Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21

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Journal of Terramechanics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jterra

Rolling radii and moment arm of the wheel load for pneumatic tyres
Heinz Dieter Kutzbach, Alexander Bürger ⇑, Stefan Böttinger
University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Garbenstraße 9, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tractors and self-propelled harvesters are equipped with high volume pneumatic tyres with a low tyre
Received 21 March 2018 inflation pressure. The contact patch can shift forwards or backwards in reference to the wheel centre
Revised 2 November 2018 as reaction on traction or brake forces because of the elastic tyre wall. Theoretical investigations – as nec-
Accepted 15 November 2018
essary for modelling and simulation of dynamic vehicle behaviour – are complicated, since important
Available online 5 December 2018
tyre metrics cannot directly be measured based on the large deformations. Additionally, different defini-
tions are often used. This is especially valid for the conversion of a drive torque into a traction force. In
Keywords:
this context, the moment arm of the wheel load and the rolling radius of the tyre at zero slip condition are
Pneumatic tyres
Rolling radius
especially important. In contrast to the hitherto existing perception, the magnitude and position of the
Moment arm of the wheel load moment arm of the wheel load in reference to the wheel centre is dependent on traction and brake forces
Kinetic radius in addition to the motion resistance. The rolling radius of an elastic pneumatic tyre can be interpreted as
Kinematic radius radius of a fictitious rigid substitute wheel. This contribution emphasizes the outstanding importance of
Torque radius the rolling radius rdyn for all calculations on pneumatic tyres and the important roll of the variable
Inner tyre ratio moment arm of the wheel load for the moment compensation on the wheel.
Ó 2018 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the farmer’s experience (Schreiber, 2006; Schreiber and

An increase of yields to secure the feeding of a growing world
population is desperately necessary in the future. Additionally,
the securing of an adequate income for farmers leads to an inten-
sified cultivation with growing farm sizes and increasing yields
(Kutzbach, 2000). Currently, this also results in a further growth
of size and engine power of tractors and agricultural machinery,
which are equipped with larger tyres for soil conservation and effi-
ciency reasons (Kutzbach et al., 2015).
To reduce development time and to evaluate the operational
behaviour without the need of physical prototypes, the develop-
ment and design process is supported by simulation systems
and models – for example for the tyres (Ferhadbegović, 2009;
Witzel, 2015).
Electronic information systems also have an important role for
the farmer to use his machines efficiently (Böttinger, 2008). For
example, fuel consumption systems can give simple information
about the current consumption. With that, they also provide
an indication on the CO2 emissions and lead to an economic
application of the tractor or agricultural machine with respect to
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: heinz.kutzbach@uni-hohenheim.de (H.D. Kutzbach),
alexander.buerger@uni-hohenheim.de (A. Bürger), boettinger@uni-hohenheim.de
(S. Böttinger).
Kutzbach, 2007b).
Using physical relationships, today also electronic management
systems were developed to optimise the tractor’s traction
(Pichlmaier, 2013). They can inform the driver about optimal bal-
lasting, driving velocity, tyre inflation pressures, etc. (Bürger
et al., 2017). To develop such systems, a detailed knowledge of
the influencing parameters – like the effect of forces and torques
on a deformed pneumatic tyre – is necessary.
In contrast to the rigid steel wheels of older tractor generations,
the deformable pneumatic tyre has considerable advantages
towards the force transmission and the soil conservation due to
its flattening and therefore larger contact patch. Additionally, its
spring and damper characteristics allows road driving with high
velocities. Despite the research work for decades, different opin-
ions exist in some questions, also arising from the large tyre defor-
mations. This is especially valid for the slip definitions, the rolling
radius at zero slip condition and the moment arm of the wheel
load. These parameters and the tyre deformation are targeted in
the following.
2. Deformation of pneumatic tyres
In the triaxial coordinate system used in this publication, the x-
axis points in the direction of travel, the y-axis points to the left in
the direction of travel and the z-axis points upwards.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jterra.2018.11.002
0022-4898/Ó 2018 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
14 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21

Nomenclature

c1x longitudinal stiffness coefficient (N/m) PNT traction power (W)

c2x longitudinal stiffness coefficient (-) PR motion resistance power (W)
c1z vertical stiffness coefficient (N/m) Pr slip loss power (W)
c2z vertical stiffness coefficient (-) T torque (N m)
d1x longitudinal damping coefficient (Ns/m) r0 rolling radius (m)
d2x longitudinal damping coefficient (-) rD design radius (m)
d1z vertical damping coefficient (Ns/m) rdyn rolling radius (m)
d2z vertical damping coefficient (-) rdyn0 static load radius (high speed vehicles) (m)
e moment arm of the wheel load for fictitious substitute rR effective rolling radius (m)
tyre (m) rstat static loaded radius (m)
e0 actual moment arm of the wheel load (m) rstat0 static load radius (high speed vehicles) (m)
FGT gross traction force (N) rT torque radius (m)
FNT net traction force (N) U tyre circumference (m)
FR motion resistance force (N) v actual velocity (m/s)
FS soil reaction force (N) v0 theoretical velocity (m/s)
FW wheel load (N) a slip angle
fx longitudinal tyre deflection (m) d tangential displacement (m)
Fx longitudinal force (N) De displacement of the moment arm of the wheel load (m)
Fy lateral force (N) q motion resistance coefficient (-)
fz vertical tyre deflection (m) r slip (-)
Fz vertical force (N) u wheel rotation angle (°)
i inner tyre ratio (-) x angular velocity of the rim (rad/s)
P power (W) xdyn angular velocity of the tyre (rad/s)

2.1. Deformation in vertical direction

The deflection of the tyre – its deformation along the z-axis – is

the most obvious deformation of the tyre. It shows a declining
increase with rising wheel load. The viscoelastic rubber properties
result in a hysteresis when unloading the tyre, an energy conver-
sion to thermal energy takes place (Langenbeck, 1992; Plesser,
1997; Schrogl, 1989), Fig. 1. This characteristic behaviour results
in the inner motion resistance of the tyre and an important damp-
ing of vehicle vibrations. The damping decreases strongly with
increasing driving velocity, Fig. 2, meaning measurements have
to be conducted on the rolling tyre (Kutzbach, 1994; Schrogl,
1989).
To record the inner profile over the whole tyre circumference,
the contact patch can be scanned in longitudinal and lateral direc-
tion using mechanical, optical, acoustic and photographic sensors,
which are mounted at the inside of the tyre (Du Plessis, 1994;

Fig. 2. Damping coefficient versus rolling velocity (Kutzbach, 1994).

Guthrie et al., 2017; Schlotter and Kutzbach, 2001; Schwieger,

Fig. 1. Spring characteristic curve with hysteresis (Plesser, 1997).
1996; Steiner, 1979). Fig. 3 shows the mechanically measured
deflection of two smaller tyres according to Steiner (1979). The dif-
fering behaviour of bias ply (dotted line) and radial ply tyres (con-
tinuous line) is obvious. Due to its crossing carcass linings, the bias
ply tyre is only deflected in the area of the contact patch, whereas
the deflection of the radial ply tyre has an effect on the whole tyre
circumference. The relatively stiff belt shifts the whole liner
upwards in reference to the rim. This behaviour was confirmed
by Schlotter for a high volume tyre with dimensions 520/70 R 34
(Schlotter and Kutzbach, 2001) and by Schwieger for a terra tyre
with dimensions 66
44  25 (Schwieger, 1996).
According to Langenbeck (1992) and Plesser (1997), the non-
linear spring properties of the tyres in z-direction can be described
 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21
Fig. 3. Influence of the tyre design on the radial carcass deformation (Steiner,
1979).
in dependency on the vertical deformation fz and deformation
velocity f_ , Eq. (1).
z
 
1 due to the flattening. This behaviour was also measured by Steiner
 f_z
c
F z ¼ c1z  f z2z þ d1z  d
v 2z
2.2. Deformation in lateral direction
Lateral forces act during side hill operation and cornering. This
leads to a deformation of the tyre in lateral direction as well as to a
slip angle a, meaning that the direction of movement is no longer
in the tyre longitudinal plane. Like the deformations in longitudi-
nal direction, the lateral deformations are time-dependent. There
is a certain time delay, until the deformed tyre can support forces.
Converted to the length of the tyre circumference covered, this
time delay in force build-up is denoted as relaxation length. A sta-
tionary condition is reached for side hill operation. Cornering
results in non-steady state operating conditions with time-
variant slip angles. It also has to be differed in between stationary
and non-steady state measurements of lateral force-slip angle
measurements (Barrelmeyer, 1996; Heine, 1991; Schlotter, 2006).
A stationary curve is determined by repetitively setting an increas-
ing slip angle a and measuring the corresponding lateral force.
Because this method is time consuming, the slip angle is often con-
tinuously varied. Fig. 4 shows, that the lateral force in non-steady
Fig. 4. Influence of the slip angle rate of change a_ and the driving velocity
15
state conditions is much smaller than in stationary conditions,
depending on the slip angle rate of change. This differing behaviour
in between stationary and non-steady state conditions also occurs
for the determination of longitudinal force-slip curves
(Barrelmeyer, 1996). A very slow alteration of slip angle or slip
leads to quasi-stationary operating conditions.
2.3. Deformation in longitudinal direction
Deformations in longitudinal direction are least obvious. Never-
theless, the contact patch shifts relative to the rim due to acting
longitudinal forces and the elastic, soft tyre wall and the rigid belt.
This displacement depends on the direction of the torque induced.
A drive torque results in a displacement in the direction of travel,
whereas a brake torque results in a displacement against the direc-
tion of travel. Again, the behaviour is non-linear and can be
described with the deformation fx and the deformation velocity
f_ , Eq. (2).
x
 
1
 f_x
c
F x ¼ c1x  f x2x þ d1x  d ð2Þ
v 2x
Tyre dimensions, wheel load and tyre inflation pressure influ-
ence the stiffness coefficients c1x and c2x and damping coefficients
d1x and d2x (Plesser, 1997). Additionally, the front parts of the tyre
move forwards and the rear parts of the tyre wall move backwards
ð1Þ
(1979), Fig. 5. With no drive torque applied, a tangential carcass
deformation at the end of the contact patch of 10 mm to the front
at approximately 150° and of 10 mm to the rear at approximately
210° can be determined. For a drive torque of 3000 N m, the dis-
placement to the front accounts to 22 mm, the displacement to
the rear is reduced to 2 mm. Thus, the whole contact patch is
shifted forwards.
The carcass deformation at the inlet and outlet of the contact
patch with no drive torque applied are also calculated by Aubel
using the Finite Element Method (FEM) (Aubel, 1993). Fig. 6 shows
that by a hurrying ahead of the radial beams at the inlet and by a
retardation of the radial beams at the outlet of the contact patch.
Summarising, an additional movement occurs in between the rim
and the contact patch, because the carcass is deformed in between
its hurrying ahead and its retardation while moving through the
contact patch.
Thus, the angular velocity of the rim cannot be used for the cal-
culation of the belt velocity in the contact patch. Rather, a superim-
posed angular velocity of rim and tyre movement has to be applied.
In addition to its own rotation (forward movement), the rim rolls
off the tyre, which leads to an inner tyre ratio of the pneumatic tyre
(see Section 5).
v on the lateral force Fy (Schlotter, 2006).
16 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21
Fig. 5. Influence of the drive torque on the tangential carcass deformation (Steiner,
1979).
Fig. 6. FEM simulation of a towed wheel (Aubel, 1993).
3. Radii of the pneumatic tyre
3.1. Definitions
Although tractors and agricultural machinery are equipped
with pneumatic tyres since almost 100 years and these tyres have
been extensively investigated, large deformations complicate the-
oretical investigations of acting forces and torques. While a rigid
wheel on a rigid surface is accurately and fully described by one
single radius – namely half the diameter, which also equates the
distance from the wheel centre to the contact patch –, the relation-
ships on a pneumatic tyre are more complicated. Persson (1995)
differentiates in between the following radii, Fig. 7:
1. The design radius rD is half the overall diameter. Since the
pneumatic tyre is deformed, the design radius has no effect
on the evaluation of forces and torques. However, it is impor-
Fig. 7. Different radii and forces on a pneumatic tyre (Kutzbach et al., 2009).
tant for the vacuity in between the tyre and the fender. The
design radius can easily be measured.
2a. The static loaded radius rstat describes the distance
between the wheel centre and the road surface. It equals the
design radius less the deflection fz. It can also be easily mea-
sured. Obviously, the tyre circumferential forces on rigid sur-
faces apply in the contact patch and therefore with the
moment arm rstat in reference to the wheel hub.
0
2b. For vehicles at higher speeds, the static loaded radius r dyn -
0
better rstat - is larger than rstat for a standing or slow driving
vehicle due to centrifugal forces. It is applied in the automotive
sector.
3. The torque radius rT defines the moment arm, at which the
tyre forces in x-direction are applied. The torque radius can only
be measured on rigid surfaces, where it equals rstat. On yielding
surfaces, it is smaller than rstat due to the development of ruts.
Multiple investigations exist towards its determination
(Duquesne and Verschoore, 1995; Hamersma et al., 2014;
Kiss, 2003). Duquesne estimates the longitudinal force applica-
tion point on yielding surfaces to be half the lug height. The act-
ing torque is partially compensated by the moment arm of the
wheel load. The moment arm of the wheel load may not be
neglected for the calculation of the torque radius rT based on
traction forces. As shown in the following, the torque radius is
not needed to calculate tyre forces from measured tyre torques.
4a. The effective rolling radius rR varies dependent on the slip
and is calculated to rR = v/x from the actual velocity v and the
angular velocity x. For spinning wheels with v = 0 the effective
rolling radius becomes rR = 0. It is not important for forces and
torques.
4b. The rolling radius rdyn (r0, according to (ANSI/ASAE, 2013))
is an exception of the effective rolling radius rR in case that the
tyre is rolling without slip, meaning at zero slip condition. It is
dealt with separately due to its major importance for force, tor-
que and power calculations.
3.2. Rolling radius rdyn
The rolling radius rdyn describes the current circumference U of
the tyre and be calculated to rdyn = U/(2  p) or using the theoretical
driving velocity v0 and the angular velocity x to rdyn = v0/x
respectively.
The rolling radius is an important parameter, but is not visi-
ble or cannot be directly measured. Following the general per-
 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21 17

ception, it is the radius of a fictitious rigid substitute wheel
(Duquesne and Verschoore, 1995) and is used to calculate the
distance covered using the number of wheel rotations and the
wheel circumference. For this reason, it is also denoted as kine-
matic radius. Additionally, all forces and torques apply at this
fictitious rolling radius of the rigid substitute wheel. Accordingly,
despite the large deformations of the actual elastic tyre
described, the angular velocity of the rim can be applied to
the whole wheel, as it is common practice.
Despite the relatively stiff belt of a radial ply tyre, parameters
like tyre dimensions, wheel load, tyre inflation pressure and sur-
face properties influence the rolling radius. Often though, the tyre
table value determined on rigid surfaces can be used with little
error. Additionally, according to Eq. (3), an interaction exists in
between the slip and the rolling radius rdyn.
v0  v v at negative slip.
r¼ ¼1
v0 x  rdyn
Thus, the magnitude of the rolling radius rdyn is influenced by
the slip definition. The current rolling radius rdyn can be deter-
mined by rolling the tyre with the desired criteria at zero slip con-
dition. However, different slip definitions are used and defended in
the USA and in Europe.
3.3. Power-loading modes and zero slip definitions
The slip definitions are based on different power-loading
modes, Fig. 8, which are defined by the effect of longitudinal forces
and torques around the y-axis (drive and brake torques) (Andreev
et al., 2010; Schüring, 1969; Vantsevich et al., 2005).
In neutral condition (Fig. 8a), both pulling force and drive tor-
que are applied. In a special case, the torque conduces to overcome
the inner motion resistance (tyre deformation) and the traction
force conduces to overcome the outer motion resistance (surface
deformation).
At the pulled wheel (Fig. 8b), a pulling force is only applied to
overcome the motion resistance. The wheel is rolling with little
negative slip.
For the braking wheel (Fig. 8c), the brake torque and the
motion resistance torque superimpose to balance the pushing force
ð3Þ
In free condition (Fig. 8d), no longitudinal force is applied to
the wheel hub. The drive torque conduces to overcome the whole
motion resistance.
For the driving wheel (Fig. 8e), the drive torque is larger than
the motion resistance torque, so a longitudinal force - the traction
force - can be applied. According to the longitudinal force-slip
curve, this leads to positive slip.

Fig. 8. Different power-loading modes of a wheel (Andreev et al., 2010; Schüring, 1969).
18 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21
Since slip and rolling radius rdyn correlate according to Eq. (3) and
the rolling radius cannot be measured, the zero slip condition has to
be defined (Grečenko, 1978; Schreiber and Kutzbach, 2007a;
Schüring, 1969; Steinkampf, 1971). The following definitions for
the zero slip condition are derived from the different power-
loading modes:
Definition 1:. A wheel is operating at zero slip condition, if no
longitudinal force is acting (free condition, Fig. 8d).
The drive torque is needed to overcome the motion
resistance torque. This definition according to
(ANSI/ASAE, 2013) is common in the USA. The
longitudinal force-slip curve based on this defini-
tion starts at r = 0.
Definition 1a. A pulled wheel without a drive torque (Fig. 8b) is
operating at zero slip condition. This definition –
also according to (ANSI/ASAE, 2013) – is hardly used.
Definition 2. A driven wheel without longitudinal force (free con-
dition, Fig. 8d) and a pulled wheel without a drive
torque (Fig. 8b) are operating at the same slip mag-
nitude but with different signs. Accordingly, the zero
slip condition is half way in between F = 0 and M = 0,
Fig. 9 (Schüring, 1969; Steinkampf, 1971;
Steinkampf and Jahns, 1986). This definition equates
to a special case in the neutral condition.
Definition 3. A wheel in neutral condition (Fig. 8a) is operating at
zero slip condition with a drive torque to overcome
the inner motion resistance and a longitudinal force
to overcome the outer motion resistance. This defini-
tion, developed by Grečenko (1978) is also used by
Barrelmeyer (1996) and Schlotter (2006).
The different definitions described have an influence on the zero
crossing of the traction force-slip curves, Fig. 9. According to Euro-
pean perception, Definitions 2 and 3, a wheel in free condition is
already operating with slip. Due to its simple handling, the free con-
dition with no longitudinal force at the wheel hub is set to r = 0 in
the USA. This definition is only valid for regular operating conditions.
3.4. Justification for the use of the rolling radius rdyn
The necessity to use the rolling radius rdyn as moment arm for
the conversion of tyre forces and torques is based on the power
Fig. 9. Different definitions of the zero slip condition (Kutzbach et al., 2009).
balance. For a tyre moving on a flat surface with no acceleration,
the power induced into the wheel P = T  x is converted into trac-
tion power PNT = FNT  v, motion resistance power PR = FR  v0 and
slip loss power Pr = FNT  v0  r, Eq. (4) (Andreev et al., 2010;
Kutzbach, 1989; Petrushov et al., 1968; Pirkovsky, 1973, 1965;
Wiedemann, 2008).
T  x ¼ F NT  v þ F R  v 0 þ F NT  v 0  r ð4Þ
Using v0  r ¼ v0  v leads to:
T  x ¼ F NT  v þ F R  v 0 þ F NT ðv 0  v Þ ¼ ðF R þ F NT Þ  v 0 ¼ F GT  v 0
ð5Þ
Using v 0 ¼ rdyn  x leads to:
T ¼ F GT  r dyn ð6Þ
Accordingly, the power balance shows, that the circumferential
or gross traction force FGT (traction force and motion resistance
force) is applied with the moment arm rdyn – the rolling radius of
the fictitious rigid substitute wheel – and not with the moment
arm rT – the torque radius. This is also valid for the motion resis-
tance force. For a wheel at free condition (FNT = 0, Fig. 8d), the
motion resistance power is:
T R  x ¼ F R  v 0 ¼ F R  x  r dyn ð7Þ
T R ¼ F R  r dyn ð8Þ
According to the torque equilibrium around the wheel hub, the
following is valid using the moment arm of the wheel load e:
F z  e  F R  r dyn ¼ 0 ð9Þ
FR
e¼  r dyn ¼ q  r dyn ð10Þ
Fz
If accordingly, the rolling radius rdyn of the fictitious rigid substi-
tute wheel is used for force and torque calculations, no further
metrics like different angular velocities x, inner tyre ratio or differ-
ing moment arms of the wheel load have to be taken into account.
However, the forces would virtually be applied below the contact
patch, because generally rdyn is a little larger than rstat – the dis-
tance between the lateral wheel rotational axis and the contact
patch.
This virtual position of the forces below the contact patch
always leads to discussions, since it seems to not meet the actual
complex relations. A parallel translation of a force from rdyn to rT
or rstat respectively results in an offset torque. This offset torque
is compensated by an alteration of the moment arm of the wheel
load e, which is then no longer solely dependent on the motion
resistance, as assumed up to now.
4. Moment arm of the wheel load
Forces acting on the wheel hub lead to a shifting of the contact
patch in the direction of travel due to the deformation of the tyre
(Brinkmann et al., 2005; Plesser, 1997). Assuming, that the
pressure distribution in the contact patch does not change, the
application point of the wheel load shifts to the front or to the back
for brake forces respectively.
The necessary shifting is also a result of the torque equilibrium,
if the longitudinal force is applied at the torque radius rT instead of
the rolling radius rdyn. This becomes obvious looking at a belt-tyre
model according to Ammon (1997), Fig. 10, where for clarity
reasons the bulging at the inlet and outlet is magnified and filled
with supporting rollers. Without doubt, in this model the forces
calculated using torque and rolling radius rdyn act within the con-
tact patch, but with the moment arm of the torque radius rT – for
 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21 19

rdyn
i¼ ð17Þ
r stat
The ratio of the radii is the inner tyre ratio i of a pneumatic tyre.
Within the contact patch, it rolls faster than it would in accordance
with the static loaded radius and the angular velocity of the rim.

6. Measurement results

6.1. Rolling radius rdyn

Only few measurement results exist regarding the influence of

wheel load and tyre inflation pressure on the rolling radius rdyn
of a radial ply tyre. Barrelmeyer reports of a single experiment with
the Hohenheim mobile single wheel tester (Barrelmeyer, 1996;
Schlotter, 2006), in which he measured rstat directly and rdyn via
the comparison of the angular velocity of the measuring wheel
and the angular velocity of the reference wheel, Fig. 11. While
the rolling radius decreases about 3% for a change in wheel load
from 6 to 30 kN, rstat decreases about 20%. Böhler (2001) conducted
measurements on the flat belt test stand to parameterise his tyre
Fig. 10. Track model of a pneumatic tyre (Ammon, 1997). model and also showed the influence of the tyre inflation pressure
and the wheel load on the rolling radius rdyn in a diagram. For a tyre
rigid surfaces equalling rstat - because the force in the belt does not with the dimensions 480/70 R 24, he noticed an increase of the
change when it is deflected. A parallel translation of a force results rolling radius of roughly 1% for an increase in tyre inflation pres-
in an offset torque, which leads to an increase of the moment arm sure from 1.5 to 2.1 bar. Additionally, he determined a decreasing
of the wheel load of De. rolling radius with rising wheel loads.
Duquesne and Verschoore also determine a decrease of the roll-
F GT  r dyn ¼ F GT  rT þ De  F z ð11Þ ing radius with rising wheel loads and an increase of 2.5% for
increasing the tyre inflation pressure from 0.6 to 1.8 bar, regarding
F GT
F NT þ F R
De ¼ r dyn  r T ¼ ðr dyn  rT Þ ð12Þ a pulled tractor with a 12.4 R 28 rear tyre dimension (Duquesne
Fz Fz and Verschoore, 1995).
Together with the equally translated motion resistance force FR Schulze Zumkley notices similar values for a very large rear tyre
acting at the radius rT, the whole moment arm of the wheel load e0 with the dimensions 710/75 R 42 (Schulze Zumkley, 2017). An
is calculated: increase of the tyre inflation pressure from 0.9 to 2.1 bar leads to
an enlargement of the rolling radius rdyn of 1.5%, a doubling of
0 FR F NT þ F R
e ¼ e þ De ¼  rT þ ðr dyn  r T Þ ð13Þ the wheel load to 52 kN reduces the rolling radius about 2%.
Fz Fz He et al. conducted load tests on a stationary tyre with dimen-
sions 225/60 R 16 to calculate the rolling radius rdyn using the static
1


e0 ¼ F R  r dyn þ F NT r dyn  r T ð14Þ loaded radius rstat (He et al., 2017). The rolling radius increased
Fz about 1.8–1.9% for an increase of the tyre inflation pressure from
This equation was already deduced by Haken in 1993 (Haken, 1.24 to 2.9 bar. Additionally, an about 1.2% higher rolling radius
1993). Although commonly practiced, the moment arm of the was noticed on slightly compacted surfaces in comparison to rigid
wheel load as measure for the motion resistance cannot be trans- surfaces.
ferred onto a driven or braked pneumatic tyre. Additionally, it
has to assumed, that the motion resistance changes on driven or
braked wheels due to the additional tyre and surface deformation
(Brinkmann et al., 2005). Gerresheim already described a shifting
of the application point of the wheel load in 1975 and led it back
to a change in motion resistance (Gerresheim, 1975).

5. Inner tyre ratio

Due to the deflection of the tyre, the distance between the

wheel rotation axis and the contact patch rstat is smaller than the
rolling radius rdyn at zero slip condition. Nevertheless, a rolling tyre
with the static loaded radius rstat reaches the driving velocity v0,
because the rim additionally rolls off the tyre. The angular velocity
xdyn acting in the contact patch is slightly larger than the angular
velocity x of the rim. This leads to:
v 0 ¼ x  rdyn ¼ xdyn  rstat ð15Þ

r dyn
xdyn ¼ x¼ix ð16Þ Fig. 11. Influence of the wheel load on the static loaded and rolling radius rstat and
r stat rdyn, according to (Barrelmeyer, 1996).
20 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21

The Hohenheim Tyre Model – a multi-spoke model developed

by Witzel – contains these slight changes in rolling radius due to
its tangential force elements (Witzel, 2015). According to the
model, an increase of the wheel load of 53% leads to a reduction
of the rolling radius about 1.5% (Witzel, 2018a, 2018b).
Overall, the rolling radius of radial ply tyres changes only
slightly due to the relatively stiff belt. Additionally, the influence
of the wheel load and the tyre inflation pressure have a contrary
effect on the rolling radius. Influences of increasing wheel loads
and tyre inflation pressures partially compensate each other. Due
to the small changes in rolling radius, the use of the rolling radius
provided by the tyre manufacturer seems to be valid for a large
scope of application (Schulze Zumkley, 2017).

6.2. Moment arm of the wheel load

Plesser conducted measurements with the Hohenheim flat belt

test stand to determine the moment arm of the wheel load e‘ for
rolling and braked tyres (Plesser, 1997). His results, Fig. 12, show
the influence of the tyre inflation pressure and of the driving veloc-
ity on the moment arm of the wheel load, which is probably based
on changes of the static loaded radius rstat and the rolling radius
rdyn under these circumstances. The moment arm of the wheel load
of a free rolling tyre with the dimensions 480/70 R 34 at 20 km/h,
pi = 2 bar and a wheel load of 18 kN accounts for 17 mm. Under
same operating conditions but with a brake torque of MBr = 600 Fig. 13. Moment arm of the wheel load for a pulling wheel on sandy loam
N m applied, it is reduced to 9 mm. Thus, the application point of measured with the mobile single wheel tester (Barrelmeyer, 1996).
the wheel load of a braked wheel has shifted backwards.
the moment arm of the wheel load can hardly be determined for
Barrelmeyer conducted respective measurements on the mobile
practical applications. For this reason, the rolling radius rdyn of a
single wheel tester (Barrelmeyer, 1996). For a free rolling 16.9 R 34
fictitious rigid substitute wheel should be used to calculate forces
tyre with gradually increasing wheel load, he measured a moment
and torques acting at the wheel, resulting in a motion resistance
arm of the wheel load of about 60 mm at a wheel load of 20 kN and
torque of F z  e ¼ F R  rdyn .
a tyre inflation pressure of 0.9 bar on sandy loam. Approximately
the same value is reached for a driven wheel, if the drive torque
is increased continuously, Fig. 13. For the zero-crossing of the drive 7. Summary
torque, the moment arm of the wheel load accounts to roughly
55 mm and increases with increasing drive torque to a value of Longitudinal and vertical deformations of a pneumatic tyre
about 130 mm. Thus, the application point of the wheel load shifts make it difficult to apply force and torque equations correctly.
forwards. Compared to measurements on the flat belt test stand, The definition of different radii clarify these problems. In that case,
the values on yielding ground are larger due to the larger motion the torque radius rT, the static loaded radius rstat and the rolling
resistance. The moment arm of the wheel load is more than radius at zero slip condition rdyn are of special interest. While on
doubled. rigid surfaces, the torque radius widely equates the static loaded
Hence, the moment arm of the wheel load is not constant. The radius, the torque radius on yielding surfaces can be even smaller
longitudinal forces acting in the contact patch shift it due to the than the static loaded radius due to influences of the rut and a pos-
elastic deformation of the tyre and due to the torque equilibrium. sible bulldozing-effect. Different torques for the same longitudinal
The moment arm of the wheel load e‘ can therefore not be force are compensated using different moment arms of the wheel
neglected for the determination of the torque radius. However, load e0 . The moment arm of the wheel load is not constant – as

Fig. 12. Moment arm of the wheel load for a free rolling and braked tyre on the flat belt test stand (Plesser, 1997).
 H.D. Kutzbach et al. / Journal of Terramechanics 82 (2019) 13–21
widely assumed up to now – but it changes with respect to the
drive torque. With increasing drive torque, the moment arm of
the wheel load increases, also due to elastic tyre deformation in
longitudinal direction. By neglecting the shifting of the application
point of the wheel load, the torque radius is not determined
correctly.
However, a knowledge of the torque radius rT and the moment
arm of the wheel load e0 is not necessary, if the rolling radius at
zero slip condition rdyn of a fictitious rigid substitute wheel is used.
A power balance confirms that the longitudinal forces are calcu-
lated correctly by using the rolling radius at zero slip condition
as moment arm. For both torque and power investigations at a
pneumatic tyre, the rolling radius at zero slip condition should
always be used as decisive metric.
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