RESEARCH ARTICLE | MARCH 01 2019

Numerical research of selected features of the non-

pneumatic tire 
Marcin Żmuda  ; Jerzy Jackowski; Zdzisław Hryciów

AIP Conf. Proc. 2078, 020027 (2019)

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5092030

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 Numerical research of selected features
of the non-pneumatic tire
Marcin Żmuda,1, a) Jerzy Jackowski1,b) and Zdzisław Hryciów 1,c)
1
Institute of Motor Vehicles and Transportation, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Military University of Technology, Gen. Witolda Urbanowicza Street 2, 00-908 Warszawa
a)
Corresponding author: marcin.zmuda@wat.edu.pl
b)
jerzy.jackowski@wat.edu.pl
c)
zdzislaw.hryciow@wat.edu.pl

Abstract. In this article non-pneumatic tires (NPT) subject area was taken. This term (NPT) must be understood as the specific
structure, which provide appropriate quasi-static and dynamic characteristics (to compare with pneumatic tire) without
necessity to maintain a compressed gas or liquid under a certain pressure. Prepared numerical model of non-pneumatic tire
represent the solution available on the commercial market. The validation of the model was carried out the own experimental
research results. During the numerical research of the non-pneumatic tire model, simulations of the normal force loading with
different values were carried out, the shapes of the NPT contact areas were recorded on the rigid ground.

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INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the most commonly used type of tires in fast and slow-moving vehicles are tubeless pneumatic tires.
One of their advantages is the relatively low value of the unsprung mass and the possibility of easily changing the
tires stiffnesses by changing the pressure of compressed gas (air) inside the tire. An important drawback of pneumatic
tires is the danger of unsealing of the tire during failure which causes a vehicle immobilization. This disadvantage is
especially important when vehicles are using in difficult off-road conditions (e.g. a stony desert) or in an area where
the vehicles are exposed to enemy fire. The solution of described above problem can be employment of non-pneumatic
tire (NPT), which provide characteristics and motion properties comparable to pneumatic tires by using appropriate
construction and selection of materials. The term “non-pneumatic tire” should be understood as a structure which
transmits using the rim the vertical and tangential forces that provide directional control of the vehicle and the
attainment of those properties is not dependent on the pressure of any gas or fluid inside the tire [1]. The components
of each contemporary construction of the non-pneumatic tires [7, 9, 19] are shown in Fig. 1.
The rim (which task is to connect the NPT structure with the vehicle hub) is usually made of a material
characterized by a high value of Young's modulus (compared to the other elements of the NPT), the most commonly
used materials are steel or aluminum alloys [3, 22]. The main task of the tread is to provide proper cooperation of its
blocks with the ground and providing protection of reinforcement layers against damage resulting from the impact of
roads’ obstacles. A rubber compound is used as a material for a tread layer. The supporting structure determines the
properties of the non-pneumatic tire (e.g. directional stiffness, rolling resistance), which consists of the shear beam
(reinforcement with core) and elastic structure [8, 9, 19]. Shear beam is composed with inextensible membranes
between which there is a material with low value of shear modulus (e.g. elastomer) [2, 19, 22]. The structure
(geometric dimensions) of the shear beam and used material directly influences on the value of pressure in the NPT
contact area. Elastic structure (e.g. elastomer), which connects the shear beam to the rim can be constructed as radial
spokes with a suitable shape (appropriate shape influence on spokes buckling in a controlled manner) or as a structure
with a specific geometry (e.g. hexagonal, auxetic) [10, 11]. The value of shear beam deformation (during loading
normal force) and stiffness of elastic structure impact on resultant radial stiffness and length of NPT contact area. The
above mentioned phenomenon will be described on the example of a non-pneumatic tire equipped with radial spokes.

Computational Technologies in Engineering (TKI’2018)

AIP Conf. Proc. 2078, 020027-1–020027-8; https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5092030
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1806-6/$30.00

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During loading the NPT equiped with the low stiffness spokes, the shear beam deformation in the contact area is
compensated by stretching the upper spokes [19]. The use of spokes with higher stiffness prevents them from
stretching, which causes increased deformation (length of contact path) in the contact area. Due to the fact that, the
NPT analyzed in this paper is equipped with radial spokes, the description of behavior other elastic structures were
omitted.

FIGURE 1. General construction of the non- pneumatic tire

The current NPT models research (which references were mentioned above in this paper) concerns mainly
the optimization of the shear beam in terms of minimalizing the rolling resistance, the analysis of the contact pressure
in and dimensions of contact area.
On the basis of literature review, elastic structures of contemporary NPT models are represented by solid elements
or shell elements, shear beam (reinforcement) is represented by solid elements placed between shell elements or truss
elements. The geometry of the tread blocks is often left out, and the tread layer is simplified to a smooth layer (ring)

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of defined dimensions. Due to the significant stiffness (compared to the rest of the NPT), the rim is often left out
in models. The most commonly used material models for describing the properties and behavior of supporting structure
and tread the following hyperelastic material models are used: Odgen, Mooney-Rivlin, Neo-Hookean and Marlow
[7, 9, 12, 15, 18].

NUMERICAL MODEL
Developed and presented model is a geometric representation of the non-pneumatic tire (Fig. 3). During creation
the model particular attention was focused on the geometry of the elastic structure (radial spokes) and the shape of the
tread pattern. The model consists of a polyurethane inner and outer rings connected by 25 pairs of spokes, a rubber
bandage (layer) with a tread pattern and two layers of reinforcements (Fig. 2). The reinforcements are made of high-
strength steel sheets (0.5 mm thickness) and is characterized by low stiffness in the radial direction and high stiffness
in the circumferential direction, thus limiting the extension of the shear beam. To describe hyperelastic materials
(polyurethane and rubber), the Hyperviscoelastic Rubber model was used, for which the data was adopted based on
[16, 17, 20]. Selected material model provides a general hyperelastic rubber model combined optionally with linear
viscoelasticity [14]. In the adopted material model, the density function of strain energy (stress-strain relationship)
is dependent on the material constants shown in Table 1. Depending on the number of coefficients used,
the Hyperviscoelastic Rubber model behaves like various hyperelastic models. In the NPT developed discrete model,
the tread properties are described by the Neo-Hookean material model, spokes and reinforcement core are described
by the Mooney-Rivlin material model.

TABLE 1. Material coefficients of PU and rubber [16, 17, 20]

Poisson's ratio
Material model C10 [MPa] C01 [MPa]
constant
PU Mooney Rivlin 0.450 -7.746 16.06
Rubber Neo-Hookean 0.482 0.833 –

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 The load in the model is represented by the concentrated force applied in the geometric center of the wheel. The
bottom part of the NPT model rests on the rigid ground (non-deformable surface), and their mutual cooperation is
defined by contact conditions. The solid elements were used to describe the tread, rubber bandage, reinforcement core
and polyurethane rings (inner and outer). Reinforcements and elastic spokes were represented in the model by shell
element. Non-deformable ground was represented by rigid element. Movement of the NPT model was constrained:
translational degrees of freedom (DOF) in X and Y axis and rotational DOFs around X, Y, Z axis.

FIGURE 2. Detailed description of discrete NPT model

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FIGURE 3. Non-pneumatic tire (top) and its model (bottom)

NUMERICAL RESEARCH
The main aim of the numerical research was to obtain correct (similar to NPT object) static radial stiffness
characteristic and appropriate parameters of contact area. Numerical research was validated on the basis of own NPT
experimental research results. Experimental test were carried out using the universal quasi-static indoor tire test facility
(Fig. 4). The test facilities is placed in Institute of Motor Vehicles and Transportation (Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering) at Military University of Technology, a detailed description of this test facility and its measurement
capabilities can be found in [4, 21]. The numerical research were carried out for three normal load conditions: 4, 12
and 20 kN according to [5, 6]. Measurements of force acting on front and rear axles of vehicle which normal use NPT

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were made before selection of test conditions (normal loads). The radial stiffness characteristics were determined
according to the standard PN-C-94300-026:1984. Fig. 5 shows the course of the center lines of the radial stiffness
hysteresis for a normal load of 20 kN, which were obtained during model and experimental research. The difference
in the course of obtained characteristics may be caused by two reason: using literature material data and disregarding
the Mullins effect in the material model.

FIGURE 4. The universal quasi-static indoor tire test facility

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FIGURE 5. Comparison of the radial stiffness characteristics of the model and the research object (NPT)

Similar model compliances were obtained for the other normal load conditions. For the obtained characteristics,
a static radial stiffness coefficients were calculated based on the course of the tangent line to the centerline near
the static deflection point, according to [13]. The coefficients reached following values for the adopted normal
loads conditions: 4 kN – 1430 kN/m (NPT – 1481 ± 59 kN/m), 12 kN – 1199 kN/m (NPT – 1224 ± 31 kN/m),
20 kN – 1020 kN/m (NPT – 1001 ± 20 kN/m) [5 – for NPT object results]. The static radial stiffness coefficients
received for numerical research are within the limits of standard deviation obtained during experimental research.
In the next stage, the model was validated for the results of measuring the parameters of contact area (on rigid
surface). During the experimental and model tests, regarding to determine contact area, wheels were loaded of 100%
accepted load conditions. As a result of mentioned research the shape of the contact area (width, length) and the value

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of average contact pressure were identified (as the quotient of the applied normal load and the area of registered the
tread pattern).
Contact area (footprints) parameters registered in numerical research received similar values to footprints obtained
in experimental studies, which can be observed in the Fig. 6. Appropriate mapping of footprints resulted in obtaining
average value of contact pressure, what were presented in Table 2. The results of experimental research (radial stiffness
and footprint) allowed to validate the model (in the scope of static characteristics).

(a) (b) (c)

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FIGURE 6. Ground pressure distribution for model (upper) and contact area for NPT (bottom)
(values in [MPa]): (a) 4 kN, (b) 12 kN, (c) 20 kN

TABLE 2. Average values of contact pressure NPT model and object

Normal load [kN]
4 12 20
Average values of contact pressure [kPa]
Model 417.2 671.6 752.7
NPT 368.8 ± 7.5 647.7 ± 3.9 786.2 ± 1.9

FIGURE 7. Tire deformation and stress distribution: normal force 20 kN

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 Analysis of the numerical tests results indicates that the spokes located in the lower part of the NPT are the most
deformed. The shape of the model spokes, analogous to the real object, makes them bending in a controlled manner
and ensures an even distribution of loads on the upper extended spokes and smoothly activating them into the load-
carrying mechanism during wheel rotation. The highest stress values are observed in the middle part of the bottom
spokes (Fig. 7), as the result of their significant bending. Spokes located in the upper part of the wheel are stretched
(which counteracts the deformation of the shear beam), and the stress values do not change significantly along their
length.

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8. Spokes and shear beam deformation: (a) 4 kN, (b) 12 kN, (c) 20 kN

Figure 8 presents how wheel elements deformations for various values of normal loads conditions. In order to
increase the legibility of the figure, only the inner, outer rings and the spokes connecting them are shown on it. As the
normal load increases, the outer ring of the NPT becomes more deformed. This applies mainly to the NPT part close

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to the area of contact with the ground. This part of the wheel is flattened. Thus, in a various way the distances between
rings are changer around the perimeter of NPT. For the maximum applied normal load analyzed, the distance between
the rings at the bottom part of the NPT decreased from 133 to 118 mm (about 11.3%) (Fig. 8). In the upper part of
NPT these changes are significantly smaller. The distance increased only by about 1.5% to 135 mm.

FIGURE 9. Spoke deformation during loading 20 kN

Figure 9 shows the change in the shape of the spoke located in the lower part of the wheel compared to the initial
shape. Local coordinate system was connected to point 1 of the spoke (0.0 coordiante). This point also belongs to rigid
rim. It is observed that, the changes in the distance between the end points of the spoke (distance between the rings)

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are mainly caused by the change in the shape of the spokes, especially when they are bending (buckling). During
loading of 20 kN, the center point of the lower spoke is displaced in the perpendicular direction to the radius by about
23.2 mm, while the upper spoke by 4.3 mm in the opposite direction.
Changes in the shape of individual spokes during cyclical loading the NPT are important information about their
behavior. Those information will be used at the next stage of ongoing research regarding to validate the model.

CONCLUSION
During research developed non-pneumatic numerical model, which was validated based on the own experimental
results in the field of wheel behavior under different values of normal loads. The static radial characteristic, distribution
of contact pressure and deflection of individual NPT spokes were determined. High convergence of numerical results
with experimental research was obtained. The differences are within the area of standard deviation of the experimental.
The authors will continue the work on improving the model and carry out material tests of tire samples in order to
obtain data to hyperelastic material model. It is also planned to validate the model with the results of NPT dynamic
research, including passing through the obstacles of significant heights, comparison of vertical and longitudinal
characteristics and slip cornering characteristic.

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