Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

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Materials & Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

A comprehensive review on non-pneumatic tyre research

Yaoji Deng a,⇑, Zhiyue Wang a, Hui Shen a, Junjie Gong a, Zhen Xiao b
a
College of Mechanical Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China
b
Prinx ChengShan Tire Co., Ltd., Weihai 264200, China

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

The basic concept of non-pneumatic

tires and the research status of non-
pneumatic tires are systematically
reviewed.

Research on the structure, materials,
mechanical characteristics, prevailing
forming technologies of non-
pneumatic tires is summarized.

The idea of applying intelligent
material and structure to non-
pneumatic tires is creatively
proposed.

This paper concludes the advantages
and disadvantages of non -pneumatic
tires, and summarizes the
development trend.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Non-pneumatic tyre technology can overcome the safety problems of traditional pneumatic tyres. Hence,
Received 22 September 2022 it is expected to improve driving safety significantly. Accordingly, in recent years, this technology has
Revised 6 February 2023 received extensive attention. This paper reviews the status of research of non-pneumatic tyres and dis-
Accepted 11 February 2023
cusses their development trends. Initially, the fundamental concept of non-pneumatic tyres is intro-
Available online 16 February 2023
duced, and their structural characteristics are described in detail. Subsequently, the research progress
on the material properties of non-pneumatic tyre components is summarised. The research results on
Keywords:
the mechanical properties of non-pneumatic tyres are recapitulated in terms of vertical mechanical, lon-
Non-pneumatic tyre
Structural material
gitudinal mechanical, lateral mechanical, grounding, vibration, and fatigue characteristics. Moreover, the
Mechanical characteristic advantages and disadvantages of non-pneumatic tyres are analysed. Three prevailing forming technolo-
Forming technology gies and tyre performance tests are discussed. The application of intelligent materials and structures to
non-pneumatic tyres is proposed for these tyres to be lightweight, functional, and intelligent. Finally,
the technical problems that must be resolved in the study of non-pneumatic tyres and the anticipated
development trends are presented in this paper.
Ó 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
A tyre is a key component of a vehicle driving system and is the
only component that interacts with vehicle and road. Its funda-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yjdeng@yzu.edu.cn (Y. Deng).
mental functions are to carry loads, generate ground forces, and
buffer ground excitation. It also affects vehicle handling stability,
driving comfort, riding comfort, and other aspects of vehicle
performance.
With continuous advancements to satisfy demands for vehicle
safety, handling stability, and comfort, the requisites of all aspects
of tyre performance are becoming increasingly strict. Moreover,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111742
0264-1275/Ó 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
the development of safe, durable, and high-speed tyre products has
become one of the important key projects of current scientific
research and production departments. The structural characteris-
tics of traditional pneumatic tyres exhibit potential safety hazards,
such as puncture or tyre burst, in complex driving environments
that can result in reduced vehicle trafficability or loss of mobility.
Relevant data show that approximately 70 % of highway traffic
accidents are caused by air tyre leakage. When vehicle speed
exceeds 160 km/h, the mortality linked to vehicular accidents
caused by a leaking tyre is virtually 100 % [1]. For many years, rel-
evant tyre enterprises and research institutes have been seeking
feasible solutions to improve the safety performance of tyres. Tyre
safety technology is a comprehensive technology for wheel devel-
opment that can ensure the function of the wheel as well as
improve and eliminate hidden vehicle safety hazards due to wheel
failure. Its concept is built with the development of pneumatic
tyres. Tyre safety technology research is developing along two
technical routes: improving the safety performance of pneumatic
tyres and adopting non-pneumatic tyre structures to eliminate
the hidden danger of tyre blowouts. An inflated safety tyre can only
be used as an emergency safety measure because it cannot be dri-
ven for a long time over a long distance. Accordingly, research on
non-pneumatic tyres has become an inevitable development trend
[2–5].
The foremost feature of non-pneumatic tyres is the replacement
of tyre inflation pressure by an elastic support structure. Generally,
a non-pneumatic tyre includes three parts: tread, rim, and support
structure. The structure of non-pneumatic tyres is simpler than
that of traditional pneumatic tyres. This simple structure allows
non-pneumatic tyres to overcome the severe coupling limitation
of some mechanical properties of traditional pneumatic tyres and
realise the independent design of vertical stiffness, lateral stiffness,
longitudinal stiffness, and grounding pressure [6–9]. Non-
pneumatic tyres are also more flexible in terms of material selec-
tion. In addition to traditional rubber materials and related addi-
tives, polymer materials with high strength as well as excellent
cushioning properties and environmentally friendly recyclable
materials are all important choices for non-pneumatic tyre materi-
als. The variations in structure and materials lead to completely
different moulding methods for non-pneumatic and pneumatic
tyres. The original tyre moulding production line is no longer appli-
cable to non-pneumatic tyres. The emerging three-dimensional
(3D) printing technology can satisfy the requirements of manufac-
turing complex support structures for non-pneumatic tyres. This
printing technology has the potential to be developed into mould-
ing technology for non-pneumatic tyres. Therefore, the evolution
of non-pneumatic tyres not only lies in their material and structure
designs, which greatly improve driving safety, but also in the over-
all reform of tyre technology [10–13].
Currently, representative products in the field of non-
pneumatic tyres mainly include Tweel tyres, honeycomb non-
pneumatic tyres, and mechanical elastic wheels. Michelin devel-
oped an airless integrated tyre (called Tweel), which used strip
spokes instead of air pressure. The performance of a Tweel tyre is
similar to that of a traditional pneumatic tyre. It can replace tradi-
tional pneumatic tyres in certain scenarios from the perspective of
comprehensive performance [14–16]. The Polymer Research Cen-
ter in Madison, Wisconsin developed a honeycomb non-
pneumatic tyre whose honeycomb hexagonal support structure
was designed in accordance with the principle of bionics. This
structure significantly improved the strength of the tyre by
improving its shock absorption. At Nanjing University of Aeronau-
tics and Astronautics, Zhao et al. designed a mechanical elastic
wheel with metal materials. A mechanical elastic wheel has large
elastic amplitude and excellent seismic performance; it can with-
stand large impacts [10]. The appearance of these classic designs
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Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
not only verifies the feasibility of non-pneumatic tyres but also
arouses extensive international attention.
Recently, an increasing number of scholars have conducted
research on non-pneumatic tyres. Although related research has
become more in-depth, few scholars have paid attention to a cor-
responding comprehensive and systematic summary. This paper
summarises the research results of non-pneumatic tyres in terms
of structure design, mechanical properties, material design, and
forming technology. The vision and prospects of applying intelli-
gent materials and structures to non-pneumatic tyres are pro-
posed. The trend of tyre development is the advancement of
non-pneumatic tyres that is anticipated to continue to attain tyres
that are safe, energy saving, high performing, intelligent, and light-
weight. Section 1 introduces the fundamental concept of non-
pneumatic tyres, and Section 2 summarises their structural charac-
teristics. Section 3 discusses the exploration of novel non-
pneumatic tyre materials. Section 4 proposes the application of
intelligent materials and structures to non-pneumatic tyres. The
research results on the mechanical properties and mainstream
forming technology of these tyres are presented in Sections 5
and 6. In addition, their optimisation direction is discussed in Sec-
tion 6. Finally, Section 7 presents the analyses of the development
trends of non-pneumatic tyres.
2. Concept and structure of non-pneumatic tyres
2.1. Concept of non-pneumatic tyre
Since Dunlop invented pneumatic tyres in 1888, the main-
stream tyre market has been mainly dominated by diagonal and
radial tyres. Over time, more stringent tyre performance require-
ments have emerged. However, pneumatic tyres may leak air,
puncture, and even bursts [17–19]. The mechanical properties of
pneumatic tyres are significantly coupled, resulting in a contradic-
tion between their function and structure. Given the foregoing
background, the idea of non-pneumatic tyres is conceived.
Presently, no standardised definition has been provided for the
concept of non-pneumatic tyres. Non-pneumatic tyres are tyres
that use polymer elastic supports or fillers to replace pneumatic
structures. To ensure safety, in terms of shock absorption, bearing,
and other performance, non-pneumatic tyres fully utilise their
unique advantages, absolutely preventing the possibility of blow-
outs [20,21].
2.2. Structure of non-pneumatic tyre
Non-pneumatic tyres include rims, treads, and support struc-
tures. The tread comes into contact with the ground and provides
grip (tangential reaction force of the ground to the tyre) and rolling
resistance. Friction produces an elastic hysteretic loss, which
causes the tyre to lose part of its energy during deformation [22].
The support structure, composed of a shear beam and an elastic
structure, determines the performance of the tyre [23]. In accor-
dance with their structure, non-pneumatic tyres with strip spokes,
porous mesh support structure, and irregular support shapes with
raised tread structures are classified as spoke, multi-hole, and con-
vex types, respectively. A non-pneumatic tyre that functions as an
independent unit is classified as a solid type tyre. Another type is
the metamaterial non-pneumatic tyre, which is based on a partic-
ular artificial structure. This type of tyre is gradually developing
into a new structure with considerable potential.
2.2.1. Spoke type
In 2005, Michelin took the lead in launching ‘Tweel’, as shown
in Fig. 1(a). The main structure of this tyre includes the hub, poly-
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

Fig. 1. Spoke-type non-pneumatic tyre: (a) Tweel, (b) Tweel tyres on lunar rover, (c) GYROBLADE, (d) ERW, (e) Uptis, and (f) mechanical elastic tyre.

urethane (PU) spoke, shear band, and rubber tread [24,25]. The
tread and wheel hub were connected by dozens of flexible and
deformable PU spokes. These spokes undergo elastic deformation
when crossing obstacles, absorb the impact force, and reduce the
load on the shock absorber and suspension [26,27]. In view of these
advantages, many scholars have conducted numerous studies. The
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology used struc-
tural topology optimisation techniques to enhance the stiffness
of Tweel tyres. The Georgia Institute of Technology has studied
the life cycle environmental impact of Tweel tyres. The institute
compared the environmental impact of Tweel tyres and
P205/45R17 pneumatic tyres during their life cycle in terms of pro-
duction and waste disposal. The summary in Table 1 indicates that
the eco-indicator method and the environmental development of
industrial products method agree that the environmental load
caused by the production and treatment of Tweel tyres is slightly
higher than that of benchmark pneumatic tyres. However, the
use of Tweel tyres rather than pneumatic tyres can save approxi-
mately 10 % of the fuel consumed. The gains resulting from this
fuel saving are expected to outweigh the environmental pollution
caused by the production and treatment of these tyres. With the
current knowledge, experts estimate that Tweel tyres can provide
2–6 % environmental savings compared with traditional pneumatic
tyres [14]. The use of Tweel tyres in the lunar rover enabled Miche-
lin to popularise these tyres (Fig. 1(b)) [28].
In 2015, Sumitomo Rubber Industries invented the GYROBLADE
tyre (Fig. 1(c)). This tyre is supported by six pairs of blade-like resin
spokes along the circumference of the rim. Each blade is bent to
disperse the load and distribute it evenly. Compared with pneu-
matic tyres, GYROBLADE tyres have higher lateral rigidity and

Table 1
Total environmental impact in the entire life cycle-EcoIndicator (Pt) & EDIP (mPt).

Category Production Distribution Tread debris Fuel use End of life Total
Tweel (Pt) 5.31 0.00 4.59 27.95 0.72 37.13
Tyre (Pt) 5.06 0.00 4.59 30.88 1.04 39.49
Tweel (mPt) 87.76 0.18 1.28 321.82 14.07 396.96
Tyre (mPt) 79.43 0.18 1.28 355.93 32.99 403.82

Note: All the numbers in the table are the scores indicating the impact of a certain stage on the environment under the same weighting rules. The higher the score, the greater
the pollution to the environment.

3
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
can reduce tyre distortion during steering to achieve better han-
dling. Britek Tire and Rubber has invented a new type of non-
pneumatic tyre, the ‘Energy Return Wheel’ (ERW) [29], as shown
in Fig. 1(d). It is mainly composed of a carbon fibre rim, a support
structure, an inner rubber layer, and an outer rubber layer. An
adjustable carbon fibre rim is used to fix the inner rubber layer.
A series of supporting structures composed of elastic pads is
arranged between the inner and outer rubber layers. During use,
the tyre stores elastic potential energy through the expansion of
the inner rubber layer. When the road is uneven, the tyre releases
the stored energy under the excitation of the road to provide
power for the vehicle to move forward.
Michelin cooperated with General Motors Corporation to
launch the Uptis non-pneumatic tyre (Fig. 1(e)). It is composed of
composite rubber and resin-filled glass fibres. This tyre is safe, reli-
able, maintenance-free, and uses less material. Uptis tyres are sup-
ported by multiple spokes and can bear loads of up to 500 kg. It has
better lateral stiffness and grip strength than conventional pneu-
matic tyres. Michelin and General Motors Corporation are cur-
rently testing the tyres on Chevrolet EC. The companies expect
Uptis tyres to be widely used in passenger vehicles by 2024.
In 2013, Zhao et al. designed a mechanically elastic tyre (Fig. 1
(f)). Different from ordinary non-pneumatic tyres, mechanical elas-
tic tyres mainly use metallic materials, and their structures are pri-
marily composed of a flexible tyre body, hinge unit, and suspension
hub. The hinge unit connects the flexible tyre body and suspension
hub using pins and bolts. During driving, the hinge is deformed by
bending under a load, and the spring at its lower end rebounds to
reduce the vibration. Mechanical elastic tyres offer the following
advantages. They provide cushioning and absorb shock; they sup-
press noise; they have large vertical and lateral stiffness and long
service life; they are easy to fabricate; and they are explosion
proof. Their disadvantages include the following: they sustain
mechanical wear and tear; their mechanical parts reach high tem-
peratures; and heat dissipation is difficult during high-speed driv-
ing [30–32].
2.2.2. Multi-hole tyre type
The Polymer Research Center in Madison, Wisconsin invented a
honeycomb tyre (Fig. 2(a)) that included a hub, PU spoke, shear
band, and tread. Researchers have designed a honeycomb hexago-
nal support structure based on the principle of bionics to distribute
the tyre mass uniformly. This structure, which has high bearing
capacity, can reduce vibration and increase strength [33–35]. Bara-
nowski et al. [36,37] established a numerical model for military
vehicles and performed a blasting load test. By optimising the con-
figuration of the pneumatic tyre plies, local tyre damage was
reduced, and the impact resistance was improved. Furthermore,
to minimise the injury caused by explosion to passengers as well
as improve the strength and resistance of the tyre and the entire
suspension system, they proposed two design schemes for tyre
safety. One strategy is to insert a run-flat ring inside the tyre,
and the other is to use a honeycomb-like composite wheel (called
honeycomb tire). In comparing the two schemes, the honeycomb
tyre was found to reduce explosion energy and improve safety
more effectively. Accordingly, honeycomb tyres are more suitable
for particular environments, such as battlefields; presently, the
US military uses honeycomb wheels. However, loses its dynamic
balance at high speeds because of sundries that can easily become
embedded in the tyre. Typically, stress is concentrated during por-
ous bending [38]. The University of North Texas compared and
analysed six tyre pairs with different honeycomb structures and
studied the structural effects on deformation, subsidence, and
structural stress [39]. Clemson University studied the grounding
and vibration characteristics of honeycomb tyres [40–42]. Subse-
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Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
quently, they optimised the honeycomb structure and proposed
the application of this tyre to planet rovers.
Bridgestone launched a second-generation air-free non-
pneumatic tyre in 2013 (Fig. 2(b)). Air-free tyres are comprised
of rubber treads, thermoplastic resin supports, and rigid hubs.
The support structure is composed of several inclined spokes on
its inner and outer sides that arranged at a 45° angle with respect
to the centre of the wheel. The tyre has excellent renewable perfor-
mance, low rolling resistance, safety, and environmental protection
[43,44]. Presently, the tyre’s measured maximum speed is 60 km/h.
It has been applied to small vehicles, such as golf carts.
A non-pneumatic tyre based on a structure with a negative
Poisson’s ratio (Fig. 2(c)) was developed in 2014 through the col-
laboration of BAIC and Ma et al. [45]. This tyre consists of a V-
shaped support structure with a rubber cushion belt, negative Pois-
son’s ratio, rubber tread, and wheel hub. When structures or mate-
rials with a negative Poisson’s ratio are stretched, their lateral
expansion is in the elastic range; they shrink laterally when sub-
jected to compression [46]. Therefore, the BAIC tyre can attain
increased compression and impact resistance through a structure
with a negative Poisson’s ratio. When the tyre is in motion, the
strength and stiffness of this structure can increase with the force
exerted on the ground. However, the simultaneous optimisation of
the durability of the structure and tyre quality is difficult to
implement.
Goodyear officially launched the non-pneumatic tyre TurfCom-
mand (Fig. 2(d) for outlaw XP series lawnmowers. Spokes made of
thermoplastic material were used to connect the tread to the hub
to balance stiffness and flexibility. The TurfCommand tyre can
absorb impact through deformation; nevertheless, it has sufficient
bearing capacity. Michelin developed a 3D-printed tyre called
‘Visual Concept’ (Fig. 2(e)). Michelin claimed that this tyre was
3D-printed using degradable organic materials. The internal struc-
tural design of this tyre is similar to that of corals, which are light-
weight and have excellent carrying capacity. This tyre features
various sensors installed inside it to monitor tread wear and pro-
vide real-time performance, maintenance, and other information
for the driver. However, the tyre is still in the conceptual design
stage. The tyre performance and characteristics described in this
paper are published by Michelin.
Goodyear cooperated with The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to design a mesh non-pneumatic tyre (Fig. 2(f)) for
a lunar rover [47,48]. The lunar rover tyre is made of metal, and its
entire body is braided with helical steel wires. It has the advan-
tages of stabbing resistance, low maintenance, durability, and
excellent grip on rocks and sand. In particular, this tyre has high
strength and can adapt to environments with considerable temper-
ature variations. However, it has encountered two major problems
with respect to its use in the lunar module. The first problem is the
insufficient lateral stability of the tyre owing to its radial distribu-
tion, resulting in the inadequate handling stability of the vehicle.
The second is the uneven contact area of the tyre, leading to the
inadequate cushioning and vibration damping performance of
the vehicle. Hankook released a non-pneumatic tyre called i-Fex
(Fig. 2(g)), which is made of PU synthetic material with a hub
and spoke; the sides of the tyre have a mesh structure. The uniform
distribution of bumped mini-shock absorbers inside the tyre effec-
tively resolves vibration and noise problems. However, the quality
of this type of tyre is lower than that of conventional pneumatic
tyres.
2.2.3. Convex type
In 2013, Hankook designed two conceptual non-pneumatic
tyres, Tiltread and Motiv (Fig. 3(a)). The Tiltread tyre consists of
three parts and is controlled by three independent motors. The
shape of the tyre can be adjusted according to different road con-
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

Fig. 2. Multi-hole-type non-pneumatic tyres: (a) honeycomb, (b) air-free, (c) non-pneumatic tyre whose structure has negative Poisson’s ratio, (d) TurfCommand, (e) visual
concept, (f) lunar rover tyre, and (g) i-Fex.

Fig. 3. Convex-type tyres: (a) Tiltread and Motiv, (b) Maxplo and Smasher, (c) Dandelion, and (d) reCharge.

ditions. Tiltread allows each of the three parts to maintain different independently according to different terrains to achieve maximum
speeds to ensure that the tyre turns with maximum grip. Motiv has grip. A British tyre manufacturer, Kumho Tyres, designed a concep-
a tread composed of PU blocks with a flexible lumen and can move tual non-pneumatic tyre called Maxpolo (Fig. 3(b)). This tyre can

5
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
adapt to wet, snowy, and other adverse weather conditions
through self-regulation. It is surrounded by grooves that allow
water to drain when passing wet roads. The bulges and peaks in
the tyre reduce the risk of ice or snow accumulation. Kumho Tyres
cooperated with the Ssangyong Motor Company to design a non-
pneumatic tyre named Smasher, which can theoretically be used
under all extreme weather conditions. This tyre has a suction plate,
which can aid the vehicle to move up and down steep slopes. It also
has crusher-shaped tread blocks that can crush uneven ground and
aid vehicles in driving through complex terrains. NEXEN TIRE from
Korea introduced a non-pneumatic tyre called Dandelion (Fig. 3
(c)), which has a flower-like design composed of 72 cylinders pro-
truding from the ball core. Each column can vertically move up and
down independently according to road conditions. This design
allows the tyre to be used in rough terrains [49]. In 2020, Goodyear
released a new tyre called reCharge (Fig. 3(d)). This tyre has spokes
made of high-strength fibre materials and a tread made of bioma-
terials. The reCharge tyre is more robust than conventional non-
pneumatic tyres. Moreover, the tyre can undergo complete degra-
dation. The tread can be changed by inserting a separate capsule
into the centre of the tyre. The capsule is filled with a customisable
liquid tread formula, providing the tread with self-generation char-
acteristics. The reCharge tyre can also be adjusted to adapt to
weather conditions, road conditions, and personal driving style.
The tyre is still in the design stage; nevertheless, the foregoing fea-
tures have been officially announced.
2.2.4. Solid type
In 2017 and 2018, Goodyear introduced two ball-type non-
pneumatic tyres, Eagle 360 and Eagle 360 urban, respectively
(Fig. 4(a)). The tread of the Eagle 360 spherical tyre imitates coral
grains fabricated by 3D printing. The tread material functions as a
sponge, which is hard when dry and soft when wet; thus, it has
excellent anti-slip performance. The Eagle 360 Urban tyre is inte-
Fig. 4. Solid-type non-pneumatic tyres: (a) Eagle 360 and Eagle 360 Urban, (b) 3D-printed PU tyre, (c) PU tyre with fine structure, and (d) Oxygene.
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Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
grated with more sensors that can transmit weather readings
and road condition signals to the computer control system in real
time and communicate with other vehicles to ensure driving
safety. A spherical tyre can adapt to all weather conditions, has a
large contact area and strong grip, and enables 360° steering. It
can also realise horizontal lateral parking that is not possible using
ordinary tyres. It enables the vehicle to implement motor adjust-
ment actions that ordinary tyres cannot perform to improve pas-
senger safety. The Eagle 360 Urban tyre is anticipated to be
available in the future for motorists to experience the unique fea-
tures of spherical tyres.
In 2017, Linglong Tire and BUCT jointly developed a 3D-printed
PU tyre (Fig. 4(b)). The tyre was fabricated using PU materials with
3D printing technology. The tyre is integrally formed, and its inte-
rior has a regular hexagonal hollow structure. It has the advantages
of low rolling resistance, high wear resistance, short process flow,
and on-site manufacturing. Subsequently, Jilin University, BUCT,
and Linglong Tire designed a 3D-printed non-pneumatic tyre with
a fine structure (Fig. 4(c)); the tyre had excellent handling stability
and low rolling resistance. Goodyear’s latest tyre concept, Oxygene
(Fig. 4(d)), was unveiled at the 2018 Geneva International Auto
Show. Its highlight was the living moss growing on the tyre wall.
The unique tread design combined with its open structure enables
the tyre to absorb and circulate water from the road surface.
Through photosynthesis, the living moss growing on the tyre wall
can produce and release oxygen. The tyre can collect the energy
generated by the moss during photosynthesis to supply power to
the electronic devices embedded in the tyre.
2.2.5. Metamaterial type
Metamaterials have no strict or authoritative definition. How-
ever, the general definition given in the literature is that they are
an artificial composite structure or a composite material with
extraordinary physical properties, which natural materials do not
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

possess. The basic design idea of metamaterials is to obtain a cer- Table 3

tain degree of physical properties that are unavailable in natural Materials of non-pneumatic tyres.

materials based on an artificial structure with special functions. Designation Features Functions
The emergence of metamaterials renders non-pneumatic tyres Aramid pulp High modulus and strength; Increase tread strength and
more flexible in terms of structural design. Researchers can further excellent thermal and abrasion resistance
improve and optimise the structure of non-pneumatic tyres using chemical stability;
metamaterials. Maharaj et al. [50] designed a metamaterial shear dimensional stability and
toughness
layer for non-pneumatic tyres under stress and buckling con- Carbon High thermal conductivity; Reduce the rolling
straints using topology optimisation techniques. Ju et al. [51] nanotubes High strength; High resistance of the tread;
investigated auxetic and regular honeycomb-based metamaterials conductivity improve the strength and
for non-pneumatic tyres. Czech et al. [52] used a two-step design thermal stability
Graphene Thinnest; Lowest resistivity; Give rubber outstanding
process to optimise the microstructure of metamaterials. To opti-
Highest heat conductivity; mechanical properties and
mise the topology of these materials, polycarbonate, mild steel, Highest electron mobility multifunctional properties
and aluminium were used. Czech et al. [53] optimised the system Molybdenum Minimum coefficient of Improve the strength and
design of the metamaterial shear layer of a non-pneumatic tyre disulfide friction abrasion resistance of tyres
with low rolling resistance; they generated an auxetic re-entrant Polyurethane Long service life; High tear Good shock absorption
strength; Good shock function
honeycomb in polycarbonate. However, satisfying the design
absorption
requirements for aluminium and steel is challenging. Glass fiber Low density; Good Improve the strength and
Table 2 summarises the most representative non-pneumatic toughness; High chemical service life
tyres. The continuous development of different types of non- stability; High temperature
resistance
pneumatic tyres for non-military use is expected. However, non-
pneumatic tyres are confronted with technical problems that must
be resolved. Thus far, relevant academic theories are immature;
consequently, vehicles using non-pneumatic tyres are few. Never- (3) Non-pneumatic tyres significantly increase the contact area
theless, non-pneumatic tyres compared with traditional pneu- between the wheel and ground through the large deforma-
matic tyres have the following advantages.Table 3.. tion of the support. This increases wheel adhesion and
improves the driving and braking performance of vehicles.
(1) Non-pneumatic tyres abandon the use of compressed air and (4) The supports of non-pneumatic tyres are arranged laterally.
adopt elastic support structures. Therefore, potential safety Therefore, the tyres have a greater cornering stiffness, ensur-
hazards, such as air leakage, puncture, and tyre bursts, are ing the handling stability of vehicles.
fundamentally avoided. Hence, the safety performance of
these tyres is better than that of pneumatic tyres. The main defects of non-pneumatic tyres are as follows.
(2) When loaded vertically, the support shape of non-pneumatic
tyres changes significantly. It reduces impact and improve (1) The supports of non-pneumatic tyres are exposed and easily
vehicle riding comfort. affected by foreign matter.

Table 2
Comparison of main non-pneumatic tyres.

Category Designation Illustration Structural features Advantages Disadvantages Application

Spoke Tweel Annular shear zone; High grip; Low rolling resistance; Low noise; Abrasion Unclear fire and bullet Lunar
type Flexible polyurethane resistance; Good shock absorption proof performance rover
spokes

Uptis Hollowed out design High grip; Large lateral stiffness; Good shock Poor driving comfort; Chevrolet
absorption Loud noise EC

Multi- Honeycomb Honeycomb-like spokes Uniform mass distribution; Large bearing capacity; Easy to insert sundries; Armored
hole tyre Good shock absorption; High strength; Low noise Stress concentration vehicle
type

Lunar rover Spiral steel wire mesh Can adapt to harsh environment; High strength Poor handling stability; Lunar
tyre structure Poor vibration damping rover

Convex reCharge Adjustable tread Can be customized; Energy conservation and Complex structure; High Car
type environmental protection; intelligence cost

Tiltread Three independent parts Good adaptability; High grip Complex structure; High Car
cost

Solid Eagle360 Sphere; Coral-like texture Suitable for different roads and weather; Require special vehicles Special
type 360°steering; High grip vehicles

Oxygene Live moss grows in the Energy storage; Durable; Lightweight; Environment Complex structure; Still a Car
tyre wall protection concept

7
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
(2) During high-speed operation, non-pneumatic tyres generate
a considerable amount of heat that can cause the failure of
the outer ring’s materials. Among the other problems con-
fronting non-pneumatic tyres are extreme
vibration and noise of the wheel at high speeds; inadequate
strength and durability of various parts of the wheel, lack of suit-
able production technology, and high cost.
In recent years, several tyre manufacturers and research institu-
tions have endeavoured to improve design schemes and develop
various new structures to satisfy market demand. However, key
problems, such as insufficient durability, low bearing capacity,
and lack of driving comfort, have not been resolved. Therefore,
the full optimisation of non-pneumatic tyres is particularly
important.
3. Non-pneumatic tyre materials
The materials of non-pneumatic tyres can be divided into three
categories according to their purpose: tread compounds, frame-
work materials, and support structure materials. Tread compounds
are mainly composed of rubber polymers, fillers, and additives. The
matrix materials of tread compounds are polymers, mainly natural
and synthetic rubbers. Rubber polymers determine the tread com-
pound’s fundamental properties, such as tensile strength, elonga-
tion, tear strength, and elasticity. The filler is a reinforcing
material that can impart unique properties to rubber. The most
common filler used is carbon black. Different fillers play essentials
role in tyre strength, rolling resistance, tear resistance, puncture
resistance, wear resistance, and other characteristics. Additives
include softeners, antioxidants, and vulcanising agents. The skele-
ton materials of non-pneumatic tyres (mainly nylon and steel wire
materials) provide sufficient strength and stability to the tread. The
support structure, which is generally composed of new polymer
materials, is unique to non-pneumatic tyres. The support structure
material directly affects the bearing capacity and cushioning per-
formance of these tyres. This chapter summarises the research pro-
gress on non-pneumatic tyre materials, specifically rubber
polymer, filler, and support material. In recent years, a number of
scientific research institutions worldwide have analysed and opti-
mised the structure of non-pneumatic tyres; however, the
improvement in tyre performance remains limited. Therefore, the
fabrication of a high-performance composite material is antici-
pated as a breakthrough for improving the performance of non-
pneumatic tyres.
3.1. Rubber polymer
Rubber polymer is a matrix of the tread compound, and its pro-
portion in the compound exceeds 50 %. Rubber polymers deter-
mine the most fundamental characteristics of tread compounds.
Rubbers can be classified as natural and synthetic. Natural rubber
is a typical self-reinforcing material with high mechanical strength
and satisfactory elasticity. However, it also has disadvantages, such
as oil resistance and low viscosity. Consequently, when natural
rubber is used as a tread compound, epoxidation, vulcanisation,
carbon sink filling, and other processing methods combined with
other rubber and plastic materials are typically required.
Synthetic rubber is a highly elastic polymer. Among them, styr-
ene–butadiene has the broadest synthetic rubber variation. It is
widely used in the tread compounds of various tyres owing to its
excellent wet skid and wear resistance. However, styrene–butadi-
ene rubber exhibits high heat generation and large hysteretic loss.
Lovison et al. [54] provided styrene–butadiene rubber with excel-
lent comprehensive properties by adding oil substances to its for-
8
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
mula. In addition, Pongdhorn et al. [55] added natural rubber to a
styrene–butadiene rubber system to improve the wear resistance
of tread compounds.
The second largest general synthetic rubber used is cis-
polybutadiene. This rubber can provide rubber composites with
excellent wear resistance, low-temperature resistance, yield resis-
tance, and impact elasticity; hence, it is a critical rubber matrix.
The measurement of the mechanical properties of rubber polymers
has invariably been an important part of rubber research. The test-
ing of rubber-based materials under dynamic conditions is impor-
tant. Baranowski et al. [56] proposed a programme for determining
the mechanical properties of rubber polymers under high strain
rate loading conditions. They emphasised the importance of
mechanical tests using aluminium alloy and polymethyl methacry-
late bar systems under dynamic loads. Experimental results indi-
cate that tested rubber materials are less sensitive to strain rate
when the strain is less than 0.3. When the strain exceeds 0.3, the
stress of the tested rubber material significantly differs, and its
sensitivity to strain rate is high.
3.2. Filler
3.2.1. Aramid and aramid pulp
Aramid, also known as aromatic polyamide, is a fibrous sub-
stance composed of at least 85 % of the amide bond directly con-
nected to two aromatic rings. Aramid is an excellent frame
material for traditional pneumatic tyres. In contrast, the aramid
pulp has more use in non-pneumatic tyres. Aramid pulp (Fig. 5
(a)) is a differentiated product of aramid obtained from aramid sta-
ple fibres by primary fibrillation. The aramid pulp inherits the
excellent properties of aramid, such as high modulus, high
strength, excellent thermal stability, chemical stability, dimen-
sional stability, and toughness. Yang et al. studied the application
of aramid pulp to tread rubber and found that its addition
improved puncture and abrasion resistance. Wu et al. applied ara-
mid pulp to tread rubber and discovered that the hysteretic loss of
rubber was reduced. Moreover, the Payne effect is weakened, and
strength is improved; consequently, the aramid pulp can reduce
tread wear. It is an excellent material that can improve the fatigue
durability of non-pneumatic tyres.
3.2.2. Carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (Fig. 5(b)) are crystalline tubular nanomate-
rials with a diameter of only a few nanometres. They have a hollow
hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms near the two ends. Owing
to their high thermal conductivity, strength, and electrical conduc-
tivity, carbon nanotubes have become a research focus in the field
of materials in recent years. Carbon nanotubes as reinforcing rub-
ber material can produce composites with high strength, high
abrasion resistance, high tear resistance, excellent electrical con-
ductivity, and excellent thermal conductivity [57,58]. However,
carbon nanotubes are difficult to prepare and directly apply to
non-pneumatic tyres. Accordingly, researchers have endeavoured
to create composites that can be produced easily by combining car-
bon nanotubes with other materials.
However, because carbon nanotubes are difficult to prepare,
their cost as tyre reinforcement is exceptionally high. In contrast,
carbon fibres are more economical than carbon nanotubes; how-
ever, the performance enhancement that they provide to rubber
composites is lower than that provided by carbon nanotubes. Ma
et al. combined carbon nanotubes with carbon fibres to develop a
new composite material. They used a regression orthogonal design
method to develop a carbon fibre–carbon nanotube composite
with abrasion resistance and improved mechanical properties. This
material can effectively increase the fracture strength and wear
properties of rubber materials, providing a reference for the appli-
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
Fig. 5. Non-pneumatic tyre materials: (a) aramid pulp, (b) carbon nanotubes, (c) 2D materials, (d) graphene, (e) boron nitride, (f) molybdenum disulphide, (g) TPU elastomer,
and (h) glass fibre.
cation of tread composites to automotive tyres. Xiong et al. [59]
synthesised a PU–multi-walled carbon nanotube composite and
analysed its dynamic properties and thermal stability. The analysis
results showed that the composite’s glass transition temperature
increased by approximately 10 °C, which was higher than that of
pure PU; its thermal stability also remarkably improved. Based
on a study of Xiong, Aboul-Yazid et al. [60] investigated a finite ele-
ment model of a non-pneumatic tyre with honeycomb spokes con-
taining PU–carbon nanotubes. The results show that PU–carbon
nanotubes can stiffen tyres, reducing its vertical deflection,
increasing the peak contact pressure, and decreasing the shear
stress. Subramaniam et al. [61] used carbon nanotubes to improve
the electrical conductivity of rubber nanocomposites.
3.2.3. Two-dimensional material
Two-dimensional (2D) materials have thicknesses ranging from
a single atomic layer to several atomic layers. Common 2D materi-
als (Fig. 5(c)) include graphene, boron nitride, molybdenum disul-
phide, layered silicates, and layered bimetallic hydroxides.
Researchers have found that the addition of 2D materials to rubber
composites can effectively improve the wear and wet skid resis-
tance of treads [62]. Moreover, relevant research has proven the
value of using graphene, boron nitride, and molybdenum disul-
phide in non-pneumatic tyres.
Among the 2D materials, graphene (Fig. 5(d)) is the thinnest.
Moreover, it has the best conductivity (including thermal conduc-
tivity). Accordingly, graphene is widely used in new energy vehi-
cles and electronic devices and for thermal management, energy
conservation, and environmental protection [63,64]. Xing et al.
[65] used a modified latex compounding approach to prepare
9
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
graphene–styrene–butadiene rubber nanocomposites. They found
that the tensile strength of the composite with 7 parts of GE was
comparable to that of the composite with 30 parts of carbon black
or 40 parts of silica. Yang et al. [66] developed a graphene–elas-
tomer nanocomposite for application to car tyres. This nanocom-
posite provided unprecedented enhancement in efficiency and
remarkably reduced energy loss. Prud’Homme [67] and Ozbas
et al. [68] incorporated thermally reduced graphene or surface-
functionalised graphene oxide elastomers, such as natural rubber,
styrene–butadiene rubber, and poly rubber. The remarkable poten-
tial of graphene in improving the mechanical and gas barrier prop-
erties of elastomers was demonstrated.
Boron nitride (Fig. 5(e)) is a 2D material with a honeycomb
structure formed by the arrangement of boron and nitrogen atoms.
It has excellent thermal conductivity and is an excellent thermally
conductive filler for rubbers. Molybdenum disulphide (Fig. 5(f)) is a
2D material consisting of two layers of sulphur atoms at the top
and bottom and a middle layer of molybdenum atoms. It has an
extremely low friction coefficient and is an excellent filler for tyre
reinforcement and abrasion resistance. Tang et al. [69] used molyb-
denum disulphide to replace carbon black in rubber composites.
They found that an isolated interspersed filler network could be
formed between molybdenum disulphide and carbon black. The
dispersion of carbon black could be remarkably improved, and
the number of black carbon aggregates could be reduced using
the structural and dimensional characteristics of molybdenum
disulphide. When three parts of molybdenum disulphide replaced
carbon black, the dynamic temperature increase of the composite
decreased by 10 °C, and the abrasion resistance was improved.
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
3.3. Support structure material
3.3.1. PU and thermoplastic PU elastomer
Compared with traditional rubber materials, PU is an organic
polymer material that has high abrasion resistance and tear
strength. During its usage, the PU shows satisfactory shock absorp-
tion performance and positively affects the energy generated by
the contact between the tyre and road. It is fully recyclable and
does not require vulcanisation. Based on these advantages,
researchers have attempted to develop non-pneumatic tyres made
of PU. Tweel tyres, developed by Michelin, use spokes made of PU
to replace the pneumatic structure. Amerityre Corporation devel-
oped a PU explosion-proof tyre after testing PU formulations. This
tyre combines a particular chemical formulation and unique man-
ufacturing process as well as tyre production technology. The test
results show that the tyre exhibits low operating temperature, no
increase in operating temperature with increasing load, and a
45 % lower average rolling resistance than rubber tyres. However,
during the process, PU exhibited considerable internal heat gener-
ation, insufficient high-temperature resistance, and inadequate
damp heat resistance. The normal operating temperature range is
40–120 °C. In particular, when it is used as support material for
non-pneumatic tyres, PU undergoes high-frequency oscillation
for a long time. This condition easily leads to excessive PU heat
generation, which may lead to the failure of the support structure.
Therefore, the formula for PU must be further improved to be more
suitable to non-pneumatic tyres.
Thermoplastic PU (TPU) elastomer is a linearly segmented block
polymer (Fig. 5(g)). It has excellent properties, such as high tensile
strength and aging resistance. Thus, it can be considered a perfect
substitute for PU. However, this material has inadequate heat
resistance, which limits its use [70–72]. Researchers have
improved the formulation of TPU, optimised its heat resistance,
and rendered it more suitable as a support material for non-
pneumatic tyres. Hu et al. [73] synthesised TPU using a structure
with a hard segment and excellent heat resistance using o-
tolidine diisocyanate, para-phenylene diisocyanate, naphthalene
diisocyanate, and new chain extenders containing carbamate
groups. Changing the type of soft segment and satisfying the heat
resistance requirement can solve the problem of insufficient resis-
tance of TPU to wet slip.
3.3.2. Glass fibre
Glass fibres (Fig. 5(h)) have the advantages of low density, sat-
isfactory toughness, high chemical stability, and high-temperature
resistance. However, their disadvantages include inadequate brit-
tleness and abrasion resistance. The addition of glass fibre to the
material of non-pneumatic tyres can provide the tyre with excel-
lent properties, such as satisfactory bulletproof performance, high
strength, low mass, fast driving speed, improved safety, and long
service life [74–77]. Wang et al. [78] found that the addition of
glass and carbon fibres can enhance the strength of nylon. Sassi
et al. [79] manufactured a non-pneumatic tyre using glass fibre
composites. By testing it statically and dynamically, they prelimi-
narily proved that the application of glass fibre composites to
non-pneumatic tyres is feasible.
The primary non-pneumatic tyre materials are shown in Fig. 3.
Non-pneumatic tyres have a greater design scope in terms of struc-
ture and material than pneumatic tyres. However, no non-
pneumatic tyres can replace the mainstream pneumatic tyres rep-
resented by radial and diagonal tyres. This is not only because the
structure of non-pneumatic tyres requires further optimisation but
also because related high-performance materials must be devel-
oped. Presently, rubber is the major material for the tread of
non-pneumatic tyres, and PU or high-performance resin is used
as the base material for the support structure of tyres. Although
10
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
these materials that can satisfy performance requirements to a cer-
tain extent, the development of materials with high stiffness and
strength is necessary to ensure the cushioning and damping per-
formance of tyres. This can be achieved using the multiscale mate-
rial design development approach proposed by Professor Stukhlyak
to produce new materials that are resistant to high-speed deforma-
tion [80]. In addition, the heat resistance and durability of the
materials are key factors. This indicates that more material design
methods and high-performance materials must be developed. In
view of this, the materials of non-pneumatic tyres urgently require
further advancement. Moreover, the inability of materials to resist
high-speed deformation, heat resistance, and durability must be
overcome.
4. Mechanical characteristics of non-pneumatic tyres
As the only component in direct contact with the vehicle and
road, tyres bear their own dead weight and imposed load. The tyre
and vehicle suspension jointly alleviate the impact of vibration,
provide sufficient adhesion for driving and braking, and offer suffi-
cient steering control and directional stability. The vertical, longi-
tudinal, and lateral forces as well as the righting moment play
essential roles to achieve riding comfort, handling stability, and
vehicle safety. Therefore, studying the mechanical characteristics
of tyres is the basis of vehicle performance research [81–84].
The main research on the mechanical characteristics of tyres
(Fig. 6) can be divided into two categories: static and dynamic.
Based on dynamic characteristics, the mechanical characteristics
of tyres can be subdivided into steady-state and unsteady charac-
teristics. Based on the force direction, dynamic characteristics can
be subdivided into longitudinal slip, vertical vibration, contain-
ment, side slip, roll, and composite slip characteristics. In this
study, the main research progress on the mechanical characteris-
tics of non-pneumatic tyres is summarised considering five
aspects: vertical mechanical, longitudinal mechanical, lateral
mechanical, grounding, and vibration characteristics. At the end
of this chapter, recent research on the fatigue characteristics of
non-pneumatic tyres is summarised to provide more sufficient
information on their mechanical properties.
4.1. Vertical mechanical characteristics
The vertical mechanical performance of non-pneumatic tyres is
related to their load capacity. Most non-pneumatic tyres adopt the
top load-bearing mechanism, and each component participates in
load bearing with uniform stress. However, rigid non-pneumatic
tyres, such as honeycomb tyres, continue to use the bottom load-
bearing mode and rely on the grounding area. Compared with ordi-
nary pneumatic tyres, the vertical stiffness of non-pneumatic tyres
is greater and negatively related to the load [85].
Rugsaj et al. [86] tested the vertical stiffness of Michelin Tweel
tyres and compared the test results with those of pneumatic tyres
of the same size. They selected five positions along the circumfer-
ence of the tyre and imposed vertical loads of 4, 16, 18, 20, and
22 kN to test the vertical stiffness of non-pneumatic tyres; then,
they calculated the average value. The force–displacement rela-
tionship obtained from the vertical stiffness test results at different
loads is shown in Fig. 7(a). The calculated vertical stiffness of the
non-pneumatic tyre is 869.93 N/mm. The expected stiffness of
the pneumatic tyre is calculated using the simplified Rhyne
equation:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
K ¼ 0:00028P W  OD þ 3:45 ð1Þ
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

Fig. 6. Main research contents of tyre mechanics.

Fig. 7. Comparison of vertical stiffness between non-pneumatic and pneumatic tyres: (a) Force–displacement relationship of non-pneumatic tyre and (b) vertical stiffness of
non-pneumatic and pneumatic tyres (reproduced with permission from Ref. [86], IOP Publishing).

where K is the vertical stiffness; P the inflation pressure; W the
tread or footprint width; and OD is the overall diameter. The verti-
cal stiffness between non-pneumatic and pneumatic tyres is also
compared; the results are shown in Fig. 7(b). Non-pneumatic tyres
have greater vertical stiffness than traditional pneumatic tyres.
Rutherford et al. [87] found that spoke thickness had the most
significant effect on the mass and vertical stiffness of Tweel tyres.
Narasimhan [88] studied the vertical stiffness of Tweel tyres based
on the uniaxial test data of the PU shear band and found that the
vertical stiffness was positively correlated with the shear modulus
of the shear band. Kim et al. [33] found that the honeycomb struc-
ture in the ground region of a non-pneumatic tyre has high resis-
tance owing to compression during the initial deformation stage.
The sidewall flexes with increasing load, resulting in a decrease
in vertical stiffness. Ganniari-Papageorgiou [89] investigated the
maximum stress, contact pressure, maximum vertical displace-
ment, and absorbed energy during loading using a parametric
finite element model and found that the density, thickness, and
internal angle of the honeycomb structure significantly affect the
vertical stiffness. Gasmi et al. analysed the structure and load-
bearing mode of a non-pneumatic tyre using a simplified theoret-
ical model. The effect of the flexible tread was ignored, the outer
rim was simplified as a Timoshenko curved beam, and the spokes
were simplified as linear springs. Rugsaj [90] established 3D finite
element models of a non-pneumatic tyre with various spoke
shapes based on a hyper-elastic primary structure model. The anal-
ysis results indicate that the vertical stiffness, maximum local
stress, and mass of the spokes are affected by the spoke thickness.
Aboul-Yazid [91] established a quasi-static 2D analytical model to
study the effects of spoke structure and shear plies on the contact
pressure, vertical tyre stiffness, and stress. The results show that

11
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
the shape of the spokes has a remarkable effect on the performance
of tyres without compound rings.
The foregoing studies show that the vertical stiffness of non-
pneumatic tyres is greater than that of traditional pneumatic tyres.
Theoretically, due to the special support structure of non-
pneumatic tyres, their load-carrying capacity is greater than that
of pneumatic tyres. The shape, thickness, and density of the spokes
of the support structure significantly affect the vertical stiffness of
non-pneumatic tyres. Proper vertical stiffness can not only ensure
the comfort of drivers and passengers but also reduce the damage
caused by road turbulence. In contrast to the close coupling
between the vertical stiffness and inflation pressure of traditional
pneumatic tyres, the vertical stiffness of non-pneumatic tyres is
easier to adjust. This aids researchers in implementing optimisa-
tion according to different road conditions and user experience.
4.2. Longitudinal mechanical characteristics
The study of the longitudinal mechanical properties of tyres is
vital for analysing envelope characteristics, transient response,
and rolling resistance. Rolling resistance is the most critical factor
that increases vehicle fuel consumption and tyre temperature.
Research on the longitudinal mechanical properties of non-
pneumatic tyres also focuses on rolling resistance. A study con-
ducted by Clemson University found that multi-cell geometry
and PU materials effectively reduced the elastic hysteretic loss of
non-pneumatic tyres and the shear modulus of elastomers, thereby
effectively reducing the rolling resistance of tyres [51,92]. Ju et al.
[93] verified the effect of porous beads on reducing the elastic hys-
teretic loss of tyres by comparing the porous and solid beads of
Tweel. Heo et al. [94] analysed the air resistance of a non-
pneumatic tyre with a honeycomb-like structure using finite ele-
ment simulations. The results showed that the air resistance
caused by the cavity between the honeycomb structures was neg-
ligible, only accounting for a small proportion of the total air resis-
tance of the tyre. Veeramurthy developed a finite element model of
a Tweel tyre and analysed the effects of spoke thickness, shear
band thickness, and shear modulus on energy loss. The results
showed that the increase in shear band thickness and shear mod-
ulus of the shear layer decreased the rolling resistance of the tyre,
hence greatly influencing it. Jin et al. [38] analysed the rolling resis-
tance of a honeycomb tyre. They found that the rolling resistance
increased with the mass of the honeycomb structure and its angle
Fig. 8. Rolling resistance of non-pneumatic tyres under different vertical forces
(reproduced with permission from Refs. [38], Elsevier).
12
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
at the same load-carrying capacity (Fig. 8). Aboul-Yazid et al. [91]
found that the rolling resistance of a Tweel tyre was lower than
that of a non-pneumatic tyre with a honeycomb-like structure.
Rolling resistance is the most critical parameter in the study of
longitudinal mechanical properties of non-pneumatic tyres. The
rolling resistance of non-pneumatic tyres is calculated using the
total viscoelastic energy loss per unit rolling distance at maximum
stable speed. Non-pneumatic tyres were found to exhibit excellent
rolling resistance under general medium and low loads. Similar to
traditional pneumatic tyres, the rolling resistance of non-
pneumatic tyres is a result of the interaction of various compo-
nents. However, owing to the flexible structural design and wide
material selection, more means are available for optimising the
rolling resistance of non-pneumatic tyres. Researchers have found
that the structural parameters of the support and shear layer can
significantly affect the rolling resistance of non-pneumatic tyres.
The increase in rolling resistance is an important indicator of per-
formance optimisation.
4.3. Lateral mechanical characteristics
The lateral mechanical characteristics of tyres are the most
important characteristics that determine the handling stability of
a vehicle. Researchers have explored this field through simulations
and theoretical calculations. Zhao et al. [95] found by simulation
that the lateral stiffness and torsional stiffness of tyres increased
with vertical load in a particular range. Based on the brush model,
Fu deduced a theoretical model suitable for a mechanical elastic
wheel. The longitudinal slip, longitudinal force, roll angle of the
wheel, and influence of wheel width were ignored, and the friction
coefficient was assumed to be isotropic. The vertical load distribu-
tion on the wheel grounding imprint area was assumed to be para-
bolic; thus, a steady-state lateral deflection theoretical model of a
mechanically elastic wheel was derived. When the side slip angle is
small, tan a  a, and no slip occurred in the grounding area of the
mechanically elastic wheel. The calculation formulae for the lateral
force, Fy, and righting moment, Mz, acting on the wheel are
expressed as follows:
( Rl
Fy ¼ l qydx ¼ kpyl2a
Rl : ð2Þ
Mz ¼ l qyxdx ¼  23 kpyl3a
When side slip angle is large, the calculation formulae for the
lateral force, Fy and righting moment, Mz, on the wheel are as
follows:
a) when 0  a  asl,
8 R xt Rl
>
> Fy ¼ l qy; max dx þ xt qydx
>
>  
>
< ¼ lFzhy 3 tan a  3hy tan 2a þ hy2 tan3 a
R R ; ð3Þ
>
> xt l
Mz ¼ l qy; max xdx þ xt qyxdx
>
>
>
:  
¼ lFzlhy tan a  3hy tan 2a þ 3hy2 tan3 a  hy3 tan4 a
and b) when asl  a  p/2,

Fy ¼ lFz
: ð4Þ
Mz ¼ 0
In the foregoing equations, Fy is the lateral force on the wheel;
Mz is the righting moment on the wheel; a is the wheel side deflec-
tion angle; m is the lateral deformation of the roller; x is the longi-
tudinal coordinate of the imprint; xt is the longitudinal coordinate
of the starting point; l is the half-length of the wheel grounding
mark; Fz is the vertical reaction force of the ground to the wheel;
qy is the vertical load distribution on the wheel grounding area;
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
kv is the laterally distributed force of the roller; kpy is the lateral
distribution stiffness of the roller; and l is the lateral sliding fric-
tion coefficient of the wheel.
Kumar et al. [15] studied the vertical load–deflection curve,
contact pressure distribution, variation in longitudinal force, and
variation in lateral force of a steel-ringed non-pneumatic tyre
and a belt-reinforced non-pneumatic tyre using a 3D finite element
model and then compared the simulation data with those of a
165/70R14 passenger car tyre. The simulation results showed that
under a 3000-N load, the maximum deflection of the pneumatic
tyre was 20.8 mm, whereas the maximum deflection values of
the two non-pneumatic tyres were only 12.5 and 13.7 mm. The
bending rigidity of the outer ring determined the area of the max-
imum contact pressure of the steel-ringed non-pneumatic tyres.
Therefore, the direction of maximum pressure was arranged later-
ally. Owing to the high vertical stiffness of the non-pneumatic tyre,
its contact area was smaller than that of the pneumatic tyre. The
peak longitudinal force of the pneumatic tyre is approximately
8 %, whereas that of the steel-ringed non-pneumatic tyre is 6 %,
which is ideal. Among all the tyres tested, the steel-ringed non-
pneumatic tyre produced the maximum lateral force. The high
out-of-plane stiffness of the porous structure and the presence of
steel rings contributed to the lateral stiffness of the tyres. A change
in the belt angle affects the force and torque characteristics of non-
pneumatic tyres, mainly the lateral stiffness. The cornering stiff-
ness of the tyre decreased with an increase in belt angle.
The theoretical model method has rarely been used in the
research on non-pneumatic tyres. This is mainly owing to the lack
of relevant theoretical models in the field of non-pneumatic tyres.
The steady-state lateral deflection theoretical model of the
mechanical elastic wheel (derived by Fu et al.) is a powerful sup-
plement to the theoretical model of non-pneumatic tyres. Further-
more, it can guide the formulation of other non-pneumatic tyre
theoretical models. Therefore, the combination of the theoretical
model with simulation and experimental data is perfect for non-
pneumatic tyre research. With regard to lateral mechanical perfor-
mance, because the support of non-pneumatic tyres is mainly
arranged laterally in a circumferential manner, their lateral defor-
mation under lateral loads is negligible. Therefore, non-pneumatic
tyres typically have greater lateral stiffness than pneumatic tyres.
4.4. Grounding characteristics
Improving the distribution of ground pressure such that it is
uniform and reasonable directly affects the performance of non-
pneumatic tyres. The ground pressure and vertical stiffness of
pneumatic tyres are directly and closely coupled with air pressure.
In contrast, the ground pressure of non-pneumatic tyres is primar-
ily related to the tread profile size and shear zone parameters.
Thus, the ground pressure and vertical stiffness of a relatively inde-
pendent non-pneumatic tyre may be high or low.
Studies on the static mechanics of non-pneumatic tyres have
made progress in the research on mechanical models. Rhyne [96]
found that when a Tweel tyre is loaded, the shear band is
deformed, forming a ‘contact patch’ at the grounding point. The
shear zone deformation is generated by the shear layer of the mid-
dle layer because the inner and outer layers of the shear zone are
non-tensile. The formula for calculating the ground pressure of a
Tweel tyre is as follows:
! static grounding pressures of pneumatic and mechanical elastic
G wheels under different wheel loads are shown in Fig. 10.
Pg ¼ h ; ð5Þ
R þ X2
R Compared with pneumatic tyres, mechanically elastic wheels
13
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
where Pg denotes the grounding pressure; G is the shear modu-
lus of the shear layer; R indicates the circumference radius of the
tyre, h denotes the thickness of the shear band; and X is the longi-
tudinal coordinate of the grounding mark.
Given that the longitudinal coordinate, X, of the grounding mark
relative to the circumferential radius, R, of the tyre is negligible, the
following is derived:
Gh
Pg ¼ : ð6Þ
R
Tweel tyres can have the same grounding pressure as pneu-
matic tyres by adjusting the parameters in Equation (6).
Gasmi et al. [97] proposed a 2D non-pneumatic tyre mechanics
model based on the flexible ring on the elastic foundation model
reported in [98,99]. This model included a shear band and spokes.
The spokes did not produce counterforces when compressed, and
the tyre deformed upon contact with the ground. The shear band
was divided into three parts in the circumferential direction:
ground, non-ground, and transition zones. The shear bands in the
grounded and non-ground areas were subjected to a road counter-
force and spoke tension, respectively. The shear band in the transi-
tion area was not subjected to any force. The model established a
set of differential equations for the shear bands in the three
regions. The solutions of the three sets of equations were obtained
through the boundary conditions, and the deformation of the shear
band of the entire tyre was obtained. For non-pneumatic tyres with
generally no radial force under pressure, satisfactory results were
obtained using Gasmi’s model. Zang et al. applied Gasmi’s model
to calculate the ground-related characteristics of mechanically
elastic wheels and optimised their wear and grip properties.
Researchers have studied the grounding characteristics of non-
pneumatic tyres through experiments and numerical simulations.
Ma et al. [100] developed a finite element model of the tyre–soil
interaction in which the Drucker–Prager elastoplastic model repre-
sented the soil, and the Tweel tyre was considered as an elastic
deformer. The tyre–soil interaction was computationally analysed
to investigate the stress distribution and deformation. Veera-
murthy et al. [101] found that the vertical stiffness of the Tweel
tyre increased and the deformation of the tyre in the grounding
area decreased when the shear modulus of the shear layer
increased. Kim et al. [85] investigated the grounding characteris-
tics of a non-pneumatic tyre with a honeycomb-like structure
using numerical simulation and found that non-pneumatic tyres
have lower grounding pressures than conventional pneumatic
tyres with the same load-carrying capacity.
Kim et al. [33] studied the static contact behaviour of honey-
comb tyres and compared it with that of pneumatic tyres. The
pneumatic tyre had a typical passenger car pressure of 210 kPa.
The non-pneumatic tyre is designed with three structures, as
shown in Fig. 9(a). The vertical force–deflection curves and 3D con-
tact pressure curves of the four tyres are obtained using the com-
mercial finite element software ABAQUS, as shown in Fig. 9(b)–(f).
The simulation results show that the vertical stiffness of non-
pneumatic tyres decreases with an increase in load. When the ver-
tical load increases, the contact pressure of non-pneumatic tyres
becomes lower than that of pneumatic tyres. In this study, the con-
tact pressure decreased by approximately 30 % when the vertical
load was 3000 N. Zang et al. [102] compared the grounding charac-
teristics of mechanically elastic and radial pneumatic tyres. The
do not have a stress concentration on the shoulder under heavy
loads. The uniformity of the grounding pressure distribution
improves, effectively enhancing the wear resistance and grip per-
formance of the wheels. Researchers have introduced the concept
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

Fig. 9. Comparison of static contact behaviour between non-pneumatic and pneumatic tyres: (a) structures of honeycomb tyres, (b) vertical force–deflection curves, (c)
contact pressure of pneumatic tyre, (d) contact pressure of non-pneumatic tyre with Type A honeycomb spokes, (e) contact pressure of non-pneumatic tyre with Type B
honeycomb spokes, (f) and contact pressure of non-pneumatic tyre with Type C honeycomb spokes (reproduced with permission from Ref. [33], SAE International).

Fig. 10. Comparison of grounding characteristics between mechanically elastic and radial pneumatic tyres: static ground pressure distributions of (a) pneumatic tyres and (b)
mechanical elastic wheel (reproduced with permission from Ref. [102]).

14
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
of ground pressure deflection value to compare the ground pres-
sure uniformity of mechanically elastic wheels and common pneu-
matic tyres quantitatively. The earth pressure deflection value is
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u np 
u 1 X  2
b¼t Pi  Pag ; ð7Þ
np  1 i¼1
where np is the number of measurement points; Pi is the pres-
sure at each measuring point; and Pag is the average grounding
pressure.
Researchers have calculated the deviation value of the ground-
ing pressure in the rectangular grounding area with a load of
5000 N, longitudinal length of 0.14 m, and width of 0.265 m at
the centre of the two types of tyre grounding footprint. The ground
pressure deflection values of the mechanical elastic wheel and
pneumatic tyre are 0.424 and 0.536 MPa, respectively. The forego-
ing data show that the mechanical elastic wheel has better ground
pressure uniformity and wear resistance than pneumatic tyres.
The ground pressure of non-pneumatic tyres is primarily
related to the tread profile size and shear zone parameters. How-
ever, the grounding and air pressure of traditional pneumatic tyres
are significantly coupled. Generally, optimising the grounding
pressure of non-pneumatic tyres during design is easier. The
grounding characteristics of different non-pneumatic tyres vary;
however, their overall performance is satisfactory. The deforma-
tion of the Tweel tyre in the grounding area is larger than that of
the pneumatic tyre of the same specification, forming a special
structure of ‘contact piece’ at the grounding point. This feature is
conducive to reducing the grounding pressure and energy loss of
the Tweel tyre during rolling. Under medium and low loads, the
grounding pressure of honeycomb tyres was slightly higher than
that of pneumatic tyres; however, with an increase in load, the
grounding pressure of the honeycomb tyres was smaller. The con-
tact mark of the mechanical elastic wheel was approximately rect-
angular. Under heavy loads, the mechanical elastic wheel does not
have a stress concentration on the tyre shoulder. Compared with
pneumatic tyres with the same specifications, the ground pressure
distribution of mechanically elastic wheels was more uniform.
4.5. Vibration characteristics
The vibration characteristics of non-pneumatic tyres are essen-
tial factors and must be investigated to improve tyre quality and
design. At high speeds, the spokes of the non-pneumatic tyres
enter the grounding area and produce bending deformation. When
the spokes leave the grounding area, they quickly return from bent
state to tensioned state. During the process of entering and leaving
the grounding area, the spokes generate self-excited vibrations
owing to deformation, causing overall tyre vibration and noise
[103–105]. Sung [103] performed a simulation analysis of the
vibration characteristics of Tweel tyres and found that the tyre
speed was independent of the spoke vibration frequency. The
spoke thickness affects the amplitude of spoke vibration; however,
its effect on frequency is minimal. Ramachandran et al. [104] rea-
lised that the scalloped widening of spoke edges remarkably
reduces the vibration amplitude but only minimally affects the
peak vibration frequency. The spoke width was not observed to
have any remarkable effect on the frequency and vibration ampli-
tude. Shashank revealed that small changes in spoke thickness and
curvature effectively changed the vibration amplitude. Combining
large-curvature fine spokes and small-curvature coarse spokes to
form an alternating odd–even spoke pair can reduce spoke vibra-
tion and vibration generated by tyre–ground interaction. Zhao
et al. [106] investigated the vibration characteristics of mechanical
elastic tyres and found that the inherent frequency of the mechan-
15
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
ical elastic wheel increased with the elastic modulus of the elastic
ring or vertical load.
Current research indicates that the vibration of the support is an
important factor affecting the mechanical properties of non-
pneumatic tyres. Researchers have analysed the vibration and
noise mechanisms generated by non-pneumatic tyres. When
non-pneumatic tyres run at high speeds, the deformation of the
support structure causes self-excitation, causing vibration and
noise throughout the tyre. This defect directly affects the stability
and riding comfort of the vehicle as well as limits the use of non-
pneumatic tyres. Researchers have also proposed a scheme to
reduce vibration and noise by increasing the thickness and curva-
ture of supporting spokes. However, no accurate data indicate
whether the vibration characteristics of optimised non-
pneumatic tyres are comparable to those of pneumatic tyres. In
summary, the vibration characteristics of non-pneumatic tyres
considerably differ from those of traditional pneumatic tyres. To
improve these characteristics, several aspects must be optimised.
4.6. Fatigue characteristics
Reliability and durability are essential indices of non-pneumatic
tyres and are directly related to the safe operation of vehicles. The
primary failure mode of non-pneumatic tyres is fatigue failure
caused by alternating stresses. In the rolling process of non-
pneumatic tyres, the flexible spokes bear an enormous alternating
stress of extrusion and tension and a single alternating stress for a
long time, resulting in the fatigue failure of flexible spokes.
Research on the fatigue characteristics of non-pneumatic tyres is
important for achieving the goals in the design stage, optimising
the configuration in the improvement stage, and avoiding potential
safety hazards.
Ju et al. [39] studied the influence of the structural parameters
of honeycomb tyres on their fatigue performance. They designed
honeycomb supports at six different angles. Honeycombs with dif-
ferent structural parameters were applied to the flexible spoke
structure for verification. The local stresses of the honeycomb sup-
port with different angles under a uniaxial load were compared
and analysed. The results showed that honeycomb tyres with large
unit angles have low local stress and improved fatigue resistance.
Sriwijaya and Hamza [107] investigated the influence of road incli-
nation on the stress distribution of a non-pneumatic tyre with a
flexible spoke. The results showed that the equivalent stress distri-
bution of flexible spokes increases with pavement inclination.
Excessive road inclination accelerated the failure of flexible spokes
of non-pneumatic tyres.
Fu et al. [108] discussed the fatigue performance of non-
pneumatic tyres with mesh flexible spokes and presented a
method for predicting their fatigue life (Fig. 11(a)). The influence
of structural parameters on the fatigue life of non-pneumatic tyres
was analysed. Based on the Thomas crack model, the fatigue life of
a non-pneumatic tyre with mesh flexible spokes was estimated
using the strain energy density as the fatigue life characterisation
parameter. The actual driving distance of a mesh flexible non-
pneumatic tyre was approximately 23 900 km. Xiao et al. [109]
studied the durability of mechanically elastic wheels. The full ser-
vice life of the mechanical elastic wheel obtained through the
dynamic finite element durability analysis was 7723.8 km
(Fig. 11(b)). The driving mileage of non-pneumatic tyres compared
with that of traditional pneumatic tyres (approximately 50
000 km) is extremely low. Therefore, the structures of non-
pneumatic tyres require continuous optimisation to improve their
fatigue life.
During operation, the support structure of a non-pneumatic
tyre bears enormous alternating stress of extrusion and tension
and single alternating stress over an extended period. Under the
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
Fig. 11. Fatigue durability of non-pneumatic tyres: (a) structure of non-pneumatic tyre with mesh flexible spokes and (b) simulation results of durability of mechanically
elastic wheel (part of this figure is based on Ref. [109]; reproduced with permission from Ref. [108], SAGE Publications).
action of alternating stress over an extended time, the fatigue per-
formance of the support structure is unsatisfactory. At high speeds,
the deformation of the support easily generates significant heat,
further affecting the fatigue performance of non-pneumatic tyres
and even leading to the failure of the support structure as con-
formed by experimental results. The driving mileage of traditional
pneumatic tyres is approximately 50 000 km and that of non-
pneumatic tyres of the same specification is less than half of this
distance. Presently, the main problem restricting the use of non-
pneumatic tyres in general passenger vehicles is their poor fatigue
durability. This concern must also be resolved by researchers.
Accordingly, it will be the focus of future research.
The end of this section presents the comparison of the perfor-
mance of different non-pneumatic tyres according to available
data. In terms of fatigue characteristics, the multi-spoke non-
pneumatic tyre compared with straight-spoke and honeycomb
tyres showed better fatigue durability and versatility. Generally,
the fatigue durability of traditional pneumatic tyres is approxi-
mately 50 000 km; that of Tweel tyres is approximately
6000 km. The fatigue durability of mechanical elastic wheels (ap-
proximately 7700 km) approximates that of Tweel tyres [109].
However, the fatigue durability of multi-spoke non-pneumatic
tyres can reach approximately 23 000 km [108]. The fatigue dura-
bility of the different non-pneumatic tyres is compared in Fig. 12.
The results of a study conducted by Beijing University of Tech-
nology on the mechanical properties of three classic non-
pneumatic tyres (i.e., Tweel, honeycomb, and Uptis tyres) in terms
of comprehensive performance are summarised in Table 4. The
table indicates that the von Mises stress peak, surface temperature
rise peak, and rolling resistance of the Tweel tyre are the lowest.
Furthermore, the differences in the relative mass and contact pres-
sure peak between the Tweel and honeycomb tyres are only 0.66 %
and 5.5 %, respectively. Therefore, the Tweel tyre has the best per-
formance in terms of the foregoing factors.
In addition, researchers have analysed the mechanical charac-
teristics of new non-pneumatic tyres. Liu et al. [110] compared
the quasi-static compression process of honeycomb, Tweel,
Tweel-2, and saddle tyres. The results showed that the yield
strength and absorbed energy of the Tweel-2 tyre were 1.4 times
those of the Tweel tyre. The yield strength and absorbed energy
of the saddle tyre were approximately 2.4 and 4 times those of
the honeycomb tyre and Tweel tyre, respectively. Rugsaj et al.
[111] compared the stiffness and stress of four non-pneumatic
tyres. The non-pneumatic tyre with interconnected mesh spokes
had minimum local deformation and maximum vertical stiffness.
The non-pneumatic tyre with autonomous honeycomb spokes
exhibited the highest local pressure. Zhang et al. [40] analysed
16
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
the radial stiffness of three non-pneumatic tyres: spoke plate, hon-
eycomb, and grid types; the results showed that when the radial
load was less than 3500 N, the mesh-type tyre had the highest
load-carrying capacity. As the load increased, the load capacity of
the honeycomb-type tyre was optimal. The radial stiffness of the
spoke plate-type tyre was extremely low to be used by vehicles
with large curb weights.
This chapter reviews the mechanical characteristics of non-
pneumatic tyres. In general, non-pneumatic tyres perform well in
terms of their vertical mechanical properties, longitudinal mechan-
ical properties, transverse mechanical properties, and grounding
characteristics. Owing to the structural design of the elastic sup-
port, the ground pressure of non-pneumatic tyres is decoupled
from the vertical and lateral stiffness. Moreover, the vertical, lat-
eral, and torsional stiffness do not exhibit strong coupling. There-
fore, non-pneumatic tyres have a wide optimisation scope and
free design options.
The vibration characteristics and fatigue durability of non-
pneumatic tyres are insufficient. Compared with traditional pneu-
matic tyres, non-pneumatic tyres have a shorter service life and
higher vibration and noise at high speeds. Optimisation is an
important process in any solution or design process. Non-
pneumatic tyres must also be optimised. Optimisation requires
researchers to select or design appropriate materials, shapes, and
layouts according to load, traffic, and other conditions [36].
Researchers have developed many lightweight and topological
optimisation designs for classic non-pneumatic tyres, such as
Tweel and honeycomb tyres. For example, the early versions of
Tweel tyre exhibited severe vibrations at high speeds. Researchers
have analysed the mechanism of vibration and proposed a series of
optimisation methods. First, the thickness and curvature of the
spoke were increased to reduce the vibration amplitude. Subse-
quently, the curvature of even pairs of spokes was increased, and
their width was reduced. The curvature of odd pairs of spokes
was reduced, and their width was increased. This combination
reduced not only the vibration of the spokes but also that caused
by the interaction between the tyre and ground.
Although structural optimisation can resolve these problems to
some extent, it cannot fundamentally solve the problem caused by
the inherent support structure of non-pneumatic tyres. Therefore,
for the vibration characteristics and fatigue durability of non-
pneumatic tyres to be comparable to those of traditional pneu-
matic tyres, a breakthrough in material optimisation is necessary.
In the future, researchers must further focus on developing new
support materials with appropriate strength and stiffness, excel-
lent heat resistance, and excellent durability. Advancements in
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al. Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742

Fig. 12. Comparison of tyre fatigue durability.

Table 4 tion, and screw–plunger injection machines. However, the three

Comparison of static and dynamic performance of three typical non-pneumatic tyres. generations of rubber injection machines have invariably per-
Physical quantity Tweel Honeycomb Upits formed plasticisation and injection separately. In other words, rub-
tyre tyre tyre ber is first plasticised and then injected into the mould cavity; this
Vertical stiffness (N/mm) 515.6 523.7 522.2 is called the two-step moulding method.
Relative mass 3.05 3.07 3.43 The two-step moulding method cannot inject a large amount
Mises stress peak (MPa) 3.0 4.2 3.5 rubber products and cannot control the pressure of the rubber
Contact pressure peak (MPa) 0.36 0.37 0.34
material injected into the mould cavity because the process is
Surface temperature rise peak 92.9 121.1 110.1
(°C) defective. Consequently, one-step injection technology and a screw
Rolling resistance (N) 33.9 37.5 40.4 extrusion injection moulding device were developed. This device
allows simultaneous plasticisation, injection, and dosing. The fore-
going fundamentally differs from the conventional two-step
materials research are expected to cause remarkable changes in moulding process of dosing followed by injection and enables
non-pneumatic tyres. more efficient production. Kataoka et al. designed a gas-assisted
injection moulding technique, which aided in moulding materials
by pressing high-pressure gas into a molten resin in a mould.
5. Forming technology of non-pneumatic tyres
Controlling the moulding conditions is a tyre production prob-
lem that a number of scholars have endeavoured to resolve for
Conventional tyre moulding technologies include compression
many years. Gao et al. [112] simulated and analysed the injection
moulding, filament winding, and centrifugal casting. These meth-
moulding process of non-pneumatic tyres and obtained the opti-
ods require many types of equipment, complex processes, high
mal gate position and quantity based on simulation results. Zhu
energy consumption, and low yield, which cannot satisfy tyre
et al. [113] conducted a finite element analysis (FEA) of a non-
quantity and quality requirements. Compared with pneumatic
pneumatic tyre with a honeycomb-like structure. Moldflow was
tyres, non-pneumatic tyres have a complex support structure and
used to analyse the mould experimentally as well as to improve
are unsuitable for conventional moulding. Therefore, optimising
the mould design and moulding process. Wu et al. [114] studied
the moulding technology for non-pneumatic tyres is the first prac-
PU tyres, analysed the effect of the injection moulding process
tical problem hindering the widespread promotion of non-
parameters, and optimised the moulding process conditions based
pneumatic tyres. Currently, injection moulding, centrifugal casting,
on simulation results.
and 3D printing are mainly used in non-pneumatic tyre moulding.

5.1. Injection moulding technology 5.2. Centrifugal casting technology

Injection moulding technology is a relatively advanced produc-
tion process that has the advantages of a short forming cycle, form-
ing moulded products with complex shapes, accurate size, high
quality, high production efficiency, and facile mechanisation and
production automation. The development of injection moulding
technology involved plunger injection, screw reciprocating injec-
17
Compared with solid rubber, PU rubber is simpler to process
because of its low viscosity and excellent flowability, allowing
complex solid-phase processing to be replaced by simple liquid-
phase processing. Non-pneumatic tyres made mainly of PU mate-
rials can be prepared via centrifugal casting [115,116]. The casting
machine uses an internal screw device to mix the raw materials
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
and inject them into a manifold. Under centrifugal force, the mixed
materials are thrown into the mould cavity through the flow chan-
nel. The material that first collides under the low temperature
inside the cavity quickly forms a solid and dense skin layer. The
material inside the cavity produces numerous minute bubbles that
are evenly distributed in the material owing to high temperature,
and a microporous elastomer layer with uniform density changes.
No apparent delamination occurs in the circumferential direction
of the tyre by adjusting the speed regulator to control the cen-
trifuge speed.
Non-pneumatic PU tyres produced by the centrifugal casting
method have a uniform distribution of carcase material and suit-
able density, which ensures acceptable static and dynamic balance
and satisfactory driving comfort. Compared with other moulding
methods, centrifugal casting produces tyres with considerable
strength and stiffness. The method does not require traditional
production using curing equipment, hence reducing the cost. Bras
et al. [14] studied the production process of a Michelin Tweel non-
pneumatic tyre by centrifugal casting in investigating the influence
of the entire life cycle of non-pneumatic tyres on the environment.
The manufacture of a Tweel tyre includes three parts: tread, hub,
and PU spokes. Tweel tyres use the same method as pneumatic
tyres to manufacture treads involving internal mixing, extrusion,
and vulcanisation; a hub-casting process is adopted. The last part
is the manufacture of PU spokes. The hub and tread are fixed con-
centrically, PU is added to the spokes and shear band mould, and
the entire assembly is rotated such that the PU fills the mould in
the radial direction. The entire Tweel tyre is then cured in an oven
at 100 °C for 4 h to obtain the required properties and ensure that
all components are safely bonded together.
5.3. 3D printing technology
The 3D printing technology is also known as additive manufac-
turing technology [117,118]. Compared with traditional processes,
3D printing technology can directly manufacture complex struc-
tures without moulds. It can also ensure the formation of complex
surface and internal structures of moulded products. This effec-
tively avoids the technical deficiencies caused by the moulding
and demoulding difficulties of traditional moulding technology
for complex structures and increases the diversity of product
design. The emergence of 3D printing technology powerfully
ensures the manufacture of the complex structures of non-
pneumatic tyres. This significantly improves the freedom of non-
pneumatic tyre structure design and enables the swift verification
of its feasibility [119–123]. Currently, the 3D printing technology
used in the forming process of non-pneumatic tyres mainly
includes the fused deposition moulding (FDM) and selective laser
sintering (SLS) technologies.
5.3.1. FDM technology
The FDM technology is the most widely used 3D printing tech-
nology because of its unique advantages of simple operation, easy
equipment maintenance, and low cost. The essence of the FDM
technology is that wires are bonded in the horizontal and vertical
directions. The bonding force is generated by the rapid transforma-
tion of the printing material from a molten state to a solid state.
Therefore, the filament–filament bonding strength is relatively
small, causing certain defects in the mechanical properties of the
products formed by FDM technology. Moreover, the nozzle diame-
ter must not be extremely small to ensure the stable extrusion of
molten materials over an extended period, resulting in the relative
accuracy of moulded products. During printing, internal defects,
which degrade the mechanical properties of the products, are typ-
ically observed [124–127].
18
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
Wang et al. [128] successfully applied the FDM technology to
3D-printed non-pneumatic tyres based on PU materials. They
found that the stiffness of 3D-printed non-pneumatic tyres was
50 % of that of the tyres obtained by simulation. Therefore, the
properties of these materials must be moderately reduced in the
structural design to ensure the accurate prediction of the perfor-
mance of 3D-printed non-pneumatic tyres. Suvanjumrat et al.
[129] investigated the mechanical properties of 3D-printed materi-
als suitable for spoke-type non-pneumatic tyres. The vertical stiff-
ness of the samples examined by FEA is compared with that of
actual non-pneumatic tyres, thereby verifying the possibility of
constructing complex spoke shapes using 3D printing.
5.3.2. SLS technology
A unique feature of SLS technology is that the emitted infrared
laser beam is used as energy for sintering 3D printing materials to
achieve mutual bonding. The principle is to lay a fragile powder-
like printing material on the printer table and then control the
laser beam to perform SLS on this layer of material based on the
slice digital model of the formed product. The printing table drops
to a certain height under the control of the system and then lays a
layer of uniform powder printing material on the upper layer of the
sintering surface after each layer is sintered. The printing table
begins to sinter the layer. These steps are repeated to obtain the
final product. During printing, each layer of the sintered powder
material is recycled. The addition of support for complex struc-
tures, such as hollow-out (which is easy to operate and has a high
success rate in printing), is not required. The SLS technology is dis-
advantaged by the low accuracy of formed products, rough sur-
faces of products, and expensive equipment with high
maintenance costs. The foregoing limits the technology’s applica-
tion to a certain extent [130,131].
As a high-speed moulding technology, 3D printing can rapidly
manufacture tyres or duplicate parts for testing design solutions
under laboratory [36] or test track conditions; hence, researchers
can conduct more efficient experimental tests. For example, Suvan-
jumrat et al. [110] constructed various non-pneumatic tyres with
complex support structures using 3D printing technology and
studied their mechanical properties. Note that the development
of 3D printing technology not only promotes the industrial produc-
tion of non-pneumatic tyres but also introduces convenience to
researchers in testing various types of tyres. More moulding
options are anticipated to be available for the 3D printing of non-
pneumatic tyres in the future. Non-pneumatic tyres with multiple
materials can be gradually processed on different 3D processing
platforms, and single-material products, such as plastic tyres, can
be completed on a single 3D printer. Presently, although some
problems have been encountered in 3D printing, the advances in
cross-disciplines, such as materials science and computer science,
can considerably improve this process as well as the research
and application of non-pneumatic tyres.
6. Performance test of non-pneumatic tyres
Experimental tests are essential to tyre design. They prove the
rationality of the numerical model and accuracy of the numerical
results obtained. Reliable results can only be obtained by combin-
ing numerical simulation and experiments.
In the field of non-pneumatic tyres, some researchers rely on
FEA technology because of the harsh conditions for manufacturing
non-pneumatic tyres. However, in recent years, researchers have
begun realise the importance of experimental testing, and research
on non-pneumatic tyres has continued to advance. Fu et al. [132]
performed a static analysis of a flexible spoke non-pneumatic tyre
in ABAQUS and then implemented a load test under the same
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
working conditions. The relative error between the simulation and
test results was only 4.7 %, proving the accuracy of the numerical
analysis model. Deng et al. [31] established a rigid–flexible cou-
pling model of a mechanical elastic wheel and verified the reliabil-
ity and accuracy of the model through a wheel static load test. The
dynamic characteristics of the mechanical elastic wheels under
typical working conditions were studied based on the verified
model.
Notably, tyre design is a complete process. The multi-stage nat-
ure of a problem, such as that in quasi-static, dynamic, and strong
dynamic situations, must be considered in the design process. To
establish a complete non-pneumatic tyre design procedure,
researchers can refer to the tyre multi-stage test procedure pro-
posed by Baranowski et al. [133,134]. First, they developed a new
discrete tyre model and verified it using an actual tyre. The
stress–strain data of rubber materials were obtained through
quasi-static and dynamic tests, and a constitutive simplified rubber
material model was established. Finally, quasi-static radial deflec-
tion, dynamic spring, and strong dynamic explosion tests were
implemented. The experimental results were compared with the
FEA results. Presently, the testing of non-pneumatic tyres is limited
to typical working conditions; problems at different stages are
rarely considered. Researchers must also focus on the design and
testing of non-pneumatic tyres.
7. Development prospect of non-pneumatic tyres
This study reviews the research status of non-pneumatic tyres.
The development of non-pneumatic tyres is summarised in terms
of four aspects: concept and structure, materials, mechanical prop-
erties, and forming technology. This chapter proposes the applica-
tion of intelligent materials and structures to non-pneumatic tyres
and summarises their development trends.
7.1. Anticipated technological developments
Japanese scholar Junyi Takaki proposed the concept of intelli-
gent materials and structures in 1989 [135]. At present, various
intelligent materials and structures that have been originally used
in the military and aerospace are available. These are composite
systems that can perceive changes in the external and internal
environments. They can identify and infer information, make rea-
sonable decisions, and drive the responses of structures [136–
138]. The author believes that applying intelligent materials and
structures in the field of non-pneumatic tyres will bring new
changes and vitality to the industry.
Intelligent materials and structures can provide an adaptive
tread with a low rolling resistance. Adaptive intelligent materials
and structures are composite structures that are formed by inte-
grating matrix materials, sensing and driving materials, microelec-
tronic processing, and control systems. The structure can bear
loads and transfer motion. It can also be adjusted in accordance
with the changing external environment and its conditions [139–
141]. A tread made of adaptive intelligent materials and structures
can receive information regarding the ground, tyre wear, and tyre
temperature in real time to adjust itself continuously and maintain
the best state of tread at all times.
The selection of support materials and the design of structures
are key factors that affect the performance of non-pneumatic tyres.
Piezoelectric intelligent materials [142] are a type of dielectric
crystals with a piezoelectric effect. Under the action of mechanical
forces, dielectric crystals polarise to form surface charges. In this
case, the positive and negative charge centres inside the dielectrics
are displaced under the action of electric fields, resulting in mate-
rial deformation. Piezoelectric intelligent materials can be effec-
19
Materials & Design 227 (2023) 111742
tively used for material damage self-diagnosis, self-adaptation,
vibration reduction, and noise control. Non-pneumatic tyres tend
to produce considerable spoke vibrations and noise at high speeds.
At this point, the piezoelectric intelligent material generates an
electric current that creates the opposite vibration from the direc-
tion of the self-vibration, counteracting each other to improve the
stability and manoeuvrability of the tyre and its riding comfort. A
piezoelectric intelligent material was used as the primary material
for non-pneumatic tyres. The sensor and driver components were
combined and fused into a piezoelectric intelligent material struc-
ture and integrated with a control system. Non-pneumatic tyres
with this intelligent structure can theoretically carry loads, per-
ceive environmental or internal parameters, process information,
and respond accordingly. They can perform several functions, such
as self-diagnosis, self-repair, and self-adaptation. Such non-
pneumatic tyres are anticipated to achieve performance to the full-
est extent; hence, they are expected to be disruptive products.
7.2. Development trend of non-pneumatic tyres
Non-pneumatic tyres do not rely on compressed air to support a
vehicle or increase tyre elasticity. Consequently, they are puncture-
proof and explosion-proof, significantly improving vehicle safety.
The lateral deformation of non-pneumatic tyres is small, and their
lateral stiffness is high, ensuring the handling stability of the vehi-
cle. This special structure of non-pneumatic tyres can be selected
from a wide range of available materials. More environmentally
friendly materials are expected to be used for non-pneumatic
tyres. As described, the uniqueness of non-pneumatic tyres can
be easily determined.
Although non-pneumatic tyres possess several excellent prop-
erties and have considerable potential in the civil, military, and
aerospace fields, they are still in the exploratory stage. To date,
the application range of non-pneumatic tyres is limited. Because
the support structure of non-pneumatic tyres is exposed, foreign
matter can easily enter and cause damage. Moreover, when the
vehicle passes areas, such as muddy and snow-covered sections,
soil or snow can accumulate in the gaps of the structure and affect
tyre performance. The difference in durability between non-
pneumatic and traditional pneumatic tyres is considerable.
Accordingly, non-pneumatic tyres must be further optimised con-
sidering multiple perspectives. The aspects that must be improved
to promote the application non-pneumatic tyres to vehicles and
realise industrialisation are as follows.
(1) Improve structural design, and optimise tyre performance.
Non-pneumatic tyres in current use are limited to engineer-
ing vehicles and military applications. Riding comfort must
be optimised such that non-pneumatic tyres can satisfy
the requirements of typical motor vehicle users. Non-
pneumatic tyres (except for solid non-pneumatic tyres) typ-
ically have an open structure; hence, foreign matter can
easily accumulate and cause damage, which may cause the
vehicle to lose balance during driving. The design of mesh
structures using materials with sufficient strength may solve
this problem. Certain parts of non-pneumatic tyres, particu-
larly those with large-angle connections, can easily produce
stress concentrations. Thus, these parts must be optimised
by improving the surface strength or avoiding sharp corners
to prolong their service life.
(2) Develop high-performance composites. Inadequate material
performance is one of the main factors limiting the perfor-
mance of non-pneumatic tyres. Developing a composite
material with moderate stiffness, high elasticity, satisfactory
durability, and high strength is the focus of the further
development of non-pneumatic tyres.
Y. Deng, Z. Wang, H. Shen et al.
(3) Simplify the assembly process, and reduce the production
cost. The foregoing must be considered in designing non-
pneumatic tyres whether in adding fillers, using PU tread
materials, or fabricating mechanical structures. Only when
the foregoing is implemented can non-pneumatic tyres be
comparable with pneumatic tyres.
(4) Develop an appropriate moulding technology for non-
pneumatic tyres. The forming methods of non-pneumatic
and pneumatic tyres differ. The conventional tyre-forming
production line no longer applies to non-pneumatic tyres;
therefore, innovation in this regard is required to support
the production technology.
(5) Combine non-pneumatic tyre technology and frontier tech-
nologies. To improve tyre and vehicle performance, the inte-
gration of non-pneumatic tyre technology and cutting-edge
technologies (e.g., energy-saving and environmentally
friendly high-performance recyclable materials, bionic
design, intelligent driving, and intelligent materials and
structures) is necessary.
In view of the foregoing, researchers have to overcome numer-
ous impediments to achieve the large-scale commercialisation of
non-pneumatic tyres. Because non-pneumatic tyres are a new type
of tyre safety technology that can fundamentally eliminate wheel
air leakage, puncture, and blowout, their development has consid-
erable potential and value. The emergence of non-pneumatic tyres
is a conjoint result of scientific and technological developments
and the necessity for driving safety; these tyres can provide a fun-
damental solution to the tyre safety problem. With the advance-
ments in science and technology, new technologies, such as
intelligent materials and structures, metamaterials, and intelligent
control, are gradually emerging. Combined with these emerging
technologies, non-pneumatic tyres are a step closer to becoming
lightweight and intelligent. Non-pneumatic tyres and their evolu-
tion can greatly advance the production of intelligent and light-
weight vehicles. In the foreseeable future, non-pneumatic tyres
are expected to have a profound impact on automotive safety,
intelligent networking, intelligent transportation, and other fields.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the editors and the reviewers for their
patient work and constructive suggestions. This work was sup-
ported by the Yangzhou City-Yangzhou University Co construction
of Innovation and Technology Platform Project [grant number
YZ2020266], the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation [grant
number 2021M690493], and the Postgraduate Research and Prac-
tice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province [grant number
SJCX22_1714].
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