garbelotto, HRS produced from
RHA and its impact on the car
PCT, Tire Technology, Hannover,
Germany, Feb 25-27, 2020
5) K Alavi, Sustainability &
performance: non-mineral oil
based tyre and rubber plasticisers,
Tire Technology, Hannover,
Germany, Mar 5-7, 2019
6) K Alavi, Get a grip: performance
of naphthenic oil in winter tyre
compounds, Tire Technology,
Hannover, Germany, Feb 25-27, 2020
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Naphthenic process oils

High-viscosity naphthenic and naphthenic black oils evaluated
in tread compounds suggest a range of performance benefits
by Mary Ann Abney, Kerry Collins, Nick White, Dr Edward Casserly, Austin McCann, Silvia Carvalho and Staci Springer, Ergon, USA

T
he rubber and tire 1 loading was held at 25.0phr for all the
industry is undergoing compounds. The study compared a
continued evolution heavy naphthenic process oil (HNO –
in performance and HyPrene L2000), a heavy naphthenic
regulatory demands black oil (HNBO – HyPrene BO150)
that have dictated and a traditional treated distillate
new rubber process oil chemistries. aromatic extract (TDAE), as these
Parallel to the evolution of the rubber products are widely used in tires.
and tire industry’s needs, there is The general process oil properties
a continued evolution within the are shown in Table 2.
refining industry that is influencing The tread samples were tested
the rubber process oils available for using the following methods:
use in tires. This evolution within the rheometer data (ASTM D2084),
refining industry is in response to Mooney viscosity (ASTM D1646),
performance and regulatory demands original physical properties (ASTM
in much larger markets such as fuels D412, ASTM D2240), heat-aged
and lubricants. Figure 1: The Performance demands shift physical properties (ASTM D573),
With these factors in mind, fundamentals of depending on the end application Pico abrasion (ASTM D2228),
tire performance
the focus of this study is the characteristics – the of the tire design. Therefore, specific gravity (ASTM D792),
commonly used oils that provide well-known magic selection of the right process oil DeMattia flexibility (ASTM D813),
triangle relationship
favorable performance and strong is key to the overall performance Goodrich Flexometer heat build-up
availability across global regions. of the tire. One must consider (ASTM D623), dynamic mechanical
The impact of these rubber process compatibility with the elastomer, analysis (DMA) and processability
oils was studied in a general SBR/BR processability, performance and properties (RPA).
light-vehicle tire formulation. Given raw material availability. The data is grouped into
the fundamentals depicted in the four categories based on its
magic tire triangle (Figure 1), there The study significance. Below are the metrics
are always trade-offs; this study helps An independent third-party lab used to indicate the performance
outline the trade-offs for different performed the work in this study of the rubber specimen:
rubber process oil chemistries. with blind samples to ensure • Processability: minimum
the integrity of the results. The torque, scorch time and
Table 1: Tread sample formulation performance metrics are broken cure time;
into four categories: processability, • General rubber properties:
Ingredient class Ingredient details phr
general rubber properties, tire life tensile strength, 200% modulus
Polymer S-SBR – SLR-4601 75.0 and on-road performance. and ultimate elongation;
Polymer BR – Buna CB 25 25.0 Three different tread samples • Tire life: change in tensile
Carbon black N234 Carbon black 40.0 were compounded using the same strength, ultimate elongation,
formulation (Table 1). The only hardness after heat aging,
Silica Zeosil 1165 MP 35.0
variable was the process oil used toughness, Pico abrasion
Coupling agent SCA98 Silane (TESPT) 3.15 for each specimen; the plasticizer resistance, DeMattia
Plasticizer Oil (various) 25.0
Wax Akrowax 195 1.00 Table 2: General process oil properties
Antidegradant TMQ 0.50 Test Test method HyPrene L2000 HyPrene BO150 TDAE
Accelerator DPG 1.50 Viscosity, SUS at 100°F (37.8°C) ASTM D7279 2098 4117 3006
Antidegradant 6PPD 2.00 Viscosity, SUS at 210°F (98.9°C) ASTM D72729 101.5 147 102.7
ZnO activator ZOCO 104 1.90 Refractive index at 20°C ASTM D1218 1.5076 1.5288 1.5295
Curative Sulfur, rubbermakers 1.75 Aniline point, °F (°C) ASTM D611 208.3 (97.9) 184 (84.4) 155.7 (68.7)
Activator Stearic acid 1.50 Glass transition temperature ASTM D3418 -53 -57 -52
Accelerator TBBS 2.00 Flash point, COC, °F (°C) ASTM D92 495 (257.2) 490 (254.4) 510 (265.6)
TOTAL 215.3 Color, ASTM ASTM D6045 2 D8.0 8

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Figure 2: Assessing 2
processability in
terms of torque, scorch
time and cure time
Figure 3: General
rubber properties:
tensile strength,
200% modulus and
ultimate elongation
Figure 4: Changes
in tensile strength
and elongation
following heat aging
Figure 5: Shore
A Hardness before
Flexometer crack resistance and after heat aging
and Goodrich Flexometer
temperature rise;
• On-road performance: 3
rolling resistance, wet,
dry and winter traction.
The mixing was completed
in two passes. In the first pass,
the mixer was set to 204°F (95.6°C),
the polymer was added and then
mixed for 30 seconds. Then, two-
thirds of the silica and all the
silane were added, mixing until the
temperature reached 250°F (121°C).
After reaching temperature, all the
remaining chemicals were added,
mixing until reaching 300°F
4
(149°C) and holding at 300-320°F
(149-160°C) for three minutes.
The compounds were mixed
for one additional minute,
completing pass one. The rubber
compound was then removed. A
second mixing pass was performed
where the mixer was set to 204°F
(95.6°C), adding all the remaining
materials. A sweep was performed
at 60 seconds, and the product
was removed from the mixer at
240 seconds or 320°F (160°C), 5
whichever came first. After mixing,
each specimen was inspected and
tested. The optical dispersion in
each specimen was rated at an
8.0 or better. To predict how the
specimens would age, samples
were heat aged at 70°C for 70 hours,
following ASTM 573 Standard Test
Method for Rubber – Deterioration
in an Air Oven. After aging, samples
were retested to examine any changes
in the rubber performance.

Results and discussion

Beginning with processability, any
compounding changes must not
significantly affect the ability to
process the new compound. To
address processability, minimum
torque, scorch time (T2) and cure
time (T90) were evaluated (Figure 2).
Regarding minimum torque, lower
is better for processability; HyPrene
BO150 shows the best processability.
The higher the scorch time, the more
process safety during curing; there is
less chance of ruining the batch due
to premature curing. HyPrene BO150
showed the best performance in this
area. Finally, the cure time influences
the total time needed to cure the
tread compound. HyPrene L2000 has
the shortest cure time, while all the
compounds were within 1.5 minutes
of each other.
The next area examined is the
general rubber properties; depending
on the performance goal of the
tire, these properties are neither
good nor bad but will be targeted
based on the end application. The
general properties include tensile

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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
strength, 200% modulus and ultimate
elongation (Figure 3). HyPrene L2000
has the highest initial tensile strength
as well as the highest ultimate
elongation. TDAE had the highest
200% modulus.
Many factors affect the life of
the tire, such as weather, abrasion,
cracking and overall toughness.
The three cured tread samples
were aged in an oven at 70°C for
70 hours and retested (Figure 4).
HyPrene L2000 resulted in the
largest change after heat aging.
TDAE showed the least change
after aging. A change of less than
±15% is considered small and not
significant. It is not uncommon to
see changes of 25-35% after the heat
aging. HyPrene BO150 showed the
best ultimate elongation after aging.
Heat aging is vital to understand
because road temperatures may
6 oil and the cured rubber are key in
7 low-rolling-resistance tires can
8
80
sometimes exceed 100°C under
certain conditions.3 A typical aging
temperature of 70°C balances the
need for quick test results and the
fact that a tire will not always be
exposed to temperatures of 70°C
and above.
The hardness before and after
aging was examined (Figure 5). All
the compounds stayed relatively
stable with no more than two points
change on any of the samples. The
Shore A hardness from a tire typically
falls between 55 and 80. Hardness
is a key parameter regarding low
noise. As tires age, the tread hardness
consistently increases due to oxygen
reacting with the tread compound.
The hardness could increase as
much as 15 points depending on the
material and construction. Because
Shore A hardness is measured with
an accuracy of ±3 points, all the
Figure 6: Exploring tread compounds showed equivalent
toughness of the performance relative to hardness.4
study compounds
Toughness, a calculation of the
Figure 7: Assessing
heat build-up area under the stress-strain curve,
Figure 8: Glass helps predict the tire tread life in
transition temperature service. Both high elongation and
can be used to assess
on-road performance
high tensile strength result in high
toughness. In this study (Figure 6),
HyPrene L2000 showed the highest
toughness indicating the best
durability; this is also confirmed
by great abrasion resistance and
crack resistance, as shown by Pico
abrasion and DeMattia crack growth.
The Goodrich Flexometer
temperature rise test was conducted,
and all three compounds performed
similarly; the process oil doesn’t
appear to play a major role in heat
build-up (Figure 7).
Moving on to the expected
on-road performance of the three
tread compounds, the glass transition
(Tg) temperatures of both the process
understanding how the compound
will perform in a wide range of
temperatures. HyPrene BO150
provided the lowest glass transition
temperature of the three compounds,
although the compounded tread
samples have a Tg within 2°C of each
other (Figure 8).
The next area for consideration
is rolling resistance; this parameter
is related to the fuel economy of
a vehicle. The US Department of
Energy has shown that utilizing
have as much as 10% fuel savings
impact for drivers.2 Expected
rolling resistance can be inferred
by testing the tan δ at 60°C. The
lower the tan δ at 60°C, the lower
the rolling resistance and the better
the fuel economy. The results from
this study indicate that HyPrene
L2000 has the lowest rolling
resistance (Figure 9).
Not only is fuel economy
important, but the operational
safety of the tire is key; stopping
distance in dry, wet and wintery
conditions is vital to the safe
operation of a vehicle. The tan δ
can predict dry traction at 25°C;
the higher it is, the better the dry
stopping distance. The compound
made with HyPrene BO150 is
expected to have the best dry traction
(Figure 9). Wet traction is indicated
by the tan δ at 0°C; HyPrene L2000
performed the best in this area and
is expected to have the shortest wet
stopping distance (Figure 9).
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Winter traction is harder to Figure 9: Assessing 9

correlate with tan δ, although tire rolling resistance

the tan δ at -25°C is often used Figure 10: Analyzing

the winter traction
to indicate winter performance. performance of the
However, a better metric for winter three compounds
performance is the tensile storage Figure 11: Tire
performance overview
modulus, E’, where a lower E’ as a relative ranking
predicts better winter performance. Figure 12: Results
The low modulus is beneficial for suggest that heavy
the low-temperature behavior of naphthenic process
oils offer a range of
the rubber compound.5 The lower advantages over TDAE
the tread rubber stiffness at low
temperature, the better the winter
traction. The compound must
remain soft and flexible in a winter 10
environment.6 HyPrene L2000
showed the best expected winter
traction in this study (Figure 10).

Conclusions
Naphthenics provide a great option
as plasticizers to help balance light-
vehicle tire treads and are a strong
offset to TDAE. Showing an
overview of the performance as
a relative ranking (Figures 13 and
14), a larger value indicates better
performance. Heavy naphthenic
process oils such as HyPrene L2000 11
and HyPrene BO150 offer advantages
in processability, process safety,
abrasion resistance and winter
traction over TDAE. HyPrene L2000
offers enhanced abrasion resistance,
faster cure time and improved
winter traction. HyPrene BO150
extends the process safety margin by
increasing the scorch time. Tire tread
formulators can take advantage of
HyPrene naphthenic rubber process
oils to improve the processability
and performance of their products.
12
Incorporating HyPrene rubber
process oils in tire tread formulations
can help them tailor material
properties to match the desired
specifications. Performance varies
depending on the formulation due to
the complexities of tire formulations
and manufacturing. tire

References
1) Bridgestone, (2020), Bridgestone
Americas Inc. Retrieved from
https://www.bridgestoneamericas.
com/en/corporate-social-
responsibility/safety/tires-101/tire- Development of a service- 5) Franco Cataldo O U, (2013),
construction simulating, accelerated aging Biodiesel as a Plasticizer of a
2) Bridgestone, (2020, September 5), test method for exterior tire SBR-Based Tire Tread Formulation,
What is Tire Rolling Resistance? rubber compounds, Polymer ISRN Polymer Science
Retrieved from Bridgestone Tire: Degradation and Stability 6) Mika Lahtinen K A, (2018), Improving
https://www.bridgestonetire.com/ 4) Ejsmont U S, (2007), Influence Winter Traction and Fuel Economy
tread-and-trend/tire-talk/tire- of tyre tread rubber hardness on of Car Tires Using Naphthenic
rolling-resistance tyre/road noise, Proceedings of Tire Oils. Journal of Traffic and
3) Deng Huang B J-H, (2001), Inter-noise 2007, Istanbul Transportation Engineering

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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Testing tire contact patch

Technology to dynamically measure tire forces at the contact patch can
yield important data that is key to the development of future tire designs
by Matthew Van Gennip, A&D Technology, USA

U
nderstanding Figure 1: An array 1
of contact patches
tire behavior is using the same test
vital for further conditions at various
development slip and camber
angles as indicated
of tire design. by the x- and y-axis
What’s more,
with the advent of electric and
autonomous vehicles, understanding
and modeling tire behavior has
never been more important. A&D
Technology has developed a new
test rig to measure contact patch
dynamics at high speeds. Using
the Dynamic Contact Force Rig
(DCFR), more in-depth analysis can
be completed by looking at the most
important area of the tire – the area
that is in contact with the ground.
There has been a lot of work
undertaken to model tires. Due to
tire complexity, models usually focus
on accurately capturing only a few
aspects of a tire. Some focus heavily
on the thermodynamic properties
of the tire and how that influences
force generation, whereas other
models may simplify that area and
focus on other aspects. Regardless test at 100km/h on a 2m drum, there a rectangular contact patch. A line
of the tire model, when it comes to will be more than 250 sensor readings connecting all the rectangular contact
further development of tires, the measuring the contact patch. patches was created and dubbed the
contact patch dynamics are vital. The This plethora of data can be used equivalent shape line (ESL). The
observation of this force distribution in many ways. If test conditions are ESL exists for contact patches of any
may provide unique insights about kept constant during each rotation, shape, but for this study refers solely
the tire, leading to new innovations the entirety of the tire surface can be to a rectangular contact patch. There
in design. Research on contact mapped as it contacts the ground. are many benefits in maintaining a
patch behavior has been ongoing for This can be used to improve models, rectangular contact patch. One of
many years, but measurements have among many other applications. the largest is equalizing tread wear
been limited to static or low-speed Another way to use the data is by throughout the whole width of the
maneuvers, or high-speed maneuvers creating an array of contact patch tire, effectively increasing tire life.
with poor resolution and accuracy. data as seen in Figure 1. The y-axis In this study, 20 tests were
The DCFR measures the contact represents changes in camber angle performed at various velocities,
force through an array of small (4 x and the x-axis represents changes in normal loads and pressures as seen
4mm) three-component force sensors slip angle. Each condition was held at in Table 1. For each test, an array
known collectively as the Force steady state for a short time so that similar to that seen in Figure 1 was
Matrix Sensor (FMS). The FMS can approximately 50 data samples could created, and the ESL was evaluated.
be embedded in the road surface for be captured. These were then averaged This was done by comparing the left
on-road vehicle testing of contact before being used in this analysis. and right shoulder lengths along with
patch behavior, or embedded in a There is a lot that can be done the length of the center of the contact
rolling drum machine – such as with with an array of data like this. For this patch. The primary focus in this
the DCFR. One major advantage of study, it was decided to investigate study was comparing how the ESL
using a rolling drum machine is that the conditions that maintained a varied due to changes in normal load.
during a single test, the FMS will pass rectangular contact patch. It was Figure 2 shows the ESL from eight
over the contact patch multiple times. found that there is a combination of different normal loads with pressure
For example, during a one-minute slip and camber angles that maintains and speed kept constant.

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

There were three noteworthy Table 1: Details of test procedures

observations for this comparison.
Test number 1-4 5 6 7 8 9-12 13 14 15 16 17-20
First, the change in slope of the ESL
was consistent through the changes Velocity (km/h) 60-100 100 100 100 100 60-100 100 100 100 100 60-100
in normal load. On average, the Vertical load (N) 3,375 3,500 3,750 4,000 4,250 4,500 4,750 5,000 5,250 5,500 5,625
slope of the ESL increased at a rate Pressure (kPa) 200-250 200 200 200 200 200-250 200 200 200 200 200-250
of around 0.5 per kN load increase.
In other words, when the normal
load is increased by 1kN, the camber
angle will need to be increased by
half the slip angle, or the slip angle Figure 2: The 2
equivalent shape
will need to be decreased by half line for eight different
the camber angle to maintain a tests, all with varying
rectangular contact patch. normal load but
identical other
The second observation was test conditions
that the convergence of the ESL Figure 3: Plot showing
did not occur at the origin (0° slip travel resistance versus
cornering force. As
angle and 0° camber angle) but rather the cornering force
at a small negative camber angle. increases, the travel
This is believed to be a feature of the resistance will always
increase, but the lowest
tire, since it was mounted simulating travel resistance occurs
a right wheel. It is assumed that the on the ESL
opposite occurs when simulating
a left wheel.
Last, the ESL itself is mostly linear
throughout the test range. For every
1° increase in slip angle, there needs
to be a 2.5° decrease in camber angle
to stay on the ESL. Further testing
is needed to see if other tires behave
similarly. Investigating how changes
in speed and pressure affect the ESL,
it was determined that, as speed and
pressure increase, the slope of the 3
ESL decreases.
Another benefit of maintaining
a rectangular contact patch is that
it reduces your travel resistance.
Investigating the travel resistance of
the various conditions performed in
this study, it was determined that the
smallest travel resistance occurred
while the conditions were on the ESL.
This is shown in Figure 3. This was
not the focus of the current study,
but there are many applications for
such work, especially on EVs. Further
research is being done with the DCFR
to investigate the characteristics of
the dynamic contact forces, especially
during high-speed maneuvers. The
current focus is on the ESL and how
that influences tread wear, handling
and rolling resistance. tire

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Recovered carbon black

An investigation into the consistency of characteristics of
rCB produced in continuous pyrolysis on an industrial scale
by Igor Levenberg, Makrochem, Poland

I
n addition to considerations 71-99%. This parameter brings Predictably, apart from carbon
relating to the quality of information on volume and type molecules, the samples contain
recovered carbon black, of organic impurities in rCB. significant amounts of silicon,
an equally important issue Those impurities are decay zinc, sulfur and oxygen, which
is the consistency of its products of rubber and organic were introduced to the rubber
characteristics, as well as compounds present in the rubber in the form of silica, zinc oxide,
the volume and type of impurities. compound being pyrolyzed. kaolin, aluminosilicates and
Unless repeatability of the material Again, within samples from external impurities.
is secured, no rubber producer will each supplier, the differences are The repeatability of contents
risk the quality of their final product relatively low and can be treated of the prevalent element – carbon
by using unstable raw material. as statistically unimportant. – is favorable and ranges from
This article presents results of As with transmittance, the 73.8-80.2%wt. Other elements display
tests performed on nine samples differences between organic greater variability; for example, zinc
of rCB from three producers – impurities content are visible but is surprisingly low in P1rCB2 – only
three independent samples from are very small between the samples 0.5%wt. Such differences between
each. Recovered carbon black was from a single supplier. Organic samples may be attributed to the
produced in different installations compounds constitute less than 2%wt constraints of the measurement
working in continuous mode. of the sample and corresponding method. Test results are the average
According to the producers, the transmittance is higher than 70%. of five scans of 0.8 x 0.8mm surface
feedstock consisted of a mixture Ash content is very repetitive, of rCB dust – so a very small sample.
of end-of-life passenger and truck with the exception of two samples In conclusion, the consistency
tires. This short paper is an extract from producer 2. Average ash of test results for NSA and STSA
from a broader research project into content amounts to 21%wt; lower is acceptable, OAN and IAN show
rubbers and CB/rCB undertaken by measurements of 16.0%wt and bigger variation but within a single
Makrochem’s R&D center. 17.7%wt may be the effect of changes source the deviations from average
in feedstock used for pyrolysis, or are significantly lower. Worryingly,
Results low representativeness of samples for values of transmittance in toluene
In the case of NSA and STSA, the TGA method (ASTM D6370), extract show considerable variability
high consistency of results can be where very small amounts of sampled and fall in the range of 71-99%wt.
observed. Only one sample of rCB material are used – only 4mg. Related organic impurities content
visibly differs from the average of
73m2/g in NSA and 62m2/g in STSA.
Considering IAN, the spectrum
of results is wider, which may be
Table 1: Basic characteristics of tested rCB
influenced by the measurement
method being dependent on Characteristics P1rCB1 P1rCB2 P1rCB3 P2rCB1 P2rCB2 P2rCB3 P3rCB1 P3rCB2 P3rCB3 ASTM D
organic impurities of rCB NSA (m /g)
2
73 74 74 61 73 78 76 75 75 6,556
(problems with moistening of
STSA (m2/g) 63 68 61 53 65 62 62 62 63 6,556
samples). This bias is eliminated
in surface measurement tests. IAN (mg/g) 97 85 113 68.6* 95 124 115 96 100 1,510
Similarly, in the case of OAN, OAN (ml/100g) 86 86 97 93 82 81 99 98 100 2,414
reflecting the structure of carbon Moisture (125°C, 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.8 2.3 0.7 1.2 1.2 1,509
black, higher deviation is observed. %wt)
The results fall in the range of
Sieve 0.045 mm 0.0343 0.0354 0.0843 0.1632 0.1214 0.0006 0.0007 0.0010 0.0006 1,514
81-100ml/100g. Here also, we (%wt)
may suspect that the result is
pH value 8.3 7.7 8.7 8.96* 9.0 8.6 8.8 9.0 8.7 1,512
biased by organic impurities. It
is worth noting that within a single Transmittance (%) 70.7 74.5 86.9 88.3 79.2 99.1 94.2 98.3 98.8 1,618
supplier’s samples, the differences * the sample was difficult to moisten
are significantly lower and the
results are more consistent.
A broader spectrum of results
was observed in transmittance
of toluene extract, ranging from

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

ranges from 1.1-1.9%wt – the latter Table 2: Impurities in tested rCB

value is definitely too high.
Characteristics P1rCB1 P1rCB2 P1rCB3 P2rCB1 P2rCB2 P2rCB3 P3rCB1 P3rCB2 P3rCB3
This research was completed in
Makrochem’s R&D center within Organic (%wt) 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.9 1.8 1.4 1.1 1.1 ASTM
the framework of the following D6370
Ash (%wt) 20.4 22.0 22.0 16.0 17.7 20.1 23.8 23.4 24.0
projects: POIR.02.01.00-00-0299/17-
00, Utworzenie Centrum badawczo C (%wt) 75.9 78.2 75.2 80.2 78.4 73.8 76.8 75.5 77.0 SEM-EDX,
– Rozwojowego firmy Makrochem own
Si (%wt) 3.5 2.6 4.1 2.5 3.3 4.9 3.8 4.5 3.5
(Establishment of the Makrochem procedure
Zn (%wt) 3.2 0.5 1.5 2.2 3.0 2.8 2.2 2.4 1.7
Research and Development
Center); POIR.01.01.01-00- S (%wt) 1.6 0.8 1.4 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.1 1.3 0.9
0075/20, Opracowanie typoszeregu Fe (%wt) 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1
innowacyjnych produktów O (%wt) 12.9 15.9 15.6 11.4 10.9 14.5 13.6 13.7 14.7
dla przemysłu oponiarskiego
Cl (%wt) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(Development of a series of innovative
products for the tire industry). tire

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Section 2
Production, quality and recycling
Continental

87
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Simulating tire manufacturing
The application of finite element analysis can yield a range
of vital insights into the intricacies of the tire production process
by Wonhyuck Lee, Seongtaek Heo, Dongjin Park, Mingjun Piao, Antoine Boyadjian, Jaeho Paek, Hankook Tire, South Korea; Sanghyub Kim, Thomas Berger,
Michael Kaliske, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
T
he tire manufacturing
process is a very
important step
that directly
affects the quality
of tire products.
Therefore, it is desirable to design
a technology which can detect
defects before preparing or
assembling each component of
the tire, and preemptively prevent
unexpected problems which may
occur during the process. In this
paper, tire manufacturing simulation
technology based on the digital twin
concept is introduced. It is coupled
with modeling technology by
automatically linking manufacturing
equipment and specification
data in PLM (product lifecycle
management) for rapid prediction;
and measurement technology
using sensors or cameras to ensure
the accuracy of manufacturing
behavior. In simulation technology,
a temperature- and deformation-
dependent material model
is implemented to represent
complex manufacturing behavior
of components in the tire, and
particularly to describe phase
transition phenomena by cross-
linking of rubber. The predicted
results are compared with diverse
measurements, such as sensor
measuring and video material, and
user-defined quantitative values. The
results are validated by its usefulness.
Additionally, these technologies
contribute to reducing product
lead times and manufacturing costs.
Background
Since the digital twin concept
was proposed, it has been applied
in many industrial fields. A digital
twin consists of a physical product,
a virtual product and data in
which the physical and virtual are
connected.1 Tire manufacturing
simulation technology developed
based on this concept is shown in
Figure 1. It proceeds sequentially
from manufacturing specifications
88
1
On-drum layout Building Curing
2
Tread
Belt Reinforcement
belt
Innerliner Carcass
Figure 1: The tire to on-drum layout modeling,
manufacturing
simulation process
building, curing and final PCI
Figure 2: On-drum
(post-cure inflation) analysis. In each
layout auto meshing procedure, modeling and boundary
and load conditions are processed in
connection with specifications and
plant equipment data on PLM. In
addition, the predicted behavior of
green tires during manufacturing is
compared and verified with actual
data measured by sensors and
cameras. In this paper, each step
will be introduced in sequence.
On-drum layout modeling
The on-drum layout model is
automatically built up by dividing
it into three parts using the
information from the manufacturing
specification in the PLM. First, the
carcass drum part is made of the
sidewall, innerliner and carcass
components, as shown in Figure
2. They are sequentially stacked
considering the diameter of the
carcass drum. For belt drum
parts, steel belts, reinforcing belts
and tread components are stacked
based on the belt drum. A bead
part consists of a steel bead and
filler, and is modeled through the
PCI
Bead filler
Bead wire
Sidewall
bead diameter and the distance
between both beads. Each part
of the extruded components made
of uncured rubber is imported
from specifications with length,
width, gauge and shape information.
To model calendered cords such as
carcass and steel belts, cord diameter
and EPI information are also imported
into the specification.
Material modeling
Unlike cured rubber, in which
viscoelastic behavior predominates,
uncured rubber exhibits strong
viscoplastic properties that
influence a deformation of uncured
rubber during tire manufacturing.
Conducting the cyclic creep tests for
uncured rubber, plastic deformation
increases as the loading cycle
increases, as shown in Figure 3a.
Moreover, changes in the physical
properties of rubber are exhibited
during the vulcanization process
due to cross-linking of rubber and
the degree of change is measured by
an MDR (moving die rheometer)
test. To represent these behaviors,
temperature- and deformation-
dependent constitutive models

3a
4 than the measurements. But the
including phase transition were
developed.2 As shown in Figure
3b, the degree of cure (c) describes
the phase transition phenomenon
based on the thermodynamic second
law. The red box is responsible
for the viscoplastic behavior of
uncured rubber, and the blue box
is for the viscoelastic behavior of
cured rubber. For the cord, hyper-
elastic properties are applied based
on the experimental data.
Building process
The building simulation consists of
the on-drum layout model and the
corresponding building equipment.
As shown in Figure 4, the building
drum, rollover can and building
bladder are modeled as axisymmetric
elements. The operation sequence
data of the actual building process
is linked to PLM data , in order to
automatically make the input files.
The procedure consists of six steps:
In the first step, bead parts are fixed
coinciding with movement of bead
lock upward in the radial direction.
The second step is called shaping.
The building bladder and inner part
including carcass and innerliners
inside of the bead parts are inflated
while displacing the building drum
inwards. Even if the inner part makes
contact with the belt parts, the ends
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
3b
of the belt parts remain apart at this
step. In the third step, the belt parts
are forcibly attached to the inner part
by a tread stitcher. Sequentially, the
rollover can moves towards the center
to push the building bladder and
then the turn-up process of sidewall
parts is finished. The bond between
inner and sidewall parts is finished
by moving the sidewall stitcher from
5
bead to shoulder. Coinciding with
decreasing the pressure, the drum
and bead lock are displaced to
the original position.
The prediction results can
be obtained, along with building
type, such as tread-over and side-
over, as shown in Figure 5. For a
quantitative analysis, four critical
points are measured on the actual
cross-section of the green tire, and
then compared with corresponding
values in the predicted data. The
predicted inner periphery and
sidewall outer periphery are larger
predicted belt width is shorter than
the measurements. The height of
bead filler at side-over type is nearly
the same, whereas the predicted one
at tread-over type is shorter. Despite
the differences that occur after
applying simple hyper-elastic material
without their viscous effect to
reinforcement cords, the simulation
provides the appropriate prediction
results. Furthermore, taking into
account statistic deviation during
tire manufacturing, the comparison
of the prediction against the actual
Figure 3a: values is in a good agreement. With
Viscoplastic behavior
of uncured rubber
the help of building simulation,
Figure 3b: 1D
design defects can be distinguished
rheological model before tire manufacturing, as well
Figure 4: Building as errors in machine settings.
simulation process In addition, a 2D laser profile
Figure 5: Tire building sensor (LJ-X8900 by Keyence) is
simulation result
used to examine, in real time, the
process of green tire shaping by
scanning the machine moving
89
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

parts, such as shaping bladders, 6

and the tire components, such
as the carcass, during each shaping
step. The sensor then processes the
data into a 2D cross-section that can
be compared to simulation results.
This enables a better understanding
of the shaping behavior that results
from the machine settings. As shown
in Figure 6, the upper test data is
compared to the corresponding
prediction values under the same
conditions, such as the same
distance between the rollover can
(388.12mm) and the same pressure.
The simulation captures the actual
behavior properly. Whereas the
height of the left and right bladder
is the same in simulation, different
values in the test are observed.
Based on the difference, the machine
settings (such as pressure or the
velocity of the rollover) can be
adjusted, the replacement cycle Figure 6: Measuring of placed on the lower side mold is Finally, the cross-section and profile
scanned profile at turn-
of the bladder can be decided, up step of side-over pre-shaped and fixed by the inflated of the cured tire can be obtained.
and the actual values that result tires, and comparison curing bladder. As the upper side The endoscope camera (BF211
from the machine settings can then with simulation result mold closes, the sectional mold by COMS) is used to observe the
be used as simulation parameters. Figure 7: Curing subsequently closes. The pressure contact behavior between the green
simulation process
of the curing bladder increases up tire and mold and compare this with
Curing process to 23 bar and the temperature of the prediction results. The cameras
The curing simulation uses the green tire increases to 178°C. are mounted on the outer surface of
the results predicted from the Then, the green tire is vulcanized the green tires, and part of the rubber
building simulation. In addition, for a constant time and the material component of the green tire is cut at
it automatically creates the input properties are changed during this an arbitrary circumferential angle.
files for the curing simulation (as step. After vulcanization, the upper Then, the mesh is drawn on the cut
shown in Figure 7) by importing side and sectional molds are opened side of the rubber using a white pen.
the curing time, temperature and after the pressure of the bladder is As shown in Figure 8a, the predicted
pressure information from the released. Then, the contact between contact behavior is compared to
specification, and the dimensions the cured tire and the bladder is actual filmed data by meridian
and shape information from the removed for the PCI process. The position. Additionally, a defect such
curing equipment. The procedure cured tire is seated on the rim for as a crease of carcass cords can be
is as follows. First, the upper clamp- post-cure inflation of the tire in a detected early in the curing process,
ring-constrained curing bladder high-temperature state and is cooled as shown in Figure 8b. It can be
goes up to mount the green tire in over a constant period of time at an resolved by performing parametric
the curing machine. The green tire inflation state of approximately 2 bar. studies using these simulation tools.

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 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

8a 8b

As a result, these measures and
predictions contribute to identifying
design defects or manufacturing
problems in advance.
Conclusions
In this paper, tire manufacturing
process simulation technology
was introduced. The technology
includes modeling by automatically
linking manufacturing equipment
and specification data in PLM for
rapid prediction, and temperature-
and deformation-dependent
material model and measurement
technology, to ensure the accuracy
of manufacturing behavior. The
simulation results were compared
with the measured data to validate
the technology. With the help of
these technologies, design defects
and unexpected problems can be
detected before mass production.
Additionally, the replacement
cycles of components such as
bladders can be determined.
Among other things, these digital
twin-based technologies contribute
to reducing product lead times and
manufacturing costs.
In the future, manufacturing
simulation technology will be
Figure 8a: Comparison integrated with tire performance
of contact behavior simulation to play a role as a holistic
between actual
and predicted tire design solution. tire
Figure 8b: Creasing
phenomenon of References
carcass cord
1) F Tao, J Cheng, Q Qi, M Zhang,
H Zhang, F Sui, Digital twin-driven
product design, manufacturing
and service with big data, Int J
Adv Manuf Technol 94 (2018)
2) T Berger, M Kaliske,
A thermo-mechanical material
model for rubber curing and
tire manufacturing simulation,
Computational Mechanics 19,
228 (2020)

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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Tire identification technology

Unique identification codes can be used to encode individual tires with a wealth
of specific information, which can then be used by all levels of the industry
by Amirhossein Shahdadi, Barez Innovation Center and School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Iran;
Afshin Ashofteh, Mahallat Institute of Higher Education, Iran

T
he needs of today’s tire Figure 1: Information 1
on the tire sidewall
industry, especially in
Figure 2: A sample
companies with global of the soft-edged
sales markets, make it groove in the tire
vital to track and record surface as a result
of laser engraving5
product information
across the whole product lifecycle.
Tires are identified by a four-digit
code that indicates the week and
year of production; however, they
do not have a unique identification
code. Therefore, the limitations of
marking information on the tire,
and the problems caused by the
lack of transparency in identifying
and tracking tires throughout their
value chain, have led to a need for
solutions such as barcodes, radio
frequency identification (RFID) and
laser engraving. In laser-engraving
technology, a unique mark –
including a numeric code, barcode,
QR code and data matrix code
(DMC) – is engraved on the tires.
This paper explores this technology,
its detail and the methods used in the
tire industry, particularly by the Barez
Industrial Group. safety, the tire industry is monitored advantages and disadvantages. For
Advances in technology across and controlled by standard example, a barcode on a tire, despite
all aspects of the industry have organizations from many different its ease of use, only provides unique
made it easier to perform different countries, which track products identification until it reaches the
tasks. The need to know the status and their lifecycle transparency. consumer because the barcode is
of the product and the ability to For this reason, marking product detached from the tire at the point
track and trace different products, information, tracking it from the raw of rimming or use. Therefore, this
especially after leaving the company material and production site to the method will not be applicable for
and reaching the customer, is very customer, and tracing the status and the entire lifecycle of the tire. Laser
important for planning production. possible flaws of the final product engraving is a permanent method
As a result, many industries are trying to their origin are among the areas and can be used by manufacturers,
different tools to create a control considered by tire manufacturers. sellers and consumers.4 Using
network and track their products.1 Unique tire identification is always this method can provide more
Due to its importance in vehicle a big challenge for the industry. information, including manufacturer,
As a standard, a four-digit code operator, terms of use and any
2 is inserted onto the body of each additional details.
tire – the first two digits indicate The capability and advantages
the week of production and the of laser engraving technology have
next two indicate the year (Figure led to its widespread use in the tire
1). Therefore, it is impossible to industry. As shown in Figure 1,
identify tires produced during the the tire sidewall contains a lot of
same week. With the development information that can be inserted
of technologies such as barcode2 using a laser.
and RFID,3 tire manufacturers are
attempting to develop methods to Laser engraving technology
register product information on Marking the required information
tires. Each of these methods has on the tire, along with the ability to

92
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

3 Figure 3: The 4
convenient positions
of QR code engraving
on the tire; position
#1 is preferred
Figure 4: The QR code
(mirrored) engraving on
the sidewall of the Barez
tire using a fiber laser
Figure 5: The QR
code (not mirrored)
engraving on the
sidewall of the Barez
tire using a CO2 laser

register it in a database at different

stages, makes it possible to provide
practical information. Different items
(such as numbers, QR codes and even
complex symbols) can be engraved Table 1: Comparison of different identification methods
on the tire. The benefits of laser
Characteristic Laser engraving RFID Barcode Molding
engraving for different parties
can be considered as follows: Machine-readable Yes Yes Yes Conditional
For tire manufacturers, it Human-readable Yes No Conditional Yes
offers a unique, low-cost method
Durable Yes Yes No Yes
of implementing permanent
numbering and registration. Individual information Yes Yes Yes No
For tire assembly providers, it
can ensure the accuracy of assembly
and compliance of parts. It should be noted that laser It should be noted that
For OE car tire plants, it can marking leaves a soft-edged groove consideration of parameters such
provide 100% traceability. in the tire surface that does not affect as heat and residual stresses is
At car/tire dealerships, the data the tire integrity. Based on reports, very important when using laser
can be invaluable to end customers. this process has been applied to more technology. Therefore, it is vital to
For fleet managers, laser engraving than 200 million tires and is proven.5 pay attention to the type and power
can help to prevent theft, help in This soft-edged groove can be seen of the laser. Studies show that two
scheduling replacements and keep in Figure 2, which shows that types of fiber and CO2 lasers are
track of inventory. the depth of the engraved groove used for tire engraving. The other
For private customers, it can be is negligible compared with the important note is that most tire
used to check the tire history and thickness of the tire. companies use a CO2 laser system
test reports and order replacements. With each additional marking, with a wavelength of 10.6μm. The
The advantages of laser marking the process cost of laser engraving type of engraved element is often
include permanent and forgery-proof is significantly reduced and the total a QR code or data matrix code.
engraving of all tire types, offering cost is slightly increased, indicating In addition, the optimal size for
the flexibility to engrave letters, a high share of the cost of automation this element is reported to be 12.6
numbers and graphics, and enabling and infrastructure implementation. x 34.8mm with up to 60 numeric
100% traceability even after years of Furthermore, for hundreds of existing characters. Optimal engraving depths
tire usage. A comparison of different marking stations worldwide, the cost for passenger tires (PCR) and truck
identification methods is presented of any additional marking is less than and bus tires (TBR) are reported to
in Table 1. €0.01 (US$0.012) per tire.5 be 700μm and 900μm, respectively.6

93
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

6 Figure 6: The very important. Barez Industrial
dimensional
specifications of
Group is committed to applying the
the final engraved QR latest technologies on its production
code on the Barez tire line, so a full consideration of all
Figure 7: Two examples the different aspects of using this
of inappropriately
engraved QR codes. technology is vital. Barez’s goal is
(Right) High laser to collect complete information –
power: a) high depth of including raw materials, production
engraving and distortion
of engraved walls; (Left) date, batch number, model of the
Improper adjustment of tire building machine and operator
engraving parameters:
b) inappropriate
details – and register this data in its
formation of walls, c) ERP system. After assembling the
inappropriate formation semi-final products, combining their
of boundaries
data creates a unique code, which is
assigned to each product. This code
is engraved on the tire and linked to
the Barez website and application.
As a result, sellers and consumers
can see this product information.
In addition, tracking and tracing
of tires, even after years of usage,
will be possible for Barez. In order
to achieve this, several parameters
– including quality, time and cost
of engraving, as well as minimizing
the thermal effects and the residual
stress – are important.
To investigate different
approaches, two types of fiber
and CO2 lasers with a power of
30W were used to engrave a QR
code on the sidewall of Barez PCR
The best protection for the QR tires. To ensure good readability, this
code when the tire is mounted on code was designed and prepared in
the car will be provided when the a vector form, and the content was
code is positioned as closely as modified in such a way to create
possible to the rim, as shown in a suitable image for engraving. It
Figure 3.5 Furthermore, for easy is clear that marking a large volume
readability the QR code area should of information will cause the element
be as perpendicular to the tire to become smaller and the engraving
axis as possible and should not process to be longer. Furthermore,
be too curved. For good readability, a high-precision machine will be
absolute engraving angles must be needed. In addition, the separated
below 30°. In addition, to position parts of the engraved tire have a
the QR code on the tire sidewall, darker color. Therefore, to make the
a unique reference area is required. QR code readable by the software,
The precision of the machine when the final form of the QR code must
positioning the QR code on the be mirrored and engraved in such
tire sidewall depends strongly on
the distance of the reference area
7
from the engraving position. The
maximum distance on the tire radius
is 20°. The other important note
is that the code requires an empty
dedicated space without design
elements, flash, venting marks
or color markings such as balance
points, and the tire surface should
be homogeneously black and smooth.
a way that it is placed inside three
black squares. In Figures 4 and 5,
QR code engraving by a fiber laser
and CO2 laser (respectively) on
the sidewall of Barez PCR tires are
shown. It is clear that these codes
have standard dimensions and
their walls and boundaries are
well formed. For better reading,
Barez has developed some software
as part of the company’s application
to ensure codes are read successfully.
One of the most important
challenges in the engraving process,
after adjusting the parameters of the
device, is setting the location of the
device with respect to the slope of
the tire sidewall. Considering this
issue, after making the necessary
adjustments and proper positioning
of the tire, several samples were
engraved with different parameter
settings. Then, the engraved sections
were cut to investigate the effects and
depth of the profile. The dimensional
specifications of the final engraved
QR code are shown in Figure 6.
As seen, the depth of 650μm is
in accordance with the standards.
Figure 7 shows two QR codes
engraved on the sidewall of Barez
PCR tires that do not have sufficient
quality. On the right, due to the use
of high laser power, the engraving
depth has increased and caused a
defect in the tire. As can be seen
in this case, the engraved walls
are distorted. However, on the
left, the engraving parameters
are not set correctly. In this case,
the walls and boundaries of the
engraved QR code do not have
appropriate formations.
To prevent a reduction of the
tire thickness and creation of residual
stress in the tire during the engraving
process, the Barez Industrial Group
suggests dedicating a special place

Laser engraving applications

As stated, unique identification of
tires has always been a big challenge
for manufacturers, and tracking
and tracing of the final product are

94

8 Figure 8: The dedicated
on the tire mold for engraving.
This area provides a smooth surface
and will serve as a guide for the
operator or machine. In addition, it
helps the customer find the engraved
area. This dedicated engraving area
is shown in Figure 8.
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
References
engraving area on the
1) Gladysz B, Nalepa K and Santarek
sidewall of the tire
K 2017, Justification of RFID
implementation: A case study
of white goods manufacturer,
Management and Production
Engineering Review, 8(4),
December, pp 91-104
2) Song X X, 2013, Integrated RFID
and Barcode Identification for
Information Acquisition, In Advanced
Materials Research, Vol. 628, Trans
Tech Publications Ltd, pp 253-259
3) Gao Y, Yang D and Ning W,
2010, RFID application in tire
manufacturing logistics, In 2010
IEEE International Conference on
Advanced Management Science
(ICAMS 2010), Vol. 3, pp 109-112
4) Sukprasertchai S and Suesut
T, 2016, Real-time Surface
Acquisition of Tire Sidewall for
Reading Embossed Information, In
Proceedings of the International
Acknowledgements MultiConference of Engineers and
The authors of this paper would Computer Scientists, Vol. 1
like to pass on their thanks to 5) 4JET Technologies GmbH. Available
the Barez Industrial Group, at: https://www.4jet.de/en/
particularly the marketing 6) Lohmann F and Bruehl M, 2004,
department, for its support Laser Systems in tire production,
throughout the work. tire Tire Technology International
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Developing manufacturing
Innovations in rotor technology thermocouples, drop door design, anti-wear and
anti-corrosion materials, and machine connectivity are enhancing tire production
by Yusuke (Tony) Tanaka, Kobelco, Japan

S
1
ince 1922, Kobelco Figure 1: Performance Rotor type Dispersion Distribution Cooling Material Net Chamber
summary of a selection
has delivered over of rotor designs
Intake Volume
3,000 tangential and Figure 2: Temperature 2WS ☆☆☆☆☆ ☆☆☆☆☆ ☆☆☆☆☆ ☆☆☆☆☆ ★★★★★
intermeshing mixers profile for silanization
worldwide from its three Figure 3: Comparison 4WH ★★★☆☆ ★★☆☆☆ ★★☆☆☆ ★★☆☆☆ ★★☆☆☆
manufacturing facilities of thermocouple
response time
in Japan, India and the USA. During 4WN ★★☆☆☆ ★★★★☆ ★★★☆☆ ★★★☆☆ ★★★☆☆

this period, the function of the mixer

6WI ★★★★☆ ★★☆☆☆ ★★☆☆☆ ★★★★★ ★☆☆☆☆
to simply disperse and distribute
fillers into a polymer matrix has 5THR ★★★★★ ★★★★★ ★★★★★ ★★☆☆☆ ★☆☆☆☆
changed significantly. In modern
times there is now the additional KIR-2 ★★★★★ ★★★★★ ★★★★★ ★☆☆☆☆ ★☆☆☆☆
requirement for the mixer to be
a chemical reactor. This makes KTCR ★★★☆☆ ★★★★★ ★★★☆☆ ★★★★☆ ★★★★☆
it essential to choose the correct
rotor design for each process, 2
and to monitor the compound
temperatures accurately, with
thermocouples placed in the mixing
Material temperature

chamber to control these reactions.

New materials have proved to be
abrasive and corrosive and have led
to the need for improved hard surface
coatings for the key components
within the mixing chamber to secure
the working life of the mixer.
New materials are also becoming
increasingly difficult to mix, leading Mixing Time
to increased cycle times and/or Optimal temperature for reaction
additional stages on older equipment,
which is leading to a squeeze in mixing
3
capacity. Mixers operating at full
capacity need routine maintenance
to continue to be productive, and
maintenance engineers are in New

increasingly high demand.

Temperature [℃]

Standard

Kobelco continues to work on

new developments to help solve
these issues, a selection of which
are summarized in this paper.

Rotor technologies
Kobelco offers intermeshing and
tangential-style rotors to improve
Time[sec.]
compound quality.
With regard to intermeshing
technology, the company offers intake compared with other giving it a higher cooling-surface-
the patented KIR-2. Tough tire intermeshing rotor designs. High area to material-volume ratio.
tread compounds can exhibit shear is provided by a longer total The patented 5THR hybrid
poor intake behavior, which wing length than other intermeshing rotor was developed specifically
All images: Kobelco

can make them difficult to mix mixers, which enables mixing with for high-silica masterbatch mixing.
on intermeshing machines. For a lower fill factor than traditional Higher shear is achieved through
this reason, the KIR-2 rotor was tangential mixers. This increases the an increased tip width, and a
designed to have superior material cooling efficiency of the rotor by strong helix angle enables excellent

96
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Figure 4: Anti-sticking 4
performance with new Curved New
spade door top Type Type

Figure 5: The effect 1st

Batch
of the door top on
compound properties
Figure 6: Anti-wear

surface and
sticking

stickingmaterials
materials
performance

chunksticking

close
2nd
comparison

close.
sealingsurface
Batch

didn’t
Rubber chunk

There isarenonosticking
didn’t
on sealing
and door
Rubber

door
3rd
Batch

There
distribution of the silica coupling
agents. The large surface area of the
rotor and improvements in the cooling
capacity of the chamber sides result 5
115 2000
in cooling performance similar to that
of intermeshing machines. This has 112.8

been shown to give a higher hardness 111.7 1800

Payne Effect (kPa)

Mooney Viscosity
1693

compared with other tangential rotors 110.8 1681 1687

on compounds using functional 110 1600

polymers – a good indication of
improved levels of dispersion. 1419
1400
Kobelco also provides more 106.5

traditional rotor designs and

105
specialized rotor designs. Curve Eccentric Straight Spade
Spade
1200
Curve Eccentric Straight Spade
Spade
The two-wing 2WS is used
primarily in productive stage mixing
in the tire industry. Benefits are a 6
large chamber volume and slow KA#93

temperature rise. KA#T1

Abrasion Weight Loss

The four-wing 4WH is popular for Stellite#6

carbon black non-productive mixing. KA#104

Better
The four-wing 4WN, featuring Lincolin H560

an altered wing angle, is Kobelco’s

standard rotor for productive mixing
and is also used in some silica non-
productive applications. This rotor
has a slower temperature rise than
the 4WH rotor and 6WI rotor.
The six-wing 6WI exhibits good Wheel revolution [rev.]
material intake, high shear and high
productivity (short mix times) and
is recommended for natural rubber/ mixing to improve the coupling agent applied an eccentric-type door top
carbon black masterbatch mixing. reaction (Figure 2). This is achieved for these compounds, which works
The KTCR has been developed by controlling the rotor speed through well for non-productive mixing. The
to improve distributive mixing a feedback loop from the batch ‘spade door top’ has been developed
performance. Offering a high thermocouple. The thermocouple specifically for these adhesive
batch weight with improved in- has to be extremely responsive to compounds to avoid material
batch consistency, it is characterized allow for greater controlled accuracy hang-up while improving compound
by the reduction in the temperature in the silanization reaction, leading flow around the door (Figure 4).
spike that is often seen at the to improvements in productivity and This shows an improved dispersion
beginning of the final pass mix uniformity both in-batch and batch- in silica compounds, with a reduction
due to frictional effects. to-batch (Figure 3). in Mooney viscosity (Figure 5).
The performance of these
designs is summarized in Figure 1, Anti-sticking door top Anti-wear and corrosion
although it should be stated that this New tread compounds are designed The materials and additives used in
is compound and process related. to improve the balance grip, silica mixing in the tire industry, and
Kobelco can offer and recommend energy efficiency and anti-wear the associated reaction by-products,
mixing trials in Japan and/or the characteristics of the tire. Materials have increased the requirements for
USA to determine the best rotor to improve rubber-to-metal adhesion the mixer chamber and rotors to be
design for a given application. are used to reduce the tire weight, anti-corrosive. At the same time, as
and these additives can cause the filler (silica) content of these new
Responsive thermocouples problems by increasing the amount compounds increases, so too does
Maintaining compound temperature of compound that sticks internally the need to have an anti-abrasive
at a fixed level is applied in silica on the drop door. Kobelco has surfacing material. The mixing

97
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

7 Figure 7: anti-abrasion performance over the

Anti-corrosion
1025
performance
traditional Stellite #6 used on rotors.
comparison Again, KA#93 has good bonding
Lincolin H560 24 hours
Figure 8: Chrome strength with Cr plating, providing
plating bonding extended life (Figure 8).
strength comparison
In addition, Kobelco also offers
KA#104

Figure 9: Real-time
Stellite#6 monitoring image a range of other materials that can
Figure 10: Kobelco meet application processing needs
KA#T1 There is no weight loss at 240 hours mixer IoT system and address specific wear and/or
corrosion concerns.
KA#93
Better

Corrosion weight
Corrosion Loss loss at at
Weight 2424hours
hours and 240hours
and 240 hours
The Internet of Things
Maintenance has traditionally
been carried out based on the
8 results of periodic inspections.
This avoids many catastrophic
KA#104 machinery shutdowns but requires
skilled engineers to generate
Better
Stellite#6 good maintenance plans based
on inspection results, inspection
skills, judgement and considerable
KA#T1
experience. Often these engineers
will cover multiple locations
KA#93
because of the difficulties in finding
the required experience; it is not
Cr Plating Bonding Strength
uncommon in the industry to suffer
long-term shutdowns while securing
9 the required replacement parts –
DUST STOP （Water Right） DUST STOP （Water Left）
particularly in locations that are not
local to Kobelco. With this in mind,
Wear amount（ｍｍ）

Wear amount（ｍｍ）

Present value：2.3ｍｍ Present value：5.0ｍｍ

the company has developed onboard
sensors that can accumulate and
analyze data from key components
Needtotoreplace
Need replace Need to
Need toreplace
replace
to alert customer maintenance
Prepare
Preparetofor Prepare
Preparetofor
replace
replace replace
replace engineers in advance, thus enabling
better preventative maintenance
Normal Normal
control and increased machine
availability (Figure 9). These sensors
（daily ave.） （daily ave.）
can provide information to in-house
engineering staff or, if preferred, share
the data with Kobelco (Figure 10).
Kobelco is continually developing
chamber must have anti-corrosion alone. Kobelco has delivered this new products to meet customer
and anti-abrasion characteristics to solution on approximately 80 mixers demands by leveraging its strengths
satisfy these conflicting requirements. since 2011. as a conglomerate company. Kobelco
Kobelco is a steel company, with KA#93 also has high anti- quality products are supplied around
extensive expertise in welding and corrosion performance and is the world, and the company’s
arc ion plating. This experience in applied to Kobelco’s rotors. It manufacturing and service bases
special-purpose materials, coupled shows an improvement in anti- effectively and efficiently provide
with the team’s experience, has corrosion over the conventional the support expected from a leading
informed development of alloys KA#104 while also having improved industry company. tire
to extend the working life of the
mixer (Figures 6 and 7). 10
For example, KA#T1 has been Customer
Customer Site Closed現地
Network 現地
KOBELCO IoT Cloud
developed to have high and balanced
現地
anti-wear and anti-corrosion BB-Mixer Internet
performance for the mixing chamber ３G
IoT
Customer

for silica masterbatch mixing. It also 現地 P IoTCloud

PLC

KOBELCO
has a good bonding strength with L
C
chrome plating, which provides stable Dedicated line 現地
tip clearance before becoming worn. IPC
Base Station
KA#T1 and Cr plating provides the VPN
optimum conditions for longer Standard Sensors

stable mixing (productivity and IoT Sensors

Remote Analyze
quality) compared with hard surfacing Operation

98
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Multi-process calendering
Flexible machinery can offer multi-process calendering suitable for rubberized fabric
and steel cord, or rubber sheeting, and is designed in line with Industry 4.0
by Mentasti Alessandro, Comerio Ercole, Italy

T
his article details a new 1
Triple multi-process
calender line from
Comerio Ercole,
developed for the
processing of fabric-
and steel-cord-rubberized products
or rubber sheeting. The new line is
equipped with all the necessary sensors
and controls, and is linked to web
connections in line with Industry 4.0.
The Triple calender line is suitable
for rubberizing fabric cord or steel
cord in one passage. It is also suitable
for rubber sheet production based on
the integration of special devices and
dedicated thread.
The line is equipped with a
four-roll ‘S’ arrangement calender
unit, with 45° or 30° configuration.
The top (one and two) and bottom
(three and four) rolls produce two Figure 1: Triple section batch. In order to meet production calendering equipment to increase
rubber sheets that are immediately Figure 2: Specific detail requirements, the calender is flexibility, making it possible to
applied, between rolls (two and of the Triple layout equipped with several devices, produce different materials at
three), onto both sides of the cords such as preloading, roll bending the same plant and for different
to be rubberized. Alternatively, the and cross-axis. application fields. The equipment
four-roll calender can be configured Market requirements for the can ensure constant precision and
as a three-roll calender for single production of high-quality materials, repeatability of the thickness and
rubber sheeting. increase in productivity and the need dimensional parameters of the
This multi-process calender for plant flexibility have led calendered products. The company’s
design makes it possible to produce to a significant technical evolution technology also grants product
simple or combined rubber sheets at in the manufacturing process stability up to the wind-up, as
high thickness without the problems capabilities of rubber calenders. well as product tolerances. In
of air bubbles. It is also possible to Comerio Ercole has engineered, addition, process cost savings
couple two different types of rubber developed and manufactured special and scrap reduction are standard

100

3 Figure 1: Finite element
results, and users can benefit from
calender management in terms
of production optimization and
productivity increase.
The Triple line is configured to
add production of rubber sheets and
rubberized fabric to the typical dual-
purpose calendering process (fabric-
or steel-cord rubberizing). In such
configurations, the line is equipped
with special, full-width conveyor
belts to properly support rubber
sheets from the calender outlet.
Additional specifically designed
and dimensioned cooling drums
and a dedicated wind-up with
liner let-off are installed as close as
possible to the calender. Following
customer demand, this wind-up can
also be offered as cassette type.
Rubber sheeting production
according to the designed
configuration is continuous ,with
no need of a further accumulator.
In line with specific customer
requirements, the configuration
can be modified accordingly.
For specific processes, the rubber
sheeting section can be configured
with a dual-contact wind-up unit
with liner let-off for rubber sheets,
and single wind-up with liner let-off
for rubberized fabric.
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
model of an aircraft tire1
Figure 3: Wind-up In addition, air spring calendering
section production based on a typical three-
roll calendering process can be
integrated in a Triple line, according
to specific customer needs.
The textile pre-calender section
consists of a fabric let-off unit for
bobbin, with automatic control
of braking torque; a splicing press
or sewing machine; a hydraulic
accumulator festoon; pre-heating
unit in modules; and centering and
spreading devices.
The steel-cord pre-calender
section consists of a set of pneumatic
tension controllers and unwinding
devices of spools; supporting frames;
a splicing press suitable for junction
of textile with steel cords; and
grooved pressure rolls.
The additional rubber sheeting
and/or gum sheeting section consists
of a set of dedicated cooling drums;
a set of identified devices according
to specific process needs; and
special wind-up for rubber sheet
and/or winding table according to
technological needs.
The post-calender section
for cord rubberizing is composed
of the thickness gauging system;
a cooling unit; the festoon
accumulator; the centering unit;
the pulling, locking and cross-cutting
unit; and a dual winder shuttle type
with liner let-off.
Comerio Ercole’s four-roll
calender – with diameter dimensions
of 610 x 1,800mm, ‘S’ configuration,
with hydraulic displacements of
rolls one, two and four, HydroGap
position control, cross-axis devices
on rolls one and four, and roll-bending
devices on rolls two and three –
enables accuracy of the thickness
tolerance in the range of a few microns
of the rubber sheet. The calender is
equipped with an oil lubrication unit,
hydraulic unit, stock guides, edge-
trimming knives, bubble-piercing
devices, roll-thickness-measuring
systems, four temperature-control
units and wig-wag feeding conveyors.
It is possible to expand and
enhance all systems on the line to
enable continuous production of
rubberized fabric.
To further improve technological
performance, Comerio Ercole has
introduced devices such as HydroNip
and HydroShot.
HydroNip’s main technical
features include position control of
the roll at a preset value, force control
at a preset value in the coupling
gap (on rolls two and three), switch
101
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

to the set value in position control Figure 4: Four-roll 4

calender section
from force control during normal
Figure 5: A schematic
operation (and vice versa), the ability of the Triple system’s
to change the nip value according general layout
to a thickness gauging system (only
in position control), a fully digital
control loop, position control
(through magnetostrictive sensors
with 1μm resolution), pressure
control and coupling force control
through pressure transducers.
The HydroNip technology offers
processing advantages that include
switching between position and force
control according to production
requirements, through a fully digital
loop. Furthermore, splice press
passage sequences are possible, as is
rubber sheet coupling with textile/
steel cord by applied force control.
Switching to the HydroNip force with cycle time of the hydraulic performance standard for calender
coupling force control, the HydroShot control (down to the millisecond), technology) offer high levels of
tool makes it possible to ‘shoot’ the any external perturbating force as stability of the sliding roll block
performing coupling (textile or steel residual friction or process parameter system and, as a result, a quick,
cord) conditions in terms of real force is compensated for and does not precise and affordable response to
and maintain gap position, granting affect the real coupling of the any required variation in the control
constant coupling thrust between materials and rubber penetration. of the lamination forces.
working rolls two and three. The gap between rolls two The Triple calender line is
In consideration of the typical and three corresponds to a self- designed in line with Industry 4.0
high forces acting on rolls two and compensating value with respect requirements. In addition, all the
three, the use of Comerio Ercole’s to the set value, as a result of all scope is MES-integrated with data
low-friction sintered plates suits lamination forces between rolls. collection according to different
the needs for the quick and precise In addition, the wide section of selected packages. The technology
position variation of roll two to the typical Comerio Ercole main is remotely supported by Comerio
follow any coupling force variations. frames for this application, and Ercole’s Teleservice Plus tool, which
Thanks to the continuous the use of high-precision tapered is able to provide monitoring of all
monitoring and adjusting of coupling bearings (in line with the company’s machine performance. tire

102
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T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Hydraulic drive systems

Upgrading motor systems in rubber production machinery can yield
a plethora of advances in flexibility and ease of further improvements
by Davide Borroni, Bosch Rexroth, Italy

T
hroughout their
25-year relationship,
Eurorubber and Bosch
Rexroth have pursued
reliability and high
levels of performance.
A new Hägglunds drive upgrade for
an internal mixer demonstrates this
partnership and its ambitions.
Based near Parma in Italy,
Eurorubber Industries was founded
as a manufacturer of rubber
compounds for tire retreading. Since
1970, the company has expanded into
compounds for numerous sectors,
from automotive, construction
and civil engineering to homeware,
domestic appliances, marine products
and general technical components.
Eurorubber provides an extensive,
highly customized range of rubber
compounds in many viscosities
and hardnesses. Working to meet
customers’ specific production
requirements, the company develops
tailored compounds for all types of
applications, either by modifying
base recipes or developing entirely
new mixtures. These mixtures are
often fine-tuned on the customer’s
production line, with Eurorubber
aiming to serve as a partner
throughout the development phase.
Since 1996, Eurorubber’s
innovation capabilities have
been supported by Hägglunds
drive solutions from Bosch
Rexroth. Hägglunds hydraulic
drive systems are well known
in the rubber industry, where
they are showcased on roll mills, mixer, where the original Hägglunds Above: Hägglunds Hägglunds motor drastically reduces
internal mixers and extruders. The MB 1150 hydraulic motor has been hydraulic systems are mixer footprint, especially as the
used in a wide range of
company’s first Hägglunds drive replaced with a next-gen Hägglunds machinery applications hydraulic drive unit can be flexibly
system was on a tangential mixer CBM 1200 hydraulic motor. within the tire industry placed some distance away. The drive
with a capacity of 240 liters. system provides full torque from
Eurorubber’s partnership Smarter power for mixers zero speed, infinitely variable speeds
with Bosch Rexroth continues to Internal mixers have traditionally within its range and an unlimited
this day. Eurorubber was acquired been driven by electromechanical ability to start and stop – all of
by Certech Group in 2020 and is systems. However, this upgrade has which boost mixing productivity.
undergoing a period of relaunch, enabled Eurorubber to realize the In addition, a Hägglunds system
targeting greater performance and many advantages of a Hägglunds delivers torque smoothly, which
new product advances. hydraulic solution. reduces the risk of mechanical failure.
One of the steps in that process Mounted directly on the shaft Likewise, the large reserve of torque
has been the upgrade of an internal without a gearbox, the high-torque offers flexibility to deal with critical

104
 T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Right: Effective speed
changes can save
many seconds in the
production of a mixture.
This can add up to a
significant saving
To a large extent, this design
has taken over from older tangential
mixer technology. Since the rotors
have smaller clearances, raw material
is fed into the mixer more slowly
than with a tangential rotor, and
the cycle time generally increases.
However, the greater shear force
applied between the rotors means
the properties of the rubber can
be improved. Moreover, the
excellent distribution and cooling
performance make the combined
rotor system particularly suitable
for heat-sensitive compounds and
high-quality rubber mixtures.
Given their somewhat longer
cycle time, mixers with intermeshing
rotors are well served by a further
mixing situations. If a blackout Hägglunds advantage. When the
causes the mixture in the chamber components are loaded in, the
to cool, for example, the high-torque machine must be able to adapt
motor is able to restart the mixer. the mixing process to suit the
recipe, increasing and decreasing
Efficient intermeshing rotors speed before ramping up to
The internal mixer that Eurorubber maximum when emptying the
chose to upgrade is one with an chamber. A Hägglunds system
intermeshing design, where rotors is effective in making these speed
with varying center distance interact changes, saving several seconds in
in a two-shaft system. Mixing occurs the production of a mixture. Over
not only between the rotor and the the course of a year, these many
wall of the chamber, but also between small gains amount to a significant
the two rotors. increase in production.
Hägglunds equipment also offers
simplicity in upgrading. Because the
drive system is modular and involves
no gearbox or foundations, changes
can be made to increase performance
without any major impact on the
machine design.
Such was the case with
Eurorubber’s internal mixer, where
the Hägglunds MB 1150 motor was
easily switched out in favor of the
Hägglunds CBM 1200. This was a
plug-and-play exchange, as the two
motors are fully interchangeable.
Without having made any mechanical
modifications, Eurorubber can now
take advantage of higher efficiency
in meeting the same technical
specifications. This means not only
higher performance but energy
savings as well.
“By supplying Eurorubber with
the latest Hägglunds CBM 1200
drive, we were able to offer a high-
performance upgrade solution that
can increase annual productivity,”
explains Paolo Greci, engineering
and maintenance manager at
Eurorubber Industries. “It is vital
to us to offer our long-standing
customers and partners the best
solutions with an innovative and
future-focused approach.” tire
105
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Upgrading tire production
A post-pandemic trend is seeing manufacturers upgrade
tire testing machines to increase production and accuracy
by Ann Swinderman, The Poling Group, USA
A
s decades pass and
global tire demand
continues to grow,
manufacturers
constantly focus
on improving
production machine throughput
and accuracy while decreasing
downtime. In the last decade of
economic growth and stability, a
large portion of tire manufacturers’
final-finish budgets went toward new
machinery to improve throughput
and accuracy and meet the demands
of larger-diameter tires. When the
Covid-19 pandemic slowed the global
economy in 2020, manufacturers
were faced with shutdowns, market
declines and supply chain issues.
What can companies do to jump-start
their production, cut costs and regain
their market footprint?
“The answer to the current
problem is quite simple: upgrade
current machinery with new
technology and hardware to
extend the equipment’s life and
increase throughput and process
capability,” says David Poling Jr,
COO of the Poling Group, which
comprises Akron Special Machinery
(ASM), Akron Steel Fabricators
(ASF), ASM-Hasbach, Commercial
Timesharing Inc (CTI) and Firwood-
ASM. These companies have been
global players in the tire testing
industry for over 40 years and
1
106
Figure 1: The TDAQ 2
family of Ethernet-
based high-speed data
acquisition products
reduces analog cable
lengths to the load cells,
resulting in greater
measurement accuracy
and resolution
Figure 2: The CX111 TU
tester uses patented
X-Frame Technology
to increase testing
accuracy and
accommodates more
than 30 options and
upgrades, enabling
tire makers to improve
testing where needed
have seen many spending trends
during that time. “Normally, new
custom machine builds are the bulk
of our business,” Poling continues.
“But over the last 15 months, 90%
of what we’re doing is upgrading
a variety of testing machines –
typically on-site – to increase
testing accuracy or throughput,
with minimal downtime.”
But where does a company start
with upgrading its testing equipment,
and which upgrades provide the most
immediate benefits?
“A great entry point into
improving the quality testing of
finished tires is upgrading the
controls and data acquisition on
tire uniformity machines,” explains
Troy Anenson, president of CTI.
“Downgraded tires are a significant
source of lowered revenue for tire
manufacturers, as borderline tires are
incorrectly graded and scrapped. By
upgrading existing TU machines with
our TTOC6 controller, false rejects are
reduced, resulting in improved yield.”
CTI has developed and patented
two powerful software algorithms
with minimal associated hardware to
address unnecessary downgrading
on tires. Waveform Validation &
Correction (WVC) ensures the
radial and lateral force uniformity
data snapshot is collected during
a timeframe once measurement
stabilization is complete. WVC
also applies a correction to the
measurement data based on proven
proprietary methods. Loadwheel
Characterization is a component
of CTI’s patented Machine Effect
Characterization and Compensation
(MECC). Its algorithm, with its
minimal associated hardware,
subtracts a correction waveform from
the tire uniformity measurement
waveform to eliminate any unwanted
radial force influences caused by a
loadwheel’s out-of-roundness, flat
spots and deflections.
As a bonus of upgrading to
TTOC6, the controller comes
equipped with the patented TDAQ
(tire data acquisition system)
developed by CTI in 2008.
“One glaring issue with traditional
analog data collection is that wires

3
travel from each sensor on the
machine into the controller panel,
where they must be conditioned,
amplified, filtered and converted
to a digital signal for measurement
processing,” says Anenson. “This
means having numerous separate
devices connected by many more
wires. That is just poor design, as
it overuses wire ways and places
dirty high-voltage wires near
sensitive analog wires – sometimes
for as long as 15m. This creates
multiple connection points for
the same analog signal, translating
to multiple points of failure and
a troubleshooting nightmare for
maintenance. CTI completely
rethought this process and
designed an Ethernet-based high-
speed data acquisition system
specifically for the analog signals
used by a tire uniformity machine.
We designed it small and rugged,
making it possible to mount on the
machine and near its sensors. This
considerably shortens the analog
wires, giving us higher resolution
and greater accuracy while reducing
electrical interference.”
Increasing capabilities
In addition to improving the
measurement quality, tire makers
extend their budgets by expanding
a machine’s capabilities.
“Instead of purchasing new
machines that test larger tires,
many companies are retrofitting
their existing machines with many
of our solutions to test a wider range
of tire sizes on the same TU,” Poling
explains. “Upgrades like our two-step
rims, Automatic Adjustable Width
Chuck, Automated Mixed Mode
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Figure 3: The CTI 4
TTOC6 Controller comes
equipped with WVC
and MECC software
that improves yield and
reduces false rejects
Figure 4: Poling Group
grinder upgrade kits
calculate an optimal
grind depth that
reduces grinding time
and improves tire
appearance, resulting
in fewer scrapped tires
Bead Lubricator and new Timing Belt
Center Conveyor make it possible to
test different tire sizes quickly and
efficiently without tooling changes
or machine downtime.”
Other options to expand
capabilities include adding geometry
testing to existing machines.
OE tires have some of the most
rigorous testing standards, as auto
manufacturers expect that only tires
that meet their exact specifications
will be installed on their new
vehicles. This necessitates geometry
testing on every tire intended to
be used as original equipment.
Anenson describes the benefit
of equipping existing machines
with geometry testing: “The cost
difference between adding CTI’s
Tire Surface Analysis System
[TSAS] to an existing machine
and purchasing a new machine
for geometry testing is pretty
substantial. The current machine’s
cycle time will increase by only five
seconds if high-pressure geometry
testing is required. And if geometry
can be tested at the same inflation
pressure as force testing, then no
cycle time penalty is incurred.”
Furthermore, shoulder or
center grinding kits can be added to
enhance a tire uniformity machine’s
capabilities. Poling weighs in
on the push to add grinding
kits: “Grinding kits easily pay
for themselves. Tires deemed
unacceptable for OE purposes
can be quickly upgraded to sellable
tires by grinding the shoulders or
tread, optimizing and improving
many quality measurements.
The Poling Group has patented
algorithms that enable our shoulder
and center grinder to reduce many
quality measurements efficiently and
with an excellent grind appearance.
Scrapping tires that could easily be
made sellable with some grinding
is a major loss of revenue for
manufacturers. Grinding kits
are even available for our X150
TBR/CVT machine.
“Tire uniformity isn’t the
only area where we see customers
focusing on upgrading existing
machines instead of buying new
ones,” Poling concludes. “We have
remanufactured and upgraded
laboratory tire testing equipment
as old as 50 years, in addition to
white sidewall grinders (buffers)
and rubber processing equipment.
If you start with quality-built
machinery, there is almost always
a way to extend that investment
with updates and upgrades.” tire
107
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
Factory modernization
A strategic approach to digitalization, modernization and automation can
reveal the best places to start, and how to realize a successful program
by Aki Nurminen, Black Donuts, Finland
1 2
T
ire manufacturing is
undergoing a digital
transformation.
While digitally smart
manufacturers are
gaining a competitive
advantage, many are still hesitant
to take a digital leap. One of the
main obstacles to digitalization is
the uncertainty of how to begin.
The most popular question among
the audiences of tire technology
conferences is where to start the
modernization of a brownfield tire
factory. With so many technology
options available, it can be hard to
calculate the best path forward. There
is no simple answer, and nearly as
many solutions as there are factories.
The current machinery, location,
facilities, product mix, order base
and budget all play a significant
role in defining the priorities.
The first and fundamental
question to ask is why the
modernization decision was made
in the first place? In most cases,
the impetus for modernization is
to be found in arising production
challenges, extension plans, lack of
capacity, the desire to cut costs, or in
the implementation of new strategies
and business models.
Once the root cause and desired
outcome of modernization are clear,
they need to be inspected from
108
a wider perspective. It is rare to
successfully solve a single problem
without affecting other aspects of
the operation. For instance, when
implementing new digital solutions,
the required changes often impact the
company on a business level.
Production planning is a good
example: if the local production
management of a global tire company
wants to improve resourcing and
long-term planning by investing
in new APS software (advanced
planning and scheduling), equipped
with computerized calculations
of order stock and forecasts, the
new system can help optimize
and minimize product changes,
enable more accurate plans, and
eventually smooth production.
However, the business model of the
global enterprise does not support
this, as the headquarters define the
production plans for each factory
on a monthly basis. As a result, the
investment will never pay off the
way it could, even though the final
production schedules can be derived
from corporate-level monthly plans.
A good way to solve these
problems, and to avoid internal
conflicts, is to let an external
partner analyze the overall situation.
Furthermore, existing methods,
procedures and bureaucracies
may hinder the development and
All images: Aki Nurminen
Figure 1: An external obstruct a truly unbiased evaluation.
partner can provide a Professionals with experience of
more objective analysis
of existing facility process upgrades can also compare
procedures, free of bias the situation in one factory to that of
Figure 2: Selecting the others, and identify the best practices.
right technology for a
given facility is key to
This may help avoid investment
improving traceability mistakes – which are often greater
than consultancy fees.
Broader perspective
A common new investment objective
in brownfield tire factories is to find
a solution that enables more effective
use of floor space, helps to reduce
staffing requirements, improves
accuracy, increases utilization rate,
or helps remove non-ergonomic or
even dangerous work tasks. An ideal
solution may include automated
storage systems for raw materials,
semiproducts, and end products. It
is also possible to organize a part of
the transportation between processes
with AGVs, conveyors and monorails.
Employing such standalone systems
in the middle of production is rather
simple, even when the rest of the
process remains manual. However,
the total payback of the investment
remains only moderate at best.
A similarly unfortunate decision
involves automating a process in a
way that requires additional manual
measures to work properly. Manual
coding and reporting, and extra
transportation needs are examples

of unwanted consequences of poorly
planned automation. It is also typical
that old methods, procedures or
requirements remain active, although
in principle they would not be needed
anymore. These include oversized
intermediary stocks, additional
inventories, visual etiquettes and
labels, additional inspections, or
overcapacity in some processes, up
or downstream.
Another common objective of
modernization or digitalization
projects is to gain better and more
accurate traceability. This may
stem from customers, such as car
manufacturers, having increased
demands for traceability. Poor
reliability or complexity of the
current system is another reason
for investing in new technology.
Improving traceability is not
straightforward, but rather covers
several different areas in production,
all of which need to sync with the
chosen traceability method. This
inevitably leads to a broader digital
transformation since modern
traceability and the most advanced
techniques require a more extensive
system change.
Choosing the right identification
technology is critical to improving
traceability. RFID technology enables
an automated product or part
identification and accurate shopfloor
locating. This leads to a decreased
need for printed labels and handheld
readers, and minimizes errors and
time-consuming search activities.
When discussing traceability,
a popular theme is error proofing
3 main KPIs. Special attention is paid
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
(poka-yoke). This further tightens
the demands of digitalization in the
surrounding processes and systems,
and forces consideration of topics
such as item management and bill
of materials (BOM). Error proofing
also requires implementation of data
collection in different processes. In
brownfield sites, deploying modern
data collection is among the most
challenging aspects of automation.
Computerized systems
The core of many tire manufacturers’
new investment plans is manufacturing
execution systems – or MES. Simply
put, these are computerized systems
used in manufacturing to track and
document the transformation of raw
materials to finished goods. MES
provides valuable information that
helps manufacturing decision makers
understand how current conditions
on the plant floor can be optimized to
improve production output. Working
in real time, it enables the control of
multiple elements of the production
process, such as inputs, personnel,
machines and support services.
In other words, the purpose
of MES is to collect data from the
production – that is, directly from
the process machinery or its various
systems. This includes identification
data, which is an important element
in linking the process data with
products and processes. In addition,
item management, master data and
Figure 3: Digitalization
of a tire facility should BOM are needed for all materials,
factor in steps such as semi-products and products.
data collection, product
identification and item
In brownfield factories, it is
management usually neither reasonable nor cost-
effective to implement MES in its
full scope. Some processes may be so
manual, or the technique so outdated,
that there is no point in including
them in MES and the data-collection
systems. Some processes may also
require manual data creation.
An important part of the pre-
analysis is to carefully define how
MES would work in different
processes so that at least simple
data collection can be achieved
at a level that benefits downstream
processes. Important information
breaks are to be avoided.
Conclusions
To sum up, an exemplary list of
the steps to digitalization includes:
• Data collection (process data);
• Identification of products and
processes (identification labels/
tags, reading, scanning, and
connections to data collection);
• Item management (such as item
codes, names and BOMs).
These three areas enable
great improvements in factory
modernization and support all
logistics automation systems,
such as inventories, transportation,
and production planning.
Black Donuts offers analyses
of production development,
automation and digitalization
of brownfield tire factories,
including an extensive audit
of current production methods
and procedures. Every phase and
factor of the production process is
evaluated, including key personnel,
facilities, machinery, systems,
capacity, methods, products and
to the material and information flows
inside the factory.
These observations lead to
the root causes and possibilities
for new investment, and reveal
the benefits and pitfalls of the
current business model. Black
Donuts specialists evaluate the
potential of the current systems
and machinery and help define
a cost-effective implementation.
The layout team inspects the
facilities and maps the possibilities
of the planned investments from the
perspective of internal logistics. As
a result of this comprehensive audit,
an individual project roadmap can
define the most effective order, scope
and methods of modernization, as
well as how it translates to revenue
and new business value. tire
109
T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1

Thickness measurement
An all-in-one in-line measuring system offers reliable
and flexible performance for strip and plate materials
by Achim Sonntag, Micro-Epsilon, Germany

D
eveloped to measure
the thickness of
strip and plate
materials, a new
all-in-one system
– Micro-Epsilon’s
ThicknessGauge technology – offers
reliable and precise operation.
Depending on the measurement
task, different variants with
different sensor technologies are
available. In addition, a linear unit
with electromechanical drive, an
automatic calibration unit and
a multi-touch panel IPC can be
included. The system offers a
complete, flexible solution for
precise thickness measurements.
The ThicknessGauge system
is available with laser triangulation
sensors, laser profile scanners
or confocal chromatic sensors,
which offer a range of advantages
depending on the type of material
and the accuracy requirements.
The system measures strips and
plates on a non-contact basis
and with high precision. It offers
application versatility as the
ThicknessGauge can be used
Figure 1: The new 2
ThicknessGauge
utilizes a three-in-
one system design
Figure 2: The system
can be used for
measuring thicknesses
from 2-25mm
for an array of requirements, and
measures thicknesses from 2-25mm.
The three-in-one design consists
of a linear unit with electromechanical
drive that enables measurements
in fixed-track mode or traversing
mode. Furthermore, the thickness
measuring system is equipped with
an automatic calibration unit that
compensates for thermal influences.
A multi-touch panel PC equipped
with the full range of features
available in the ThicknessControl
software package is also integrated.
The ThicknessGauge is
equipped with a comprehensive
software package. It includes
powerful signal processing for
precise, stable measurement
values, an article database and
an SPC package. Furthermore, it
offers fully automatic documentation
of the measuring equipment
capability, as well as a flexible
interface for connection to the
production line, with communication
via Ethernet, EtherNet/IP, ProfiNet
or EtherCAT. tire

110
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Quality and Service
Creel Systems Tire Branders
Creel Room Support Machinery Tire Plunger Test Machines
Rapid-Ply Band Builders Bead Covering Machines

AKRON, OHIO 44312 USA TEL: +1 330-896-2387 sales@rjscorp.com www.rjscorp.com

Tire Building Machines

P-PRO2 PCR Tire Building Machine designed and made in MESNAC European Research
and Technical Centre (MERTC). Full automatic passenger, SUV&light truck TBM, equipped
with MERTC PRO-VIS smart inspection and new, patented design solutions for very high
tires uniformity.

Tel:+86 532 68862838 E-mail：xucg@mesnac.com

T I R E T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N AT I O N A L 2 0 2 1
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
A&D Technology Inc....................................................................99
Black Donuts Engineering Inc.................................................12
Bosch Rexroth AB....................................... Inside Back Cover
Cimcorp Oy.......................................................................................39
Continental Reifen Deutschland GmbH............................49
CORDENKA GmbH & Co.KG..................................................22
ELKEM SILICONES FRANCE SAS.......................................53
Ergon Europe MEA, Inc..............................................................85
Erhardt+Leimer GmbH..................................................................6
Evonik Industries AG.....................................................................15
H&R OWS Chemie GmbH & Co KG....................................99
HF Group.........................................................Inside Front Cover
HollyFrontier Corporation.............................................................4
Intralox, L.L.C......................................................................................8
Kobelco Stewart Bolling Inc......................................................19
KraussMaffei Extrusion GmbH.............................................103
Kuraray Europe GmbH................................................................53
MAKROchem SA..................................... Outside Back Cover
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112
Mesnac Co., Ltd.............................................................................. 111
Micro-Epsilon Messtechnik GmbH....................................103
Nynas....................................................................................................91
RJS Corporation............................................................................. 111
Samson Machinery Inc...............................................................45
Sennics Co., Ltd.................................................................................7
Smithers............................................................................................. 73
Starrett-Bytewise Development, Inc....................................69
The Greener Manufacturing Europe Show.......................86
The Poling Group........................................................................... 42
Tire Technology Expo 2022............................... 29, 33, 34, 35
Tire Technology International
Online Reader Inquiry Service........................................... 112
TOTAL PETROCHEMICALS France..................................... 25
Troester GmbH & Co KG...........................................................95
VMI Group............................................................................................3
www.tiretechnologyinternational.com................................ 73
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