Earthcomme Part 1

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It’s About Time® and EarthComm: Project-Based Space and Earth System Science® are registered trademarks of It’s About Time®.
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Care has been taken to trace ownership of copyright material contained in this publication. The publisher will gladly receive any
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All student activities in this textbook have been designed to be as safe as possible, and have been reviewed by professionals specifically
for that purpose. As well, appropriate warnings concerning potential safety hazards are included where applicable to particular activities.
However, responsibility for safety remains with the student, the classroom teacher, the school principal, and the school board.
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
ISBN 978-1-60720-395-7
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This project was supported, in part, by the

National Science Foundation (grant no. ESI-9452789)
Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the National
Science Foundation or the donors of the American Geological Institute Foundation.
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Acknowledgments
EarthComm, Second Edition
Project-Based Space and Earth System Science
Primary Authors Photographic Research and Web site
Mark Carpenter, American Geological Institute Laura Middaugh-Rios, American Geological Institute
Matthew Hoover, American Geological Institute
Contributing Author
Ann Benbow, American Geological Institute
EarthComm
Earth System Science in the Community
Principal Investigator Michael Smith Laurie Martin-Vermilyea Earth System Evolution
Michael J. Smith Ph.D. American Geological Institute American Geological Institute Julie Bartley
Tom Vandewater Joseph Moran University of West Georgia
Senior Writer Colton, NY University of Wisconsin Lori Borroni-Engle
John B. Southard Ph.D. Mary-Russell Roberson Taft High School
Understanding Your Durham, NC San Antonio, TX
Development Editor Environment Richard M. Busch
Bruce G. Smith
Ruta Demery Geoffrey A. Briggs Appleton North High School West Chester University
Batavia Senior High School Appleton, WI West Chester, PA
Batavia, NY
Safety Reviewer Michael Smith Kathleen Cochrane
Dr. Edward Robeck, Cathey Donald American Geological Institute Our Lady of Ransom School
Salisbury University, MD Auburn High School Niles, IL
Auburn, AL
Earth’s Natural Cathey Donald
PRIMARY AND Richard Duschl Resources Auburn High School, AL
CONTRIBUTING Kings College
Chuck Bell Robert A. Gastaldo
AUTHORS: London, UK
Deer Valley High School Colby College
Earth’s Dynamic Fran Hess Glendale, AZ
Cooperstown High School William Leonard
Geosphere Cooperstown, NY
Jay Hackett Clemson University
Daniel J. Bisaccio Colorado Springs, CO
Laurie Martin-Vermilyea Tim Lutz
Souhegan High School John Kemeny
American Geological Institute West Chester University
Amherst, NH University of Arizona
Molly Miller Carolyn Collins Petersen
Steve Carlson John Kounas
Vanderbilt University C. Collins Petersen Productions
Middle School, OR Westwood High School Groton, MA
Warren Fish Mary-Russell Roberson Sloan, IA
Durham, NC Michael Smith
Paul Revere School Laurie Martin-Vermilyea American Geological Institute
Los Angeles, CA Charles Savrda American Geological Institute
Miriam Fuhrman Auburn University
Mary Poulton Content Reviewers
Carlsbad, CA Michael Smith University of Arizona Gary Beck
Steve Mattox American Geological Institute BP Exploration
David Shah
Grand Valley State University Deer Valley High School Phil Bennett
Keith McKain
Earth’s Fluid Spheres Glendale, AZ University of Texas, Austin
Milford Senior High School Chet Bolay
Janine Shigihara Steve Bergman
Milford, DE Cape Coral High School
Shelley Junior High School Southern Methodist University
Cape Coral, FL
Mary McMillan Shelley, ID
Steven Dutch Samuel Berkheiser
Niwot High School Michael Smith
University of Wisconsin Pennsylvania Geologic Survey
Niwot, CO American Geological Institute
Bill Romey Virginia Jones
Orleans, MA Bonneville High School
Idaho Falls, ID
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Acknowledgments
Arthur Bloom Mark Kirschbaum Ellen Wohl Arden Rauch
Cornell University United States Geological Survey Colorado State University Schenectady High School
Craig Bohren Schenectady, NY
Dave Kirtland David Wunsch
Penn State University United States Geological State Geologist of New Laura Reysz
Bruce Bolt Survey Hampshire Lawrence Central High School
University of California, Indianapolis, IN
Jessica Elzea Kogel
Berkeley Thiele Kaolin Company Pilot Test Evaluator Floyd Rogers
John Callahan Larry Enochs Palatine High School
Melinda Laituri Palatine, IL
Appalachian State University Oregon State University
Colorado State University
Sandip Chattopadhyay Ed Ruszczyk
Martha Leake Pilot Test Teachers New Canaan High School
R.S. Kerr Environmental Valdosta State University
Research Center Rhonda Artho New Canaan, CT
Donald Lewis Dumas High School Jane Skinner
Beth Ellen Clark Happy Valley, CA Dumas, TX
Cornell University Farragut High School
Steven Losh Mary Jane Bell Knoxville, TN
Jimmy Diehl Cornell University Lyons-Decatur Northeast
Michigan Technological Shelley Snyder
Lyons, NE Mount Abraham High School
University Jerry McManus
Woods Hole Oceanographic Rebecca Brewster Bristol, VT
Sue Beske-Diehl Institution Plant City High School
Michigan Technological Joy Tanigawa
Plant City, FL El Rancho High School
University Marcus Milling
American Geological Institute Terry Clifton Pico Rivera, CA
Neil M. Dubrovsky Jackson High School
United States Geological Alexandra Moore Dennis Wilcox
Jackson, MI Milwaukee School of Languages
Survey Cornell University
Virginia Cooter Milwaukee, WI
Frank Ethridge Jack Oliver North Greene High School
Colorado State University Cornell University Kim Willoughby
Greeneville, TN SE Raleigh High School
Catherine Finley Don Pair Monica Davis Raleigh, NC
University of Northern University of Dayton North Little Rock High School
Colorado North Little Rock, AR Field Test Workshop
Mauri Pelto
Ronald Greeley Nicolas College Joseph Drahuschak Staff
Arizona State University Troxell Jr. High School Don W. Byerly
Bruce Pivetz
Michelle Hall-Wallace ManTech Environmental Allentown, PA University of Tennessee
University of Arizona Research Services Corp. Ron Fabick Derek Geise
Judy Hannah Stephen Pompea Brunswick High School University of Nebraska
Colorado State University Pompea & Associates Brunswick, OH Michael A. Gibson
Blaine Hanson Virginia Jones University of Tennessee
Peter Ray
Dept. of Land, Air, and Water Florida State University Bonneville High School David C. Gosselin
Resources Idaho Falls, ID University of Nebraska
William Rose
James W. Head III Troy Lilly Robert Hartshorn
Michigan Technological Univ.
Brown University Snyder High School University of Tennessee
Lou Solebello Snyder, TX
Patricia Heiser Macon, Georgia William Kean
Ohio University Sherman Lundy University of Wisconsin
Robert Stewart Burlington High School
John R. Hill Texas A&M University Burlington, IA Ellen Metzger
Indiana Geological Survey San Jose State University
Ellen Stofan Norma Martof
Travis Hudson NASA Fairmont Heights High School Tracy Posnanski
American Geological Institute Capitol Heights, MD University of Wisconsin
Barbara Sullivan
Jackie Huntoon University of Rhode Island Keith McKain J. Preston Prather
Michigan Tech. University Milford Senior High School University of Tennessee
Carol Tang Milford, DE
Teresa Jordan Arizona State University Ed Robeck
Cornell University Mary McMillan Salisbury University
Bob Tilling Niwot High School
Allan Juhas United States Geological Richard Sedlock
Niwot, CO San Jose State University
Lakewood, Colorado Survey
Kristin Michalski Bridget Wyatt
Robert Kay Stanley Totten Mukwonago High School San Jose State University
Cornell University Hanover College Mukwonago, WI
Chris Keane Scott Tyler
American Geological Institute
Dianne Mollica Field Test Evaluators
University of Nevada, Reno Bishop Denis J. O’Connell Bob Bernoff
Bill Kirby Michael Velbel High School Dresher, PA
United States Geological Michigan State University Arlington, VA
Survey Do Yong Park
University of Iowa
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Field Test Teachers Sally Ghilarducci Jeffrey Messer Jane Skinner
Kerry Adams Hamilton High School Western High School Farragut High School
Alamosa High School Milwaukee, WI Parma, MI Knoxville, TN
Alamosa, CO Kerin Goedert Dave Miller Sarah Smith
Jason Ahlberg Lincoln High School Parkview High Garringer High School
Lincoln High Ypsilanti, MI Springfield, MO Charlotte, NC
Lincoln, NE Martin Goldsmith Rick Nettesheim Aaron Spurr
Gregory Bailey Menominee Falls High School Waukesha South Malcolm Price Laboratory
Fulton High School Menominee Falls, WI Waukesha, WI Cedar Falls, IA
Knoxville, TN Randall Hall John Niemoth Karen Tiffany
Mary Jane Bell Arlington High School Niobrara Public Watertown High School
Lyons-Decatur Northeast St. Paul, MN Niobrara, NE Watertown, WI
Lyons, NE Theresa Harrison Margaret Olsen Tom Tyler
Rod Benson Wichita West High Woodward Academy Bishop O’Dowd High School
Helena High Wichita, KS College Park, GA Oakland, CA
Helena, MT Gilbert Highlander Ronald Ozuna Valerie Walter
Sandra Bethel Red Bank High School Roosevelt High School Freedom High School
Greenfield High School Chattanooga, TN Los Angeles, CA Bethlehem, PA
Greenfield, TN Jim Hunt Paul Parra Christopher J. Akin Williams
John Cary Chattanooga School of Arts Omaha North High Milford Mill Academy
Malibu High School & Sciences Omaha, NE Baltimore, MD
Malibu, CA Chattanooga, TN D. Keith Patton Roseanne Williby
Elke Christoffersen Patricia Jarzynski West High Skutt Catholic High School
Poland Regional High School Watertown High School Denver, CO Omaha, NE
Poland, ME Watertown, WI Phyllis Peck Carmen Woodhall
Tom Clark Pam Kasprowicz Fairfield High School Canton South High School
Benicia High School Bartlett High School Fairfield, CA Canton, OH
Benicia, CA Bartlett, IL Randy Pelton
Caren Kershner Jackson High School Field Test Coordinator
Julie Cook
Jefferson City High School Moffat Consolidated Massillon, OH William Houston
Jefferson City, MO Moffat, CO American Geological Institute
Reggie Pettitt
Virginia Cooter Mary Jane Kirkham Holderness High School
North Greene High School Fulton High School Holderness, NH Advisory Board
Greeneville, TN Ted Koehn June Rasmussen Jane Crowder
Lincoln East High Brighton High School Bellevue, WA
Mary Cummane
Perspectives Charter Lincoln, NE South Brighton, TN Arthur Eisenkraft
Chicago, IL Philip Lacey Russ Reese University of Massachusetts
East Liverpool High School Kalama High School Boston, MA
Sharon D’Agosta
Creighton Preparatory East Liverpool, OH Kalama, WA Tom Ervin
Omaha, NE Joan Lahm Janet Ricker LeClaire, IA
Mark Daniels Scotus Central Catholic South Greene High School Mary Kay Hemenway
Kettle Morraine High School Columbus, NE Greeneville, TN University of Texas at Austin
Milwaukee, WI Erica Larson Wendy Saber Bill Leonard
Beth Droughton Tipton Community Washington Park High School Clemson University
Bloomfield High School Michael Laura Racine, WI
Don Lewis
Bloomfield, NJ Banning High School Garry Sampson Lafayette, CA
Steve Ferris Wilmington, CA Wauwatosa West High School
Tosa, WI Wendell Mohling
Lincoln High Fawn LeMay National Science Teachers
Lincoln, NE Plattsmouth High Daniel Sauls Association
Bob Feurer Plattsmouth, NE Chuckey-Doak High School
Afton, TN Harold Pratt
North Bend Central Public Christine Lightner Littleton, CO
North Bend, NE Smethport Area High School Todd Shattuck
Sue Frack Smethport, PA L.A. Center for Enriched Studies Barb Tewksbury
Lincoln Northeast High Los Angeles, CA Hamilton College
Nick Mason
Lincoln, NE Normandy High School Heather Shedd Laure Wallace
Rebecca Fredrickson St. Louis, MO Tennyson High School USGS
Greendale High School Hayward, CA
James Matson
Greendale, WI Wichita West High Lynn Sironen AGI Foundation
Wichita, KS North Kingstown High School Jan van Sant
North Kingstown, RI Executive Director
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Acknowledgments
Authors of EarthComm: Project-Based Space and Earth System Science
Ann Benbow is Director of Education, Outreach, and Development at the American
Geological Institute (AGI) in Alexandria, VA. After teaching science (biology, chemistry,
and Earth science) in high school, elementary school, and two-year college, she taught
elementary and secondary science methods at the university level. She worked in curriculum
development and teacher education for the Education Division of the American Chemical
Society for over twelve years, followed by three years in research into older adult learning
for a Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit organization. She has directed many federally
and privately funded national projects in STEM education in the areas of curriculum
development, teacher education, video production, adult learning, and informal science.
Benbow has co-authored a college textbook on elementary science methods, a book on
improving communication techniques with adult learners, and recently co-authored a series
of life science children’s books. Benbow has a B.S. in Biology from St. Mary’s College of
Maryland, an M.Ed. in Science Education, and a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from
the University of Maryland College Park.
Matthew Hoover serves as Education Specialist for the American Geological Institute,
developing Earth science educational resources and curriculum programs at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels. He received a B.S. in Geology from Boston College, an
M.A. in Environmental Policy from George Washington University, and an M.Ed. in
Curriculum and Instruction from George Mason University. As a certified teacher, he has
taught elementary and middle school Earth, life, and physical sciences. Prior to joining
AGI, he worked for NASA’s GLOBE Program, coordinating teacher trainings and designing
environmental science investigations and learning activities for K–12 students.
Mark Carpenter is an Education Specialist at the American Geological Institute. After

receiving a B.S. in Geology from Exeter University, England, he undertook a graduate
degree at the University of Waterloo and Wilfrid Laurier, Canada, where he began designing
geology investigations for undergraduate students and worked as an instructor. He has
worked in basin hydrology in Ontario, Canada and studied mountain geology in the
Pakistan and Nepal Himalayas. As a designer of learning materials for AGI, he has made
educational films to support teachers and is actively engaged in designing inquiry-based
activities in Earth system science for students of various ages.
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The American Geological Institute
and EarthComm: Project-Based
Space and Earth System Science
Imagine more than 120,000 Earth scientists sharing a common voice, and you have just imagined
the mission of the American Geological Institute. Our mission is to raise public awareness of the
Earth sciences and the role that they play in humankind’s use of natural resources, mitigation of
natural hazards, and stewardship of the environment. For more than 60 years, AGI has served the
scientists and teachers of its Member Societies and hundreds of associated colleges, universities,
and corporations by producing Earth science educational materials, Earth—a geoscience news
magazine, GeoRef—a reference database, and government affairs and public awareness programs.
So many important decisions made every day that affect our lives depend upon an understanding
of how our Earth works. That is why AGI created EarthComm. In your classroom, you will
discover the wonder and importance of Earth and space science by studying it where it counts—
in your community. As you use the rock record to investigate climate change, do field work in
nearby beaches, parks, or streams, explore the evolution and extinction of life, understand more
about the universe and Earth’s place in it, or find out how to forecast severe weather, you will gain
a better understanding of how to use your knowledge of Earth and space science to make wise
personal decisions.
We would like to thank the AGI Foundation for its ongoing support in bringing Earth and space
science to students. We at AGI wish you success in your exploration of the Earth system and
your community.
Ann Benbow P. Patrick Leahy

Director of Education, AGI Executive Director, AGI
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Contents
Nature of Science NS1 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics 131
Chapter Challenge 132

Chapter 1 Astronomy 1 Section 1 Where Are the Volcanoes
and Earthquakes? 136
Chapter Challenge 2
Section 2 Earth’s Moving Lithospheric
Section 1 The Size and Scale of Plates 148
the Universe 8
Section 3 What Drives the Plates? 154
Section 2 Locating Astronomical Objects
in the Night Sky 21 Section 4 Plate Motions and Plate
Interactions 163
Section 3 Origin of the Universe and the
Solar System 29 Section 5 Plate Boundary Environments 172
Section 4 Orbits and Effects 43 Section 6 The Changing Geography of

Your Community 185
Section 5 The Sun-Earth-Moon System 52
Chapter Mini-Challenge 198
Section 7 Volcanic Landforms 200
Section 6 Impact Events and the
Earth System 71 Section 8 Volcanic Hazards: Flows 208
Section 7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 83 Section 9 Volcanoes and the Atmosphere 215
Section 8 The Sun and its Effects 95 Section 10 Earthquakes 223
Section 9 The Lives of Stars 106 Section 11 Detecting Earthquake Waves 230
Earth/Space Science You Learned 118 Section 12 Earthquake Magnitude 245
Earth/Space Science You Learned 256

Earth/Space Science Chapter Challenge 120
Earth/Space Science Systems Thinking 122
Earth/Space Science Connections to
Other Sciences 124 Earth/Space Science Connections to
Other Sciences 262
Extending the Connection 125
Earth/Space Science At Work 127 Earth/Space Science At Work 265
Earth/Space Science Practice Test 128 Earth/Space Science Practice Test 266
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Chapter 3 Minerals, Rocks, Chapter 4 Surface Processes 365
and Structures 269
Section 1 The Water Cycle 370
Section 1 What Are Minerals? 274
Section 2 Rivers and Drainage Basins 386
Section 2 Igneous Rocks and the
Geologic History of Your Community 286 Section 3 Slopes and Landscapes 398
Section 3 Sedimentary Rocks and the
Geologic History of Your Community 295 Section 4 High-Gradient Streams 408
Section 4 Metamorphic Rocks and the Section 5 Low-Gradient Streams 418

Geologic History of Your Community 305
Section 6 Sediments in Streams 430
Section 5 Rock Units and Your
Community 316 Section 7 Soil and Land Use 441
Section 6 Structural Geology and

Section 8 Glaciers and the Landscape 449
Your Community 322
Section 7 Reading the Geologic History Section 9 Wind and the Landscape 465
of Your Community 330
Section 10 Coastal Processes 478
Section 8 Geology of the United States 342
Earth/Space Science Connections to Other Sciences 500
Other Sciences 358
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Contents
Chapter 5 Winds, Oceans, Chapter 6 Global Climate Change 635
Weather, and Climate 507
Section 1 Paleoclimates 640
Section 1 Global Wind Patterns
and Weather 512 Section 2 How Do Earth’s Orbital
Variations Affect Global Climate? 650
Section 2 Weather Basics 522
Section 3 How Do Plate Tectonics and
Section 3 Thunderstorms and Ocean Currents Affect Global Climate? 661
Flash Floods 534
Section 4 Severe Winds and Tornadoes 547 Section 4 How Do Carbon Dioxide
Concentrations in the Atmosphere
Section 5 Tropical Storms and Hurricanes 557 Affect Global Climate? 670
Chapter Mini-Challenge 570 Chapter Mini-Challenge 680
Section 6 The Surface Circulation Section 5 How Do Glaciers Affect

of the Ocean 572 Sea Level? 682
Section 7 The Deep Circulation Section 6 How Do Rising and Falling

of the Ocean 582 Sea Levels Modify the Landscape? 692
Section 8 El Niño and Ocean Circulation 599 Section 7 How Might Global Warming
Affect Your Community? 700
Section 9 Present-Day Climate in
Your Community 610 Earth/Space Science You Learned 708
Earth/Space Science Connections to Other Sciences 714
Other Sciences 628
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Chapter 7 Earth’s Natural Chapter 8 Earth System
Resources 721 Evolution 859
Chapter Challenge 722 Chapter Challenge 860
Section 1 Electricity and Your Section 1 The Evolution of the Geosphere 864
Community 726 Section 2 The Evolution of the
Fluid Spheres 881
Section 2 Energy From Coal 736
Section 3 The Origin of Life on Earth 893
Section 3 Energy From Petroleum
and Natural Gas 749 Section 4 The Biosphere and the
Evolution of the Atmosphere 909
Section 4 Environmental Impacts and Section 5 Geologic Time 919
Energy Consumption 764
Section 5 Renewable Energy Sources—
Solar and Wind 778 Section 6 The Fossil Record 934
Section 7 Evolution 942
Section 8 North American Biomes 957
Section 6 Earth’s Mineral Resources 790
Section 9 Mass Extinction 966
Section 7 The Costs and Benefits of
Mining Minerals 803
Section 8 Water Supplies 811
Section 9 Using and Conserving Water 825
Section 10 Water Pollution Other Sciences 982
and Treatment 833 Extending the Connection 983
Earth/Space Science You Learned 846 Earth/Space Science At Work 985
Earth/Space Science Chapter Challenge 848 Earth/Space Science Practice Test 986

Reference
Other Sciences 852 Glossary R2
Extending the Connection 853 Glosario R19

Index R39
Earth/Space Science At Work 855
Photo Credits R66
Earth/Space Science Practice Test 856 Publishing Team R69
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Welcome to EarthComm — Your Guide to Success
Earth and space science surrounds you and includes you. You live on Earth and
depend on its interacting systems of air, water, land, and other living things for
survival. EarthComm will help you understand how the parts of the Earth system
work together. You will find Earth and space science relevant, fun, and exciting!
Here is how you are going to learn about Earth and space in this book.
2
1
1 Getting Started 2 Scenario

The purpose of Getting Started is to Each chapter begins with an event or
introduce the chapter and help you to explore situation in the Earth system that has
what you already know about the chapter’s happened or could actually take place.
topic. You will begin by reading a short
introduction. At the end of this introduction, 3 Chapter Challenge
you will be asked to think about and respond This feature challenges you to solve a
to several questions. problem based in your community. You
will need to use the Earth and space science
knowledge you gain from working through
the chapter.
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6
4
5
4 Assessment Criteria yourself and your group. You may also get
feedback from other groups in your class.
Before you begin, you and your classmates,
You are going to use a simplified Engineering
along with your teacher, will explore exactly
Design Cycle as you address your challenge.
how you will be graded. You will review
You will apply it after getting halfway
the criteria and expectations for solving the
through the chapter. This Mini-Challenge will
challenge and make decisions about how
better acquaint you with the requirements of
your work should be evaluated.
the Chapter Challenge. It is a good way to
step back and review the work done so far.
5 Engineering Design Cycle At the end of the chapter, you get to use
The Chapter Challenge is a problem that you Feedback from the Mini-Challenge as
need to solve. There are many different ways well as new information to complete the
to solve problems. One sequence of steps Chapter Challenge.
that can be used to solve problems is called
the Engineering Design Cycle. This cycle 6 Earth/Space Science Corner
helps to remind you that when completing a
The Earth/Space Science Corner previews
project, you have to be aware of the Goals.
all the Earth and space science concepts that
You then gather information (Inputs) and put
the chapter will present. You will be actively
this together through a design cycle. Once
involved and your teacher will help you
you have completed your work (Outputs),
keep track of all the concepts that you
take a step back and provide Feedback for
are learning.
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Your Guide to Success
7 What Do You See?
A picture is worth a thousand words.
At the beginning of each section, an
illustration is shown to get you thinking
about Earth and space science. Discussing 7
what you see in the illustration will help
you reflect on what you already know
about the topics in the section. This is an
important step in the learning process.
Tomas Bunk, a well-known illustrator of
MAD magazine, Quantoons, and Garbage
Pail Kids, created the illustrations. 8
Learning Outcomes — These let you know
what you will be doing in each section. The
Learning Outcomes indicate what you should
understand and be able to do as a result of 9
the section.
8 Think About It
What do you already know? Before you
start each section you will be asked to
consider one or more questions. You
will have a chance to discuss your ideas The Geo Log — Some people
with your group and your class. You are better organized than others.
are not expected to come up with the They can always find the book that
“right” answer, but to share your current they need or the papers they were
understanding and reasoning. using two days ago. Others seem
to struggle with the same tasks.
9 Investigate Organizing is a skill that can be
learned. In EarthComm the text
In EarthComm you learn by doing science. recommends the use of the Geo log.
In your small group, or as a class, you Just as scientists keep a notebook
will take part in scientific inquiry by doing for all of their research in the lab or
hands-on experiments, participating in field, you will do the same. Using
fieldwork, or searching for answers using the Geo log may help you become
the Internet and reference materials. organized in other ways as well.
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Learning Through Technology — Geo Words — Concepts are often more
Learning Through Technology will efficiently communicated when vocabulary
direct you to the EarthComm Web is introduced. Geo Words highlights the
site. You will use online resources important terms you want to know. They
found on that Web site to conduct are also briefly explained for you to make
research, explore ideas, and answer reading and comprehension easier.
questions relating to that section of
the chapter.
10
11
Checking Up — These questions are great

tools for evaluating your understanding of
the concepts that you have learned.
10 Digging Deeper 11 Think About It Again

This section provides text, illustrations, and At the beginning of each section, you are
photographs that will give you a greater asked to think about one or more questions.
insight into the concepts you explored in At that point, you were not expected to
the Investigate. Words that may be new or come up with the “right” answer. Now that
unfamiliar to you are defined and explained. you have completed the section, you will be
Key terms are highlighted as Geo Words. asked to think about these questions again.
Checking Up questions are included to guide Compare your initial answers to the answers
you in your reading. you give at the end of the section.
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12
Preparing for the Chapter

13
Challenge — This feature suggests
ways in which you can organize
your work and get ready for
the challenge. It prompts you to
combine the results of your inquiry
as you work through the chapter.
14
12 Reflecting on the
Section and the
Challenge
Each section will help you meet the Chapter
14 Inquiring Further
Challenge. This feature gives you a brief This feature provides lots of suggestions for
summary of the section. It will help you deepening your understanding of the concepts
relate the section that you just completed and skills developed in the section. It also
to the “big picture.” gives you an opportunity to relate what you
have learned to the Earth system.
13 Understanding and
Applying
Questions in this feature ask you to use the
key principles and concepts introduced in
the section. You may also be presented with
new situations in which you will be asked to
apply what you have learned.
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16
15
16 Earth/Space Science
You Learned
To complete your Chapter Challenge, you
will need to use the Earth and space science
principles you learned as you completed each
section. For each chapter, you should review
15 Chapter Mini-Challenge what you have learned and how you can use
When engineers design a product, they these concepts in your challenge. The Earth/
follow an Engineering Design Cycle with Space Science You Learned feature lists many
several distinct steps. The Mini-Challenge of the Earth and space science principles you
takes you through a first step of this cycle. investigated in the chapter. You can use this
As part of this process, the Mini-Challenge as a check list to develop your own list.
will encourage you to give your Chapter
Challenge a first try. In this way, you are
actually involved in the Engineering Design
Cycle and not just reading about it. As you
make your “product” for your Chapter
Challenge, you will become increasingly
aware of the many benefits of using the
Engineering Design Cycle.
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17
18
17 Earth/SpaceSc ience
Chapter Challenge
Business leaders want to hire people who
know how to work effectively in groups
and how to complete projects. The Chapter
Challenge provides guidance on how to begin 18 Earth/SpaceSc ience
your work on the Chapter Challenge project, Systems Thinking
set deadlines, meet all the requirements, and
The Earth/Space Science Systems Thinking
combine the contributions of all members of
examines the ways in which Earth can
the group. This feature guides you without
be viewed as a whole and unified system.
restricting you. Your group’s creativity and
This section highlights the interactions and
imagination will be a major factor in your
interrelationships among the various parts of
enjoyment and success. The best projects will
the Earth system. Within this section, you will
reflect the diverse interests, backgrounds, and
be asked to think about how Earth’s main
cultures of your group members. Once again,
spheres are interconnected. You will do this
you will visit the Engineering Design Cycle as
by considering the ways in which matter and
a way to help organize your work.
energy flow through the Earth system. You
will also recognize the different ways in which
Earth’s processes occur over time and space.
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19 Earth/SpaceSc ience
Connections to 20
Other Sciences
The fundamental ideas you have studied
in this chapter are also relevant to many
other sciences that you may have studied
or will study in the future. Appreciating the
connections among science disciplines helps
scientists achieve a richer understanding of
nature. Science research in the twenty-first
century depends heavily upon the way these
different disciplines interact.
19
20 Extending the Connection

The Earth/Space Science Connections to
Other Sciences showed you that the Earth
and space science concepts you studied in
each chapter are also relevant to many
other sciences. The Earth and space
science you are learning is fundamental
in the understanding of the concepts that
you may study in all the other sciences.
Extending the Connection delves deeper
into one of these connections. It gives
you the opportunity to examine a
particular relationship to another
science in greater depth.
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22
21
22 Earth/Space Science
Practice Test
You have been checking up on your own
understanding of the Earth and space science
concepts throughout each chapter. You have
been asking yourself all sorts of questions as
21 Earth/Space Science you complete the investigations and other
At Work parts of each section. High achievers learn
The projects that you complete for the to check for understanding and to recognize
Chapter Challenges are often the actual jobs when they have to do a bit more work to
of real people. Earth/Space Science At Work fully understand something. The Earth/Space
introduces you to people who use the Earth Science Practice Test is a way in which you
and space science of the chapter as part of their can find out how well you have learned the
career. Reading about their work may get you concepts in this chapter. Before taking the
thinking about careers that interest you and Earth/Space Science Practice Test, it makes
help you make a difference in the world. sense to review each section’s Checking Up
and Think About It Again. Reviewing the
illustrations and photographs in the chapter
may help you to remember all that you
have learned.
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EarthComm and the American Geological Institute Web Site
EarthComm is supported by a Web site created and maintained by the Education
Department of the American Geological Institute (AGI). Chapter resources on the
easy-to-navigate site are organized according to the chapters and sections in the
text. When you click on a chapter in the top menu of the site, you will first go to a
sub-page containing the standards for that chapter. From there, you can navigate to
each section of the chapter to access the specific resources that will help you with the
Investigate, Digging Deeper, and other parts of that section. You will find the online
resources particularly useful for completing the Learning Through Technology and
Inquiring Further activities.
Because the Internet is so vast and can contain inaccurate and out-of-date
information, AGI Education staff members screen and select links for the
EarthComm Web site. Sample resources include those from such reliable Web
sites as the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), the National Weather Service (NWS), the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the United States Department of
Energy (U.S. DOE), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and many colleges,
universities, museums, and other non-federal, science organizations. The Web site also
has a separate section containing links to many different types of maps. The site also
contains a Site Map to help you locate information quickly and easily. To access the
EarthComm Web site, go to http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
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How to Use Your Geo Log
Scientists must keep a record of all of their has a “2.” It won’t take long. If your
work. The scientist’s notebook is a legal notebook has 150 pages, this will probably
document that can be used as evidence in take between 150 and 300 seconds. That
court to determine the time, description, amounts to at most 5 minutes. If you get
and breadth of a discovery. As student tired, you can number the first 50 pages
scientists, you will be keeping a Geo log. now and number the rest later.
This log or notebook will be a record The second step is to write your name on
of all that you learn and accomplish the cover of the log and/or on the inside
as well as a way to organize all your front cover. The third step is to write at
notes, lab investigations, homework, the top of page 1, “Contents.” You should
and conversations. begin your notes on page 5. This will
At the end of the first few months of allow you to use pages 1 to 4 as a table
school, what will your excellent student log of Contents for the entire book.
look like? It will have each page numbered.
The first few pages will be a table of
Contents that will list each chapter and
each section of each chapter. The sections
will all be in order (for example, Section 1
will be followed by Section 2, which will
be followed by Section 3, and so on).
Your Geo log will have a complete record
of all of your work including notes, lab
procedures, data, graphs, and homework.
For example, your teacher will be able to
review your progress by turning to the table
of Contents, finding the page for Section 6
of a chapter and all the work for that
section will be on those pages. Some of that
work will be written in the log while other
work will be glued into the log. It will be a
log that brings you pride and respect.
When you begin your first chapter, you
How will you create such a log? should write at the top of page 5 the name
Scientists usually have a bound notebook. of the chapter. For example, if you start
This ensures that pages are not added to with Chapter 1, you would write “Chapter
or removed from the log as can easily be 1: Astronomy.” As you begin the chapter,
done in a loose-leaf binder. Your first step you will record notes about the Chapter
in getting your bound or spiral notebook Challenge. When it is time to begin Section 1,
ready for use as a log is to number all the you should begin a new page. Every time
pages in the upper corner. The first page you start a new section, you should begin
has a “1” and the back of the first page a new page.
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blank in your log for the work that took
place while you were absent. When you
do make up that work, you can place it in
the appropriate place. This works whether
your teacher asks you to make up the work
or to get the notes and information from
someone else in your group.
Each time you complete a section, you
create a link in the table of Contents. On
the left side of the new line, you may write
Section 3. On the right-hand side of the
line, you record the page on which the
beginning of all of the information for
Section 3 is located. Because you begin
each section on a new page, this will
make it easier to locate each section
for a given chapter.
Everything goes into this log. If you
complete a homework assignment that your When you begin a new chapter, place the
teacher collects, the returned homework name of the chapter in your notebook
should be glued into the log. If your log and record the page reference for that
has pages made of graph paper, you can chapter in the table of Contents. Skip a line
make graphs directly in the log. If you use between the end of one chapter and the
sheets of graph paper to make graphs, these beginning of a new chapter. The chapter
pieces of paper will be glued into the log. title may also be written in capital letters
If your teacher collects some homework, or underlined in the table of Contents to
you must remember to skip a page or two help with readability.
to glue that homework into your log when That should do it. The most difficult part
it is returned. In this way, the homework will be remembering to skip pages for work
assignments from Section 4 will be with that is to be returned or work that you
Section 4, even if it is not returned after will make up. Another difficult part will
you have begun Section 5 or even Section 6. be keeping the table of Contents up to
Because some of these items may be an date. Try to remind yourself of these
entire page, you may fold them in half potential pitfalls.
and glue them into the log sideways.
If you have a question about your log or
its format, ask your group members. If
What do I do if I am absent everyone seems confused, ask your teacher.
from school? With care and commitment, you will create
If you miss a day of school, you should a high-quality log.
find out from one of the members of your Scientists keep logs. You, as a student
group how many pages should be left scientist, will keep one as well.
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Chapter 1: Astronomy
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to write a script for a special radio series or podcast on the possible
effects that objects from space can have on Earth. You will be writing scripts for three 5-minute
shows. These scripts should be both scientifically accurate and exciting to the listener.
Section Summaries Topics

Section 1 The Size and Scale of the Universe astronomical distance
You will produce a scale model of the solar system and identify some of the strengths and and time, parallax, relative
limitations of scale models. You then compare the distances between the Sun and the planets to sizes and distances in the
the distances to other objects in the universe, including stars and galaxies. Then, you will learn universe, types of galaxies
more about the position of Earth within the solar system and the solar system’s location within
the Milky Way Galaxy. In addition, you will read about the different types of galaxies in the
universe and some of the distances between them.
Section 2 Locating Astronomical Objects in the Night Sky constellations, celestial
You will examine the celestial coordinate system—a coordinate system for mapping positions on coordinate system,
the celestial sphere. You will learn that the celestial sphere surrounds Earth and is what you look astronomical objects
through when you observe the sky. You will also learn that the imaginary celestial sphere is useful
for locating astronomical objects in the sky at night.
Section 3 Origin of the Universe and the Solar System big bang theory, steady-state
You will examine a model of an expanding universe. This will help you to understand the big theory, Doppler effect,
bang theory of how the universe was formed and the evidence supporting it. You will observe a nebular theory, extrasolar
model of the formation of the solar system from a large cloud of gas and dust. This will help you planets
to understand the nebular theory of the formation of the solar system. Finally, you will examine
the discovery and existence of planetary systems outside of our solar system.
Section 4 Orbits and Effects Kepler’s laws of motion,
You will measure the major axis and distance between the foci of an ellipse. This helps you to eccentricity, obliquity,
understand the relationship between the distance between the foci and eccentricity of an ellipse. precession, orbital inclination
You will learn about the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit of the Sun over time. Finally, you will consider
the orbits of comets and asteroids in relation to Earth and the Sun.
Section 5 The Sun-Earth-Moon System lunar phases, Newton’s laws
You will use a model that demonstrates lunar phases. You will observe the Moon over time, noting of motion, law of gravitation,
changes in its apparent shape. Then, you will examine the relationship between tides and phases of tides, formation of the Moon
the Moon. Finally, you will learn about the Moon’s likely origin.
Section 6 Impact Events and the Earth System asteroids, comets, and
You will calculate the energy (in joules) released by five asteroids of different sizes hitting Earth’s meteors, impact events,
surface. You then compare the energy released by these impact events to known natural and International System of Units
human-made energy-releasing events, including the six strongest earthquakes in the world between
1900 and 2011. Next, you will make a scale drawing of an impact crater. You learn about some
of the characteristics of asteroids and comets, the chances for an asteroid or comet collision with
Earth, and some of the consequences should an impact event occur.
Section 7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum electromagnetic spectrum,
You will use a spectrometer to see the different color components of visible light. You then explore frequency and wavelength
models for describing the range of frequencies of energy within electromagnetic radiation. After this, of electromagnetic radiation,
you will research a space mission and look at how astronomers are using electromagnetic radiation to detecting electromagnetic
understand the evolution of the Earth system. Next, you learn about the electromagnetic spectrum in radiation
terms of wavelength, speed, and energy. Finally, you will learn how electromagnetic radiation reveals
the temperature and chemical makeup of objects such as stars.
Section 8 The Sun and its Effects structure of the Sun,
You will plot the number of sunspots in a given year and correlate strong solar flare activity with sunspots, solar flares
larger numbers of sunspots. You learn about the structure of the Sun and the flow of solar energy in and solar wind, Earth’s
terms of reflection, absorption, and scattering. Finally, you will learn about the cycles and effects of energy budget
sunspots, solar flares, and the solar wind on the Earth system.
Section 9 The Lives of Stars classification of stars,
You will measure and graph the apparent differences in brightness of three light bulbs at different luminosity and temperature
distances. You analyze a Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram which helps you to classify stars of stars, life cycles of stars
according to their spectral characteristics. This helps you to understand the relationship between
the brightness of an object (its luminosity) and its magnitude. You learn about stellar structure and
the stellar evolution (the life histories of stars) as well as the chances of another star affecting Earth
in some way.
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Chapter 2: Plate Tectonics
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to develop a game about volcanoes and earthquakes. The game
should cover (at a minimum): the causes of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, what happens
when they occur, where they are likely to occur, the effects of these events on the environment, how
volcanoes and earthquakes are monitored, and how people can live with volcanoes and earthquakes.

Section 1 Where Are the Volcanoes and Earthquakes? Earth’s interior structure,
You will fi nd patterns in the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes. You will also fi nd lithospheric plates and plate
locations of volcanoes and earthquakes nearest to your community. Finally, you learn about the basic boundaries, earthquakes
structure of Earth’s interior and how volcanoes and earthquakes are features of Earth’s crust. and plate tectonics, volcanic
eruptions and plate tectonics
Section 2 Earth’s Moving Lithospheric Plates types of crust, techniques for

You will examine evidence that Earth’s lithospheric plates move over time. You will determine the monitoring plate movement
direction and rate of movement of positions within the plate on which your community is located.
You learn more about the structure of Earth’s crust and the underlying mantle.
Section 3 What Drives the Plates? density differences within
You will look at the flow of matter and energy within Earth. You examine several lines of evidence Earth’s interior, Earth’s
that demonstrate that the density and temperature of Earth increase with depth. You learn about layered structure,
thermal convection and the forces that drive the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. mantle convection
Section 4 Plate Motions and Plate Interactions divergent plate boundaries,

You will examine lithospheric plate motion and plate interaction. You will classify the types of convergent plate boundaries,
movement at plate boundaries and the type of plate boundary closest to your community. You learn transform plate boundaries,
about the importance of mid-ocean ridges to the geography of continents and ocean basins on Earth. seafloor spreading
Section 5 Plate Boundary Environments continental rift boundaries,

You will look at the surface features caused by the movements of Earth’s lithospheric plates. You subduction zones, volcanism
determine the relationship between volcanoes and plate boundaries and between earthquakes and at plate boundaries, hot-
plate boundaries. You describe the movements or features in your region that indicate plate tectonic spot volcanism, continental
activity. Finally, you learn more about how the movement of Earth’s plates builds and deforms accretion, suture zones,
the crust. transform boundaries
Section 6 The Changing Geography of Your Community paleogeography,

You will examine some of the evidence that supports the idea that the continents of Earth have development of the
moved during geologic time. You see that features like rock and mineral deposits, mountain ranges, plate tectonic theory,
and plant and animal fossils can be used to assemble the continents together into a single, large paleomagnetism
continent called Pangea.
Section 7 Volcanic Landforms topography, magma
You will look at how the chemical composition of magma affects the shape a volcano takes as it composition and properties,
forms. You see how the composition of magma also determines how explosive a volcanic eruption volcanic landforms
can be. Also, you will identify the types of volcanoes closest to your community.
Section 8 Volcanic Hazards: Flows viscosity, types of volcanic
You will examine the factors that control lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars. You describe the flows, hazards from volcanic
hazards associated with various kinds of volcanic flows. You then learn about some of the measures flows
that can be taken to control volcanic flows and reduce their hazards.
Section 9 Volcanoes and the Atmosphere volcanic particles, airborne
You will learn about the rock, lava, and gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur hazards, volcanic gases,
dioxide, emitted by volcanoes. You consider how these materials might be hazardous and how they volcanoes and climate change
affect different parts of the Earth system. You also consider the distribution of volcanic eruptions
over time by looking at the frequency and periodicity of eruptions.
Section 10 Earthquakes earthquakes,
You will describe the causes of earthquakes, how they transmit energy, and how different types of types of seismic waves
seismic waves move. You will learn about the various kinds of seismic waves and their relative
speed and path through Earth. You learn about surface waves and their role in significant
earthquake destruction.
Section 11 Detecting Earthquake Waves seismometers, seismograms,
You will examine the ways in which P waves, S waves, and surface waves are detected and recorded. travel-time curves
Section 12 Earthquake Magnitude earthquake intensity,

You will explain the different methods used to measure earthquakes. You describe the effects and effect of local geology
hazards of earthquakes, including the conditions that can increase earthquake intensity. You then on earthquake intensity,
learn about some of the measures that can be taken to reduce the effects of earthquakes on people magnitude, and hazards
and structures.
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Chapter 3: Minerals, Rocks, and Structures
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to design a new exhibit on the geologic history of your community
for your local museum. You should use your imagination to design an exhibit using the latest visual
technology and other creative means. It is important to be sure that the science in your exhibit is
accurate and current.

Section 1 What Are Minerals? properties of minerals,
You will observe the properties of crystals and mineral samples. You then use a set of observations mineral identification
and tests to identify minerals.
Section 2 Igneous Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community characteristics of igneous
You will examine the properties of a set of igneous rocks and use a geologic map of your area to rocks, classification of
locate igneous rocks. igneous rocks, igneous rock-
forming environments
Section 3 Sedimentary Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community characteristics of sedimentary
You will fi rst model how sedimentary rocks are formed. After the modeling, you will observe rocks, classification of
examples of actual sedimentary rocks. Finally, you use a geologic map of your community to sedimentary rocks,
identify and locate sedimentary rocks in your area. sedimentary rock-forming
environments
Section 4 Metamorphic Rocks and the Geological History of Your Community characteristics of
You will examine the properties of metamorphic rocks. You make and use a model of how rocks metamorphic rocks,
change their shape, or deform, during metamorphosis. Finally, you will use a geologic map to locate classification of metamorphic
metamorphic rocks in your local area and wider region. rocks, metamorphic rock-
forming environments
Section 5 Rock Units and Your Community rock units, geologic maps and
You will explore rock units by investigating large areas of similar rock types on maps and cross cross sections
sections of Georgia and Alabama.
Section 6 Structural Geology and Your Community structural geology: folds and
You will model folds and faults in rock layers. You then compare these models to what you can see faults, forces that cause rocks
in geologic maps and cross sections. to deform
Section 7 Reading the Geologic History of Your Community uplift and subsidence,
You will work in groups using models and cross sections to study the ages of rock layers. relative ages of rock units,
interpreting strata using
geologic principles,
unconformities
Section 8 Geology of the United States geology of the United States,

You will explore what two maps could reveal about the geologic history of the United States. You physiographic regions of the
start by studying a geologic map of the United States. You then compare what you have learned United States
from that map with one showing the physiographic regions of our country.
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Chapter 4: Surface Processes
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to evaluate the suitability of a city in Florida and a city in Alaska
to host the Summer Olympic Games. The team’s job will be to collect enough information about the
geology of the two cities and the area around them to make a report on how suitable each city is
to develop the roads, bridges, and buildings necessary for the Summer Olympic Games. The United
States Olympic Committee wants a poster presentation and a written report from each team.

Section 1 The Water Cycle heat capacity of water, density
You will complete a simple experiment to calculate the amount of heat energy required to melt differences between states of
ice. Then, you use water-filled milk jugs to understand how water is distributed in various matter, atomic structure of water,
reservoirs on Earth. Next, you will construct a diagram that illustrates how water moves within distribution of salt and fresh
the hydrologic cycle. Finally, you examine a diagram of the rates at which water moves from water, water cycle
one reservoir to another within the water cycle.
Section 2 Rivers and Drainage Basins drainage basins, river systems
You will learn how drainage basins can be useful for looking at the landscape in terms of units. and morphology, stream flow
The characteristics of these basins can be different both within and between different basins. and discharge, maps and
You will need to think about the different processes at work on the landscape to judge which topography, landforms, erosion,
areas in Florida and Alaska would be suitable to build Olympic facilities. and deposition
Section 3 Slopes and Landscapes slopes and mass movements,

You will investigate the effects that different materials, as well as the angle of repose, have subsidence, unconsolidated and
on slopes. lithified sediments
Section 4 High-Gradient Streams characteristics of high-gradient

You will use stream tables to model high-gradient streams. For Olympic events that require streams, hazards of high-gradient
water, you need to consider if it is an advantage to have a high- or low-gradient stream. streams
Section 5 Low-Gradient Streams characteristics of low-gradient

You will use stream tables to model low-gradient streams. You will note the differences between streams, hazards of low-gradient
high-gradient and low-gradient streams. For Olympic events that require water, you need to streams
consider if it is an advantage to have a high- or low-gradient stream.
Section 6 Sediments in Streams classification of sediments,
You will discover that particles are changed in size and shape as they are moved about in water. sediment transport in streams
You also fi nd that particles made out of different materials change at different rates. You will
see that a stronger flow of water is necessary to move coarse particles than is needed to move
fi ne particles. Being able to apply these concepts to the sediments you fi nd in rivers beyond your
community will help you to understand the types of flow that have helped shape the landscape.
Section 7 Soil and Land Use classifying soils, soil formation,

You will learn that there are different kinds of soils, and that soil can be classified and mapped soil horizons
on the basis of its physical properties and where it is found. You also learn that soil can be
tested for various properties that might be desirable for specific uses. You should think about
how your plans for development in both Florida and Alaska will affect local soils.
Section 8 Glaciers and the Landscape glacial formation and movement,

You will calculate the movement of a hypothetical glacier. Then, you use a stream table to glacial erosion and deposition,
model how glaciers and glacial meltwater modify the landscape through erosion and deposition. glacial meltwater, effects of
You learn about glacier movement across streams and the changes in where and how rivers glaciers on river systems
flow due to glaciers. You will learn about erosion and deposition in streams and rivers caused
by glaciers.
Section 9 Wind and the Landscape sediment transport, wind erosion

You will design and conduct a series of experiments that examine the factors that affect the and deposition
erosion of a patch of sediment by wind. You will then look at data that demonstrates the
relationship between wind speed and particle size. Next, you run an experiment that examines
the effects of windblown particles on rock. Finally, you will conduct an experiment that
examines the different ways that windblown sediment is deposited.
Section 10 Coastal Processes ocean waves, coastal erosion
You will begin examining the basic properties of ocean waves by designing and conducting a and deposition, emergent and
series of experiments that examine the factors that affect wave generation and motion. You submergent coastlines
will then run a series of models that explore what happens to ocean waves as they meet various
types of shorelines (shallow beach, irregular coastline, and straight coastline).
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Chapter 5: Winds, Oceans, Weather, and Climate
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to create a Web-site design for upper elementary students on winds,
oceans, weather, and climate. The Web site is in response to a request for proposals put out by a
non-profit educational group specifically on science education for young audiences.

Section 1 Global Wind Patterns and Weather atmospheric circulation, air
You will use a model to study the factors that affect the global patterns of wind. pressure, wind, Coriolis effect,
global wind belts, jet streams
Section 2 Weather Basics water cycle review, air masses,

You will review weather basics by using instruments to measure air temperature, barometric air temperature and density,
pressure, relative humidity, cloud cover, and wind speed and direction. You also study weather relative humidity, cloud formation,
maps and forecasts for your local area and relate these to your own weather data. precipitation, weather maps
Section 3 Thunderstorms and Flash Floods development of a thunderstorm,

You will examine thunderstorm data to determine where the most and the least number of lightning and thunder, torrential
thunderstorms occur. You also explore the relationship between topography and the incidence rains and flash flooding,
of flash flooding. topography and flash flooding,
flood and lightning safety
Section 4 Severe Winds and Tornadoes downbursts, tornado development

You will construct a map of tornado frequency throughout the United States and use the map and distributions, cyclones, Fujita
to determine the threat of tornadoes in your community. You will then compare this map to a scale of tornado intensity, tornado
map illustrating thunderstorm frequency to determine the relationship between tornadoes and safety
thunderstorms. Finally, you complete an experiment to investigate downbursts using a bicycle
pump and sand. You examine the causes of tornadoes and downbursts, how tornadoes are
ranked, and what to do in the event of a tornado.
Section 5 Tropical Storms and Hurricanes classification of tropical cyclones,
You will examine the frequency and distribution of hurricanes in North America and the hurricane development and
classification of tropical cyclones and hurricanes. You plot the path of a hurricane from the distribution, effects of hurricanes
Gulf of Mexico to where it makes landfall in Mississippi and examine the barometric pressure on the biosphere
as it moves. You then examine tropical storms in the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.
Finally, you read about two severe hurricanes, Andrew and Katrina, which resulted in severe
damage along the Gulf Coast states.
Section 6 The Surface Circulation of the Ocean surface currents, El Niño, gyres,
You will map the path of spilled shoes in the North Pacific Ocean to gain an understanding of upwelling
how ocean surface currents move. You then compare a map of ocean surface currents and a
map of wind patterns to understand the influence of winds on surface ocean circulation. You
compare wind patterns during an El Niño event with winds during non-El Niño periods to
make inferences about any expected changes in ocean circulation during an El Niño event.
Section 7 The Deep Circulation of the Ocean deep ocean conveyor, ocean
You will use small-scale ocean models to examine the influence of temperature and salinity water masses, convection cells,
differences between water masses on deep water circulation. You will read that the movement temperature, salinity, and density
of deep ocean water is controlled by the density of the water, which is determined by the
temperature and salinity. Through a thought experiment, you gain an understanding of how
convection cells operate in the oceans.
Section 8 El Niño and Ocean Circulation El Niño Southern Oscillation
You will examine data to determine how sea surface temperatures vary during El Niño (ENSO), Walker circulation
events and make inferences about changes in ocean circulation during El Niño events.
You then examine remote-sensing data to investigate the extent and duration of the 1997
El Niño event.
Section 9 Present-Day Climate in Your Community climate: local and global, weather,
You will examine data on temperature and precipitation to describe the climate of your factors affecting climate: latitude,
community. You also look at a local topographic map to determine what physical features in elevation, and geography
your community might influence climate. You then compare the climate of your community to
that of a different community.
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Chapter 6: Global Climate Change
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to write a series of articles about climate change for your local
newspaper. These feature articles and an editorial will be run in the “Science and Environment”
section of the newspaper. The newspaper editor wants to give the readers of the paper a thorough
scientific background to understand the idea of global climate change.

Section 1 Paleoclimates paleoclimate, oxygen
You will examine differences in the thicknesses of tree rings and relate them to warmer and cooler isotopes, evidence of climate
periods over the last 160,000 years. You model how fossil pollen can be preserved in layers within change: fossil pollen, ice
lake sediments. You look at how changes in the mixture of plant species in an ecosystem can be cores, deep-sea sediments,
used to indicate changes in climate over time. You also learn how paleoclimatologists learn about glacial sediments, and tree
past climates by making inferences from other kinds of proxy data, including: ice data, gas rings
isotopes, deep-sea sediments, and the distribution of glacial features (outside of present-day
ice environments).
Section 2 How Do Earth’s Orbital Variations Affect Global Climate? Earth’s axial tilt and
You will examine how Earth’s axial tilt controls the seasons of the Northern and Southern the seasons, variability
Hemispheres. You model how variations in Earth’s orbit affect the amount of radiation Earth in Earth’s orbit, axial tilt,
receives from the Sun. You learn how different parts of Earth’s orbit vary over time and how orbital eccentricity, obliquity,
cycles have different durations, some lasting tens of thousands of years. You also learn precession, Milankovitch
that scientists have found a close relationship between variations in Earth’s climate and cycles
Milankovitch cycles.
Section 3 How Do Plate Tectonics and Ocean Currents Affect Global Climate? development of Earth’s
You will see that over long periods of geologic time, the geography of Earth’s seafloor and the circumpolar current, ocean
arrangement of its continents changes. You will read about ocean basins, the different pathways circulation, ocean currents
through which ocean water circulates, and the resulting changes that help to redistribute heat from and global climate, ocean
Earth’s warmer surfaces to its cooler ones, which is an important contributor to global climate. You currents and regional
also learn that the oceans are stratified and that surface currents flow above deep-water masses. climate, plate tectonics and
global climate, Pangea and
Finally, you read about the movement of deep ocean currents, known as thermohaline circulation,
paleocurrents
and how it is controlled by variations in density and temperature.
Section 4 How Do Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in the Atmosphere Affect atmospheric carbon dioxide
Global Climate? concentrations and climate,
You will learn that the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the last 160,000 years is greenhouse gases and the
greenhouse effect, carbon
strongly correlated to global temperatures. You design a model to demonstrate the greenhouse effect
budget, human emissions
using simple materials. You learn more about the greenhouse effect and the role of the carbon cycle of greenhouse gases
in trapping heat energy and warming Earth. You consider the storage of carbon and the possibility of
reforestation for reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere.
Section 5 How Do Glaciers Affect Sea Level? extent of Pleistocene
You will use equal-area projections of the areas around the North and South Poles from 20,000 glaciation, effect of glaciers
years ago to calculate the volume of ice during the Pleistocene and to determine how the melting on sea level, postglacial
or growth of these ice sheets would affect sea level. You then examine present-day equal-area rebound
projections of the areas around the North and South Poles to calculate the change in sea level that
would occur if these ice sheets were to melt entirely. You use your calculations of sea-level rise and
fall to determine the areas of the United States that would be flooded or dry with a change in sea
level. Finally, you complete a simple activity using a lump of dough, blocks of wood, and a pan of
water to model postglacial rebound.
Section 6 How Do Rising and Falling Sea Levels Modify the Landscape? effects of sea-level change
You will use a stream table to become familiar with changes in landscape associated with a on the landscape
moderate, steadily flowing stream. Then, you increase the water level in the stream table to model
how a rise in sea level shapes the landscape. Finally, you reduce the water level to model the effect
of a sea-level fall on the landscape. These activities will help you to recognize landscape features
that scientists use to identify periods of sea-level change so you can then look for these features in
your own community.
Section 7 How Might Global Warming Affect Your Community? making predictions,
You will begin to think about how climate change might affect different climatic variables computer modeling,
including precipitation and evaporation. You think about many of the processes that affect and are positive and negative
affected by climate. You learn about some of the problems in making predictions relating to climate feedback relationships,
change. You also learn about the design of complex computer simulations of climate change. You effects of global warming
will consider several outcomes predicted by models and their implications for the Earth system. on precipitation, sea level,
agriculture, and ocean
circulation
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Chapter 7: Earth’s Natural Resources
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to produce a report for your community leaders that addresses the
impact of an increase in population of your community on the consumption and supply of natural
resources. Your report will critically analyze the use of energy, mineral, and water resources in your
community on the assumption of a population growth of 20 percent. Your report will also provide
solutions or alternatives for resource use, to help prevent possible shortages while maintaining the
quality of the environment. To increase public awareness of the importance of your report, you will
also design an advertising campaign.

Section 1 Electricity and Your Community energy resources for
You will compare the use of energy resources for electricity generation in the United States to electricity generation, electric
those used in other countries. You then identify the energy sources that are most commonly used power versus electric energy,
for electricity generation in the United States and in your state. This helps you think about what methods of generating
current means of producing power your community relies on most, and which power sources are electric power, renewable
least important. energy sources
Section 2 Energy From Coal physical properties

You will examine coal samples to understand the physical properties of different types of coal. You and formation of coal,
look at a map that shows the distribution of coal resources in the United States. You then use data distribution of coal deposits,
on trends in coal production and consumption in the United States to extrapolate into the future. fossil fuels, trends in coal
Finally, you will look at possible methods to conserve coal resources. production and consumption,
coal exploration and mining,
energy conservation
Section 3 Energy From Petroleum and Natural Gas nature and origin of
You will consider how oil and gas deposits are discovered and extracted from reservoirs. You then petroleum and natural gas,
design investigations to explore porosity and permeability of rock bodies and to consider how production and consumption
these factors affect the volume and rate of production in oil and gas fields. You will investigate oil of oil and natural gas,
production, imports, and consumption in the United States to recognize the dependence of today’s porosity and permeability,
society on oil as a resource. You then use data on trends in oil production and consumption to petroleum recovery and
reserves
extrapolate into the future. Finally, you look at a map that shows the distribution of oil and gas
deposits in the United States to determine whether oil and gas are found, refi ned, and/or distributed
near your community.
Section 4 Environmental Impacts and Energy Consumption acid rain, carbon cycle,
You will examine a map that shows the acidity of rainfall across the United States, and correlate CO2 concentrations
the pattern of rainwater pH to the distribution of coal-producing regions. You then complete an and the greenhouse
experiment to understand how different types of rocks can neutralize the acidity of rainwater and effect, advantages and
consider how this relates to environmental impacts of acid rain. disadvantages of energy
resources
Section 5 Renewable Energy Sources—Solar and Wind forms of solar energy,

You will explore renewable energy sources, focusing on the potential for solar and wind energy solar energy for heat and
as sources of power generation in your community. You then investigate the use of solar energy electricity, wind power,
by constructing a solar water heater and determining its maximum energy output. You will also energy conservation
investigate the use of wind energy by constructing an anemometer to measure wind speeds and
calculating how much power can be generated by wind.
Section 6 Earth’s Mineral Resources distribution of mineral

You will examine a map that shows the distribution of mineral resources in the United States and resources in the oceans and
learn how mineral resources are found, extracted, and processed. You will then create a mineral on the continents, formation
deposit using sand and iron fi lings. Then you exchange deposits and use a compass to create a map of mineral deposits, geologic
of the deposit and select sites to drill for iron. Finally, you drill to extract core samples at different maps as exploration tools,
sites, and monitor the cost of the exploration. geochemistry in resource
exploration, geophysical
resource exploration
Section 7 The Costs and Benefits of Mining Minerals surface and underground
You will explore the environmental impacts of mining minerals. On the basis of your exploration in mining, environmental
the previous section, you will develop a plan for excavating iron from your mineral-deposit models. reclamation
In addition to determining the net income from your excavation, you will monitor the cost of the
excavation and consider the cost of environmental reclamation following the excavation.
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Section 8 Water Supplies surface-water and
You will identify the human and natural factors that determine the income and expenditure of groundwater flow and
water resources. You then set up a simple experiment to model the flow of water between surface supply systems, factors that
reservoirs and complete another experiment to model groundwater flow. Finally, you will use your affect water-supply systems,
community’s water-quality report to understand water-supply management in your community. water budget
Section 9 Using and Conserving Water amount and purpose of

You will design a method to determine how much water your school uses daily. You will gather water use, consumptive and
data on water use in your and a neighboring county, and compare water use in the two areas. This nonconsumptive water use,
will help you to determine how to measure domestic water use. You will obtain information on the water conservation
quantity of water used by industry and agriculture. These activities will help to identify methods of
conserving water.
Section 10 Water Pollution and Treatment groundwater pollution,
You will investigate the vulnerability of water resources to pollution by both human use and nitrate levels in water,
natural cycles or processes. You then make models of water-treatment processes by constructing surface-water pollution,
a groundwater model and infer how pollutants reach the groundwater table and move with kinds of pollutants, water
groundwater flow. You will investigate how extracting water from a groundwater well influences treatment and filtration
the movement of pollution in groundwater. You then test untreated and treated water samples from
your community for nitrate. Finally, you set up an experiment to model water treatment and then
water filtration.
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Chapter 8: Earth System Evolution
Chapter Challenge
The challenge for this chapter is to apply systems thinking to other planets and moons in our solar
system. You have examined the evolutionary history of Earth’s spheres. You will work as a research
team and create an illustrated script for a three- to four-minute segment of a documentary that
will be broadcast on the NASA TV channel and streamed over the Internet. You must examine the
evolution of one planet or moon in our solar system and compare it to Earth’s evolution. Your script
must be highly visual so the reader can clearly imagine what will appear on the screen.

Section 1 The Evolution of the Geosphere deep time, geologic provinces,
You will examine maps of Earth’s geologic provinces and their ages and look for clues continental shields, cratons,
about the history of the crust. Next, you will look at the geology of the rocks that underlie greenstones, accretion, Earth’s
the North American continent to understand its geologic development. magnetic field
Section 2 The Evolution of the Fluid Spheres mantle rock , dissolved gases,
You will design an experiment that collects a gas dissolved in a liquid. The experiment outgassing and planetary evolution,
models the process of outgassing, in which gases emanate from Earth’s interior during Earth’s early atmosphere and
volcanic eruptions. hydrosphere
Section 3 The Origin of Life on Earth chemosynthesis hypothesis,

You will be introduced to scientific hypotheses for the origin of the biosphere. You consider coacervates, cyanobacteria,
the chemosynthesis hypothesis for how life emerged on Earth. You will then observe stromatolites
coacervates to understand how life may have formed from proto-cells. Next, you examine
Earth’s oldest evidence of life on Earth. You then look at stromatolites, special layered rocks
formed by ancient cyanobacteria, and make inferences about how they lived.
Section 4 The Biosphere and the Evolution of the Atmosphere iron oxidation, banded iron
You will investigate the simple chemical process of rusting by immersing iron in water. You formations, chemical sedimentary
then explore special rocks, called banded iron formations, which provide an insight into rocks, atmospheric evolution,
iron oxidation several billion years ago. Finally, you will examine data about the timing of atmosphere–ocean exchanges
the development of banded iron formations. You then use this to make inferences about the
volume of iron and oxygen in the global ocean and the atmosphere.
Section 5 Geologic Time geologic time scale, units of geologic
You will begin by creating a model of the geologic time scale using major events that time, relative dating, absolute
have occurred through geologic time. You then look at the geologic time scale developed dating, radioactive decay
by scientists and compare it to you own scale. You will see how scientists break down
geologic time into periods according to the appearance and disappearance of living things
throughout Earth’s history. Finally, you will model radioactive decay to understand how
scientists determine the absolute age of a rock.
Section 6 The Fossil Record food chains and food webs, fossils
You will model fossilization using plaster and a shell. You then examine the different levels and fossilization, geologic time scale
of the ecosystem in your community and identify which organisms are more or less likely
to be preserved in the fossil record.
Section 7 Evolution theory of evolution, evolutionary
You will run a model that examines the adaptation of a population of moths in response change, natural selection, extinction
to a change in their environment. You then examine a sample of hypothetical fossils and and mass extinction
changes in their body forms to understand rates of change in the biosphere. Following that,
you will develop a time sequence for a group of fossils of unknown age.
Section 8 North American Biomes climate, biomes, ecological
You will explore the major biomes of North America using images. You then decide which communities, climate–biosphere
biome your own community is found in, and compare this biome to the other North interactions
American biomes. You will think about the factors that control the distribution of plants
and animals, and then consider how the organisms in your community might change if the
physical and chemical conditions were to change.
Section 9 Mass Extinction extinction events, the K-T boundary,
You will use the Internet to collect data about the paleoclimate before and after the causes of extinction, paleoclimate,
Mesozoic–Cenozoic boundary event. You will also search for fossil evidence to fossil record, survival of species
understand how climate change can cause extinctions. You then compare photographs
of skulls of organisms from before and after the boundary event to seek clues about
which species survive.
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Nature of Science
Learning Outcomes
Nature of Science
In this section and throughout
EarthComm, you will
• Describe what characterizes science and
its methods and explain how it applies
to real situations.
As you begin your journey through EarthComm, take a few
• Recognize that scientists actively consider minutes to think about what it means to do science. How
alternative explanations to explain data. would you define science? What makes it different from the
• Identify sources of reliable information other subjects that you study in school? The National Academy
and describe how science applies of Sciences defines science as the “use of evidence to construct
standards that ensure their reliability.
testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena,
• Recognize and provide examples that as well as knowledge generated through this process.”
scientific deductions are drawn from
scientific observations, independently In this brief introduction to the Nature of Science, you
arrived at throughout the world. will look at what this definition means and try to better
• Understand the role of creativity in understand how scientists conduct science. You will read
constructing scientific explanations, about the role of investigations, evidence, logic, inferences,
questions, and methods. and creativity in the quest to better understand the natural
• Understand that scientists develop world. This will require that you be able to tell the difference
appropriate scientific questions, and between science and what some call “pseudoscience,” and
work collaboratively to devise new how scientific interpretations change over time. You also will
methods to explain natural phenomena. consider how science is “human.” People do science. Society
• Describe the parameters that determine influences what science is done, and science influences what
what is science and what clearly is society does.
not science.
• Describe how science’s openness to
change when new, reproducible
data is presented is the foundation
of its durability.
• Describe instances in which scientists’
varied backgrounds, talents, interests,
and goals influence the inferences
and thus the explanations that
they make about observations of
natural phenomena.
• Explain that a scientific theory represents
the most convincing and useful
explanation scientists have to offer.
• Recognize that scientific laws are
descriptions of specific relationships
under given conditions in nature.
• Recognize that theories are well-
supported explanations and laws are
well-supported descriptions.
• Describe the usefulness of models
in science, and identify some of the
models used in science.
• Understand how scientific reasoning
Students performing
and knowledge inform society’s
investigations in
decision making.
an EarthComm
• Compare and contrast the various classroom.
strategies for solving societal problems.
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EarthComm
The goal of EarthComm is to provide an opportunity for you to learn about and
develop a scientific understanding of the Earth system. You will do this by conducting
inquiry-based Earth and space science investigations. These investigations will require
that you use evidence that you have generated to support your explanations. Then you
will use that Earth and space science knowledge to solve real-life challenges using an
Engineering Design Cycle. You will not be science students, but rather student scientists.
As you work through each chapter, think about what you are doing that makes you
a scientist.
Science and its Methods

Scientists are curious human beings who ask questions about the natural world. To
answer these questions, they go through a series of steps that often lead to new
questions. Scientists report the results of their work in scientific journals following a
strict reporting format. Some people incorrectly think that the reporting is identical to
the methods scientists used to get the results, mistakenly believing there is a “scientific
method.” They think that there are specific steps that need to be followed in a
particular order to lead to scientific discoveries. A deeper look at how scientists work
shows that they start their investigations in a variety of ways. The creative discovery
process cannot be written out as a simple recipe of steps. However, during their work,
scientists are careful to ensure that their work is viewed as good science by following
a set of scientific process principles and methods.
First and foremost, scientists
know that their scientific
claims must make sense
and be supported by
experimental evidence.
All arguments supporting
their claims are critically
evaluated. Any alternative
or contradictory scientific
claims and evidence must
be considered in the same
way. A scientist cannot
simply ignore evidence that
does not support the claim.
Although all evidence must
be considered, scientists
must critically evaluate the
sources of their information Scientific journals are an important outlet for presenting new research.
and the scientific quality of
that information.
Developing evidence requires careful, systematic investigation and experimentation.
In preparation for these investigations, scientists search the literature (for example,
journals, conference proceedings, books, and so on), carefully designing and reporting
their studies so that other scientists can replicate the studies. Science requires that
anybody performing the same experiment should arrive at similar results.
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EarthComm

Nature of Science
Science extends across national borders, and scientists are part of an international
community. Science is practiced and supported by people all over the world, in all
cultures, and by people of all races and ethnicities. In EarthComm, you will read
about scientists from many different places around the world. You also will read
about how scientists build on the ideas of other scientists who have come before
them or live in different parts of the world.
In EarthComm, you will be expected to think and act like a scientist. You will be
reminded of all of these aspects of science and its methods as you conduct investigations
and draw conclusions based on evidence gathered from these investigations. You will
be required to consider how your conclusions support or refute theories and organizing
principles of science. You also will need to think about what evidence you have that
supports your reasoning. You will be expected to keep a record of all of this in your
Geo log. As a scientist, you also should record any new questions you would like to
investigate in your log.
Theories and Laws in Science

Science, like other disciplines, has its own language and has words that are
precisely defined so that everyone understands their meanings. This helps to avoid
misunderstandings when reading scientific work. Scientific statements require careful
writing and should be written simply. Sometimes, the meaning of a word in science
is different from the meaning of the same word in everyday language. For example,
in Earth science, the term “relief” refers to variations of height and slope or to
irregularities of the land surface. In everyday language, people use the word “relief”
to refer to relaxation or help. Neither of these common usages align with the Earth
science meaning of “relief.” Similarly, the common usage of the word “theory” includes
references to hunches, speculations, or guesses. None of these coincide with the way
that “theory” is defined in science. Similar issues arise with the scientific usage of the
word “law.”
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EarthComm
In observing the physical world, scientists have noticed

patterns and generated scientific laws to describe
fundamental patterns. These laws do not explain the
patterns but instead describe the specific behavior of
natural phenomena, sometimes using mathematics.
For example, the law of gravitation allows you to
determine the gravitational force of attraction between
two masses. The force depends on the masses of the
objects and the distance between them. You can
apply the law of gravitation to calculate the force by
multiplying the gravitational constant by the product of
the masses and dividing by the square of the distance
between them. However, the law does not explain
why this force is there. Similarly, Kepler’s third law of
planetary motion accurately describes a predictable
relationship between the time it takes a planet to orbit
the Sun and the planet’s average distance from the Sun.
The law can be applied to determine the time it takes
any planet to orbit the Sun. Kepler’s third law does
not, however, explain why the length of an orbit is
dependent on the distance to the Sun.
A scientific theory brings together many observations and investigations. It provides an
explanation for those observations and can be used to predict new phenomena that
have not been observed. For example, the theory of plate tectonics explains the pattern
of volcanoes and earthquakes around the globe. The theory claims that Earth’s crust is
broken up into gigantic slabs that move relative to one another. These slabs, or plates,
move because of slow-moving thermal convection cells in the mantle and because of
gravity pulling the plates into the mantle at subduction zones. This theory can also
be used to predict the location of a new volcano or earthquake. This theory is not a
hunch or a guess. Years of experiments, observations, measurements, and mathematical
applications went into the development of the theory. The work of many people over
many years culminates in a theory. After that, the work of many people over many
years is required for acceptance of that theory in the science community. In common
usage, someone may say, “It’s just a theory.” In science, you can say, “It is a theory!”
Laws do not become theories and theories do not become laws. In EarthComm, you will
learn laws as well as theories of Earth and space science. You will also be introduced to
the models scientists use to help explain theories. You will learn how newer theories
replace older theories in science and the process by which the community of scientists
accepts a new theory. As you complete each section, consider how the new Earth and
space science observations and laws that you learned fit into the larger context of
science knowledge. How is the new knowledge part of the “big ideas” of Earth and
space science and how does the new knowledge meet specific science requirements?
Understanding Earth and space science often requires you to develop and adopt models
to explore a phenomenon. Models are useful in many ways. Many processes in the
Earth system are so large in scale or complex that scientists simplify them using models.
For example, to observe the behavior of rocks under stress, one model uses clay to act
as solid rock. Although clay is much softer than naturally occurring rocks, it bends in a
similar way to rocks that deform under intense heat and pressure. In another model,
layers of different colors are drawn on blocks of styrene foam to represent rock layers
NS4
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Nature of Science
in fault blocks. This allows the movement of rock layers along different types of faults
to be determined. Various models of rocks are used to help scientists understand the
properties of rocks and to make predictions about their behavior in different parts of
the geosphere.
All models are limited to some degree. This is because they are much simpler than the
natural systems they represent. It is important to adopt models to help you understand
how the Earth system works. The system is simply too large, too complex, or too slow
to always observe directly. It is also important to recognize the limitations of models.
As you encounter models in EarthComm, you will be reminded of the limitations of
each model.
Science Versus Pseudoscience

There are many ways in which humans have tried to understand and make sense of
the world around them. People have used art, historical analysis, music, religion, and
language to explore and interpret their experiences. Art expression cannot replace
literature or music. Science cannot replace historical analysis, dance, or religion. Each
of these ways of viewing the world provides different insights and tries to answer
different questions.
Long ago, many people believed in astrology. Astrology is the belief that the position
of the planets at the time of your birth could determine your personality, strengths,
weaknesses, and your destiny. Today, some people may still believe that astrology
provides insights, while others read their horoscopes as a form of entertainment.
Nobody in the scientific world thinks that there is scientific basis for astrology.
Astrology is not scientifically testable and does not meet the criteria of a science.
An astrology chart.
All scientific theories must be falsifiable. This means that there must be a way in which
new evidence can show that a theory is false. For example, assume that a scientific
theory predicts that one event is always followed by a second event. If someone is able
to find an instance where that event is not followed by the predicted event, then the
theory has been shown to be false and must be changed or rejected.
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EarthComm
There are many examples in the history of science in which theories that were
widely accepted had to be rejected. This occurred because new evidence was
discovered through scientific investigations that proved that the theory was
not always true. A new theory was then created that could account for all the
observations of the old theory as well as the new observations. The cycle then
continues. Every theory must have the potential to be proven false for it to
be considered a scientific theory.
A Ptolemaic model of the solar system. A model of the solar system.
Occasionally, people try to strengthen their way of making sense of the world by
saying that their theories are identical to scientific theories. A way in which to
check their assertions is to ask them to describe evidence that could be found which
would falsify their theory. If there is no way to do this, then their theory is not a
scientific theory.
As student scientists in EarthComm, you will learn how to conduct scientific
investigations and to consider how the results of those investigations fit in with
the models and theories of Earth and space science. You will learn how theories
have evolved over time. You will read about instances when an accepted theory
was tossed aside and a new theory became the accepted one because only the new
theory was consistent with the evidence. You will learn to appreciate that scientific
ideas are “works in progress” and subject to revision and refinement.
Science and Society

Science is one of society’s greatest achievements. Society influences what science is
studied and science influences the lives of everyone in society. When communities
attempt to confront problems, they often turn to science to seek the causes of the
problems and to help identify and weigh specific solutions to them. Science can
inform people about what is possible, what is risky, and what are the costs and
benefits associated with solutions to a problem. Although science can serve as a tool
for finding answers to scientific questions, it cannot answer all questions. For example,
scientific research has led to satellites exploring the edge of the solar system.
However, the question, “Should we spend money to put a human on Mars?” is a
philosophical question and not a question that science can answer.
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Nature of Science
Technology is the application of scientific principles to improve lives. Because people

have different values, they will also have different views on a specific technology.
Satellites are an example of space technology. Satellites are used for many different
reasons. They can be used for communication, navigation, monitoring weather,
collecting data from the oceans, and observing the universe. These all appear to
be very positive uses for satellites.
However, while the utility of global positioning satellites in helping an ambulance to
arrive quickly and accurately at a destination is widely accepted, other applications
of the technology are much more debatable. For example, satellite technologies are
also utilized for a range of military purposes, from missile guidance to controversial
initiatives like the Strategic Defense Initiative, which is designed to create a defensive
shield against incoming ballistic missiles. Although satellites have positive benefits, they
also have negative impacts. Are scientific advances in technology good or bad? There is
no simple answer to this ethical question. Scientists must work with engineers as well
as economists, politicians, sociologists, lawyers, and community representatives when
dealing with the complex problems of our modern society.
In EarthComm, you will apply Earth and space science principles to solve different
challenges. For example, you will make a radio or podcast script about astronomical
hazards, design a museum display on the geology of your community, write newspaper
articles on climate change, and design a game about volcanoes and earthquakes. You
will also decide the best city to host the Olympic Games, make a Web site on wind,
weather, oceans, and climate for elementary school students, write a report analyzing
changes in the consumption and supply of natural resources in your community due to
population growth, and create an illustrated script for a short documentary comparing
Earth’s evolution to another planet or moon. In EarthComm, you will never need
to wonder why you are learning something. You need the information that you are
learning to address the Chapter Challenge. As you complete each chapter, consider how
the Chapter Challenge connects science and society.
Satellites have numerous positive as well as negative applications.
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EarthComm

The Earth System
The atmosphere The biosphere

is the gaseous envelope that surrounds is the life zone of Earth and
Earth. It consists of a mixture of gases includes all living organisms,
composed primarily of nitrogen, including humans, and all
oxygen, carbon dioxide, organic matter that has
and water vapor. The not yet decomposed.
atmosphere and the
hydrosphere make
up Earth’s fluid
spheres.
The cryosphere The geosphere

is the portion of the climatic is the solid Earth that
system consisting of the world’s includes the continental
ice masses and snow deposits. The and oceanic crust as well as the
cryosphere is the frozen part of the various layers of Earth’s interior.
hydrosphere. This includes ice sheets, The hydrosphere
ice shelves, ice caps and glaciers, includes the water of Earth,
sea ice, seasonal snow cover, lake including surface lakes, streams,
and river ice, and seasonally frozen oceans, underground water, and
ground and permafrost. water in the atmosphere. The
hydrosphere and the atmosphere
make up Earth’s fluid spheres.
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Nature of Science
Earth/Space Science
Systems Thinking
Earth System Science
In 1946, cameras mounted on rockets were shot into space. They took the first pictures of
Earth from space. The rockets then fell back to Earth. Scientists had to recover the cameras
from the wreckage of the rockets. Today, scientists are still observing Earth from space.
However, instead of using rocket-propelled cameras, they use Earth-imaging satellites that
orbit the planet. Their observations and data are transmitted to Earth. These images and data
have helped scientists to see that Earth is one big system—the Earth system. A system is a
group of interacting or interconnected parts that work as a whole. Seeing Earth as a whole has
helped scientists to study its major systems and provided insight into how the planet works.
The Earth system is not static. Earth is a dynamic planet. Technology makes it possible for
scientists to observe many of the changes that are taking place. Through technology, scientists
monitor many geologic processes as they happen. For instance, the movement of Earth’s
surface is measured using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. Areas where one part
of Earth’s surface is moving under another part are explored using gravity measurements.
Also, clouds of volcanic ash are tracked through the atmosphere using satellite imagery.
New technology also allows Earth system scientists to study the dynamics of climate and
weather. For example, using satellites, scientists are able to measure temperatures across
entire oceans and connect them to movements of the atmosphere. They can also peer into the
atmosphere to measure water vapor otherwise invisible to the unaided eye. Also, from space,
they can observe changes in glaciers and sea ice. They can also study the effects changes in
climate have on living things, such as changes in the distribution of forests.
Earth is a gigantic system of interconnected parts and processes. Seeing Earth as an integrated
system shows the importance of each of its parts. It demonstrates that humans are an integral
part of the Earth system. What humans do affects Earth in many ways. As you journey
through the chapters of EarthComm, you will explore how your community is part of the
Earth system.
NS9
EarthComm

EarthComm
What is Systems Thinking?

Systems thinking is not only important in Earth and space science. Systems thinking can be
applied to any kind of system. There are engineering systems, social systems, conceptual
systems, natural systems, and so on. Even your school can be considered a system. Systems
thinking is simply a method for understanding the relationships and connections between
parts of a larger whole. It helps people analyze how things work, and simplify complex
things by focusing on their most essential characteristics. It is a useful approach for looking
at any problem you might need to solve.
In each EarthComm chapter, you will apply systems thinking. You will begin by considering
the parts of systems and how they interact through processes. As you look at the
interconnections within the Earth system, you will soon notice that systems are driven by
sources of energy. Energy enables work to be done and matter to be transformed and
moved. Sometimes you will make connections between parts of the Earth system that are
separated by great distances in space. Systems can vary greatly in spatial scale from the size
of an atom to entire solar systems and beyond. Making observations of patterns and cycles
in the Earth system will help you to connect today’s Earth system to events in geologic
history. You will learn to look across time as you consider how the past can affect the
future. Some aspects of the Earth system happen over very long time scales. For example,
it takes millions of years for oceans to grow. On the other hand, there are events in the
Earth system, such as earthquakes, that happen very quickly.
Connecting Earth’s Systems

The Earth System diagram shows Earth as a group of interconnecting spheres. These
include the geosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the
biosphere. Together, they make up the Earth system.
The geosphere is the rocky part of the planet. It is the part of Earth where oceans open
and close, mountains rise and fall, volcanoes erupt, and earthquakes shatter the crust.
The geosphere includes the
continental and oceanic
crust. It also includes
Earth’s mantle and inner
and outer cores. The outer
core generates Earth’s
magnetic field.
The rock cycle is an
important process in
this system. During
this process, igneous,
metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks are
formed and destroyed.
This is proof that Earth
is a dynamic planet.
NS10
EarthComm

Nature of Science
The hydrosphere includes the water of

Earth. It includes surface lakes, streams,
oceans, underground water, and water in
the atmosphere.
The water cycle is part of the hydrosphere. It is
an essential part of the planet. Evaporation of
the oceans supplies water to the atmosphere.
Precipitation flows across the continents in
streams and rivers to the oceans. Liquid water
can also be found below the surface in the pores
of soil and sediments and in the fractures and
spaces within bedrock. This water flows under
the force of gravity through channels and spaces
in rocks and eventually returns to the ocean.
Ocean water circulates deep in the ocean and at
its surface. Circulation is strongly influenced by
the conditions of the atmosphere. The movement of ocean water is closely linked to Earth’s
climate system. The properties of the oceans vary over time. One such example is the El Niño
effect. This takes place in the equatorial eastern Pacific Ocean. However, it can affect the
entire Earth system. El Niño demonstrates the strong connections between the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, and the biosphere.
The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds Earth. It consists of a mixture of gases
composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
Earth’s weather occurs in the atmosphere. The lower atmosphere contains the most water
vapor and heat. It is also the most turbulent part of the atmosphere. Storm systems and
severe weather occur there. Thunderstorms, lightning, tornadoes, and hurricanes, are all
important processes in the lower atmosphere. The upper atmosphere absorbs ultraviolet light
from the Sun. It creates a shield that prevents much of this radiation from reaching Earth’s
surface. Because of their dynamic nature, the hydrosphere and atmosphere are known as
Earth’s fluid spheres.
NS11
EarthComm

EarthComm
The cryosphere is the frozen portion of Earth’s climate

system. It consists of ice and snow. In Earth’s polar
regions and at high altitudes, parts of the hydrosphere
often remain frozen. This sub-system includes ice
sheets, ice shelves, ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice. It also
includes seasonal snow cover, lake and river ice, and
seasonally frozen ground and permafrost.
The cryosphere is particularly sensitive to climate.
Scientists look for changes in the cryosphere as an
indication of climate change. Since early in geologic
history, the volume of Earth’s oceans has been closely
connected to the volume of ice on the continents.
The biosphere is the life zone of Earth. It includes all
living organisms, including humans, and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
The biosphere is widespread throughout the Earth system. Place where organisms can live
are found in the each of Earth’s spheres.
The biosphere is one of Earth’s youngest systems. However, it is still billions of years old. As
far as scientists presently know, it is entirely unique to the Earth system. No other planet
has a biosphere. The development of the biosphere is closely connected to changes in
Earth’s other spheres. The biosphere has evolved over billions of years. Organisms have
adapted to their environments. New species have developed. Some species have become
extinct. Part of this long story is recorded in the rocks found in the geosphere. The species
that you see today reflect part of an ongoing process of change.
The Earth system functions as a whole. In the classroom and the laboratory, you can study
parts of the Earth system in isolation to understand them better. However, in nature, no
part of the system exists in complete isolation. Keep this in mind during your studies. A
chapter may focus more on one particular sphere than on the others. However, always
think about how that part of the Earth system interacts with others. At the end of each
chapter, you will be asked to reflect on how what you learned is connected to the other
parts of the Earth system and how these parts work as a whole.
NS12
EarthComm

Chapter Challenge
1
EarthComm
Navigator’s
Manual
Astronomy
Why is there a Getting Started?
Welcome to EarthComm! You are about to begin an exciting year
exploring Earth and its place in our solar system and in the universe.
As you begin each chapter, you will get started by thinking about
EarthComm is a what you already know or think you know about a given topic. This
research-based is what you will use to build your new understandings. You need
program. This means to compare what you are learning in the classroom to what you
that what you will be already know or think you know.
doing in this course,
and how you will
be doing it, is based
on researching how Getting Started
students like you
learn best. Throughout time, people have wondered about all the things that can
be seen in the night sky. Have you ever been curious about why the
In this first chapter, Moon seems to change its shape? Or why the pattern of the stars is
you will find notes that
different at various times and places? Have you thought about why
explain the various
some objects seem to “shoot” across the night sky?
components of this
course and how they The first astronomers (scientists who study the universe) also wondered
can help you actively about many of the same things. They recorded the appearance of the
engage in learning night sky and tried to explain the changes they noticed throughout
science. Think of these the year. Since then, scientists have come to realize that all systems
notes as your manual in the universe, including Earth and its solar system, are changed
for charting the best by processes that originate from far beyond their boundaries. Think
path for you through about the following questions:
this course.
• What objects make up the solar system?
Stopping to think
about the best way • How far is Earth from other objects in the solar system?
to get from one point • Which objects in the solar system can affect Earth? In what ways?
to another can make
• What objects or processes outside the solar system might
you a better navigator.
Stopping to think about
affect Earth?
your learning can make Write a short paragraph about Earth and its place in our solar system.
you a better learner. After that, write a second paragraph about processes or events in the
Although some of these solar system that could change Earth. Describe what these processes
notes may seem like a or events do and how Earth is, or might be, affected. Try to include
lot of “teacher talk,” as answers to the questions above.
you work through each
section of each chapter,
think about why you are
doing each of the things
you are asked to do. The
more you understand
about how you learn,
the better you will be
at learning. 2
EC_Natl_SE_C1.indd 2 7/11/11 12:12:57 PM

Why is there a Scenario?
The Scenario describes a realistic event or situation
that you might have experienced or can imagine
experiencing. The Scenario sets the stage for the
Chapter Challenge, which follows.
Scenario
Scientists recently announced that an asteroid 2 kilometers (km) wide, asteroid
1997 XF11, would pass within 50,000 km of Earth (about one eighth the distance
between Earth and the Moon) in October 2028. A day later, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) scientists revised the estimate to 800,000 km. Other news
reports described how a meteorite blasted a hole more than 1 km wide and 200 meters (m)
deep and probably killed every living thing within 50 km of impact. That collision formed
Arizona’s Meteor Crater approximately 50,000 years ago. Such a collision would wipe
out a major city today. These reports have raised concern in your community about the
possibility of a comet or asteroid hitting Earth. Your class will be studying space and the
effects that the Sun and other objects in the solar system can have on Earth. Your local
radio station has asked your class to write a script for a special radio series on the possible
effects that objects from space can have on Earth. This series can also be sent out as a
podcast, or available as audio files on your school’s Web site.

Chapter Challenge
Why is there a Chapter Challenge?

At this point, you are presented with what you will be required to do as a chapter project.
The Chapter Challenge may be a problem you are expected to solve or a task you are
expected to complete using the knowledge you gain in the chapter. When you first
encounter the Chapter Challenge, you may find it overwhelming. However, all the Earth
and space science content in the chapter will help you address the challenge. Each section
will provide you with another piece of the puzzle that, when put together, will help you to
complete the challenge.
In EarthComm, you will never be left wondering, “Why am I learning this?” You will need
everything you learn in a chapter to address the Chapter Challenge. You can think of the
challenge as the job you need to do over the next few weeks.
Chapter Challenge
In your radio and/or podcast script, you will need to set the scene for your listeners with
some background on Earth and its place in the universe. You will need to include the
following in your script:
• Where Earth is located in the universe. Include information about how Earth’s solar
system formed and changed over time. Also include information about Earth’s distance
from the Sun and its orbit of the Sun. Be sure to mention Earth’s place in the galaxy, and
the galaxy’s place in the universe.
• How the Sun can influence what happens on Earth. Explain the positive and negative
effects that solar activity (such as sunspots and radiation) has on Earth. Be sure to
explain the Sun’s composition and structure, and how that composition compares to
that of other stars.
• How Earth’s orbit, the Moon’s orbit, and gravitation are related to the Sun and
each other.
• What comets and asteroids are and how they behave. Also include how likely it is
that one will collide with Earth in your lifetime, and what would happen if one did.
• Why influences on your community from outside Earth are a natural part of how the
Earth system changes over time.
You will be writing scripts for three 5-minute shows on the effects objects in space
could have on Earth. Each script should be in three columns, with what the narrator or
interviewee will say in the first column, any sound effects you will include in the second
column, and the source of the information for each segment in the third column. If
possible, make an audio recording of your scripts to share with your classmates. Be sure
to make the scripts both scientifically accurate and exciting to the listener, as these are
both important parts of effective science communication to the public. With your teacher’s
permission, you may be able to broadcast your shows on the school’s public address system
or have them available as audio files on your school’s Web site.

Why are there Assessment Criteria?
To do well at any job, you need to know what the job expectations are. That applies in the
classroom as well as in the workplace. It is essential to define and understand the criteria for
success. Before you begin your job in each chapter, you and your class will discuss and list the
criteria that you will be expected to meet. Next, you will determine the relative importance of
the criteria. Then you can assign point values to each component. You will also need to clarify
the details of the criteria. For example, you need to know how many Earth and space science
principles are required to meet a standard of excellence (the best you can do).
Even though Earth and space science principles are necessary criteria in addressing the challenge,
they are not enough. Each Chapter Challenge will also expect you to be imaginative and creative.
Each completed project should be unique. It should be a reflection of the interests and talents of
the members of your group.
As a class, list your criteria first. Then read the suggestions given to you by your teacher and
compare them to your class list. By listing your criteria first, you will gain a greater understanding
of the challenge. Your teacher’s suggestions will then be a useful comparison.
Assessment Criteria
Think about what you have been asked to do. Scan ahead through the sections of the
chapter to see how they might help you to meet the challenge. Work with your classmates
and your teacher to define the criteria for assessing your work. Record all of this
information. Make sure that you understand the criteria as well as you can before you
begin. Your teacher may provide you with a sample rubric to help you get started.
Why is there a Geo log?

As a student scientist, everything that you
think and do should be recorded in your Geo
log. You may be beginning the year with this
chapter. Write the name and number of the
chapter, Chapter 1: Astronomy, at the top of
page 5 in your log. Remember to keep the
first four pages for your table of Contents.
If you have not already set up your log,
refer to how to create your Geo log in the
introduction of this book.
Record any notes you have about the Chapter
Challenge in your log. You will also need to
list the criteria and their point value that your
class decided on for assessing the challenge.

Chapter Challenge
Why is there an
Engineering Design Cycle?
The Chapter Challenge is a problem that
you need to solve. There are many
different ways to solve problems.
One sequence of steps that can be
used to solve problems is called the
Engineering Design Cycle. You are going
to use a simplified Engineering Design
Cycle as you address your challenge.
There are five basic steps to a simplified
engineering design.
Simplified Engineering Design Cycle

• define the problem • draft potential solutions
GOAL
• identify available resources • list constraints to possible actions
INPUTS • complete the investigations in each section • learn new concepts and vocabulary
• evaluate work to date

• create a model from your information
• compare and contrast methods and ideas
PROCESS • design experiments to test ideas and the
• examine possible trade-offs to help reach goals
suitability of the model
and maximize efforts
• present Mini-Challenge and intermediary steps • present Chapter Challenge based on feedback
OUTPUTS
or products to Mini-Challenge
• obtain response from target audience leading • identify additional constraints, requiring
FEEDBACK
to modification of the goal restarting the input and process stages
Your Chapter Challenge is to write scripts for three 5-minute radio shows on the effects
objects in space could have on Earth. You will use a simplified Engineering Design Cycle to
help your group develop the scripts. Establishing a clear Goal is the first step in the process.
With your group, define the project you need to create, identify the Assessment Criteria,
think through some of the constraints that you will face, and discuss possible ways to
present your information.
As you experience each of the chapter sections, you will be gaining information and
Inputs to use in the Engineering Design Cycle. These Inputs will include Earth history
and astronomy facts, concepts, and vocabulary. You may even come up with questions that
have not yet been answered by astronomers to include in your radio show. Remember, it is
important to engage as well as inform your audience, so be creative.
After the first five sections of the chapter, you will work on part of the project and receive
Feedback from your classmates and teacher as to which parts of your project are good
and which parts need to be refined. This Mini-Challenge will be the first Output of the
Engineering Design Cycle and will be a chart or poster outlining one of the 5-minute scripts.

It should list the topics you will cover in your show and the format you will use to present your
information. You will then revisit the Engineering Design Cycle after the second half of the
chapter when you have gained the other Inputs to complete your presentation.
7E Instructional Model
EarthComm uses a 7E
instructional model. The Earth/Space Science Corner
steps (phases) are
• Elicit • Engage • Explore Astronomy
• Explain • Elaborate • Extend
• Evaluate • Astronomical distance • Frequency and wavelength
and time • Galaxies
These phases will be pointed • Big bang theory
out to you in the first section of • Hertzsprung-Russell
• Characteristics of the Sun diagram
this chapter. Then, as you work and other stars • Kepler’s laws of motion
through the other sections of the • Celestial bodies • Law of gravitation
chapter, look for each phase and • Doppler effect • Nebular theory, birth of
think about how it helps you be • Earth and its Moon the planets
a better learner. • Earth’s energy budget • Newton’s laws of motion
• Eccentricity • Parallax
Why is there an • Electromagnetic radiation • Steady-state theory
Earth/Space Science
Corner?
In this corner, you will find
a list of the major Earth
and space science principles
that will be presented in
the chapter. You will learn
these concepts and master
these skills, and more, as
you complete each section.
It is important for you to
understand all the science,
because you will need to
apply it to complete the
Chapter Challenge.
7

Chapter 1 Astronomy
Section 1 The Size and Scale of the Universe

What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
In this section, you will
• Produce a scale model of the
solar system.
• Identify some strengths and
limitations of scale models.
• Calculate distances to objects in the
universe in astronomical units (AU),
light-years, and parsecs (pc).
Why is there a What Do You See? and Think About It?

The What Do You See? and Think About It are the Elicit and Engage
phases of learning. You have already spent a number of years at school Think About It
T
learning about many different subjects. You watch television, read, or E
Earth is part of a large
listen to others talk. You have your own ideas about Earth and space
nnumber of objects that
and about why and how things happen. It is very important for you
oorbit a star called the
to think about what you know or what you think you know. In the
SSun. The Sun is one of
Getting Started, you already took some time to think in general about
what you know about astronomy. Now you will think about more
hhundreds of billions of
specific topics. The Elicit phase of learning is thinking about what you stars
st that make up the
already know. Milky Way Galaxy.
M
The Engage phase is meant to capture your attention. The What Do • What objects make up
You See? picture in each section has been drawn by Tomas Bunk. Earth’s solar system?
Tomas Bunk is not a scientist but a well-recognized cartoonist. He • Where is Earth’s solar
uses his artistic talent and enjoys drawing humorous illustrations that system in relation to
show real Earth and space science concepts in a very personal way. the stars and galaxies
When you look at the drawings, what do you see? What do you not that make up the
understand about what is happening in the illustration that you would universe?
like to learn more about? How much fun and how personal can you
make your encounter with Earth and space science? Record your ideas about
these questions in your
As you answer the Think About It question(s), what interests you
Geo log. Be prepared to
and what other questions come to your mind that you would like
discuss your responses
answered? The Engage phase of the learning cycle is designed to get
with your small group
you interested in what you will be learning.
and the class.
8
EarthComm

Why is there an Investigate? IInvestigate

The Investigate is the Explore phase of the I this Investigate, you will be exploring
In
7E instructional model. The best way to tthe great distances between objects in
learn is by doing. In EarthComm, whenever sspace and how astronomers measure
possible, you will explore a concept by tthese distances.
doing an investigation.
Part A: Distances in the Solar System
P
One purpose of the investigation is to
1. Use the data in Table 1 to make a scale
“level the playing field” and ensure that
model of the solar system. Try using
everybody has a common experience
through which to discuss the science. For
the scale 1 m = 150,000,000 km (one
example, some students have spent time hundred and fifty million kilometers).
outdoors gazing into the sky at night, a) Divide all the distances in the
while others have not. Although it would column “Distance From Sun (km)”
be wonderful if everyone could have by 150,000,000. Write your scaled-
this experience, it is not always possible. down distances (in meters) in your
However, it is possible to provide a Geo log.
classroom experience that everybody can
relate to and talk about. b) Divide all the diameters in the
column “Diameter (km)” by
In EarthComm, you will not be limited to
150,000,000. Write your scaled-
having to believe what somebody wrote
down diameters (in meters) in your
in a book. You will have an opportunity
to observe, record data, isolate variables,
Geo log.
design and plan experiments, create c) Looking at your numbers, what
graphs, interpret results, develop disadvantage is there to using the
hypotheses, and organize your findings. scale 1 m = 150,000,000 km?
Sometimes, the entire class will participate
in a demonstration. This is a way you Table 1: Diameters of the Sun and
can learn when there is not enough Planets and Distances From the Sun
equipment for everyone in the class, when Distance From
the equipment is very expensive, or if the Object Diameter (km)
Sun (km)
investigation is too dangerous. Sun — 1,391,400
All scientists value inquiry. The Explore Mercury 57,900,000 4879
phase is part of an inquiry approach to Venus 108,200,000 12,104
learning. In EarthComm, you are not Earth 149,597,890 12,756
science students, you are student scientists. Mars 227,900,000 6794
Jupiter 778,400,000 142,984
Scientists often record their results in log
Saturn 1,426,700,000 120,536
books. When you see the symbol , you
Uranus 2,871,000,000 51,118
should record the information required for
Neptune 4,498,300,000 49,528
the Investigate in your Geo log.
2. Now try another scale:

1 m = 3,000,000 km (three
million kilometers).
a) Divide all the distances in the column
“Distance From Sun (km)” by
3,000,000. Write your scaled-down
distances (in meters) in your Geo log.
9
EarthComm

Chapter 1 Astronomy
b) Divide all the diameters in the a) Explain the scale(s) you decided
column “Diameter (km)” by to use and the reasons for your
3,000,000. Write your scaled-down choice(s).
diameters (in meters) in your
b) Is it possible to make a model of the
Geo log.
solar system on your school campus
c) Looking at your numbers, what in which both the distances between
disadvantage is there to using the objects and the diameters of the
scale 1 m = 3,000,000 km ? objects are to the same scale? Explain
your answer.
3. Astronomers use special units for
measuring the vast distances in space.
The closest star to Earth is the Sun.
Scientists call the average distance
between Earth and the Sun one
astronomical unit, or AU. The actual
value of an AU is slightly less than
this distance at 149,597,870 km.
Astronomers most commonly use
AUs to express distances within the
solar system.
a) Convert all the distances in the
column “Distance From Sun (km)”
to astronomical units.
b) How do AUs compare to the other
scales you used?
4. Using what you have learned about
scaling distances and diameters in the
solar system, make models of the Sun
and the planets. Each of the planets can
be drawn on a different sheet of paper Part B: Distances Between Stars
using a ruler to measure the correct sizes and Galaxies
for the different planets and the Sun. 1. After the Sun, the next star nearest to
5. To represent the distances from the Earth is Proxima Centauri at about
Sun to the planets, you will need to 40,000,000,000,000 (40 trillion) km away.
use a tape measure. You may want to
measure the length of your stride and a) Calculate this distance in
use this as a simple measuring tool. To astronomical units.
measure your stride, stand behind a line b) Suppose that Earth and the Sun are
and take five normal steps forward, and
dots 1 cm apart. Using that scale,
note where your last step ended.
what would be the distance from
Now measure the distance from where Earth to Proxima Centauri?
you started to where you ended. Divide
this number by five to determine how c) What disadvantage is there to using
far you walk with each step. Knowing kilometers and astronomical units to
the length of your stride is a helpful express the distance from Earth to
way to determine distances. Proxima Centauri?
10
EarthComm

2. Astronomers commonly use two other

units to express the great distances
between stars and galaxies. A light-year Why is there a
is a unit that measures the distance that Learning Through Technology?
a ray of light travels in one year, or Not every classroom has computers
about 9,460,000,000,000 (9.46 trillion) that all students or groups of students
km. The parsec (pc) is used to describe can access. Therefore, the Investigate
very large distances. One parsec equals activities have been written in such a
3.26 light-years. way that computers are not required to
a) Calculate the distance from Earth to complete them.
Proxima Centauri in light-years. However, there are many useful and
b) Calculate the distance from Earth to interesting Web sites that can be used
to access real-time data or additional
Proxima Centauri in parsecs.
information. Often, it is easier and
3. There are more than 100,000,000,000 quicker to manipulate and analyze data
(100 billion) galaxies in the universe. using a computer. The EarthComm Web
Some galaxies have only a few million site provides you with a list of reputable
stars, while others have several sites that you can access to expand your
hundred billion stars. Read the understanding. You will find that the
following carefully. addresses are updated regularly.
• The Milky Way Galaxy is 100,000 In some cases, you will find an entire
light-years in diameter. Investigate written with step-by-step
instructions for how to use data that
• The Sun is 25,000 light-years from is available on the Internet. You and
the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. your teacher may wish to replace the
• The Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest Investigate in the book with the one
galaxy to ours. It is 2,900,000 light- available on the EarthComm Web site.
years away.
• The Andromeda Galaxy is 150,000
light-years in diameter.
• The Milky Way Galaxy is a member Learning Through Technology
of a cluster of more than 30 galaxies
known as the Local Group. The To expand your
Local Group is 5,000,000 light-years understanding of the vast
in diameter. distances between stars,
• The Virgo cluster of galaxies contains go to the EarthComm
1000 galaxies. It is 50,000,000 light- Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/
years away from Earth. education/earthcomm2/. There you will
be able to investigate the different distances
a) Rank the distances listed from closest
between stars that you can see from your
to farthest from Earth.
own night sky.
b) Convert the distances to parsecs.
11
EarthComm

Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why are there Digging

D iWhy
ggingis D
Deeper
e e pe r
there a Digging Deeper?
Geo Words?
The Digging Deeper is the Explain phase of the 7E
It is easier and more effective
instructional model. Reading the Digging Deeper and
to communicate concepts when
discussing it with other students and your teacher will
the appropriate vocabulary is
help you make better sense of the concepts you just
used. In science, a single word is
explored in the investigation. In the Digging Deeper,
often used to precisely describe
the results of your investigation are explained in terms
a complex idea. Geo Words
of scientific models, laws, and theories. In this part, you
highlight the important terms
will also be introduced to scientific vocabulary after the
that you need to know and use.
concepts are explained. The Geo Words highlight the
In the Digging Deeper, these
words appear in boldface type vocabulary you need to know. You will find that using
the first time they are used. this vocabulary makes it easier to discuss the concepts
Sometimes these words first need with your class and answer the Checking Up questions.
to be used in the Investigate or These questions will help you check that you have
the introduction of a chapter. understood the explanation.
You will recognize these words In EarthComm, you always Explore before you Explain.
because they are printed in This ensures that you have some experience (Explore)
italics (a slanted type). The best with what is being described and discussed (Explain).
way to learn new vocabulary You can think of this as ABC (Activity Before Concept).
is to practice using the words You will also be introduced to the science vocabulary
frequently and correctly. It is not after you understand the concept. This is what
useful to memorize a lot of terms scientists do and how student scientists should learn.
and definitions. It is important to
understand the concepts before The Digging Deeper may also include the Elaborate
you use the vocabulary. You can phase of the 7E instructional model. After you are able
think of this as CBV (Concept to explain the science in the Investigate, you will be
Before Vocabulary). introduced to additional science that is related to and
makes sense in terms of the Investigate.
Geo Words
solar system: the Sun Digging Deeper
(a star) and the planets
and other bodies that
travel around the Sun. YOUR PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE
planet: (in our solar
system) a large, round
Measurement in Space
body that orbits the You just investigated the very large distances between objects in space. You
Sun.
tried to make a model of the solar system. To do this, you needed to know
astronomer: a scientist the distance of each planet from the Sun. Astronomers often study objects
who studies the
universe. that are far from Earth. As you saw in the Investigate, it is difficult to use units
astronomical unit: a
such as kilometers to describe these large distances. Even a million kilometers
unit of measurement is too small of a unit. Astronomers solve this problem by using larger units
equal to the average to measure distances. When discussing distances inside the solar system, they
distance between the often use the astronomical unit (AU). One astronomical unit is the average
Sun and Earth (that
is, about 149,600,000
distance between Earth and the Sun. It is equal to 149,597,870 km.
[1.496 × 108] km).
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Geo Words
Stars are so far away that even using astronomical units becomes star: a celestial object
difficult. For distances to stars and galaxies, astronomers use a unit called that gives off its own
light and is made up
a light-year. A light-year sounds as though it is a unit of time, because a of a mass of gas held
year is a unit of time. However, it is really the distance that light travels in together by its own
a year. Because light travels extremely fast at 300,000 km/s, a light-year is gravity.
a very large distance. Astronomers also use a unit called a parsec (pc) to galaxy: a large
describe even greater distances. One parsec equals 3.26 light-years. grouping of stars
in space.
Distances in the Universe light-year: a unit of
measurement equal
The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets, including Earth, to the distance light
and many smaller objects. Because of the Sun’s pull of gravity, it is the travels in one year
central object in the solar system. All other objects revolve around it. (that is, 9.46 ×
The solar system includes a huge volume of space that stretches in all 1012 km).
directions from the Sun. parsec: a unit of
measurement used in
The inner planets of the solar system include Mercury, Venus, Earth, astronomy to describe
and Mars. They are small, dense, and rocky planets with cores of iron. large distances. One
Mercury is the smallest planet, and it is closest to the Sun. Venus is similar parsec equals
3.26 light-years.
in size to Earth. For this reason, it is sometimes called Earth’s twin. Mars
gravity: the force of
is about half the size of Earth. attraction between
The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These two bodies due to
their masses.
planets are spaced farther away from each other than the inner planets.
density: a physical
They are also much larger and made mostly of lighter substances, such property of a
as hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. Jupiter, the largest planet, substance that is
is more than 1300 times the volume and 300 times the mass of Earth. expressed as the mass
Saturn is the second-largest planet, but it has the lowest density, less of a substance per
unit volume.
than water. Density is the mass of a substance per unit of volume. Uranus
is twice as far from the Sun as Saturn while Neptune, on the outer edge
of the solar system, is 30 times as far from the Sun as Earth. Uranus and
Neptune are much smaller than Jupiter and Saturn, but each is still over
60 times the volume of Earth.
Figure 1 This illustration shows the average distances of the planets in our solar system
from the Sun. The relative distances, locations, and sizes of the planets are not to scale.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Figure 2 This illustration shows the planets in our solar system and their relative sizes.
The distances from the planets to the Sun are not to scale.
If you could travel at the speed of light, it would take about 8 minutes
to get to the Sun from Earth. It would take about 4.2 years to get to
Proxima Centauri, the second-closest star. Stars belong to galaxies, larger
groupings of stars in space. Galaxies are held together by the attraction of
gravity. The Sun and Proxima Centauri are only two of the stars within the
Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy contains hundreds of billions of
stars. Traveling at the speed of light, it would take 25,000 years to travel
from Earth to the center of the Milky Way.
Have you ever seen the Milky Way? It is a band of light that stretches
across the dark night sky. It is formed by the glow of the billions of stars it
Geo Words contains. From Earth, this band of light is best seen from dark-sky viewing
telescope: an sites. Binoculars and backyard-type telescopes magnify the view and
arrangement of reveal individual stars. Unfortunately, for those who like to view the night
lenses and/or mirrors
that can be used to
sky, light pollution in densely populated areas makes it impossible to see
view distant objects. the Milky Way even on nights when the atmosphere is clear and cloudless.
atmosphere: the thin Galaxies are classified according to their shape: elliptical, spiral, or
layer of gases that irregular. Look at Figure 3 on the next page. Our home galaxy is a flat
surround planets and
stars being held by spiral, pinwheel-shaped collection of stars held together by gravity. The
gravity. Milky Way is shown in Figure 4. Our solar system is located in one of the
spiral arms about two thirds of the way out from the center of the galaxy.
What is called the Milky Way is the view along the flat part of our galaxy.
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When you look at the Milky Way, you are looking out through the galaxy
parallel to the plane of its disk. The individual stars you see dotting the
night sky are just the ones nearest to Earth in the galaxy. When you view
the Milky Way, you are “looking through” those nearest stars to see the
more distant parts of the galaxy.
A B C
Figure 3 A: The M81 spiral galaxy is 11.6 million light-years away. B: The Centaurus A
elliptical galaxy is 11 million light-years away. C: The I Zwicky 18 irregular galaxy is
45 million light-years away.
Figure 4 The Milky Way Galaxy. Our solar system is located in a spiral band about two
thirds of the way from the nucleus of the galaxy.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Geo Words
universe: all of space There are billions of galaxies in the universe. Astronomers define the
and everything in it. universe as all of space and everything in it. Galaxies are very far apart,
parallax: an apparent often millions of light-years. Most of the universe is empty space. At
shift in the position the speed of light, you would have to travel more than 2.9 million years
of an object when
viewed from different to reach the galaxy closest to ours, the Andromeda Galaxy. The largest
positions. galaxies contain more than a trillion stars, while some of the smaller ones
have only a few million.
Measuring Distances to Stars
How have astronomers found a way to measure the distances to stars?
Astronomers often use parallax to measure the distance to a star. Parallax
is the apparent shift in the position of an object when you look at it from
different positions. You can experience parallax by extending your arm
and holding up your thumb. Look at your thumb first with your left eye
closed and then with your right eye closed. Your thumb appears to change
position with respect to the background. Just as your thumb appears to
move, a star seems to move when compared with more distant stars as
Earth revolves around the Sun.
When Earth is on one side of the Sun, astronomers look at the position of
the star against a background of stars that are much farther away. Then,
when Earth is on the other side of the Sun, six months later, they look
again at the star’s position against the same background of stars. (See
Checking Up Figure 5.) They measure how much the star’s location appears to shift.
1. What is the Then they use this measurement to calculate how far away the star is
distance from Earth. The less the star appears to move, the farther away it is.
represented by a
light-year? By an
astronomical unit?
By a parsec?
2. Which of the units
in Question 1 would
you use to describe
each of the
following? Justify
your answers.
a) Distances to
various stars (but
not our Sun)
b) Distances to
various planets
within Earth’s
solar system Figure 5 Astronomers use parallax by observing the same star when
Earth is at two different points during its orbit of the Sun.
c) Widths of
galaxies
3. In your own words,
explain parallax
and how it is used
to measure the
distances to stars.
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EarthComm

Why is there a Think About It Again?

At the beginning of each section, you are asked to think about one or more questions.
At that point, you are not expected to necessarily come up with a correct scientific
answer, but you are expected to think about what you know. Now that you have
completed the section, you have investigated the Earth and space science you need to
answer the questions. Think about the questions again.
Compare your answers now to the answers you gave initially. Comparing what you think
now with what you thought before is a way of “observing your thinking.” Remember,
research shows that stopping to think about your learning makes you a better learner.
Think About It Again

At the beginning of this section, you were asked the following:
• What objects make up Earth’s solar system?
• Where is Earth’s solar system in relation to the stars and galaxies that make up
the universe?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe the various
distances among the objects within the universe.
Why is there a Reflecting on the Section and the Challenge?

This part of the section is the Extend phase of the 7E instructional model. It gives you an
opportunity to practice transferring what you learned in a section to another situation.
In the case of EarthComm, you will need to apply your knowledge to complete the
Chapter Challenge. Each section of a chapter is like another piece of the puzzle that
completes the challenge. Transfer of knowledge is an important element in learning.
This component presents a connection between each section and the chapter. It will
guide you to producing a better Chapter Challenge.
Reflecting on the Section and the Challenge

You used various scales to make a model of Earth’s solar system. Scale models helped you
appreciate the vastness of distances in Earth’s solar system. You discovered that there are
some drawbacks to using scale models. You then found the distance to the next-nearest
star (after the Sun) to Earth in astronomical units, light-years, and parsecs. These distances
were compared with the distances to other objects in space, including the Andromeda
Galaxy and the Virgo cluster. You also examined the widths of the Milky Way Galaxy, the
Andromeda Galaxy, and the Local Group. Although the distances between the Sun and
planets are great, you observed that the distances between stars, galaxies, and clusters are
far greater. This discovery will help you to describe Earth and its place in the universe for
the Chapter Challenge.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why is there an Understanding and Applying?

The Understanding and Applying is another opportunity for you to Elaborate on the
science content in the section. It also provides an additional chance to extend your
knowledge. Often, you will be assigned Understanding and Applying questions as
homework. They are excellent study-guide questions that help you to review and to
check your understanding.
The Understanding and Applying is also a part of the Evaluate phase. This is one place
where you evaluate your learning. However, it is not the only place. You also evaluated
your learning during the Investigate (Explore) and the Digging Deeper (Explain). One
difference between beginning and expert learners is that expert learners are more
aware of their understanding through a constant evaluation of what they know and do
not know.
Understanding and Applying
1. Using the scale 1 m = 3,000,000 km you used for distance in your model of the solar
system, answer the following:
a) How far away would Proxima Centauri be from Earth?
b) How far away from Earth would the Andromeda Galaxy be on your scale, given
that Andromeda is 890 kiloparsecs or 2.9 million light-years away?
2. The Moon, on average, is 384,400 km from Earth and has a diameter of 3475 km.
Calculate the diameter of the Moon and its distance from Earth using the scale of the
model you developed in the Investigate.
3. What is the largest possible distance between any two planets in the solar system?
4. Use your understanding of a light-year and the distances from the Sun shown in Table 1
to calculate how many minutes it takes for sunlight to reach each of the eight planets in
the solar system. Then use the unit “light-minutes” (how far light travels in one minute)
to describe the distances from Earth to each object.
5. Express your school address in the following ways:
a) As you would normally address an envelope.
b) To receive a letter from another country.
c) To receive a letter from a friend who lives at the center of our galaxy.
d) To receive a letter from a friend who lives in a distant galaxy.
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6. How far away in astronomical units would the

following stars be?
a) Sirius (8.6 light-years) Why is there a Preparing
b) Vega (26 light-years) for the Chapter Challenge?
c) Etamin (130 light-years) This feature serves as a guide
to get part of the Chapter
d) Rasalgethi (550 light-years) Challenge completed. As you
7. Preparing for the Chapter Challenge complete each section or a
couple of sections of a chapter,
Begin to develop your script for the Chapter you need to take time to
Challenge. In your own words, explain your organize the knowledge that
community’s position relative to Earth, the Sun, and nd you are gaining and to try to
other planets in our solar system. Explain the position
tion apply it to the challenge.
of Earth’s solar system in the Milky Way Galaxy, and The Preparing for the Chapter
its place in the universe. Include distances as part of Challenge is another Extend
your explanation. Write a few paragraphs that explain
plain phase of the 7E instructional
what your scale model represents and how you chose ose model.
the scale or scales you used.
Why is there an Inquiring Further?

EarthComm uses inquiry as a way of learning. Inquiry lets you think like a scientist.
It is the process by which you ask questions, design investigations, gather evidence,
formulate answers, and share your answers. Inquiry is not just what you do in the
Investigate. You are involved in inquiry during each part of each section of a chapter.
However, Inquiring Further gives you an additional opportunity to do inquiry on your
own. Sometimes you will be asked to design an experiment and with the approval of
your teacher, carry out your experiment. Other times, the Inquiring Further will ask you
to answer questions that require additional sources of information, or to solve more
challenging, in-depth problems.
Inquiring Further
1. Solar-system walk
Construct a “solar-system walk” on your school grounds or your neighborhood.
In chalk, sketch the Sun and the planets to scale on a surface such as a sidewalk.
Mark the distances between the Sun and the eight planets at a scale that is appropriate
for the site.
2. Scaling the nearest stars
Look up the distances to the five stars nearest to the Sun. Where would they be in the
scale model you completed in your solar-system walk? To show their location, would
you need a map of your state? Your country? Your continent? The world?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why is there a 7E instructional model?

At the beginning of this chapter, you were introduced to the 7E instructional model. You
were also asked to think about why you are asked to do certain things in EarthComm.
Review the components of this section, and think about what instructional-model phase is
addressed by each component.
Phases of the 7E
Where is it in the section?
Instructional Model
Elicit What Do You See?

Think About It
Engage What Do You See?

Think About It
Explore Investigate
Explain Digging Deeper

Geo Words
Digging Deeper
Elaborate Think About It Again
Checking Up

Extend Preparing for the Chapter Challenge
Inquiring Further
Formative evaluation—You evaluate your own understanding

and your teacher can evaluate your understanding during all
Evaluate components of the chapter. Additional evaluations may include:
Lab reports, Checking Up, Think About It Again,
Understanding and Applying, and Practice Test.
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Section 2 Locating Astronomical Objects in the Night Sky
Section 2 Locating Astronomical Objects in the

Night Sky What Do You See?
What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes Think About It

In this section, you will When you try to find your way to a new address, what tools or
• Construct a model of the night sky methods do you use? Do you find some ways of locating new
to understand how star maps work. places more useful to you than others? How do you think it
• Describe the coordinate system used would be different to find your way to a new place in space?
to locate objects in the sky.
• How do astronomers locate objects in the sky?
• Identify patterns in the organization
and distribution of matter in the Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include a
universe. sketch that demonstrates your ideas. Be prepared to discuss your
responses with your small group and the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will be comparing and contrasting ways of
finding places both on the surface of Earth and in space.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Part A: Describing the Locations of On a globe, they form a series of circles

Places on Earth that decrease in size toward the poles.
1. With your group, discuss ways for Latitude lines show locations north
locating places on Earth. and south of the equator. Lines of
longitude are imaginary lines that run
a) List all the ways your from the North Pole to the South Pole.
group identified. They show locations east and west
b) Rank your list from the of the prime meridian. You will now
most accurate to the least sketch latitude lines using a compass,
accurate descriptions. protractor, and ruler.
2. Use a globe, an atlas, the Internet, or 8. Use a compass to draw a circle 15 cm
other sources to find the most precise in diameter.
location of your school as possible.
9. Draw a horizontal line through the
a) Record the location of your school. center of the circle (a diameter).
3. Exchange your description with one 10. Identify the longitude and latitude
from another group. coordinates for your school.
a) How does the accuracy of the other a) Record the longitude and latitude
group’s description compare to yours? coordinates for your school.
4. Identify the locations of two places on 11. Use a protractor to draw an angle that
Earth that have physical and historical is equal to the latitude coordinate for
importance. your school. Measure the angle along the
a) Record each location on a separate horizontal line and from the center of the
sheet of paper. Research and describe circle. Draw the angle from the center of
in a few sentences the importance of the circle to the edge of the circle.
the physical nature and history of
each place.
5. Exchange your sheets of paper with
those from another group so that your
group has two new places.
6. Locate each new place on a map.
a) Did you have any difficulties finding
each place?
b) What information helped you or
could have helped you in finding the
places on the map?
7. You most likely used longitude and
12. Following the same procedure as in Step
latitude coordinates to precisely locate
11, measure angles from 0° to 90° from the
your school and the places of physical
horizontal, and mark these on the circle.
and historical importance on Earth’s
surface. Lines of latitude are imaginary 13. Obtain a globe and a world map.
lines on Earth’s surface that run east Examine the lines of latitude on the
to west and parallel to the equator. globe and map.
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a) How do these lines compare to the 3. Now imagine that you put the glass ball
lines that you drew on your circle? into a much larger opaque ball without
any markings on it. Your model now
b) Describe how lines of longitude are
consists of two concentric spheres,
measured in comparison to lines
with the opaque sphere at a distance
of latitude.
from the glass sphere. In your Geo
Part B: The Celestial Sphere log, sketch what a cross section of this
1. Imagine Earth expanding and becoming “sphere within a sphere” would look
10 times its normal diameter. like. Again, compare your sketch to
those of others in your group.
a) Could you use the longitude and
latitude coordinate system from a) What pattern do you think would be
Part A for this larger Earth? Explain projected onto the inside of the larger
your answer. sphere by the light shining out from
the glass ball? Sketch this pattern.
2. To create a coordinate system for
locating objects in the sky, you first need b) How would this pattern be similar to
to make an imaginary model of Earth. the one on the glass ball?
Imagine Earth’s core as a glass ball c) How would this pattern be different
with two poles and an equator, just like from the one on the glass ball?
Earth’s. Think about this ball as having
lines of longitude and latitude just d) How could you use coordinates
like those on a globe. These longitude to find objects located on the
and latitude lines are opaque, which larger sphere?
means light cannot pass through them.
Think of the glass between the lines as
transparent, which means light can pass
through it. Learning Through Technology
a) In your Geo log, sketch what this
To use online resources to
glass ball might look like. Share it
practice finding objects in
with others in your group.
space, go to the EarthComm
b) If you put a light bulb in the center Web site at http://www
of the glass ball that radiated light .agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
outward in all directions, and turned There you will be able to explore the ways
out the lights in the room where the in which astronomers locate stars, planets,
ball was, what would you see on the and other celestial objects.
wall and ceiling? Discuss this with
your group.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Digging Deeper
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
In the Investigate, you explored different ways of locating places on
Earth. You then investigated how you could find objects in space. Locating
objects in space has been a challenge for people for a very long time. For
thousands of years, people from all parts of the planet recognized groups
of stars in the night sky. The Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, and others
gave names to the groups of stars. They told stories about them that
allowed for their positions to be learned without needing instruments.
Some scientists think that caves in France may contain drawings of the
night sky from 17,300 years ago.
Figure 1 An ancient star chart showing animals and objects that

represent the constellations.
Geo Words There are 88 groupings of stars in the sky. Astronomers call a grouping
constellation: a of stars a constellation. Each constellation has a Latin name. The name is
grouping of stars in given a three-letter abbreviation. For example, Cassiopeia is abbreviated
the night sky that
forms a recognizable
as Cas. Draco is abbreviated as Dra. Constellations are important reference
pattern. points for locating planets and other astronomical objects in the night sky.
celestial sphere: an Many ancient astronomers thought that the stars were attached to a
imaginary sphere giant hollow sphere that surrounded Earth. Astronomers now know
of infinite radius
that projects around that such a sphere does not exist. Stars are located throughout space at
Earth, and whose different distances from Earth. However, the idea of a giant sphere, called
interior is inscribed the celestial sphere, is useful. It provides a model on which to place and
with a grid system locate stars, planets, and other objects in space. The word celestial means
for taking celestial
coordinates. pertaining to the sky. The difference between astronomical objects and
celestial objects is that celestial objects do not include Earth.
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Figure 2 View of the celestial sphere looking toward

the north celestial pole.
To describe the location of an object in the sky, astronomers use a special Geo Words
reference system. It is known as the celestial coordinate system. This celestial coordinate
system is similar to the one used for locating objects on Earth’s surface. It system: a coordinate
system for mapping
uses measurements from known reference points or lines. These lines are positions on the
similar to lines of longitude and latitude. The main reference line in the celestial sphere.
celestial sphere is the celestial equator. It is an imaginary circle created by longitude: an east-
extending Earth’s equator into space. west measurement of
position on Earth.
latitude: a north-
south measurement
of position on Earth.
celestial equator:
an imaginary circle
created by extending
Earth’s equator into
space; the main
reference line in the
celestial sphere.
Figure 3 Locations on Earth’s surface can be precisely located

using longitude and latitude.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Geo Words
declination (dec): a The celestial coordinate system uses declination (dec) to measure how far
coordinate used on north or south an object is from the celestial equator. Declination is similar
the celestial sphere,
just as latitude is used to latitude. It is measured in degrees. The celestial equator has a declination
on Earth. of zero degrees. Objects north of the celestial equator have a positive
right ascension (R.A.): value. Those south of the celestial equator have a negative value.
a coordinate used on On Earth, longitude is measured east or west of the prime meridian. The
the celestial sphere,
just as longitude is prime meridian is located at 0°. It runs through Greenwich, England. Like all
used on Earth. other lines of longitude, it runs north to south. It converges with all other
vernal equinox: the lines of longitude at the poles. If you look down onto a globe at the North
position of the Sun as Pole, you can see the 360° through which Earth rotates every 24 h (hours).
it crosses the celestial It rotates through an angle of 15° every hour. According to these different
equator into the
measurements for longitude, the city of Miami, Florida lies 80°, or 5 hours
Northern Hemisphere
each spring. and 20 minutes, west of the prime meridian. Los Angeles, California lies
118°, or 7 hours and 52 minutes, west of the prime meridian.
In the celestial coordinate system, the lines that correspond to longitude on
Earth are called right ascension (R.A.). Right ascension is measured in hours,
minutes, and seconds, much like lines of longitude can be measured. Right
ascension is slightly more complicated to understand than longitude. Due to
Earth’s counterclockwise rotation, objects appear to move across the sky at
night. Earth’s eastward rotation causes stars to appear to move west. Thinking
about the rising Moon might help you understand how this works. The Moon
appears to rise above the horizon from a given point on Earth’s surface. As
Earth rotates, that point moves away from the Moon, which appears to rise
upward and to the right. Similarly, Earth’s rotation causes the positions of the
stars in the sky to appear to change gradually throughout the night.
Figure 4 The trail of the rising Moon over Seattle.
In order to properly measure right ascension, a fixed point is needed. The

sky lacks a fixed point. Even the stars are moving as they slowly orbit the
center of the galaxy. As a result, astronomers have chosen the point on the
celestial equator where the Sun crosses into the Northern Hemisphere in
spring. This is a point in time known as the vernal equinox. Notice that this
point does not coincide with the point where the prime meridian intersects
the equator.
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EarthComm

The stars seem to travel across the sky at night and the Sun seems to travel
across the sky during the day. While it may appear that these objects are
moving, they are not. The reason for this motion is because Earth rotates
360° about its axis every 24 hours. The points about which the sky seems Geo Words
to rotate are called celestial poles. One is located above the North Pole celestial pole: the
and the other is located above the South Pole. Over time, stars located point about which the
sky seems to rotate.
near the celestial poles make small circles in the sky. Currently, the star
called Polaris lies very close to the northern celestial pole. It therefore
appears to be almost stationary in the night sky. As a result, this star has
become known as the North Star or Pole Star. It has been of great use
in navigation. The nearest star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, located at
right ascension 14 hours 38 minutes and declination –60° 46’.
Checking Up
1. What is the main
Figure 5 Polaris is the Pole Star seen at the center of the concentric rings in this difference between
photograph. The rings are the apparent paths of stars produced by Earth’s rotation a point on Earth’s
about its axis. grid system
and one on the
Not all of the stars in the sky can be seen from a single location. A person celestial system?
viewing stars in the Northern Hemisphere cannot see all the stars visible 2. What is special
in the Southern Hemisphere. Some are located below the horizon. The about Polaris, the
stars that can be observed from any given place also vary throughout the Pole Star?
year. As Earth moves around its orbit, the North and South Poles point 3. Why do the
toward different parts of the universe. As a result, different constellations objects you see in
and other celestial objects come into view at different times. the sky at night
change throughout
the year?

• How do astronomers locate objects in the sky?
Record your ideas about this question now. Be sure that you describe the
celestial coordinate system in your answer.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy

You used longitude and latitude coordinates to locate your school and two places of
physical and historical importance on Earth’s surface. Drawing your own latitude lines
using a compass, protractor, and ruler helped you to understand how lines of latitude are
drawn on globes and world maps. You then transferred your understanding of coordinate
systems on Earth to developing a coordinate system for locating objects in the sky. You
applied this new system to a model of the night sky. This will help you to describe Earth
and its place in the universe for the Chapter Challenge.
1. Describe the objects in the night sky above your community.

2. How do the objects you can see in the sky at night change during the year?
3. Why is it important for astronomers to make observations of the night sky from
many locations?
4. Explain why you can see above and below the celestial equator.
5. Why is it that new constellations gradually enter our field of view from the east and
the old ones disappear to the west?
6. Preparing for the Chapter Challenge
Continue developing your radio or podcast script for the Chapter Challenge. Explain
the use of the celestial coordinate system in plotting positions in the sky. Use examples
of astronomical objects to illustrate your explanation. Help your audience to understand
how precisely locating objects in the sky helps to identify Earth’s place in the universe.
Inquiring Further
1. Earth’s axial tilt
Over a period of 13,000 years, Earth’s axis wobbles like a spinning top. How does
this affect the relative position of Polaris? Find out more about Earth’s wobble, the
position of Polaris, and stars that have marked the south celestial pole.
2. Using star charts
Get to know your community’s night sky and its movements. The constellations
above the horizon change with time and with the seasons. Use monthly star charts to
examine the evening sky. Hold the chart overhead and turn it to match the direction
you are facing. Which way do the constellations appear to move during an evening?
3. The stories of the stars
Different cultures give the various constellations different names and stories.
Choose three constellations and recount the different cultural stories that have
developed about them.
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Section 3 Origin of the Universe and the Solar System

What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
In this
Insection, you will
this section, you will When you think you are standing still on Earth, you are actually
• Describe the
• Goals Doppler effect.
Text moving rapidly through space. Earth rotates once about its axis
• Explain the big bang theory of how every 24 hours and revolves around the Sun once every 365 days.
the universe was formed and the You are gaining a lot of mileage without taking a step. When you
evidence supporting it. look up at the stars in the sky, they also seem to be still, although
• Explain the nebular theory of the they are moving through space at incredible speeds.
formation of the solar system.
• How do astronomers measure how stars and galaxies move?
• Examine planetary systems outside
of our solar system. • What do these movements tell astronomers about how the
universe formed?
• How did the solar system form?
• What is the probability that there are planetary systems beyond
our own? How do you know?
Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
the class.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Investigate Part B: Model of an Expanding Universe

In this Investigate, you will explore how 1. Many astronomers theorize that our
the universe formed and continues to universe is expanding. They support
expand. You will then run a model that their ideas by observations of distant
examines how scientists measure the galaxies that appear to be moving
motion of stars and galaxies. Finally, you away from our galaxy at enormous
will observe a model that demonstrates speeds. You will use a large balloon,
how the solar system formed. marker, and tape measure to model
the movement of galaxies away from
Part A: Evidence of Motion each other as the universe continues
1. Scientists have found that the motion of to increase in size. Mark 10 dots on
a star or galaxy relative to Earth can be the surface of the deflated balloon.
determined by a shift in the wavelength Distribute the dots all over the balloon.
of the light it emits. You will model this Label the dots with letters. The dots
effect using sound. One person from represent galaxies. Galaxy A is the
your group will swing an alarm clock, Milky Way Galaxy.
buzzer, or constant-pitch noisemaker a) Predict what will happen to the
around on a string. The other members distances between the galaxies as the
of your group will stand outside the balloon is inflated.
reach of the swinging noisemaker.
a) How will the circular swinging of
the noisemaker affect the sound it
produces? Record your prediction.
2. Turn on the noisemaker and observe the
sound it makes when stationary.
3. Attach a string securely to the
noisemaker. Have one person from
your group swing the noisemaker
around on the string while the other
members of your group stand outside
its reach.
a) How does swinging the noisemaker
affect the pitch of the sound that
is heard?
2. Have one person from your group
b) Explain your observations.
inflate the balloon until its diameter is
c) What other changes in pitch have about 20 cm. Pinch the opening of the
you observed from an object balloon to keep air from leaking out.
in motion?
3. Have another person use a tape measure
d) How do you think the change in to measure the distance from the Milky
pitch that you observed compares Way to each of the other galaxies.
to a change in light produced by a
a) Record your measurements in a data
moving star or galaxy?
table in a row labeled “Expansion
Time 1.”
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4. Inflate the balloon until its diameter is Part C: Formation of the Solar System
about 28 cm. Pinch the opening of the 1. Scientists believe that the Sun and
balloon to keep air from leaking out. planets formed at the same time from
a) Record the new distance from the a large cloud of gas and dust. You will
Milky Way to each of the other observe a model of the formation of the
galaxies. Record your measurements solar system using a cup of hot chocolate
in the data table in a second row and powdered coffee creamer. The hot
labeled “Expansion Time 2.” chocolate represents space and the coffee
creamer represents gas and dust.
5. Calculate the increase in distance
between expansion times. Do this a) Predict what will happen when you
by subtracting the distance for each swirl the creamer on the surface of
galaxy at “Expansion Time 1” from the the hot chocolate.
distance for each galaxy at “Expansion 2. Prepare a cup of hot chocolate using
Time 2.” lukewarm water. Now, sprinkle some
a) Record the increase in distances in creamer onto the surface of the hot
the data table in a third row. chocolate.
6. Assume that the time between 3. Use a spoon to stir the liquid inside the
expansions was a period of 8 years. cup in a gentle, circular motion.
Calculate the speed that each galaxy 4. Observe how the creamer moves in
moved away from the Milky Way using the cup.
the equation: 5. Use your observations to help you
answer the following questions:
speed = distance
time
a) What is the effect of swirling on
a) Add a fourth row to your data table the creamer?
to record the rate of expansion. b) How does this model demonstrate
how the Sun and planets formed
7. Use the rates to calculate how far each from a cloud of gas and dust?
galaxy will be from the Milky Way after
24 years and after 32 years.
a) Record these distances in the table. Learning Through Technology
8. Use your results to help you answer the To use online resources to
following questions: find out the latest information
on extrasolar planets, go to
a) How do the distances from the Milky the EarthComm Web site at
Way Galaxy to the other galaxies http://www.agiweb.org/education/
change over time? earthcomm2/. There you will be able to
b) What happens to the size of each visit NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory
galaxy over time? Web site to access current data on
extrasolar planets.
c) If the universe is expanding, do
galaxies that are close together move
apart faster or slower than galaxies
that are far apart?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Digging Deeper
FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE, SOLAR SYSTEM,
AND PLANETS
The Big Bang Theory
You just modeled how the universe formed and is expanding. You also
investigated how scientists track the motion of objects in the universe. The
Milky Way Galaxy formed about 10 billion years ago and is one of billions
of galaxies in the universe. According to a popular theory, the universe
Geo Words itself formed somewhere between 12 and 14 billion years ago in an event
big bang theory: called the big bang. This is known as the big bang theory. Big bang makes
a theory to try to it sound like the universe began in an explosion. However, it did not.
explain the origin
of the universe, Scientists call the beginning of the universe “time zero.” At time zero, the
which proposes that universe consisted almost entirely of energy. The energy was concentrated
the universe has into a volume smaller than a grain of sand. The temperatures were
expanded from a unimaginably high. Then the universe expanded extremely rapidly. As it
condition that existed
at “time zero.” expanded, the temperature dropped. As the temperature dropped, matter
was formed from some of the original energy.
cosmologist: a
scientist who studies Cosmologists are scientists who study the origin and dynamics of the
the origin and
universe. Cosmologists think that most of the matter in the universe was
dynamics of the
universe. formed within minutes of time zero. Initially, this matter was too hot to
matter: a solid, liquid, form into atoms. After a few hundred thousand years, the temperature
or gas that possesses of the universe dropped to the point where atoms could exist. The atoms
inertia and is capable were mostly hydrogen and helium. Eventually, under the force of gravity,
of occupying space. these atoms began to clump together. They clumped into clouds of gas,
wavelength: the which in time formed the first stars. As more stars formed, they grouped
horizontal distance
between two
together to form the earliest galaxies. The expansion and cooling that
successive crests of started with the big bang continues to this day.
a wave.
Doppler effect: the
Doppler Effect: Evidence
apparent change of of the Big Bang
wavelength occurring
when an object Scientists point to shifts
is moving toward in the wavelength of
or away from an light produced by distant
observer. galaxies as evidence that
the universe is expanding.
This phenomenon is
known as the Doppler
effect. You experienced
the Doppler effect in the
Investigate when you were
swinging the noisemaker.
You probably noticed Figure 1 When a police car is coming toward
that the pitch of the you, the pitch of the siren is increased. When it is
noisemaker grew higher moving away from you, the pitch is decreased.
as it approached you and
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then dropped suddenly as it passed by you. You may have had a similar
experience with the changing pitch in the tone of the siren of a passing
emergency vehicle. (See Figure 1.)
Sound occurs in waves. When a moving object producing a sound
approaches you, the sound waves are compressed, causing wavelengths to
decrease (the distance between wave crests becomes shorter). This causes
the pitch of the sound to become higher. The pitch of a sound is related to
its wavelength. The higher the pitch, the shorter the wavelength. As the
object moves away, the wavelengths of the sound waves increase and the
pitch drops. The longer the wavelength, the lower the pitch.
Light also occurs in waves. As a result, the Doppler effect can be used to
determine whether a star or galaxy is moving toward Earth or away from
it. Light from a star or galaxy can be detected as a spectrum of colors.
You will learn more about the spectrum of light in a later section. Shorter
wavelengths of light are blue or violet in color. Longer wavelengths of
light are red. If a star or galaxy is approaching Earth, the wavelengths
of light it emits become shorter. If a star or galaxy is moving away from
Earth, the wavelengths of light are longer.
Figure 2 The wavelengths of light from a receding star or galaxy are

stretched toward the red end of the light spectrum, while wavelengths of
light from an approaching star or galaxy are shortened toward the blue end
of the light spectrum.
Scientists have observed that the wavelengths of light emitted by all

galaxies, except our close neighbors, are being shifted toward the red
end of the spectrum. The wavelengths at this end of the spectrum are
longer. They have concluded that these galaxies must be moving away
from Earth. Therefore, the entire universe must be expanding. Remember
your model of an expanding universe from the Investigate? The dots
(galaxies) on the balloon moved apart as the model universe expanded.
In a similar way, distant galaxies, beyond our own and those close by, are
moving away from Earth.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
The galaxies and stars are the

visible evidence of the big bang.
Geo Words However, there is other, unseen
radiation: emission of evidence in the form of radiation.
energy in the form of This evidence is called the cosmic
rays or waves. background radiation. This is
cosmic background radiation that is left over from
radiation: a form
of electromagnetic
the initial moments of the big
radiation that fills the bang. Using special instruments,
universe. astronomers have detected
steady-state theory: this radiation coming in from
a theory that all directions of the universe.
proposes that matter The existence of the cosmic
in the universe is
continuously being
background radiation is generally
created at a rate that considered to be solid evidence of
Figure 3 This image of the universe
allows the density the big bang. shows remnant heat left over
of the universe to from the big bang. Temperature
remain constant as it There is strong evidence for
fluctuations displayed are 13.7 billion
expands. the big bang theory. However,
years old, from the time when the big
it continues to be tested and bang was thought to have occurred.
examined. Another explanation is Red is hot and blue is cold.
the steady-state theory. It is also
known as the infinite-universe
theory. This theory suggests the universe has always existed. It did not
have a moment of creation, or a time zero. The theory suggests that new
matter is continuously created out of empty space. The matter created out
of empty space is mostly hydrogen. The rate at which new matter appears
is in balance with the expansion of the universe. Therefore, the average
density of the universe remains constant.
There are arguments against the steady-state theory. They include the
discovery of the cosmic background radiation. As you read earlier, this
radiation indicates that the universe did have a beginning. Just after the
big bang, all that existed in the universe was energy. As the universe
expanded, it cooled. About 300,000 years after the big bang, the
temperature of the universe had cooled enough to allow atoms to form.
Leftover energy from this moment can be observed today. This radiation
comes from all directions in the universe.
The steady-state theory has also been challenged by the discovery that
galaxies were more crowded together in the past. This is evidence that the
density of the universe has changed over time.
It is impossible to know for certain how the universe began. Today, the
evidence is in favor of the big bang theory. However, one day scientists
might make a discovery that cannot be explained by this theory. Scientists
would then have to start looking for a new model of the origin and
evolution of the universe.
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The Fate of the Universe

What will ultimately happen to the universe? Historically, cosmologists
have considered three possible outcomes: it will expand forever; it will
expand to a certain size and stop; it will stop expanding and begin to
collapse. All three cases are based on the idea that the rate of expansion
of the universe has slowed down since its beginning.
Recall from the previous sections that galaxies are millions and even
billions of light-years away. It takes light a long time to reach Earth from
far away galaxies. When astronomers observe the most distant galaxies,
they are observing the galaxies as they existed far back in time. These
observations can provide an idea of what the universe was like when it
was much younger.
Scientists measure the extent to which light from these galaxies is shifted
toward the red end of the spectrum. This helps them to determine the
expansion rate of the universe in the past. They can then compare that
rate to today’s rate.
Scientists are surprised by
recent observations of the
change in the rate of expansion
of the universe. Data suggest
that the rate of expansion
slowed for a while. Now it
is speeding up. The current
explanation for this change
is that the universe is filled
with an unidentified form of
energy. That energy is causing
the expansion of the universe
to speed up. Scientists are
calling this energy dark energy.
If these observations are
correct, scientists think that
the universe will continue to Figure 4 How the rate of expansion of the
expand forever. universe has changed over time. Geo Words
The Nebular Theory mass: the amount
of matter an object
If there was a big bang, how did the solar system form? When you made contains.
a scale model of the solar system in Section 1, you probably noticed how nebula: general term
large the Sun is in comparison to most of the planets. In fact, the Sun used for any “fuzzy”
contains over 99 percent of all of the mass of the solar system. Where did patch in the sky,
all this mass come from? According to current thinking, the birthplace of either light or dark;
a cloud of interstellar
our solar system was a nebula. A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust. This gas and dust.
particular nebula that gave rise to our solar system was probably cast
nebular theory:
off from other stars that existed in this region of our galaxy. More than scientific idea that
4.6 billion years ago, this nebula started the long process that led to the our solar system
formation of a star and planets. The idea that the solar system evolved formed from a giant,
from such a swirling cloud of dust is called the nebular theory. rotating cloud of gas
and dust.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
You can see one such nebula in the

constellation Orion, just below the three
stars that make up the belt of Orion. (See
Figure 5.) Through a pair of binoculars
or a small telescope, the Orion Nebula
looks like a faint green, hazy patch of
light. If you were able to view this star-
birth region through a much higher-
powered telescope, you would be able to
see amazing details in the gas and dust
clouds. The Orion Nebula is very much like
the one that formed Earth’s star, the Sun.
There are many star nurseries like this one
scattered around our galaxy. On a dark
night, with binoculars or a small telescope,
you can see many gas clouds that are
forming stars. Figure 5 Orion is a prominent
constellation in the night sky.
In the nebula that gave birth to our solar
system, gravity caused the gases and dust
to be drawn together into a denser cloud. At the same time, the rate of
rotation (swirling) of the entire nebula gradually increased. The effect is
the same as when a rotating ice skater draws his or her arms in, causing
their rate of rotation to speed up. As the nebular cloud began to collapse
and spin faster, it flattened out to resemble a disk. Most of the mass
collapsed into the center. You saw something similar when you sprinkled
the creamer onto the hot chocolate. Initially, the creamer spread out
over the surface of the liquid. But, when you stirred the chocolate in a
circular motion, the creamer clumped together in the center. Matter in the
Geo Words rest of the disk of the nebula clumped together into small masses called
planetesimal: one planetesimals. The planetesimals gradually collided together to form
of the small bodies larger bodies called protoplanetary bodies.
(usually micrometers
to kilometers in
diameter) that
formed from the
solar nebula and
eventually grew into
protoplanets.
protoplanetary body:
a relatively large
clump of material,
formed in the early
stages of solar-system
formation, which
was the seed of the
planets you see today.
Figure 6 The Keyhole Nebula. (Imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope.)
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At the center of the developing solar system, material kept collapsing under
gravitational force. As the moving gases became more concentrated, the
Geo Words
temperature and pressure of the center of the cloud started to rise. The
nuclear fusion: a
same kind of thing happens when you inflate a bicycle tire with a tire pump. nuclear process that
As the air is compressed it gets warmer and heats the pump. When you let releases energy when
the air out of the tire, the opposite occurs. The air gets colder as it expands lightweight nuclei
rapidly. When the temperature in the center of the gas cloud reached about combine to form
15 million degrees Celsius, hydrogen atoms in the gas combined or fused to heavier nuclei.
form helium atoms. This process, called nuclear fusion, is the source of the terrestrial planet:
any of the planets
energy from the Sun. A star—the Sun—was born. Mercury, Venus,
Fusion reactions inside the Sun create very high pressure. This pressure Earth, or Mars, or a
planet similar in size,
threatens to blow the Sun apart. The Sun does not explode under all
composition, and
this outward pressure, however. The Sun is in a state of equilibrium. density to Earth. A
The gravity of the Sun is pulling on each part of it and keeps the Sun planet that consists
together. It radiates energy out in all directions, providing solar energy mainly of rocky
to the Earth community. material.
gas-giant planets: the
The Birth of the Planets outer solar system
The rest of the solar system formed in the swirling disk of material planets: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and
surrounding the newborn Sun. Eight planets, more than 100 moons, and Neptune, composed
a large number of comets and asteroids formed. Moons are also called mostly of hydrogen,
satellites. New moons are still being discovered today. helium, and methane.
Four of these planets, shown at the top

of Figure 7—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars—are called the terrestrial (“Earth-
like”) planets. They formed in the
inner part of our solar system, where
temperatures in the original nebula
were high. They are relatively small,
rocky bodies. Some have molten centers,
with a layer of rock called a mantle
outside their centers, and a surface
called a crust. Earth’s crust is its outer
layer. Even the deepest oil wells do not
penetrate the crust.
The larger planets, shown at the bottom
of Figure 7—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune—consist mostly of dense fluids
like liquid hydrogen. These gas-giant
planets formed in the colder, outer parts
of the early solar nebula. They have
solid, rocky cores about the size of Earth.
The solid cores are covered with layers
of hydrogen in both gas and liquid form.
These planets lie far from the Sun and Figure 7 Composite image of the
their surfaces are extremely cold. planets in the solar system.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
There are trillions of comets and asteroids scattered throughout the

Geo Words solar system. Earth and other solar-system bodies were scarred by impact
craters. These craters were formed when comets and asteroids collided
comet: a chunk of
frozen gases, ice, with them. On Earth, erosion has removed obvious signs of many of these
and rocky debris that craters. Astronomers see these comets and asteroids as the leftovers from
orbits the Sun. the formation of the solar system.
asteroid: a small
planetary body in
Asteroids are dark, rocky bodies that orbit the Sun at different distances.
orbit around the Many are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, making up what is
Sun, larger than a called the asteroid belt. Many others have orbits outside of the asteroid belt.
meteoroid but smaller
than a planet. Comets are mixtures of ice and dust grains. They exist mainly in the outer
extrasolar planet: a solar system. However, when their looping orbits bring them close to the
planet beyond our Sun, their ices begin to melt. That is when you can see trails streaming
solar system, orbiting out from them in the direction away from the Sun. Some comets come
a star other than our unexpectedly into the inner solar system. Others have orbits that bring
Sun.
them close to the Sun at regular intervals. For example, the orbit of
Halley’s comet brings it into the inner solar system every 76 years.
Figure 8 Two diagrams are required to show the orbits of the planets to scale.
Extrasolar Planets
Have you ever looked up at the sky and wondered whether there are
planets outside of our solar system? Planets orbiting stars other than the
Sun are known as extrasolar planets. To date, astronomers have found
hundreds of such planets, and new discoveries are made every month.
All of the extrasolar planets discovered so far are in our galaxy. (See
Figure 9.)
Finding extrasolar planets is difficult. Distant planets are often masked
by the light of the star that they revolve around. A star can be millions
or even billions of times brighter than its orbiting planets. For this
reason, it is almost impossible to observe these planets directly. Instead,
astronomers gather indirect evidence of their existence.
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The most common technique is to analyze a star’s light. As a planet orbits

a star, the planet’s gravity tugs on the star. This causes the star to move
away from and toward Earth slightly as the planet orbits the star. Due to
the Doppler effect, this small movement affects the light emitted by the
star. When the star moves away from Earth, the wavelength of the light
becomes longer. When the star moves toward Earth, the wavelength
becomes shorter. This change in wavelength results in a change in the
color of the light. The change in color indicates that a planet is pulling
the star. This provides indirect evidence of the existence of a planet.
The hundreds of extrasolar planets discovered so far are extremely varied
in terms of their physical properties and orbits. Most are gas giants, but a
few terrestrial planets have been identified. Many are extremely hot
because of a close orbit to a star. Some have an orbit that is very distant
from the star and are icy-cold. Some orbit massive stars, many times
bigger and more brilliant than our Sun. Others circle dim stars that are
much smaller than the Sun.
Most extrasolar planets that have been identified are Jupiter-like gas
giants. The largest extrasolar planet found to date is HD 43848 b. This
planet is about 120 light-years away. It has a mass equal to 25 Jupiters.
It has an orbital period of about 2371 days. The smallest extrasolar
planet to date is Gliese 581 e. It has a mass equal to 1.9 Earths and an
orbital period of 66.8 days. This planet is over 20 light-years away. Some
astronomers believe that eventually, the discovery of small planets will
outnumber giant planets. Some of these small planets will probably
resemble Earth.
Scientists have discovered
stars that do not have
any planets, but are solar
systems in the process of
forming. Vega, the brightest
star in the constellation
Lyra, is one example.
Beta Pictoris, a star in the
southern constellation
Pictor, is another. Both have
disk-shaped clouds around
them. (See Figure 10 on the
next page.) Scientists believe
these disks are massive,
rotating clouds of dust and
gas. These clouds of dust
and gas could eventually
form planets. This is much
like how our own solar Figure 9 All of the known extrasolar planets
system formed. are within the Milky Way Galaxy.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Not all the newly discovered solar systems fit this pattern. A recently
identified young solar system shows a different pattern. The inner part
is orbiting in one direction. The outer part is orbiting in the opposite
direction. No planets have formed yet. However, eventually this system
could have planets orbiting in different directions. This pattern of the
Checking Up orbiting planets would be different from our own solar system.
1. What is the
Doppler effect?
2. Which way are
most galaxies
moving relative to
each other?
3. What is the origin
of the cosmic
background
radiation?
4. How do the big
bang and steady- Figure 10 Disk-shaped clouds around Vega.
state theories
differ in their
explanations of
What is the Difference Between a Law and a Theory?
how the universe Sometimes the meaning of a word in science is different from its
was created? everyday meaning. For example, you may say that you have a theory
5. What is a nebula? about something when you mean you have a hunch or a guess. You
6. Explain why also may say that you obey the law, referring to laws that are written
the material and passed by a government. However, in science, the words theory
surrounding a and law have very different, but very precise meanings.
young star forms
a disk.
In their observations over long periods of time, scientists often
notice certain patterns that occur over and over again. From these
7. Which elements
observations, they develop a scientific law to describe the patterns
are primarily
they have observed. For example, over time, scientists observed
involved in the
Sun’s fusion
that each object in the universe attracts every other object with
reaction? a force that is related to the mass of the objects and the distance
between them. Newton stated this as the law of universal
8. The planets
formed from
gravitation. This law does not explain why all objects experience
a collapsing this force of attraction, but provides a way of describing what has
nebular cloud that been observed.
flattened into a A scientific theory provides an explanation for those observations
disk. From which and can be used to predict new phenomenon that have not
part of the disk
been observed. For example, the big bang theory explains the
did terrestrial
planets form?
development of the universe. This theory is not a hunch or a
guess. It is the result of years of experiments, observations,
9. Where are
measurements, and mathematical applications. The work of many
asteroids
people over many years culminates in a theory and the subsequent
hypothesized to
have originated?
work of many people and many years is required for acceptance of
that theory in the science community. Though related, laws do not
10. Have planets been
become theories and theories do not become laws.
discovered outside
of our solar
system? Where?
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• How do astronomers measure how stars and galaxies move?
• What do these movements tell astronomers about how the universe formed?
• How did the solar system form?
• What is the probability that there are planetary systems beyond our own? How do
you know?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe the evidence that
scientists have gathered to support their ideas about the formation of the universe and the
solar system, and the existence of extrasolar planets.

You observed the change in pitch that occurs with the motion of an object emitting sound.
A similar effect occurs with the shift in the wavelength of light emitted by a star or galaxy
when it moves relative to Earth. You then ran a model of the universe that demonstrated
the movement of galaxies away from each other as the universe expands. Next, you
observed a model of the formation of the solar system from a cloud of gas and dust. This
will help you to describe the formation and evolution of the solar system as part of the
Chapter Challenge.
1. Briefly describe the origin of the universe according to the big bang theory.
2. How does the Doppler effect allow astronomers to detect the motion of a star
or galaxy?
3. What can astronomers infer from the fact that other galaxies are moving away
from ours?
4. Why was the cosmic background radiation an important discovery?
5. Explain how the Sun produces energy. What keeps the Sun from blowing apart?
6. Explain the basic process of planet formation.
7. Compare the inner planets and the outer planets.
8. Would it be possible for a gas giant to form close to the Sun? Explain your answer.
9. What are the differences between asteroids and comets?
10. Why are there no comets in an orbit that is always close to the Sun?
Continue developing your radio or podcast script for the Chapter Challenge. Describe
how the universe and our solar system formed and evolved. Explain what comets
and asteroids are and how they formed within our solar system. Be sure to include
information about planetary systems outside of our own solar system.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Inquiring Further
1. Nuclear fusion
Find out more about the process of nuclear fusion. Explain how and why energy is
released in the process by which hydrogen atoms are converted into helium atoms
within the Sun. Be sure to include Albert Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc 2 , in
your explanation, and explain what it means.
2. Star formation
Write a newspaper story about star formation. Visit the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ to find information available on the
Web sites of the Hubble Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory. You
will find examples of star-forming nebulae in the galaxy. How are they similar? How
are they different? What instruments do astronomers use to study these nebulae?
3. Extrasolar planet research
NASA’s Kepler Mission will survey our region of the Milky Way Galaxy to detect
and characterize hundreds of Earth-sized and smaller planets. It will tell scientists
whether planets like Earth are common or rare in our galaxy. Describe the various
missions NASA has planned for extrasolar planet research. When will these missions
be launched? How will they support efforts already in place to detect planets outside
of our solar system?
An artist’s drawing of the Kepler Mission telescope.
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Section 4 Orbits and Effects

What Do You See?

In this section, you will If you were going to invent an “Earth Dance,” what moves would
• Measure the major axis and distance you use to show how Earth rotates about its axis? Would you be
between the foci of an ellipse. standing straight up, or leaning to one side? How far over? How
• Examine the relationship between would you show how Earth revolves around the Sun?
the distance between the foci and
eccentricity of an ellipse. • What is the shape of Earth’s orbit of the Sun?
• Calculate the eccentricity of • How might a change in the shape of Earth’s orbit or its axis of
Earth’s orbit. rotation affect weather and climate?
• Draw Earth’s changing orbit in
In your Geo log, draw a picture of Earth’s orbit of the Sun, as
relation to the Sun.
seen from above the solar system. Record your ideas about how
• Explain how Earth’s changing orbit
and its rotation rate could affect
this shape affects weather and climate. Be prepared to discuss
its climate. your responses with your small group and the class.
• Draw the orbits of a comet and an
asteroid in relation to Earth and Investigate
the Sun.
In this Investigate, you will explore the shapes of the orbits of the
planets in our solar system around the Sun.
1. Draw an ellipse by following these steps:
• Fold a sheet of paper in half.
• Use a ruler to draw a horizontal line across the width of the
paper along the fold.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
• Put two dots 10 cm apart on the line 2. Repeat the process using the following
toward the center of the line. Label measurements and labels:
the left dot “A” and the right dot “B.”
• Two points 8 cm apart, labeled C and
• Tape the sheet of paper to a piece D (1 cm inside points A and B).
of thick cardboard, and put two
• Two points 6 cm apart, labeled E and
push pins into points A and B. The
F (2 cm inside points A and B).
positions of the push pins will be the
foci of the ellipse. • Two points 4 cm apart, labeled G and
H (3 cm inside points A and B).
Be sure that the cardboard is thicker than the • Two points 2 cm apart, labeled I and
points of the pins. If it is not, use two or more
J (4 cm inside points A and B).
pieces of cardboard.
3. Copy the data table below into your log.
• Tie two ends of a piece of strong a) Measure the width (in centimeters) of
string together to make a loop. Make ellipse “AB” at its widest point. This
the knot so that when you stretch out is the major axis L (see the diagram
the loop with your fingers into a line, on the next page). Record this in
it is 12 cm long. your data table.
• Put the string over the two pins and
pull the loop tight using a pencil b) Record the length of the major axis
point, as shown in the diagram. for each ellipse in your data table.
c) The eccentricity E of an ellipse is
equal to the distance between the
two foci divided by the length of the
major axis. Calculate the eccentricity
of each of your ellipses using the
equation:
E= d
L
where d is the distance between the foci
and L is the length of the major axis.
Record the eccentricity of each ellipse.
• Draw an ellipse with the pencil. Do
this by putting the pencil point inside
the loop and then moving the pencil
while keeping the string pulled tight
with the pencil point.
• Draw a small circle around either
point A or point B and label it “Sun.”
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b) Think of your ellipses as the orbits

of planets around the Sun. Does the
distance to the center of the Sun stay
the same in any orbit?
c) Which orbit has the least variation in
distance from the Sun throughout its
orbit? Which has the most?
5. Earth’s orbit has an eccentricity of
about 0.017. Compare this value to the
Ellipse with foci A and B showing major axis length,
L, and distance between the foci, d. ellipse that has the lowest eccentricity of
those you drew.
4. Study your data table to find a a) Why does it make sense to describe
relationship between the distance Earth’s orbit as “nearly circular”?
between the foci and the eccentricity of
an ellipse.
a) Record the relationship between the
distance between the foci and the
eccentricity in your log.
Digging Deeper
ECCENTRICITY, AXIAL TILT, PRECESSION,
AND INCLINATION
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
You explored the shape of the orbits of the planets in our solar system
around the Sun. To fully understand how and why the planets move as
they do, you must learn how scientists describe and measure motion. Geo Words
First, an object is in motion when its distance from another object is motion: the state in
changing. For example, if you are sitting as you read this book, you which one object’s
distance relative from
would probably say that you are not moving. However, you are on planet another object is
Earth that orbits the Sun at about 30 km/s. That means that you are also changing.
moving at 30 km/s. This example demonstrates that whether an object is speed: the distance
in motion depends on your point of view. If you compare your position an object travels in
to the floor, you are not moving. But, if you compare your position to one unit of time.
the Sun, you are moving quite rapidly. For this reason, scientists describe
an object as being in motion if it changes position relative to a reference
point (or frame of reference) that is assumed to be stationary.
The motion of an object can be described further by the distance it
travels. For example, a train might travel 150 km or a horse might travel
3 km. You can calculate the speed of an object if you know the distance
traveled and the time elapsed. If a train travels 150 km in one hour,
then it is traveling at a speed of 150 km/h. In the previous section,
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
you created a model of an expanding

Average Orbital Speeds
universe. You used an equation
⎛ distance⎞ Average Orbital
⎜⎝ speed = time ⎟⎠ to find the speed that Planet
Speed (km/s)
galaxies are move away from each other Mercury 48
as the universe expands. Using this
Venus 35
equation, astronomers have determined
that the planets travel at different speeds Earth 30
in their orbits around the Sun. The average Mars 24
speeds of the planets are shown in the Jupiter 13
table to the right.
Saturn 9.7
More can be told about the motion of an
Uranus 6.8
Geo Words object if the direction of motion is also
known. Velocity is the speed of an object Neptune 5.4
velocity: the speed of
an object in a given in a given direction. Airplane pilots must be
direction. very aware of the velocity of a plane. Pilots
orbital velocity: the must know both speed and direction of their airplanes to avoid collisions
velocity at which a
body revolves about with other aircraft. Because the planets orbit the Sun, their velocities are
another body. described as orbital velocities.
acceleration: the rate Finally, motion can be described in terms of acceleration. Acceleration is the
at which velocity
rate at which velocity changes. When just the speed of an object changes,
changes.
it is accelerating. For example, when you are running in a straight line and
Kepler’s first law: the
orbit of each planet you speed up, you are accelerating. When you stop running, your speed
around the Sun is an decreases. This is also acceleration. It is negative acceleration. When you
ellipse with the Sun at are running at a constant speed and you just change direction, you are
one focus. also accelerating. For example, when running around a curved track at
Kepler’s second law: a constant speed, you are accelerating. The planets orbiting the Sun are
a line joining a planet
and the Sun sweeps
another example of acceleration. Each planet is accelerating because it is
out equal areas in continuously changing direction as it moves along its path around the Sun.
equal intervals of
time. Eccentricity
You used a model to investigate
the shape of the orbits of
the planets around the Sun.
Astronomers have spent many
years observing the orbits of the
planets. Using many years of
data, the astronomer Johannes
Kepler (1571–1630) developed
three important laws. These
laws describe the orbits of the
planets. Kepler’s first law states Figure 1 Kepler’s second law states that a
that the orbit of each planet line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal intervals of time.
around the Sun is an ellipse.
The Sun is at one focus of the
ellipse. Kepler’s second law states
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that as a planet moves around the Sun in its orbit, it covers equal areas Geo Words
in equal times. Kepler’s third law states that the time a planet takes to Kepler’s third law: the
complete one orbit is related to its average distance from the Sun. time a planet takes
to complete one
Notice how Kepler’s laws meet the definition of a law of science that you orbit is related to
read about in the previous section. The laws do not explain why these its average distance
from the Sun.
phenomena occur, but they are a way of describing the observations.
eccentricity: the
As you saw in the Investigate, the shape of an ellipse can vary. It can ratio of the distance
range in shape from a circle to a very flattened shape, even a straight between the foci
line. The more flattened the ellipse is, the greater its eccentricity. and the length of
the major axis of an
Values of eccentricity range from 0 for a circle, to 1 for a straight line. A ellipse.
mathematician would say that the circle and the line are “special cases” of coma: a spherical
an ellipse. cloud of material
surrounding the head
Mercury is the planet with the most elliptical orbit. It is the closest planet of a comet.
to the Sun. It has an eccentricity greater than 0.2. The orbit of Mars is also
fairly elliptical. It has an eccentricity of 0.09. In comparison, Earth’s orbit has
an eccentricity of 0.017. This is a much lower value than even the ellipse IJ
that you drew in the Investigate. Recall that this ellipse looked much like a
circle. Suppose you drew an ellipse with an eccentricity of 0.01. Most people
would call it a circle. However, it is eccentric enough to make the distance
of Earth from the Sun vary between 153,000,000 km and 147,000,000 km.
To make things more complicated, the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit changes
over time. This is due to complex effects of the weak gravitational pull of
the other planets. Over the course of about 100,000 years, Earth’s orbit
ranges from nearly circular to more elliptical. The eccentricity varies from
close to 0 to about 0.05.
Scientists have found that some
objects in the solar system have
highly elliptical orbits. Comets
are a well-known example. As
they move closer to the Sun, the
icy mix that makes up a comet’s
nucleus begins to turn into gas
and streams away. The result
is a ghostly looking tail and a
fuzzy “shroud,” that you can see
in Figure 2. It is called a coma,
and it forms around the nucleus.
When a comet gets far enough
away from the Sun, the ices are
no longer turned to gas. The icy
nucleus continues on its way.
Figure 2 The comet’s head, or coma,

is the fuzzy haze that surrounds the
comet’s true nucleus.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Axial Tilt (Obliquity)

Earth’s axis of rotation is now tilted at an angle of 23.5°. This is the angle
Geo Words between the axis of rotation and a line perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s
axial tilt (obliquity): orbit around the Sun. This is shown in Figure 3. The axial tilt varies over a
the angle between cycle lasting about 41,000 years. The angles of tilt range from 22.1° to 24.5°.
an object’s axis of
rotation, and a line
The greater the angle of tilt, the greater the difference in solar energy
perpendicular to its striking Earth’s surface in the summer and winter. This results in a greater
orbital plane. temperature differences between summer and winter. This small change in
axial precession: tilt, combined with other long-term changes in Earth’s orbit, is thought to be
the slow clockwise responsible for Earth’s ice ages. The axial tilt is also called obliquity.
rotation of the axis of
Earth around a cone, Precession
one cycle in about
26,000 years, due to The rotation of Earth also has a slight wobble. This is similar to the slow
gravitational tugs by wobble of a spinning top. This wobble is called the axial precession of
the Sun, Moon, and Earth’s axis. It is caused by differences in the gravitational pull of the
major planets.
Moon and the Sun on Earth. It takes about 25,725 years for this wobble to
complete a cycle. As the axis wobbles, the timing of the seasons changes.
Winter occurs when a hemisphere, Northern or Southern, is tilted away
from the Sun. Nowadays, Earth is closest to the Sun during winter (on or
about January 5) in the Northern Hemisphere. Do not let anybody tell
you that winter happens because Earth is farthest from the Sun. As you
saw in the Investigate, Earth’s orbit is nearly circular. Also, even when one
hemisphere of Earth is tilted toward the
Sun, it is not much closer to the Sun than
the other hemisphere. The difference
between the distances of the two
hemispheres from the Sun is not significant.
The precession of Earth’s axis is one part
of the precession cycle. Another part is
the precession of Earth’s orbit. As Earth
moves around the Sun in its elliptical orbit,
the major axis of Earth’s orbital ellipse is
rotating about the Sun. In other words,
the orbit itself rotates around the Sun.
These two precessions (the axial and orbital
precessions) combine to affect how far
Earth is from the Sun during the different
seasons. This combined effect is called
precession of the equinoxes. This change
goes through one complete cycle about
every 22,000 years. Ten thousand years
from now, about halfway through the
precession cycle, the Northern Hemisphere’s
winter will be from June to September. This
will occur when Earth will be farthest from
Figure 3 The tilt of Earth’s axis and the Sun. On average, that will make winters
its orbital path about the Sun go there even colder.
through several cycles of change.
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Inclination
Look at a model or diagram of the solar system. Notice how the orbits of all
the planets appear as if you could put them on a flat surface. In geometry,
a flat, two-dimensional surface is called a plane. The narrow range in which Geo Words
the planets orbit the Sun is called the orbital plane. orbital plane: (also
called the ecliptic or
What are the orbital planes of asteroids and comets? Both are found mainly plane of the ecliptic)
in the part of the solar system beyond Earth. Although some asteroids can a plane formed by the
be found in the inner solar system, many are found between the orbits of path of Earth around
the Sun.
Mars and Jupiter. In movies, the “asteroid belt” is often shown as a densely
inclination: the angle
populated part of space. To pass through this belt, one has to dodge between the orbital
asteroids. This is wrong. The asteroids occupy very little space. Another plane of the solar
misconception is that asteroids are the remains of a planet that exploded. system and the actual
orbit of an object
As shown in Figure 4, the orbits around the Sun.
of asteroids are more eccentric
than the orbits of the planets.
They also often have a slight
inclination from the orbital
plane. This means that their
paths around the Sun are tilted
from Earth’s orbital plane.
You can see this in Figure 4
also. As Earth orbits the Sun, it
can cross the orbital paths of Checking Up
objects called Earth-approaching 1. In your own words,
asteroids. There is a great deal explain what is
of interest in finding Earth- meant by the
approaching or Earth-crossing eccentricity of an
asteroids. A collision with an ellipse.
object a few miles across could 2. For an ellipse with
be devastating, because of its a major axis of 25
cm, which one is
very high velocity relative to
more eccentric—
Earth. Astronomers search the the one with a
skies for asteroids and map their distance between
orbits. In this way, they hope the foci of 15 cm
to learn what is coming toward Figure 4 The orbit of the Earth-approaching or with a distance
Earth long before it poses a asteroid 1996 JA1, in relation to Earth. between the foci
danger to your community. of 20 cm? Explain.
3. How does the
Comets are “loners” that periodically visit the inner solar system. They usually
precession of
originate in the outer solar system. Comets have very high inclination orbits— Earth’s axis of
as much as 30° from the plane of the solar system. In addition, their orbits rotation affect the
are often highly eccentric. Astronomers also search the skies for comets. seasons? Justify
Once a comet is discovered, its orbit is calculated. The comet is observed as your answer.
it moves closer to the Sun and changes. A collision of a comet’s nucleus with 4. Why is there a
Earth would be serious. However, a collision with a comet’s tail is much more danger that a large
likely. A collision with the tail would have little, if any, effect on Earth. That is asteroid might
because the tail consists mainly of glowing gas with very little mass. strike Earth at
some time in the
future?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy

• What is the shape of Earth’s orbit of the Sun?
• How might a change in the shape of Earth’s orbit or its axis of rotation affect weather
and climate?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe changes in Earth’s
eccentricity, obliquity, and precession in your answers.

You explored a geometric figure called an ellipse. You also learned how to characterize
ellipses by their eccentricity. The orbits of all eight planets in our solar system are ellipses,
with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse representing the orbit for each planet. As you saw,
although Earth’s orbit is very nearly circular (only slightly eccentric), the shape of its orbit
is generally believed to play an important role in long-term changes in the climate. The
shape of Earth’s orbit is not responsible for the seasons. You will need this information
when describing Earth’s orbital relationships with the Sun and the Moon in the
Chapter Challenge.
1. The major axis of Earth’s orbit is 299,200,000 km, and the distance between the
foci is 4,999,632 km. Calculate the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit. How does this value
compare to the value noted in the Digging Deeper?
2. On the line GH on the ellipse that you created for the Investigate, draw Earth at its
closest position to the Sun and its farthest position away from the Sun.
3. Refer to the table that shows the eccentricities of the planets’ orbits to answer the
questions that follow.
a) Which planet would show the greatest percentage Eccentricities of the
variation in its average distance from the Sun Planets’ Orbits
throughout its year? Explain your answer. Planet Eccentricity
b) Which planet would show the least percentage Mercury 0.206
variation in its average distance from the Sun Venus 0.007
throughout its year? Explain your answer.
Earth 0.017
c) Is there any relationship between the average Mars 0.093
distance from the Sun and the eccentricity of a
planet’s orbit? Refer to Table 1 in the Investigate Jupiter 0.048
in Section 1. Saturn 0.054
d) Look up the orbital inclinations of the planets and Uranus 0.047

add them to a copy of the table. Neptune 0.009
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4. Draw a scale model to show changes in Earth’s orbit of about the same magnitude as in
nature (a cycle of 100,000 years).
a) Draw the orbit of Earth with a perfectly circular orbit at 150,000,000 km from the
Sun. Use a scale of 1 cm = 20,000,000 km. Make sure that your pencil is sharp, and
draw the thinnest line possible.
b) Make another drawing of the actual shape of Earth’s orbit—an ellipse. This ellipse
has 153,000,000 km as the farthest distance and 147,000,000 km as the closest
distance to the Sun.
c) Does the difference in distance from the Sun look significant enough to cause much
difference in temperature? Explain.
5. Draw the solar system as viewed from the plane of the ecliptic (orbital plane).
a) How will the orbits of the planets look?
b) Draw in the orbits of Earth-crossing asteroids with inclinations of 20° and 30º to the
orbital plane.
c) Draw in the orbits of several comets with high inclinations. Some typical high-
inclination comets are Halley’s comet (162.22°) and Ikeya-Seki (141.86°).
Within your radio or podcast script, explain the changes in Earth’s orbital eccentricity,
and how it might have affected your community in the past. Also, describe the effect it
might have in the future. Describe the orbits of comets and asteroids and how they are
different from those of the planets. Identify the potential effects on your community if
a comet or asteroid were to have an orbit that intersected Earth’s orbit, and Earth and
the comet or asteroid were both at the same place in their orbits.
Inquiring Further
1. The gravitational “slingshot” effect on spacecraft
The gravitational tug of the Sun and the planets plays a role in shaping the orbits of
bodies in the solar system. NASA has used the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Saturn
to influence the paths of spacecraft like Pioneer and Voyager. Investigate how this
gravitational “slingshot” effect works and its role in moving small bodies from one
orbit to another.
2. Investigate the orbits of comets and asteroids
Look up the orbital information for some typical comets and asteroids. Try to include
some with high inclinations and orbital eccentricities.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Section 5 The Sun-Earth-Moon System

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Draw a quick sketch of all the ways that you have seen the Moon
• Investigate lunar phases using appear in the night sky. Compare these to the sketches made by
a model and observations in others in your group.
your community.
• Investigate the general idea of
• What do you think happened to make the Moon look the way
tidal forces. it does?
• Explore the role of Earth, the • What is the origin of the Moon?
Moon, and the Sun in creating
tides on Earth. • In what ways does the Moon affect Earth?
• Assess the Sun-Earth-Moon system Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
and the Moon’s likely origin. prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
• Compare the appearance of the class.
the Moon to other bodies in
the solar system.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will use a model to help explain why the
Moon’s appearance changes in the night sky during the month.
You will also go outdoors to collect data on the appearance of
the Moon over time. Finally, you will explore the relationship
between tides and the phases of the Moon.
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Part A: Lunar Phases 3. Keeping the ball straight in front of

1. Attach a pencil to a white styrene you, turn 45° to your left, but stay
foam ball (at least 5 cm in diameter) standing in one place.
by pushing the pencil into the foam. a) How much of the illuminated Moon
Set up a light source on one side of the surface is visible from Earth?
room. Use a lamp with a bright bulb
(150 W) without a lampshade or have a b) Has the amount of light illuminating
partner hold a flashlight pointed in your the Moon changed?
direction. Close the shades and turn off c) Which side of the Moon is
the overhead lights. illuminated? Which side of the Moon
is still dark? Draw another diagram
Be careful not to poke the sharp end of the in your log of you, the light source,
pencil into your skin while pushing the pencil
and the foam ball in order to explain
into the foam. Use caution around the light
source. It is hot. Do not touch the styrene foam what you see.
ball to the light.
4. Continue rotating counterclockwise
away from the light source while
2. Stand approximately 2 m in front of
holding the ball directly in front of you.
the light source. Hold the pencil and
Observe how the illuminated portion
ball at arm’s length away, with your
of the Moon changes shape as you turn
arm extended toward the light source.
45° each time.
The ball represents the Moon. The light
source is the Sun. You are standing in a) After you pass the full-Moon
the place of Earth. phase, which side of the Moon is
illuminated? Which side of the Moon
a) How much of the illuminated Moon
is dark?
surface is visible from Earth? Sketch
you, the light source, and the foam b) How would the Moon phases appear
ball to explain this. from Earth if the Moon rotated in
the opposite direction?
Part B: Observing the Moon
1. Observe the Moon for a period of at
least four weeks. During this time, you
will notice that the apparent shape of
the Moon changes.
Tell an adult where you are going before you
go outside to observe the Moon.
a) Construct a calendar chart to record

what you see and when you see it.
Sketch the Moon, along with any
obvious surface features that you can
see with the unaided eye or binoculars.
b) Do you always see the Moon in the
night sky?
c) How long does it take for the Moon
to complete a full cycle of changes?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
d) What kinds of surface features do b) On the same graph, plot the Moon
you see on the Moon? phase using a bold line. Moon phases
are assigned values that range from
e) Label each phase of the Moon
zero (new Moon) to four (full Moon).
correctly and explain briefly the
positions of the Sun, Earth, and the 2. Repeat this process for low tides.
Moon during each phase.
3. Answer the following questions in your
Part C: Tides and Lunar Phases Geo log:
1. Investigate the relationship between a) What relationships exist between
tides and phases of the Moon. high tides and phases of the Moon?
a) On a sheet of graph paper, plot the b) What relationships exist between low
high tides for each city and each day tides and phases of the Moon?
in January shown in Table 1 below.
c) Summarize your ideas about how the
To prepare the graph, look at the
Moon affects the tides. Record your
data to find the range of values. This
ideas in your Geo log.
will help you determine the scales
for the vertical axis (tide height) and
horizontal axis (date).
Table 1: Heights of High and Low Tides in Five Coastal Locations During January 2009
(All heights are in feet.)
Kings Point, Fort Pulaski, Portland, Duck, New London,

New York Georgia Maine North Carolina Connecticut
Moon Moon
Date High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low
Phase Phase
1/04/09 First
2 5.9 –0.5 6.6 0.5 8.5 0.6 2.7 –0.5 1.9 –0.1
Quarter
1/07/09 Waxing
3 9.6 1.1 7.4 0.4 9.9 0.6 4.1 0.1 3.9 0.4
Gibbous
1/11/09 Full
4 9.3 –1.5 8.5 –1.5 12.3 –1.5 4.7 –1.4 4.4 –0.8
Moon
1/15/09 Waning
3 8.0 –0.6 7.1 –0.7 10.0 –1.5 3.5 –0.7 2.8 –0.3
Gibbous
1/18/09 Last
2 7.8 0.7 6.6 0.2 9.3 0.5 3.1 –0.2 2.6 0.1
Quarter
1/21/09 Waning
1 9.1 0.8 6.4 0.7 9.7 1.5 4.0 1.1 3.5 0.8
Crescent
1/25/09 New
0 7.5 –0.5 7.0 0.1 9.5 0.2 3.8 0.0 2.7 0.8
Moon
1/31/09 Waxing
1 7.8 –0.3 6.7 –0.1 9.7 0.3 3.2 0.1 3.4 0.1
Crescent
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Learning Through Technology c) Do you think that changes in the

number of days in a year reflect
Visit the EarthComm changes in the time it takes Earth to
Web site at http://www orbit the Sun, or changes in the time
.agiweb.org/education/ it takes Earth to rotate on its axis? In
earthcomm2/ to obtain tidal other words, is a year getting shorter,
data during the same period that you are or are days getting longer? How
doing your Moon observations for several would you test your idea?
cities nearest to your community.
Table 2: Change in Rotation of Earth

Part D: Tidal Forces and the Due to Tidal Forces
Earth System
Period Date (millions Length of Year
1. Use the data in Table 2. of years ago) (days)
a) Plot this data on graph paper. Label Precambrian 600 424
the vertical axis “Number of Days Cambrian 500 412
in a Year” and the horizontal axis
“Years Before Present.” Give your Ordovician 425 404
graph a title. Silurian 405 402
b) Calculate the rate of decrease in Devonian 345 396

the number of days per 100 million Mississippian 310 393
years (that is, calculate the slope of Pennsylvanian 280 390
the line).
Permian 230 385
2. Answer the following questions:
Triassic 180 381
a) How many fewer days are there every Jurassic 135 377
10 million years? Every million years?
Cretaceous 65 371
b) Calculate the rate of decrease per year. Present 0 365.25
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Digging Deeper
THE SUN-EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
Lunar Phases
In the second part of the Investigate, you observed that the Moon seemed
to change its appearance night after night. Its face can change from a
fully lit circle to a thin crescent and then back to a circle. At times, the
Moon even appears during the day. Why does the Moon’s shape and
position change in the sky? The reason is that the Moon’s position changes
with respect to Earth and the Sun.
In the last section, you read that Earth rotates about its axis and orbits
the Sun. In much the same way, the Moon rotates about its axis and orbits
Earth. You learned that Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with an eccentricity of
0.017. In comparison, the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit is 0.0549. That
means that Moon’s orbit is even more elliptical than Earth’s.
If the Moon rotates about its axis, why is it that from Earth, you always
see the same side of the Moon? This occurs because the period of rotation
for the Moon is the same as the period in which it completes its orbit—
27.3 days. You demonstrated these motions in your lunar phases model.
Models in Science
In science, it is often necessary to develop models to investigate
and explain phenomena. A model is a representation of
something in the real world. Scientists use models to investigate
things that are too big, too distant, too small, too unwieldy, or
too unsafe to observe or test directly. To use a model, the model
needs to be similar to the real world in ways that are important
for what the scientist is investigating.
In the Investigate, you used a ball as a model of the Moon, a
light to represent the Sun, and your head to represent Earth.
This model helped you understand and explain why the Moon
appears to change its shape nightly. Models are very important
when trying to understand our solar system and the universe,
because the real-life objects are too big and too distant to
test directly.
It is important to remember, however, that models have
limitations. They are not able to duplicate the real world. For
example, although this model helped you to understand why
the Moon’s shape appears to change, there is nothing in the
model of the Moon and Earth that you used that could help you
understand the effect of the Moon on tides. As you navigate
your way through EarthComm, look for ways that models can
help you understand and explain phenomena. Also, be aware
of the limitations of each model.
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The Moon appears to shine because its surface reflects light emitted by the
Sun. Half of the Moon is always facing the Sun and is reflecting its light. The
other half faces away from the Sun and is dark. As the Moon orbits Earth,
the amount of sunlight on the side of the Moon facing Earth changes.
The Moon is between Earth and the Sun during a new Moon. In this
phase, the lighted half of the Moon is facing the Sun and the dark side
faces Earth. After a new Moon, more and more of the illuminated half of
the Moon can be seen each night. Eventually, a full Moon occurs when the
Moon’s entire surface facing Earth reflects sunlight. After a full Moon, less
and less of the illuminated half of the Moon can be seen each night.
It takes about 29.5 days for the Moon to cycle through all of its phases,
two days more than its period of rotation and orbit. This time difference is
the time it takes for the Moon to keep up with Earth as it orbits the Sun.
Figure 1 The relative positions of the Moon, the Sun, and Earth determine
the lunar phases.
Newton’s Laws
In the last section, you read about the three laws of planetary motion
developed by Kepler. These laws describe the correct shape of the orbit of
a planet. They also apply to the orbit of the Moon around Earth. Kepler’s
laws do not, however, account for why the planets and the Moon stay in
orbit. It was the work of the English scientist Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
that proposed the law of gravitation and three laws of motion. These laws
describe the way objects move. Newton’s ideas about motion have been Geo Words
tested many times and apply to objects on Earth and in space, including law of gravitation: a
mass exerts a force of
the planets and the Moon.
attraction on every
The law of gravitation states that every mass exerts a force of attraction other mass, and the
strength of that force
on every other mass. It also states that the strength of that force is
is proportional to the
proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the distance masses and inversely
between them. In other words, Newton reasoned that a force, called proportional to
the distance
between them.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
gravity, attracts all objects toward each other. The force of gravity
between two objects becomes weaker as the objects get farther apart.
Also, the less the mass of the objects, the weaker the gravitational force.
According to this law, Earth keeps pulling the Moon toward it with
gravity. In the same way, the Sun’s gravity pulls on the planets.
According to the law of gravitation, the Moon should come crashing into
Geo Words Earth. By the same reason, the planets should come crashing into the Sun.
Newton’s first law So why does this not happen? The reason is given by Newton’s first law of
of motion: an object motion. It states that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object
at rest will remain at in motion will remain in motion at a constant velocity unless or until
rest, and an object in
motion will remain in outside forces act upon it. This means that an object will move forever in
motion at a constant a straight line at the same speed unless some external force changes its
velocity unless or direction or speed. This tendency is called inertia. Newton’s first law is
until outside forces often referred to as the law of inertia.
act upon it.
inertia: the tendency As you read, the Moon
of a moving body to and planets are in constant
move in a straight motion. Accordingly, each
line at a constant
speed until an outside
should be moving in a
force acts on it, or the straight line. Instead, each
tendency of an object has an elliptical orbit. The
to remain at rest until reason for this is gravity.
an outside force acts
on it.
Earth keeps pulling the
Moon toward it, deflecting
accretion: the process
whereby dust and it from the straight-line path
gas accumulates into it would normally follow.
larger bodies, such as Similarly, the Sun’s gravity
stars and planets. pulls on the planets while
their inertia keeps them
moving ahead. The resulting
Figure 2 The combination of a planet’s inertia and
the Sun’s gravitational pull result in the orbital path.
path for the Moon and the
planets is a curved orbit.
The Formation of Earth and the Moon
You read in a previous section that during the formation of the solar
system, small fragments of rocky material called planetesimals became
fused together. This process is called accretion. Larger and larger pieces
collided due to gravity to form very young planets, called protoplanets.
Much of the material in the solar system was “swept up” by the newborn
inner planets. The leftovers became the raw materials for the asteroids
and comets.
The young Earth was quite different from that of today. As a result of the
kinetic energy from constant bombardment during and after accretion,
the young Earth was very hot. For a short period, Earth’s surface was close
to completely molten as temperatures were above the melting point of
most of its rocky composition. As accretion slowed down, Earth’s exterior
began to cool sufficiently for a solid crust to form. At this time, Earth’s
surface was probably barren and heavily cratered like the Moon. However,
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while heat was being lost to space from the exterior, Earth’s interior was
heating up. The gravitational effects of Earth’s accreted mass resulted
in significant internal compaction. This process converted gravitational
potential energy to heat. Radioactive elements are another important
source of heat within Earth’s interior. These elements are special because
decay in their nucleus releases heat.
Some scientists think that it may have taken 600 million years for Earth’s
interior to have become hot enough to have melted iron. As Earth’s
interior temperatures increased, rocky materials began to rise and sink
depending on temperature and density. This formed zones of matter that
were organized according to physical properties, a process is known as Geo Words
differentiation. Earth’s less dense material localized toward the surface differentiation:
and its most dense material became concentrated toward the planet’s the process by
center. This process produced the distinctive differences between Earth’s which planets form
concentric layers of
iron-rich core and silicate-rich shell. Further differentiation produced a different physical
liquid iron outer core, and an iron- and magnesium-rich mantle. Earth’s properties.
initial crust probably remelted several times as large asteroids impacted
the planet. The earliest record of the oldest crust comes from Australia
where microscopic grains of a highly resistant mineral called zircon have
been measured to be 4.4 billion years old.
This was how Earth was formed and existed during its early years, but
how was the Moon formed? Earth and the Moon are both about 4.6
billion years old. This fact has led to a number of theories about their
common origin. Before the 1970s, there were three competing theories
for the formation of the Moon. Each theory was rigorously examined and
tested, and flaws were found with each one.
The fission theory stated that early in the
history of the solar system, a rapidly spinning
Earth cast off the Moon from its outer layers.
The present Pacific Ocean basin was suggested
to be the site from which the Moon came.
A problem found with this theory was that
the splitting away of the Moon would have
required an extremely fast rotation of Earth.
Such a rapid rotation would have affected the
formation of rocks on Earth. However, no such
evidence has been identified. Also, the Moon
would have formed on the same plane that
Earth rotates on, which is not the case.
Another theory, called the simultaneous
formation theory, proposed that the Moon
formed at the same time as Earth from the
nebula that gave rise to the solar system. It
suggested that the Moon formed in orbit Figure 3 The Moon is the only
around Earth. However, if Earth and the Moon natural satellite of Earth.
formed in the same vicinity, then they should
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
have nearly the same composition because they came from essentially the
same material. But, it has been determined that the Moon is relatively
deficient in iron compared to Earth.
Finally, the capture theory stated that the Moon formed somewhere else
in the young solar system and got close enough to Earth to be captured
by Earth’s gravitational field. It suggested that over time, the Moon
settled into a stable orbit around Earth. The main problem with this
theory was that the Moon would have had to have slowed down to just
the right speed and angle to be captured by Earth. Given the Moon’s size,
scientists have found this to be improbable.
In the 1970s, the giant impact theory was proposed and has become the
most widely accepted theory for the formation of the Moon. According
to this theory, an object the size of Mars collided with and probably
shattered the early Earth. The remnants of this titanic collision formed
a ring of debris around what was left of Earth. Eventually, this material
accreted into a giant satellite, which became the Moon. The formation
of an Earth-Moon system after such a collision is not a simple process. In
computer simulations, the Moon sometimes gets thrown off as a separate
planet or collides with Earth and is destroyed.
Figure 4 Impact craters on the Moon.
However, scientists have created accurate models. These models predict

that the orbit and makeup of both Earth and the Moon resulted from
a collision with a Mars-sized object. The Moon’s orbit (its distance
from Earth, and its speed of movement) became adjusted so that the
gravitational pull of Earth is just offset by the force that tends to make
the Moon move off in a straight line. After the Earth-Moon system
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became stabilized, incoming planetesimals continued to bombard

the two bodies. The collisions left impact craters on both Earth and
the Moon. Earth’s surface has evolved since then. Because Earth is a
geologically active place, very few craters remain. The Moon, however,
is geologically inactive. Figure 4 shows the Moon’s pockmarked surface
that has preserved its early history of collisions.
When Earth was first formed, its day probably lasted only about six hours.
Over time, Earth’s days have been getting longer and longer. In other
words, Earth takes longer to make one full rotation about its axis. On the Geo Words
other hand, scientists have no reason to think that the time it takes for tide: a major
Earth to make one complete revolution around the Sun has changed movement of the
oceans that results
through geologic time. The result is that there are fewer and fewer days in from the gravitational
a year, as you saw in the Investigate. Why is Earth’s rotation slowing down? attraction of the
It has to do with the gravitational forces between Earth, the Moon, and Moon.
the Sun, which create ocean tides.
Tides
In Part C of the Investigate,
you examined the relationship
between the Moon and the tides.
The gravitational pull between
Earth and the Moon is strong.
This force actually stretches the
solid Earth about 20 cm along the
Earth-Moon line. This stretching
is called the Earth tide. The water
in the oceans is stretched in the
same way. The stretching effect
in the oceans is greater than in
the solid Earth, because water
flows more easily than the rock
in Earth’s interior. These bulges
in the oceans, called the ocean
tide, are what create the high
and low tides. (See Figure 5.) It
will probably seem strange to you
that there are two bulges, one
pointing toward the Moon and
the other away from the Moon.
If the tides are caused by the pull
Figure 5 Schematic diagram of tides.
of the Moon, why is there not Diagram A illustrates how the ocean surface
just one bulge pointing toward would behave without the Moon and the
the Moon? The explanation is not Sun (no tides). Diagram B illustrates that
simple. If you are curious, you can in the presence of the Moon and the Sun,
pursue it further in the Inquiring shorelines away from the poles experience
two high tides and two low tides per day.
Further of this section.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
As Earth rotates through a 24-hour day, shorelines experience two high

tides. One high tide occurs when the tidal bulge that points toward the
Moon passes by. The other high tide occurs when the tidal bulge that
points away from the Moon passes by. The tidal cycle is not exactly
24 hours. By the time Earth has completed one rotation (in 24 hours), the
Moon is in a slightly different place. This is because the Moon has traveled
along about 1/30 of the way in its orbit around Earth in that 24-hour
period. That is why the Moon rises and sets about 50 min later each day.
It is also the reason why high and low tides are about 50 min later each
day. Because there are two high tides each day, each high tide is about
25 min later than the previous one.
The gravitational pull of the Sun also affects tides. Even though it has
much greater mass than the Moon, its tidal effect is not as great. The
Sun’s tidal effect is less than the Moon’s effect because the Sun is so much
farther away from Earth. On average, the Moon is only 384,400 km away
from Earth. The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 km away. The Moon exerts
2.4 times more tide-producing force on Earth than the Sun does. The
changing relative positions of the Sun, the Moon, and Earth cause
variations in high and low tides.
The lunar phase that occurs when the Sun and the Moon are both on the
same side of Earth is called the new Moon. At a new Moon, the Moon is in
the same direction as the Sun and the Sun and Moon rise together in the
sky. The tidal pull of the Sun and the Moon are adding together, and high
Geo Words tides are even higher than usual, and low tides are even lower than usual.
spring tide: the These tides are called spring
tide of increased tides. (See Figure 6A.) Do not be
range occurring
semimonthly near the
confused by the use of the word
times of a full Moon “spring.” The spring tides have
and a new Moon. nothing to do with the spring
season of the year. Spring tides
happen when the Sun and the
Moon are in general alignment
and raising larger tides.
Spring tides also happen at
another lunar phase—the
full Moon. At a full Moon,
the Moon and the Sun are on
opposite sides of Earth. When
the Sun is setting, the full
Moon is rising. When the Sun is
rising, the full Moon is setting.
Therefore, spring tides occur
twice a month at both the new-
Moon and full-Moon phases.
Figure 6 Schematic diagrams illustrating
spring and neap tides.
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When the line between Earth and the Sun makes a right angle with the
line from Earth to the Moon their tidal effects tend to counteract one
another. This is shown in Figure 6B. At those times, high tides are lower
than usual and low tides are higher than usual. These tides are called Geo Words
neap tides. They occur during first-quarter and last-quarter Moons. As neap tide: the
with spring tides, neap tides occur twice a month. tide of decreased
range occurring
The tide is like a kind of ocean wave. The high and low tides travel semimonthly near the
around Earth once every tidal cycle, that is, twice per day. This wave lags times of the first and
last quarter of the
behind Earth’s rotation, because it is forced by the Moon to travel faster Moon.
than it would if it was free to move on its own. That is why the time of
high tide generally does not coincide with the time that the Moon is
directly overhead. The friction of this lag gradually slows Earth’s rotation.
Look at tides in another way. The tidal bulges are always located on
the sides of Earth that point toward and away from the Moon. Earth
with its landmasses is rotating beneath the bulges. Each time land on
the rotating Earth encounters a tidal bulge, there is a high tide at that
location. The mass of water in the tidal bulge encircles Earth. Each time
the bulge of water hits a landmass, energy is lost by friction. The water
heats up slightly. (This is in addition to the energy lost by waves hitting
the shore, which also heats the water by a small fraction of a degree.)
Over long periods of time, the tidal bulge has the effect of slowing down
the rotation of Earth. The tidal bulge actually causes the Moon to move
away from Earth. The current rate of motion of the Moon moving away
from Earth is a few centimeters a year. The Moon’s orbit is not circular
and is complex in its shape. However, measurements over many years
have established that the Moon is indeed moving away from Earth.
These measurements have been made by bouncing laser beams off
reflectors on the Moon. Super accurate clocks have also established that
the day is gradually becoming slightly longer. This is also as a result of
tidal friction. The day (one rotation of Earth about its axis) has gradually
become longer over geologic time. As the Earth system evolves, cycles
change as well.
In this section, you only look at the astronomical forces that cause and
control tides. These factors play only one part. The continents and their
different shapes and ocean basins also play a large role in shaping the
nature of the tides. Many places on Earth have two high tides and two
low tides every day (a semidiurnal tide). However, some places experience
only one high tide and one low tide every day (a diurnal tide). There are
still other places that have mixed tides. They have some combination of
diurnal and semidiurnal tides. In these places there are two high tides
and two low tides per day. However, the heights of the successive highs
and lows are considerably different from one another. These tides occur
along the west coast of the United States.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Eclipses
Geo Words At certain times, the Moon moves into a position of direct alignment with
eclipse: an the Sun and Earth. This creates an eclipse, an astronomical event in which
astronomical event one celestial object moves into the shadow of another, partially or fully
that occurs when one
celestial object moves
obscuring it from view. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Sun and the
into the shadow of Moon are on opposite sides of Earth. The full Moon moves into the
another. shadow of Earth during nighttime hours. Earth blocks sunlight from
lunar eclipse: an hitting the Moon, causing the Moon to become dark. A lunar eclipse
event that occurs usually lasts a few hours and may be viewed from anywhere on the
when Earth is directly
night side of Earth. A solar eclipse occurs when the Sun and Earth are on
between the Sun and
the Moon, blocking opposite sides of the Moon. The Moon travels between the Sun and Earth
sunlight to the Moon. during daytime hours and blocks the Sun’s light from Earth for a few
solar eclipse: an event minutes. Solar eclipses can only be observed from a relatively small area
that occurs when on Earth. The occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses is almost equal. The
the Moon is directly maximum number of solar and lunar eclipses that can be seen in a year is
between the Sun
and Earth, blocking seven. This last occurred in 1982 and will not happen again until 2038.
sunlight to Earth.
Checking Up
1. What three sources
of heat contributed
to Earth’s
differentiation?
2. How did the Moon
likely form?
3. Describe the
relative positions of
Earth, the Moon,
and the Sun for a
spring tide and for
a neap tide.
4. What effect have
tides had on the Figure 7 Schematic drawing illustrating a solar and lunar eclipse.
length of a day?
Explain your
answer.
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• What do you think happened to make the Moon look the way it does?
• What is the origin of the Moon?
• In what ways does the Moon affect Earth?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe how the Moon was
formed, the effects of the Sun on the appearance of the Moon from Earth, and roles of the
Sun and the Moon in creating tides on Earth’s surface.

You used a simple model and observations of the Moon to explore lunar phases and
surface characteristics of the Moon. You also explored the relationship between tides and
the phases of the Moon. The tides also have an effect that decreases the number of days in
a year over time. That’s because tides slow the rotation of Earth, making each day longer.
You now understand that tides slow the rotation of Earth, and how this has affected the
Earth system. This will be useful when describing Earth’s gravitational relationships with
the Moon for the Chapter Challenge.
1. Refer back to the graph of the changing length of the day that you produced in the
Investigate. Think about the causes of tidal friction and the eventual outcome of tidal
friction. Predict how long you think the day will eventually be. Explain the reasoning
for your prediction.
2. Look at Figure 5B in the Digging Deeper. Imagine you are standing on a shoreline at
the position of the dotted line. You stand there for 24 h and 50 min, observing the tides
as they go up and down.
a) What differences, if any, would you notice between the two high tides that day?
b) Redraw the diagram from Figure 5B, but this time, make the arrow to the Moon
parallel to the equator. Make sure you adjust the tidal bulge to reflect this new
position of the Moon relative to Earth. What differences would you now see
between the two high tides that day (assuming that you are still at the same place)?
c) In each lunar cycle the Moon moves along its orbital path from being directly
overhead south of the equator to being directly overhead north of the equator and
back again. To complicate things, the maximum latitude at which the Moon is directly
overhead varies between about 28.5° north and south, to about 18.5° north and south
(this variation is on a 16.8-yr cycle). How do you think the monthly cycle relates to
the relative heights of successive high tides (or successive low tides)?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
3. Refer to the tide tables for the ocean shoreline that is nearest to your community (your
teacher may provide you with a copy of these).
a) When is the next high tide going to occur? Find a calendar to determine the phase of
the Moon. Figure out how to combine these two pieces of information to determine
whether this next high tide is the bulge toward the Moon or away from the Moon.
b) The tide tables also provide the predicted height of the tides. Look down the table to
see how much variation there is in the tide heights. Recalling that the Sun also exerts
tidal force on the ocean water, try to sketch a picture of the positions of Earth, the
Moon, and the Sun for:
i) The highest high tide you see on the tidal chart.
ii) The lowest high tide you see on the tidal chart.
iii) The lowest low tide you see on the tidal chart.
The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia has the largest tidal range on Earth.
4. The questions below refer to your investigation of lunar phases.

a) Explain why the Moon looks different in the sky during different times of the month.
b) What advantage is there to knowing the phases of the Moon? Who benefits from
this knowledge?
c) It takes 27.32166 days for the Moon to complete one orbit around Earth. The
Moon also takes 27.32166 days to complete the rotation about its axis. How does
this explain why you see the same face of the Moon all the time?
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5. In the previous section, you learned that Earth’s orbit is elliptical. The Moon’s orbit is
also elliptical. Think about how this astronomical factor controls the nature of tides.
That is, tidal forces are stronger when the Moon is closer to Earth, and when Earth is
closer to the Sun.
a) Draw a diagram to show the positions of the Moon, Earth, and the Sun that would
generate the highest tidal ranges (difference in height between high and low tides) of
the year.
b) Draw a diagram to show the positions of the Moon, Earth, and the Sun that would
generate the lowest tidal ranges (difference in height between high and low tides) of
the year.
Write several sections for your radio or podcast script explaining the evolution of the
Sun-Earth-Moon system, how mutual gravitational attraction can affect a community
through the tides, and how the changing length of the day could someday affect the
Earth system. Be sure to support your positions with evidence.
Inquiring Further
1. Tidal bulge
Use your school library, the library of a nearby college or university, or the Internet to
investigate the reason why the tidal bulge extends in the direction away from the Moon
as well as in the direction toward the Moon. Why does Earth have two tidal bulges,
instead of just one, on the side closest to the Moon? Decide if the sources you used for
your research were reliable, and explain why or why not.
2. Tidal forces throughout the solar system
Tidal forces are at work throughout the solar
system. Investigate how Jupiter’s tidal forces
affect Jupiter’s moons Europa, Io, Ganymede, and
Callisto. Are tidal forces involved with Saturn’s
rings? Write a short report explaining how tidal
friction is affecting these bodies in the solar system.
3. Impact craters
Search for examples of impact craters throughout
the solar system. Do all the planets, moons, and
asteroids in the solar system show evidence of
impacts? Are there any impact craters on Earth,
besides Meteor Crater in Arizona?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Chapter Mini-Challenge
Why is there a Mini-Challenge?

You are using a simplified Engineering Design Cycle to help you address the Chapter
Challenge. At the beginning of the chapter, you established your Goal. At that time, you
also identified the criteria and constraints that you have. You then completed several
sections of the chapter. The Earth and space science content that you learned about
in each section provides the Inputs that you can use to address the challenge. As you
work through each section, you are also involved in the Process phase. You have the
opportunity to evaluate the different ideas that you and your team have for how to use
and incorporate the Earth and space science content into the final product.
Now is the time for the Outputs and Feedback phases of the Engineering Design Cycle.
It is time to present the intermediary phases or intermediary products that you have
designed. When engineers design products, they usually do not create the best or most
successful product on the first try. They often go through many iterations (repetitions)
before they have a final product. In EarthComm, you will only have one opportunity to
present your intermediary product. You will present it in the Chapter Mini-Challenge.
The presentation is the Output.
An extremely important phase is the Feedback. Other teams will have an opportunity to
provide you with formal or informal Feedback. You will find out if your product meets
the criteria, if you have used the Earth and space science concepts correctly, and if your
product is entertaining, exciting, useful, or creative. You will also have an opportunity to
provide feedback to yourself. You will have a chance to reflect on what went well and
what can be improved.
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Your challenge for this chapter is to create three 5-minute scripts for a radio
show informing your audience of the effects objects in space could have on
Earth. Here are some Inputs you have read about which should be included in
your Mini-Challenge.
• How distances in the solar system and universe are calculated.
• Earth’s place in the solar system, the solar system’s place in the galaxy, and the galaxy’s
place in the universe.
• The evolution of the solar system and the universe.
• How the Moon affects Earth and your community.
Your Mini-Challenge is to make a poster or chart outlining the information you will
present in your first script and the format you will use to present this information. You
will present the poster to your teacher and the class for Feedback. The Mini-Challenge
will help you organize your Chapter Challenge. You will not be able to address all of the
requirements at this time, but you should do your best to fully address the topics that you
have already studied.
Look back at the Goal you wrote at the beginning of the chapter. Rewrite your Goal so that
you are clear on what you will prepare for the Mini-Challenge. Review the Goal as a class to
make sure you have all of the criteria and the necessary constraints.
You have completed five sections of this chapter and read about some aspects of
Earth’s solar system and the universe. These will be part of the Inputs phase of
the Engineering Design Cycle. Review what you have studied below to help begin
developing your first radio narrative.
Section 1: You created a scale model of the solar system, identified the strength and
limitations of scale models, and calculated the distance to objects in the universe in
astronomical units, light-years, and parsecs.
Section 2: You constructed a model of the night sky and read about how a coordinate
system is used to locate objects in the universe. You also learned to identify patterns in the
organization and distribution of matter in the universe.
Section 3: You read about how scientists explain the formation of the universe, how stars
and planets are formed, and you examined evidence for planetary systems outside Earth’s
solar system.
Section 4: You discovered how planetary orbits within Earth’s solar system can change over
time and how the orbits of comets and asteroids are similar to and different from the orbits
of planets.
Section 5: You studied the phases of the Moon and the effects of the Sun and the Moon on
Earth’s tidal system. You also explored the origin of the Moon.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
The Process phase of the Engineering Design Cycle is when you decide what
information you have that will help meet the criteria of the Goal. This Mini-
Challenge requires a thorough evaluation of the information you have explored so
far to help determine the script for the radio show. You can perform a Resource
Analysis by creating a list of what you have studied in the first five sections of
this chapter. For each one, decide:
• How it will help your audience learn about distances in the universe.
• How it will help your audience understand Earth’s position in the solar system, galaxy,
and universe.
• How it will help your audience understand how the universe was formed.
By categorizing the information you have explored, you can focus your energy on addressing the
parts of the challenge that you are prepared to answer at this point.
Your Resource Analysis has revealed which topics in the first five sections will be helpful for
developing your radio show. Your group might assign individuals or teams of two to work on
specific parts of the narrative and then put all the parts together at a later time. Each person or
team will now know which chapter section or sections they can use to help him/her address their
part of the presentation.
During your Resource Analysis, you can also make a list of missing information you still need to
complete all parts of the radio script. This list will help you complete the final two scripts of the
Chapter Challenge.
The Outputs of your Engineering Design Cycle for the Mini-Challenge is the poster
outlining the first 5-minute script. Remember, everyone is working with the same
requirements and constraints. You only need to do a good job of meeting the Goal
to do well.
Presenting your poster and information to the class are your design-cycle Outputs. Your poster
and presentation should address factors that inform your audience about how bodies in the solar
system and universe affect Earth.
Finally, you will receive Feedback from your classmates that will tell you what you
have done well according to the criteria from the Goal. They might also tell you
some things you can improve to make a better final presentation. To give good
Feedback, it is important to consider each point of the requirements and the
constraints to see how well each different design satisfies them. Your statements
should say which parts were satisfied and which, if any, were not. This is an objective process
and should focus on the products, not the student scientists who produced them.
The Feedback will become an Input for your final product in the Chapter Challenge. You will
have enough time to make corrections and improvements, so you will want to pay attention to
the valuable information your classmates provide. Remember to correct any parts of your script
and outline that you received critical feedback on. You may have also learned something from
watching presentations that you want to add to your group’s presentation. It will be easier and
faster to improve your script now rather than waiting until the chapter is complete to go back
and correct any mistakes. Remember to record all your information in a safe place so that it will
be ready to use in the Chapter Challenge.
As you complete the remaining sections, look for additional information that will help you
improve your radio show.
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Section 6 Impact Events and the Earth System

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Meteor Crater in Arizona is one of the best-preserved meteor craters
• Investigate the mechanics of an on Earth. It is over 1 km across and about 4 km in circumference.
impact event and make scale Twenty football games could be played at the same time on its floor,
drawings of an impact crater.
with more than 2 million spectators watching from its sloping sides.
• Calculate the energy (in joules)
released when an asteroid collides • How large (in diameter) do you think the meteor was that
with Earth. formed Meteor Crater?
• Compare natural and human- • How would the impact of the meteor have affected the
made disasters to the impact of
biosphere near the crater?
an asteroid.
• Examine the consequences to Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be prepared
your community should an to discuss your responses with your small group and the class.
impact event occur.
• Investigate the chances for an Investigate
asteroid or comet collision.
In this Investigate, you will be calculating the effect of objects
from space colliding with the surface of Earth.
1. Given the following information, calculate the energy released
when an asteroid collides with Earth.
• The spherical, iron-nickel asteroid has a density of 7800 kg/m3.
• It is 40 m in diameter.
• It has a velocity of 20,000 m/s relative to Earth.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Note: It is very important to keep track 2. The combination of calculations that

of your units during these calculations. you just performed can be summarized
You will be expressing energy with a unit by the following equation:
called a joule (J). A joule is 1 kg ⋅ m 2 / s2. Energy = 2 πρr 3v 2
3
a) Find the volume of the asteroid in where r is the radius,
cubic meters (m3). The equation for ρ is the density, and
the volume of a sphere is: v is the velocity of the object.
V = 4 π r3 a) Suppose an object makes an impact
3
where V is the volume of the sphere with Earth at 10 times the velocity
and r is the radius of the sphere. of another identical object. By
what factor will the energy of
b) Multiply the volume by the density the object increase?
to find the total mass of the asteroid.
b) Suppose an object makes an impact
c) Calculate the energy of the asteroid. with Earth, and it has 10 times the
Because the asteroid is moving, you radius of another object traveling at
will use the following equation for the same speed. By what factor will
kinetic energy. the energy of the object increase?
KE = 1 mv 2 c) How do these relationships help
2
where KE is kinetic energy, to explain how small, fast-moving
m is the mass, and objects can release a tremendous
v is the velocity. amount of energy, as well as larger,
yet slower-moving objects?
Express your answer in joules. To
do this, express mass in kilograms 3. The asteroid described in Step 1 was
and velocity in meters per second. the one responsible for Meteor Crater
For some perspective, a teenager in Arizona.
uses over 10,000 kJ (kilojoules) of a) Copy the table below into your
energy each day. (There are 1000 J in Geo log. Enter your calculation for
a kilojoule.) Meteor Crater.
b) Calculate the energy released by the
impacts given in the table.
Impact Richter Scale

Radius Density Energy
Object Velocity Magnitude
(m) (kg/m3) (joules)
(m/s) Equivalent
Asclepius 100 3000 30,000
Comet
1000 1000 60,000
Swift-Tuttle
Chicxulub Impactor 5000 3000 32,000
SL9 Fragment Q 2150 1000 60,000
Meteor Crater 20 7800 20,000
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Note: 6. How do these impact events compare

• Asclepius is an asteroid that passed with the energy released in an
within 690,000 km of Earth in 1989. earthquake? If you or your teacher
have a calculator capable of handling
• Comet Swift-Tuttle is a future threat to logarithms, answer the following
the Earth-Moon system, having passed questions:
Earth in 1992 and scheduled for return
in 2126. a) Calculate the Richter scale equivalent
of the energy released by the four
• Chicxulub impactor is the name of the impact events. Use the following
asteroid that may have triggered the equation:
extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million M = 0.67 ⋅ log10 E − 5.87
years ago. where M is the equivalent magnitude
• SL9 Fragment Q is a fragment of Comet on the Richter scale, and
Shoemaker-Levy that impacted Jupiter E is the energy of the impact,
in 1994. in joules.
4. Use the table below to compare the b) How do your results compare with
energy from all these events to known the table below, which shows the six
phenomena. strongest earthquakes in the world
between 1900 and 2011? Which
a) In your Geo log, explain how the
impacts exceed the world’s strongest
energies of these five impact events
earthquakes?
compare to some other known
phenomena.
Location Year Magnitude
Kinetic Energy Chile 1960 9.5
Phenomena
(joules)
Prince William Sound,
1964 9.2
Annual output of the Sun 1034 Alaska
Severe earthquake 1018 Indonesia 2004 9.1
100-megaton hydrogen bomb 1017 Kamchatka 1952 9.0

Off the coast of Japan 2011 9.0
Atomic bomb 1013
Off the coast of Chile 2010 8.8
5. Suppose you were to make a scale

drawing of the Chicxulub impactor
compared with Earth. The diameter of
Earth is 12,756 km.
a) If you made the diameter of the
Chicxulub impactor 1 mm, what
would the diameter of Earth be?
b) If you made the diameter of the
Chicxulub impactor 0.5 mm, which
is probably about as small as you can
draw, what would the diameter of
Earth be?
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
SI System
In EarthComm, you will be using the international system of units. The units are
known as SI units, abbreviated from Le Système International d’Unités. This is the
system of units that is used by scientists. The system is based on the metric system.
All units are related by some multiple of ten. There are seven base units that can be
combined to measure all scientific properties. Here are some of the common ones.
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Volume liter L
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Current ampere A
You will also be using other units that are a combination of these base units.
An important feature of the metric system is that there is a single set of prefixes that
relates larger and smaller units. All the prefixes are related by some power (multiple)
of ten.
Multiple of ten by
Prefix Symbol which base unit is Example
multiplied
103 = 1000 1 km = 1000 m

kilo k
1 m = 0.001 km
— — 100 = 1 1m
1 cm = 0.01 m
centi c 10 −2 = 0.01
1 m = 100 cm
1 mm = 0.001 m
milli m 10 −3 = 0.001
1 m = 1000 mm
For example, you have been using a number of units of length. The meter (m) is the
base unit of length. Other units used for measuring and describing length are the
kilometer (km), centimeter (cm), and millimeter (mm). These three units are made up
of the base unit meter and a prefix.
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Digging Deeper
ASTEROIDS AND COMETS
Asteroids
You just calculated the impact energy of objects from space colliding
with the surface of Earth. In this Digging Deeper, you will read about the
types of objects that tend to hit or come close to Earth. You will read
about their past and potential impacts on Earth.
Asteroids are rocky bodies smaller than planets. They are leftovers from
the formation of the solar system. In fact, the early history of the solar
system was a period of frequent impacts. The many scars seen on the
Moon, Mercury, Mars, and the moons of the outer planets, are the
evidence for these impacts.
Figure 1 Image of the asteroid Ida, which is 58 km long and

23 km wide. The small object on the right, Dactyl, is Ida’s moon.
This was the first moon of an asteroid ever found.
Asteroids orbit the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. They have inclinations
up to 30°. Most asteroids are located in the region between Jupiter and Geo Words
Mars. This region is known as the asteroid belt. There are probably at asteroid belt: rocky
least 100,000 asteroids that are 1 km in diameter or larger. The largest, remnants of the early
solar system found
called Ceres, is about 1000 km across. The International Astronomical mostly between the
Union (IAU) designated Ceres as a dwarf planet in 2006. However, orbits of Mars and
by definition, it is not a true planet. Ceres has not “cleared the Jupiter.
neighborhood of its orbit.” It shares its orbit with other asteroids.
Some of the asteroids have very eccentric orbits that cross Earth’s
orbit. Of these, perhaps a few dozen are larger than 1 km in diameter.
As you learned in the Investigate, the energy of an impact increases by
the cube of the radius. Thus, the larger the asteroid, the greater the
impact. Astronomers worry about the large asteroids when they
consider the danger of collisions with Earth.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
On March 18, 2004, the 30-m asteroid, asteroid 2004 FH, passed Earth by
only 42,600 km, about 1/10 the distance to the Moon. The previous record
was set on September 27, 2003, when the 10-m asteroid 2003 SQ222
missed Earth by about twice that distance (88,000 km). Astronomers
think that asteroids at least 1 km in diameter hit Earth every few hundred
million years. They base this upon the number of impact craters that have
been found and dated on Earth. A list of asteroids that have approached
within about two lunar distances of Earth (the average distance between
Earth and the Moon) is provided in Table 1. Only close-approach distances
less than 0.01 AUs for asteroids are included in this table.
Table 1: Asteroids With Close-Approach Distances to Earth
Name or Date of Close Earth Distance

Designation Approach (AU) (LD)
2007 XB23 2007-Dec-13 0.0007 0.3
2007 TX22 2007-Oct-12 0.001 0.4
2008 FP 2008-Mar-29 0.0011 0.4
2006 UE64 2006-Oct-21 0.0011 0.4
2009 FP32 2009-Mar-31 0.003 1.2
2009 HK73 2009-Apr-27 0.0031 1.2
2008 UT95 2008-Nov-02 0.004 1.5
2006 MB14 2006-Jun-28 0.0045 1.7
2003 WT153 2003-Nov-30 0.0045 1.8
2007 EK26 2007-Mar-10 0.0046 1.8
2009 BH11 2009-Jan-24 0.0047 1.8
2006 BO7 2006-Jan-25 0.005 1.9
1995 UB 1995-Oct-17 0.005 1.9
2006 EH1 2006-Mar-07 0.005 2.0
2009 DM40 2009-Feb-23 0.0054 2.1
(AU)—Astronomical distance Unit: 1.0 AU is roughly the average distance between

Earth and the Sun.
(LD)—Lunar Distance unit: 1.0 LD is the average distance from Earth to the Moon
(about 0.00257 AU).
The dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago. Most scientists believe
that the extinction was caused by the impact of an asteroid or comet
10 km in diameter. Such a large impact would have sent up a huge cloud
of dust. The dust was enough to cloud Earth’s entire atmosphere for many
months. This would have blocked out sunlight and killed off many plants.
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Eventually, the animals that fed on those plants also would die. It was
not just the dinosaurs that died out. About 75 percent of all plants and
animals became extinct as well. One of the strong pieces of evidence
supporting this hypothesis is a 1-cm-thick layer of iridium-rich sediment
about 65 million years old that has been found worldwide. Iridium is rare
on Earth but common in asteroids.
Our planet has undergone at least a dozen mass-extinction events during
its history. During these mass-extinction events, a large percentage of all
plant and animal species became extinct in an extremely short interval of
geologic time. It is likely that at least some of these events were related
to impacts.
It is also likely that Earth will suffer another collision some time in the
future. NASA is currently running the Near-Earth Object Program. By the
end of 2020, its goal is to discover and monitor at least 90 percent of the
asteroids and comets that are 1 km or more in size with orbits that come
close to Earth’s orbit. As of September 2010, there are 818 such asteroids
that have been found. By locating these objects in advance, it might one
day be possible to alter their orbits just enough so they will miss Earth.
Comets
Comets are masses of frozen gases (ices) and rocky dust particles. Like
asteroids, they are leftovers from the formation of the solar system. There
are many comets in orbit around the Sun. Their orbits are usually very
eccentric with large inclinations. The orbits of many comets are very large,
with distances from the Sun greater than 20,000 astronomical units. The
icy head of a comet (the nucleus) is usually a few kilometers in diameter.
Figure 2 Halley’s comet last appeared in the night sky in 1986.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
However, the head appears much larger as it gets closer to the Sun. That
is because the Sun’s heat vaporizes the ice, forming a cloud called a coma.
Geo Words The gases and dust in the coma are blown away from the Sun partly by
solar wind: a flow of the action of solar wind. This produces a tail that points away from the
hot, charged particles Sun even as the comet moves around the Sun. Halley’s comet, shown in
leaving the Sun.
Figure 2 on the previous page, is the best known of these icy visitors. It
rounds the Sun about every 76 years. It last passed by Earth in 1986.
Comets have collided with Earth since its earliest formation. It is thought
that the ices from comet impacts melted to help form Earth’s oceans.
In 1908, something hit Earth at Tunguska, in Siberian Russia. It flattened
trees for hundreds of miles. Researchers believe that the object might
have been a comet. Had such an event occurred in more recent history
in a more populated area, the damage and loss of life would have been
enormous. A list of comets that have approached within less than
0.11 AUs of Earth is provided in Table 2.
Table 2: Close Approaches of Comets
Date of Close Distance

Name Designation
Earth Approach (AU) (LD)
Comet of 1491 C/1491 B1 1491-Feb-20 0.0094 3.7*
Lexell D/1770 L1 1770-Jul-01 0.0151 5.9
Tempel-Tuttle 55P/1366 U1 1366-Oct-26 0.0229 8.9
IRAS-Araki-Alcock C/1983 H1 1983-May-11 0.0313 12.2
Halley 1P/837 F1 837-Apr-10 0.0334 13
Biela 3D/1805 V1 1805-Dec-09 0.0366 14.2
Comet of 1743 C/1743 C1 1743-Feb-08 0.039 15.2
Pons-Winnecke 7P/ 1927-Jun-26 0.0394 15.3
Comet of 1014 C/1014 C1 1014-Feb-24 0.0407 15.8*
Comet of 1702 C/1702 H1 1702-Apr-20 0.0437 17
Comet of 1132 C/1132 T1 1132-Oct-07 0.0447 17.4*
Comet of 1351 C/1351 W1 1351-Nov-29 0.0479 18.6*
Comet of 1345 C/1345 O1 1345-Jul-31 0.0485 18.9*
Comet of 1499 C/1499 Q1 1499-Aug-17 0.0588 22.9*
Schwassmann- 73P/1930 J1 1930-May-31 0.0617 24
Wachmann 3
* Distance uncertain because comet’s orbit is relatively poorly determined.

(AU)—Astronomical distance Unit: 1.0 AU is roughly the average distance between
Earth and the Sun.
(LD)—Lunar Distance unit: 1.0 LD is the average distance from Earth to the Moon
(about 0.00257 AU).
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Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud

The outer edge of our solar system is not empty. Vast numbers of objects
orbit the Sun in the region beyond Neptune (30 AUs from Sun). The Geo Words
Kuiper belt is a disk-shaped region extending roughly from 30 to 55 AUs Kuiper belt: a disk-
from the Sun. It consists primarily of comets, but also contains asteroids shaped region
beyond Neptune that
and other rocky bodies. In comparison to the asteroid belt, this region contains remnants of
is 20 times as wide. Like the asteroid belt, it contains leftovers from the the early solar system,
solar system’s formation. The first discovery of a Kuiper belt object was mostly as comets but
in 1992. Since then, scientists have identified hundreds more. Many think also as asteroid-type
bodies.
the Kuiper belt may contain millions of objects. Some are small, others
are tens of kilometers across, and some resemble small planets. There Oort cloud: a sphere-
shaped region
may be even bigger ones that have not yet been found. These objects are beyond Neptune that
difficult to detect because of their distant locations in the solar system. contains remnants of
From Earth, many appear quite small and dim. Many of these objects can the early solar system,
take 200 years or more to orbit the Sun. mostly as comets.
The Oort cloud is a vast region beyond the Kuiper belt. It holds billions
and possibly even trillions of objects. Almost all the objects are comets,
formed early in the history of the solar system. In comparison to the
Kuiper belt, it is extremely distant, extending from between 5000 AUs
to as far as 100,000 AUs. While the Kuiper belt is disk-shaped, the Oort
cloud is shaped like a sphere. It surrounds the entire solar system. The
term “cloud” might suggest that this region is quite dense. Actually,
objects within the Oort cloud are typically tens of millions of kilometers
apart. The outer limit of the Oort cloud is considered to be the edge of
our solar system. It is where the influence of the Sun’s gravity ends.
Figure 3 The relative sizes of the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Geo Words
meteoroid: a small
rock in space. Sometimes, the orbits of Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects are affected
meteor: the bright by gravity from the gas-giant planets, passing stars, or other forces from
trail of light seen within the Milky Way Galaxy. As a result, these objects are sometimes
when a meteoroid
enters the atmosphere sent out of the solar system. But, they can also be disturbed in such a way
(commonly known as that they enter into the inner solar system. At this time, there are nine
a shooting star). known objects orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune that are believed
meteorite: a part of to have come from the Kuiper belt. They appear to be comets. The largest
a meteoroid that of these is Chiron, which is about 170 km in diameter. It is 20 times larger
survives through
Earth’s atmosphere. than Halley’s comet.
chondrite: material Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites
that was never part of
a larger body such as a Meteoroids are tiny particles in space. They could be leftover dust from a
moon, a planet, or an comet’s tail or fragments of asteroids. Meteoroids are called meteors
asteroid, but instead when they enter Earth’s atmosphere. When they reach Earth’s surface,
is probably original
solar-system material. they are called meteorites.
About 1000 tons of
material is added to
Earth each year by
meteorites. Much of
Checking Up the material is made
1. Where are up of dust-sized
asteroids most particles that settle
abundant in the slowly through the
solar system?
atmosphere. There
2. How might a major are several types
asteroid impact
of meteorites.
have caused a
mass extinction of About 80 percent
Earth’s plant and that hit Earth are
animal species at stony in nature. Figure 4 Lunar meteorite.
certain times in the They are difficult
geologic past? to tell apart from
3. Why do comets Earth rocks. About 15 percent of meteorites consist of the metals iron
have tails? Why do and nickel. They are very dense. The rest are a mixture of iron-nickel
the tails point away and stony material. Most of the stony meteorites are called chondrites.
from the Sun?
Chondrites may represent material that was never part of a larger body
4. What are the like a moon, a planet, or an asteroid. Instead, they are probably original
compositions of
solar-system materials.
the major kinds of
meteorites?

• How large (in diameter) do you think the meteor was that formed Meteor
Crater?
• How would the impact of the meteor have affected the biosphere near the crater?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to your calculations from
the Investigate.
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You calculated the energy released when asteroids of different sizes hit Earth’s surface and
you compared these to other energy-releasing events. This comparison will be helpful as
you explain the hazards associated with an impact as part of the Chapter Challenge.
1. Look at the table of impact events shown in the Investigate. Compare the densities of
the object that formed Meteor Crater and SL9 Fragment Q from the Shoemaker-Levy
comet. Use what you have learned in this section to explain the large difference in
densities between the two objects.
2. If an asteroid or comet were on a collision course for Earth, what factors would
determine how dangerous the collision might be for your community?
3. How would an asteroid on a collision course endanger our Earth community?
4. Comets are composed largely of ice and mineral grains. Assume a density of 1.1 g/cm3:
a) How would the energy released in a comet impact compare to the asteroid impact
you calculated in the Investigate? (Assume that the comet has the same diameter and
velocity as the asteroid.)
b) Based upon your calculation, are comets dangerous if they make impact with Earth?
Explain your response.
5. From the information in the Digging Deeper, and what you know about the
eccentricities and inclinations of asteroid orbits, how likely do you think it is that an
asteroid with a diameter of 1 km or greater will hit Earth in your lifetime? Explain
your reasoning. Can you apply the same reasoning to comets?
6. Add the asteroid belt to the model of the solar system you made in the first section.
You will need to think about how to best represent the vast number of asteroids and
their wide range of sizes. Do not forget to add in some samples of Earth-approaching
asteroids and the orbit of one or two comets.
7. Compare the asteroid belt, the Kuiper belt, and the Oort cloud.
Continue developing your radio or podcast script for the Chapter Challenge. Describe
some of the characteristics of asteroids and comets. Explain the chances for an asteroid
or comet collision with Earth. Support your ideas with data provided in this section.
Provide details about some of the consequences should an impact event occur.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Inquiring Further
1. Impact craters on objects other than Earth
In an earlier section, you studied impact sites on the Moon. Look at Mercury, Mars,
and the moons of Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to see other examples of impact
craters in the solar system. How are these craters similar to Meteor Crater? How
are they different?
2. Modeling impact craters
Simulate an asteroid or comet hitting Earth. Fill a shoebox partway with wet plaster
of Paris. When the plaster is almost dry, drop two rocks of different sizes into it
from the same height. Carefully retrieve the rocks and drop them again in a different
place, this time from a higher distance. Let the plaster fully harden, then examine and
measure the craters. Measure the depth and diameter and calculate the diameter-to-
depth ratio. Which is largest? Which is deepest? Did the results surprise you?
Wear goggles while modeling impact craters.
Work with adult supervision to complete the
investigation.
3. Earth-approaching asteroids
Do some research into current efforts by scientists to map the orbits of Earth-
approaching asteroids. Visit the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/
education/earthcomm2/ to help you get started with your research. How are orbits
determined? What is the current thinking among scientists about how to prevent
impacts from large comets or asteroids?
4. Barringer Crater
Research the Barringer Crater (Meteor Crater). The crater has been named for Daniel
Moreau Barringer, who owned the property that contains the crater. Explain how
scientists used Barringer Crater to understand how craters form. Study the work of
Dr. Eugene Shoemaker, who was one of the foremost experts on the mechanics of
impact cratering.
Meteor Crater
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Section 7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Have you ever seen a magnificent rainbow in the sky or made
• Explain electromagnetic radiation a rainbow yourself with a prism? What needs to happen for
and the electromagnetic spectrum rainbows to appear? Think about this as you look at the spectrum
in terms of wavelength, speed, and
your teacher displays on the overhead projector. In your Geo
energy.
log, record the colors in the order in which they appear. Sketch a
• Investigate the different
picture to accompany your notes.
instruments astronomers use to
detect different wavelengths in the • What does a prism reveal about visible light?
electromagnetic spectrum.
• The Sun produces light energy that allows you to see. What
• Understand that the atoms of each
of the chemical elements have a
other kinds of energy come from the Sun? Can you see them?
unique spectral fingerprint. Explain your answer.
• Explain how electromagnetic Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log.
radiation reveals the temperature Be prepared to discuss your responses with your small group
and chemical makeup of objects
and the class.
such as stars.
• Understand that some forms of
electromagnetic radiation are Investigate
essential and beneficial to us on
In this series of investigations, you will be exploring the
Earth, and others are harmful.
electromagnetic spectrum (arrangement of electromagnetic
radiation according to wavelength) in three different ways.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Part A: Observing Part of the 4. Use your observations to answer the

Electromagnetic Spectrum following questions:
a) How did the colors and the order of
Do not look directly at a light with the unaided
eye. Use the spectrometer as instructed. the colors differ between reflected
Never look directly at the Sun. Doing so even
sunlight, fluorescent light, and
briefly can damage your eyes permanently. incandescent light? Describe any
differences that you noticed.
b) What if you could use your
spectrometer to look at the light
from other stars? What do you think
it would look like?
Part B: Scaling the Electromagnetic

Spectrum
1. Tape four sheets of blank paper end-

to-end to make one sheet 112 cm long.
Turn the taped sheets over so that the
tape is on the bottom.
1. Obtain a spectrometer, similar to the 2. Draw a vertical line 2 cm from the
one shown in the illustration. Hold the left edge of the paper. Draw two
end with the diffraction grating to horizontal lines from that line, one
your eye. Direct it toward a part of about 8 cm from the top of the page,
the sky away from the Sun. Look for and one about 10 cm below the
a spectrum along the side of first line.
the spectrometer.
3. On the top line, plot the frequencies
a) In your Geo log, write down the of the electromagnetic spectrum on
order of the colors you observed. a logarithmic scale. To do this, mark
b) Move the spectrometer to the right off twenty-four 1-cm intervals
and left. Record your observations. starting at the left vertical line.
Label the marks from 1 to 24 (each
2. Look through the spectrometer at a
number represents increasing powers
fluorescent light.
of 10, from 101 to 1024).
a) In your log, write down the order of
the colors you observed. 4. Use the information from the table
of frequency ranges (log10) to divide
3. Look through the spectrometer at an
your scale into the individual bands of
incandescent bulb.
electromagnetic radiation (transfer of
a) In your log, write down the order of energy by electromagnetic waves). For
the colors you observed. the visible band, use the entire band,
not the individual colors.
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Frequency Range Table

EMR Bands Frequency Range Log10 Frequency 1014 Conversions
(hertz) Range (hertz)
Radio and Microwave Near 0 to 3.0 × 1012 0 to 12.47 —
12 14
Infrared 3.0 × 10 to 4.6 × 10 12.47 to 14.66 —
14 14 14
Visible 4.6 × 10 to 7.5 × 10 14.66 to 14.88 4.6 × 10 to 7.5 × 1014
Red 4.6 × 1014 to 5.1 × 1014 14.66 to 14.71 4.6 × 1014 to 5.1 × 1014
Orange 5.1 × 1014 to 5.6 × 1014 14.71 to 14.75 5.1 × 1014 to 5.6 × 1014
Yellow 5.6 × 1014 to 6.1 × 1014 14.75 to 14.79 5.6 × 1014 to 6.1 × 1014
Green 6.1 × 1014 to 6.5 × 1014 14.79 to 14.81 6.1 × 1014 to 6.5 × 1014
Blue 6.5 × 1014 to 7.0 × 1014 14.81 to 14.85 6.5 × 1014 to 7.0 × 1014
Violet 7.0 × 1014 to 7.5 × 1014 14.85 to 14.88 7.0 × 1014 to 7.5 × 1014
Ultraviolet 7.5 × 1014 to 6.0 × 1016 14.88 to 16.78 —
16 20
X-Ray 6.0 × 10 to 1.0 × 10 16.78 to 20 —
20
Gamma Ray 1.0 × 10 to ... 20 to ... —
5. To construct a linear scale, you will 7. Look at the range of ultraviolet

need to convert the range of frequencies radiation (which is electromagnetic
that each band of radiation covers for radiation at wavelengths shorter than
the logarithmic scale. This will allow the violet end of visible light.)
you to compare the width of the bands
of radiation relative to each other. a) How high do the ultraviolet
Convert the frequency numbers for frequencies extend (in hertz)?
all bands (except visible) to 1014 and b) Using the same linear scale that
record them in the table. you constructed in Step 6
Example: 1017 is 1000 times greater (10 cm = 1 × 1014 Hz), calculate
than 1014, so 2.5 × 1017 = 2500 × 1014. the width (in centimeters) of the
ultraviolet electromagnetic
6. On the lower horizontal line, mark off radiation band.
ten 10-cm intervals from the vertical
line. Starting with the first interval, c) Using this same scale, what do you
label each mark with a whole think you would need to measure
number times 1014, from 1 × 1014 to the distance from the beginning
10 × 1014. Label the bottom of your of the ultraviolet band of the
model “Frequency in hertz.” Plot some electromagnetic radiation to the
of the 1014 frequencies you calculated end of the ultraviolet band of the
on the bottom line of your constructed electromagnetic radiation?
model. Plot the individual colors of the d) Using your calculations above and
visible spectrum and color them. the linear scale you created in Steps
a) Compare the logarithmic and linear 5 and 6, how much wider is the
scales. Describe the differences. ultraviolet band than the entire
visible band? How does this compare
to the relative widths of these two
bands on the log scale you created in
Steps 1–4?
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mission, and then report to the rest

of the class. Visit the EarthComm
Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/
education/earthcomm2/ to find links for
missions that are either in development,
currently operating, or operated in
the past. A small sampling is provided
in the table on the next page. Many
missions contain multiple instruments
(it is very expensive to send instruments
into space, so scientists combine several
or more studies into one mission), so
you should focus on one instrument and
aspect of the mission and get to know it
well. The Digging Deeper of this section
might help you begin your work.
8. X-rays are the next band of radiation. Questions that you should try to answer
in your research include:
a) Using the same linear scale
(10 cm = 1 × 1014 Hz), calculate • What is the purpose or key question
the distance from the end of the of the mission?
ultraviolet band to the end of the • How does the mission contribute to
X-ray band. Obtain a map from our understanding of the origin and
the Internet or use a local or state evolution of the universe or the nature
highway map to plot the distance. of planets within our solar system?
• Who and/or how many scientists and
b) Based on your results for the width countries are involved in the mission?
of the X-ray band, what would be
your estimate for the width of the • What instrument used in the mission
gamma-ray band of radiation? have you selected?
What would you need to measure • At what wavelength range of
the distance? electromagnetic radiation does the
instrument work?
Part C: Using Electromagnetic
• What is the detector and how does
Radiation in Astronomy
it work?
1. Astronomers use electromagnetic • What does the instrument look like?
radiation to study objects and events • How are the data processed and
within our solar system and beyond rendered? Images? Graphs?
to distant galaxies. In this part of
• Any other questions that you and
the Investigate, you will be asked
your teacher agree upon.
to research a space-science mission,
find out how astronomers are using 2. When you have completed your research,
the electromagnetic spectrum in the provide a brief report to the class.
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Descriptions of Selected Missions
Mission/Instrument Description
Hubble – NICMOS Hubble’s Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) provides
Instrument images of objects in deepest space—objects whose light takes billions of years to
reach Earth. Many secrets about the birth of stars, solar systems, and galaxies are
revealed in infrared light, which can penetrate the interstellar gas and dust that block
visible light.
Cassini-Huygens Mission The Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS) is a set of detectors designed to
to Saturn and Titan measure ultraviolet light reflected or emitted from atmospheres, rings, and surfaces
over wavelengths in the range of 55.8 to 190 nm (nanometers) to determine their
compositions, distribution, aerosol content, and temperatures.
SIRTF The Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (SIRTF) is a space-borne, cryogenically cooled
infrared observatory capable of studying objects ranging from our solar system
to the distant reaches of the universe. SIRTF is the final element in NASA’s Great
Observatories Program, and an important scientific and technical cornerstone of the
new Astronomical Search for Origins Program.
HETE-2 High Energy The High Energy Transient Explorer (HETE) is a small scientific satellite designed
Transient Explorer to detect and localize gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). The primary goals of the HETE
mission are the multi-wavelength observation of gamma-ray bursts and the prompt
distribution of precise GRB coordinates to the astronomical community for immediate
follow-up observations. The HETE science payload consists of one gamma-ray and two
X-ray detectors.
Chandra X-Ray NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory, which was launched and deployed by Space
Observatory Shuttle Columbia in July of 1999, is the most sophisticated X-ray observatory built to
date. Chandra is designed to observe X-rays from high-energy regions of the universe,
such as the remnants of exploded stars.
Digging Deeper
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
In the Investigate, you studied the visible light spectrum by using a Geo Words
spectrometer to separate the Sun’s light into its various colors. You also spectrometer: an
read about the other wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. In instrument consisting
of, at a minimum, a
1666, Isaac Newton found that he could split light into a spectrum of colors. slit and grating (or
As he passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism, a spectrum of colors prism) that produces
appeared from red to violet. Newton deduced that visible light was in a spectrum for visual
fact a mixture of different kinds of light. About 10 years later, Christiaan observation.
Huygens proposed the idea that light travels in the form of tiny waves. electromagnetic
When light passes the boundary between two different substances, the spectrum: the range
of frequencies of
light rays are bent (refracted). Light with shorter wavelengths is refracted electromagnetic
more than light with longer wavelengths. Violet light has the shortest radiation.
wavelength of the entire range of visible light. It is refracted the most. spectroscopy: the
science that studies
The science of studying the properties of light is called spectroscopy. As the way light
you will discover, many questions about matter, energy, time, and space interacts with matter.
have been answered by years of research in spectroscopy.
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Geo Words
electromagnetic Electromagnetic radiation is in the form of electromagnetic waves. These
radiation: the energy waves transfer energy as they travel through space. They travel at the
transmitted through
space by electric and
speed of light (300,000 km/s). That is eight laps around Earth in one
magnetic fields that second. Electromagnetic radiation has properties of both particles and
are regularly moving waves. The colors of the visible spectrum are best described as waves.
back and forth. However, the same energy that produces an electric current in a solar cell
It travels at 3 × 108 m/s
in a vacuum and
is best described as a particle.
includes (in order of
increasing energy)
Figure 1 summarizes the spectrum of energy that travels throughout the
radio, infrared, universe. Scientists divide the spectrum into regions by the wavelength of
visible light (optical), the waves. Long radio waves have wavelengths from several centimeters
ultraviolet, X-rays, to thousands of kilometers. The wavelengths of gamma rays are very
and gamma rays.
short. They are shorter than the width of an atom.
visible spectrum:
part of the
electromagnetic
spectrum that is
detectable by human
eyes. The wavelengths
range from 400 to
700 nanometers (nm).
Figure 1 The
ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic spectrum.
electromagnetic Wavelengths decrease from
radiation at
left to right, and energy
wavelengths shorter
increases from left to
than the violet end
of visible light, with right. The diagram shows
wavelengths ranging that a relationship exists
from 5 to 400 nm. between the temperature
of an object and the
infrared radiation: peak wavelength of
electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation
radiation with
it emits.
wavelengths between
about 0.7 to 1000 µm.
Infrared waves are Humans can see only wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 µm (micrometers).
not visible to the
human eye.
This is the range of the visible spectrum. A micrometer is equal to a
millionth of a meter. This means that much of the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the Sun is invisible to human eyes. You are probably
familiar, however, with some of the kinds of radiation besides visible
light. For example, ultraviolet radiation can give you a sunburn. Infrared
radiation you detect as heat. Doctors use X-rays to help diagnose broken
bones or other physical problems. Law enforcement officers use radar to
measure the speed of a motor vehicle. At home you may use microwaves
to cook food.
Astronomy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Humans have traveled to the Moon and sent probes deeper into our solar
system. But how do they learn about distant objects in the universe?
Scientists use a variety of instruments to collect electromagnetic
radiation from these distant objects. Each tool is designed for a specific
part of the spectrum.
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Visible light reveals the temperature of stars. Visible light is what you
see when you look at the stars through telescopes, binoculars, or your
unaided eyes. All other forms of light are invisible to the human eye.
However, they still can be detected. Geo Words
Radio telescopes are sensitive to wavelengths in the radio range. They radio telescope: an
record the different amounts of radio emission coming from an area of instrument used
to observe longer
the sky that is being observed. Astronomers process the information with
wavelengths of
computers to produce an image. One radio telescope is the Very Large radiation (radio
Baseline Array (VLBA) in New Mexico. The VLBA has 27 large-dish waves), with large
antennas. The antennas work together as a single instrument. Recorders dishes to collect
and precise atomic clocks are installed at each antenna. The signals from and concentrate
the radiation onto
all antennas are combined after the observation is completed. antennae.
The galaxy M81 is a spiral galaxy. It is X-ray telescope: an
about 11 million light-years from Earth instrument used to
and is about 50,000 light-years across. The detect stellar and
interstellar X-ray
spiral structure is clearly shown in Figure 2. emissions. Because
This image shows what the galaxy looks Earth’s atmosphere
like through a radio telescope. Red absorbs X-rays, these
indicates strong radio emission. Blue telescopes are placed
high above Earth’s
indicates weaker emission. surface.
Supernova explosions, active galaxies,
and black holes are extremely high-
temperature events that give off X-rays.
When these X-rays reach Earth, gases in
Figure 2 The galaxy M81.
the atmosphere absorb them. They do
not reach Earth’s surface. For astronomers
to be able to study these events, they must use X-ray telescopes. These
must be based in space, above Earth’s atmosphere. For example, the
Chandra X-Ray Observatory is currently in orbit around Earth. It is
peering out into the universe, collecting the X-ray emissions of extremely
high-temperature events in space.
Many high-temperature objects and events in the universe also emit
ultraviolet light. Much like X-rays, this radiation does not reach Earth’s
surface. It is absorbed by the ozone layer in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Space-based telescopes are used to study these events. These telescopes
are equipped with detectors sensitive to ultraviolet light. One example is
the Hubble Space Telescope, shown in Figure 3 on the next page. It has
ultraviolet detectors. These have allowed scientists to observe hot, young
stars and supernova explosions.
Many objects in space are difficult to observe because heavy clouds of
gas and dust block the light they emit. But, infrared radiation passes
through gas and dust. Low-temperature objects typically emit infrared
radiation. Therefore, the instruments used to study these objects must be
able to detect infrared light. The Hubble Space Telescope is also outfitted
with a special infrared instrument. This instrument has allowed scientists
to observe star-forming nebulae and cool stars.
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Astronomers use a wide array

of solar telescopes. These
telescopes are located both
on Earth and in space. They
study the smallest detail of
every wavelength of radiation
from the Sun. The tools of
astronomy expand scientists’
vision beyond what they can
see with their eyes. They help
scientists understand ongoing
processes and evolution of
the universe.
Using Electromagnetic
Radiation to Understand
Celestial Objects
Objects, whether in space
or on Earth, tend to absorb
electromagnetic radiation
Figure 3 Astronauts working on the Hubble
differently. For example, Space Telescope high above Earth’s atmosphere.
glass seems to absorb hardly
any light at all. Light just
passes through it. Light does not seem to be absorbed by a shiny metallic
material either. Instead, it appears to be reflected. But there objects that
Geo Words do not reflect or let any radiation pass through them. Scientists refer
black body: a to such objects as black bodies. A black body is an object that absorbs
theoretical object all radiation that falls on it. Black bodies are only theoretical. There are
which is both a no exact black bodies in nature. Some electromagnetic radiation either
perfect absorber and
emitter of radiation. passes through or is reflected by all objects. There are, however, objects
that come very close to being black bodies. One example is carbon. In its
graphite form, it absorbs all but about 3% of the radiation it receives.
(Carbon in its graphite form looks like a lump of black coal.)
A black body absorbs all the radiation it receives. It also emits radiation.
This radiation is called blackbody radiation. The wavelengths of radiation
emitted by a black body depend on its temperature. As a black body
absorbs radiation, its temperature increases. As the temperature of a black
body increases, it emits more energy in each band of wavelengths. Only
when a black body is very hot does it emit visible light. For example, a
black body appears black when it is cold. At room temperature, it will emit
mostly longer infrared wavelengths. As the temperature of the black body
increases past a few hundred degrees Celsius, it starts to emit visible light.
The light first emitted is in the shorter visible wavelengths. It will appear
red, orange, yellow, white, and then blue as the temperature increases. A
white black body is emitting substantial ultraviolet radiation as well.
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In astronomy, objects such as stars are often thought of as black

bodies. The Sun is a very good emitter of radiation. It approaches
blackbody emission. This means that its temperature determines the
electromagnetic radiation it emits.
The wavelength of light with the most energy produced by any object Geo Words
is called its peak wavelength. Objects that are hot and radiating visible peak wavelength:
light usually look the color of their peak wavelength. The Sun has its the wavelength of
peak wavelength in the yellow region of the visible spectrum. People electromagnetic
radiation with the
are not hot enough to emit visible light. However, they do emit infrared most electromagnetic
radiation that can be detected with infrared cameras. Hotter objects energy emitted by
produce their peaks toward the blue direction. Very hot objects can any object.
have their peaks in the ultraviolet, X-ray, or even gamma-ray range of absolute zero:
wavelength. A gas under high pressure radiates as well as a hot, solid a theoretical
temperature of 0 K
object. Star colors thus reflect temperature. Reddish stars are a “cool”
(zero kelvin) at which
3000 to 4000 K (kelvin). (Kelvins are Celsius degrees above absolute zero, there is no apparent
which is at –273°C.) Bluish stars are hot (over 20,000 K). molecular motion.
One of the most important tools in astronomy is the spectrum (plural: spectrum: a chart of
spectra). It is a chart of the entire range of wavelengths of light from an the entire range of
wavelengths of light
object. Astronomers often refer to this chart as the spectrum of the star. from an object.
These spectra come in two forms. One resembles a bar code with bright
and dark lines (see Figure 4). The other is a graph with horizontal and
vertical axes (see Figure 5). Think of these spectra as “fingerprints” that
reveal many kinds of things about an object. They can reveal its chemical
composition, its temperature and pressure, and its motion toward or
away from Earth.
Figure 4 This spectrum reveals the different colors of light that are
coming from a star. The data encoded here tells astronomers that
less light is coming from the star at certain colors than at other
colors. This is because the star contains more of certain types of
elements than others.
Figure 5 The spectrum of a star can also be represented as a graph with horizontal
and vertical axes. This graph represents the colors of the spectrum shown in
Figure 4. Low-intensity wavelengths correspond to dark lines in Figure 4.
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Each chemical element in the universe has its own unique spectrum. If you
know what the spectrum of hydrogen is, you can look for its fingerprint
in a star. If you suspect that a star may have a lot of the elements helium
or calcium, for example, you can compare the spectrum of the star with
the known spectra of helium or calcium. Suppose you see bright lines
in the spectrum of a star that match the patterns of bright lines in the
Geo Words helium or calcium spectra. Then you have identified those elements in
emission spectrum: a the star. This kind of spectrum is known as an emission spectrum. If you
spectrum containing look at the star and see dark lines where you would expect to see an
bright lines or a set of
discrete wavelengths
element—especially hydrogen—it is likely that something between you
produced by an and the star is absorbing the element. This kind of spectrum is known as
element. Each an absorption spectrum.
element has its own
unique emission
spectrum.
absorption spectrum:
a continuous
spectrum interrupted
by absorption lines.
Checking Up
1. What are the
colors of the
spectrum of visible Figure 6 Absorption and emission spectra for hydrogen.
sunlight, from
longest wavelength
to shortest? The positions of lines in a star’s spectrum reveal the motion of the star
2. Which light toward or away from Earth, as well as the speed of that motion. You
wavelengths can read about this principle, known as the Doppler effect, in Section 3. The
be more harmful to same principle applies to the spectrum from a distant object in space,
you than others? which might be moving toward or away from Earth. Scientists compare
Why? the actual spectrum of an object, such as a star, to the spectrum it should
3. What tools do be emitting. If the object is moving away from Earth, the frequency of its
astronomers use spectrum will have a lower frequency of light than the spectrum it should
to detect different have. Red is the color at the lower end of the visible spectrum, so scientists
light wavelengths?
call a shift toward the lower end of the visible spectrum a redshift.
4. How can scientists Conversely, a decrease in wavelength is called blueshift and is generally
measure the speed
observed when an object moves toward Earth.
of a distant object
in space?
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• What does a prism reveal about visible light?
• The Sun produces light energy that allows you to see. What other kinds of energy come
from the Sun? Can you see them? Explain your answer.
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you include a description of
electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, speed,
and energy.

The spectrometer helped you to see that visible light is made up of different color
components. Visible light is only one of the components of radiation you receive from the
Sun. In the second part of the Investigate, you explored models for describing the range
of frequencies of energy within electromagnetic radiation. Finally, you researched a space
mission to learn how astronomers are using electromagnetic radiation to understand the
evolution of the Earth system. Radiation from the Sun and other objects in the universe is
something you will need to explain to your fellow citizens in your Chapter Challenge script.

1. Imagine that you are on a distant planet. Name two parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum that you would use to investigate Earth. Explain the reasoning for your choices.
2. Refer to Figure 1 in the Digging Deeper to answer the questions below.
a) Describe the relationship between wavelength and energy in the
b) Based upon this relationship, why do astronomers use X-ray telescopes to study
supernova explosions and black holes?
3. The Sun looks yellow, can warm the surface of your skin, and can also give you a bad
sunburn. Explain these three everyday phenomena in terms of the electromagnetic
spectrum and peak wavelength.
In your script, describe what electromagnetic radiation is, where it comes from, and
how it can be detected. Also, describe what electromagnetic radiation reveals about an
object, including the Sun and other celestial objects, such as stars. Include the effects of
electromagnetic radiation on the Earth system as well.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Inquiring Further
1. Using radio waves to study distant objects
Radio waves from the Sun penetrate Earth’s atmosphere. Scientists detect these waves
and study their strength and frequency to understand the processes inside the Sun that
generate them. Research how scientists study these waves.
2. Detecting electromagnetic radiation
Investigate some of the instruments that astronomers use to detect electromagnetic
radiation besides light. Where are you likely to find ultraviolet detectors? Describe
radio telescope arrays.
3. Technologies and electromagnetic radiation
Research technologies that depend on the use of electromagnetic radiation. Some
examples are microwave ovens, X-ray machines, televisions, and radios. How do they
work? How is electromagnetic radiation essential to their operation? What interferes
with their operation?
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Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

What Do You See?

In this section, you will A study in 2009 by researchers at the Albert Einstein College
• Explore the structure of the Sun of Medicine in New York found that millions of children in the
and describe the flow of solar United States have very low levels of vitamin D, an essential
energy in terms of reflection,
element that the human body makes with the help of sunlight.
absorption, and scattering.
It appears that an indoor lifestyle and too much sunscreen have
• Understand that the Sun emits
contributed to this situation. At the same time, children are
charged particles called the solar
wind, and how this wind affects
warned to wear sunscreen to prevent skin damage from too much
“space weather.” exposure to the Sun. These are just two examples of how the Sun
• Explain the effect of solar wind affects us, both positively and negatively, every day.
on people and communities. • In what other ways does solar radiation benefit life on
• Understand sunspots, solar flares, the planet?
and other kinds of solar activities
and their effects on Earth. • In what other ways can solar radiation be harmful or
• Learn to estimate the chances disruptive?
of solar activity affecting your Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
community.
the class.
Investigate
1. Use the data in Table 1 on the next page to construct a graph
of sunspot activity by year.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
a) Plot time on the horizontal axis c) Look at your graph. Describe

and number of sunspots on the any pattern you find in the
vertical axis. sunspot activity.
b) Connect the points you have plotted.
Table 1: Sunspot Activity

Number of Number of Number of Number of
Year Year Year Year
Sunspots Sunspots Sunspots Sunspots
1899 12.1 1927 69.0 1955 38.0 1983 66.6
1900 9.5 1928 77.8 1956 141.7 1984 45.9
1901 2.7 1929 64.9 1957 190.2 1985 17.9
1902 5.0 1930 35.7 1958 184.8 1986 13.4
1903 24.4 1931 21.2 1959 159.0 1987 29.4
1904 42.0 1932 11.1 1960 112.3 1988 100.2
1905 63.5 1933 5.7 1961 53.9 1989 157.6
1906 53.8 1934 8.7 1962 37.6 1990 142.6
1907 62.0 1935 36.1 1963 27.9 1991 145.7
1908 48.5 1936 79.7 1964 10.2 1992 94.3
1909 43.9 1937 114.4 1965 15.1 1993 54.6
1910 18.6 1938 109.6 1966 47.0 1994 29.9
1911 5.7 1939 88.8 1967 93.8 1995 17.5
1912 3.6 1940 67.8 1968 105.9 1996 8.6
1913 1.4 1941 47.5 1969 105.5 1997 21.5
1914 9.6 1942 30.6 1970 104.5 1998 64.3
1915 47.4 1943 16.3 1971 66.6 1999 93.3
1916 57.1 1944 9.6 1972 68.9 2000 119.6
1917 103.9 1945 33.2 1973 38.0 2001 111.0
1918 80.6 1946 92.6 1974 34.5 2002 104.0
1919 63.6 1947 151.6 1975 15.5 2003 63.7
1920 37.6 1948 136.3 1976 12.6 2004 40.4
1921 26.1 1949 134.7 1977 27.5 2005 29.8
1922 14.2 1950 83.9 1978 92.5 2006 15.2
1923 5.8 1951 69.4 1979 155.4 2007 7.5
1924 16.7 1952 31.5 1980 154.6 2008 2.9
1925 44.3 1953 13.9 1981 140.4 2009 3.1
1926 63.9 1954 4.4 1982 115.9 2010 16.5
The number of sunspots on the visible solar surface is counted by many solar observatories and is averaged
into a single-standardized quantity called the sunspot number. This explains the decimal values in the table.
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2. Table 2 contains a list of solar flares. 3. Compare the two graphs you
These flares were strong enough to have produced.
disrupt communications and power
a) What pattern do you see that
systems on Earth.
connects the two?
a) Plot the data from Table 2 onto
b) How would you explain the pattern?
a histogram.
b) What pattern do you see in the
activity of solar flares?
Table 2: Strongest Solar Flare Events From 1976 to 2010
Date of Activity Onset Strength Date of Activity Onset Strength
November 4, 2003 X28+ June 1, 1991 X12.0
April 2, 2001 X20.0 June 4, 1991 X12.0
August 16, 1989 X20.0 June 6, 1991 X12.0
October 28, 2003 X17.2 June 11, 1991 X12.0
September 7, 2005 X17.0 June 15, 1991 X12.0
March 6, 1989 X15.0 December 17, 1982 X10.1
July 11, 1978 X15.0 May 20, 1984 X10.1
April 15, 2001 X14.4 October 29, 2003 X10.0
April 24, 1984 X13.0 January 25, 1991 X10.0
October 19, 1989 X13.0 June 9, 1991 X10.0
December 15, 1982 X12.9 July 9, 1982 X9.8
June 6, 1982 X12.0 September 29, 1989 X9.8
Solar flares are classified according to the amount of energy they emit. The X stands for X-class
flares, which are the highest class and have the strongest effects on Earth. The strength of each
event is in milliWatts (mW) per square meter. For example: X20 = 2.0 mW/m2.
Digging Deeper
THE SUN AND ITS EFFECTS
Structure of the Sun
You just investigated patterns in sunspot and solar
flare data. From Earth’s surface, the Sun generally
appears as a yellow or white, glowing ball of light.
Like Earth, the Sun has a layered structure, as shown in
Figure 1. Its central region (the core) is where nuclear
fusion occurs. This is where hydrogen atoms join
together to form helium atoms. This process happens
only under intense heat and pressure conditions.
The Sun’s core reaches temperatures over 15 million
degrees Celsius, high enough for fusion reactions. Figure 1 The layered
These reactions release energy in the form of structure of the Sun.
electromagnetic radiation that moves through the Sun.
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The energy produced in the core first travels through a radiative zone.
It then travels through a convection zone above that. The radiative zone
surrounds the core. The temperature near the core is about 8 million
degrees Celsius. The temperature near the convection zone is about
2 million degrees Celsius. Particles in the radiative zone continually
absorb energy produced in the core. Then they re-emit the energy. In the
convection zone, there are rising and falling currents of gas. These currents
carry energy emitted from the radiative zone to the Sun’s atmosphere.
The Sun’s atmosphere has three layers. The thinnest layer is the inner
Geo Words one. It is several hundred kilometers in thickness. This layer is called the
photosphere: the photosphere. It is much cooler than the underlying convection zone. It
visible surface of the has a temperature of about 6000°C. The photosphere is the Sun’s visible
Sun, lying just above surface. This is because most of the visible light emitted by the Sun comes
the uppermost layer
of the Sun’s interior, from this layer. Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. This layer
and just below the extends thousands of kilometers above the photosphere. It is also much
chromosphere. hotter with a temperature of about 20,000°C. This layer produces much
chromosphere: a of the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation. The top layer of the Sun’s atmosphere is
layer in the Sun’s called the corona. This layer extends several million kilometers. It is much
atmosphere, the
transition between
hotter than the other layers with a temperature range from 1 million
the outermost to 3 million degrees Celsius. Although hot, the density of the gas in the
layer of the Sun’s corona is extremely low. As a result, the chromosphere emits much less
atmosphere, or electromagnetic radiation than the other layers.
corona.
corona: the outermost
The Sun is Earth’s main external energy source. Of all the incoming energy
atmosphere of a star from the Sun, about half is absorbed by Earth’s surface. (See Figure 2.)
(including the Sun), The rest is either
millions of kilometers
in size. • absorbed by the atmosphere, or
• reflected or scattered back into space by Earth or clouds.
Figure 2 Diagram of Earth’s solar energy budget.
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Molecules of dust and gas in the

atmosphere interfere with some of the
incoming solar radiation. The dust and
gases deflect the radiation from its
straight path. This is called scattering,
and it explains the blue color of the
sky. The atmosphere scatters shorter
wavelengths of visible light, in the
blue range, more strongly than longer
visible wavelengths, in the red and
orange range. The blue sky you see on
a clear day is the blue light that has
been scattered away from the line of
sight to the Sun. When the Sun is low
on the horizon, its light has to travel
through a much greater thickness of
atmosphere. Even more of the blue
part of the spectrum of sunlight is
scattered out of your line of sight. The Figure 3 Dust and smoke in the
red and orange part of the spectrum atmosphere can sometimes scatter
remains. Therefore, the light you see light to produce a sunset with a
coming directly from the Sun is of that strong red-orange afterglow.
color. The effect is greatest when there
is dust and smoke in the atmosphere. This increases the scattering. The
scattered light that makes the sky appear blue is what makes it possible
for you to see in a shaded area.
Most of Earth’s atmosphere is made of oxygen and nitrogen. These gases
absorb little or no sunlight. As a result, most sunlight passes through the
atmosphere and reaches Earth’s surface. Earth’s land and oceans absorb
this energy and warm up. In turn, air molecules in direct contact with
Earth’s surface warm up as well. As air warms, it expands and becomes
less dense than surrounding cooler air and rises. This rising air transfers
heat up into the atmosphere. As Earth’s surface absorbs solar radiation,
it also reradiates heat energy back out to space as infrared radiation. The
wavelength of this infrared radiation is much longer than that of visible
light, so you cannot see the energy that is reradiated. You can feel it,
however, by standing next to a rock surface or the wall of a building that
Geo Words
has been heated by the Sun.
albedo: the reflective
The reflectivity of a surface is referred to as its albedo. Albedo is property of a
expressed as a percentage of radiation that is reflected. The average nonluminous object.
A perfect mirror
albedo of Earth, including its atmosphere, as would be seen from space,
would have an albedo
is about 0.3. That means that 30 percent of the incoming energy from of 100 percent while
the Sun is reflected. Most of this 30 percent is due to the high reflectivity a black hole would
of clouds, although the air itself reflects about 6 percent. Earth’s surface have an albedo of
(mainly deserts and oceans) reflects another 4 percent. (See Figure 2 0 percent.
on the previous page.) The albedo of particular surfaces on Earth varies.
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Thick clouds have albedo of about 0.8, and freshly fallen snow has an
even higher albedo. The albedo of a dark soil, on the other hand, is as low
as 0.1. This means that only 10 percent of the incoming solar radiation is
reflected. You know from your own experience that light-colored clothing
stays much cooler in the Sun than dark-colored clothing. You can think of
your clothing as having an albedo, too.
Earth’s Energy Budget
The amount of energy received by Earth and delivered back into space is
Earth’s energy budget. Like a monetary budget, the energy is in different
places and moves from place to place in numerous ways and by various
amounts. The energy budget for a given location changes from day to
day and from season to season. It can also vary over geologic time. Daily
changes in solar energy are the most familiar. It is usually cooler in the
morning, warmer at midday, and cooler again at night. Visible light follows
the same cycle, as day moves from dawn to dusk and back to dawn again.
But overall, the system is in balance. Earth gains energy from the Sun and
loses energy to space, but the amount of energy entering the Earth system
is equal to the amount of energy flowing out.
This flow of energy is the source of energy for almost all forms of life on
Earth. Plants capture solar energy by photosynthesis, to build plant tissue.
Animals feed on the plants or on one another. Solar energy creates the
weather, drives the movement of the oceans, and powers the water cycle.
Almost all of Earth’s systems depend on the input of energy from the Sun.
The Sun also supplies most of the energy for human civilization, either
directly, as with solar power and wind power, or indirectly, in the form of
fossil fuels.
Harmful Solar Radiation
Just as there are benefits to
receiving energy from the Sun,
there are dangers as well. One
of the dangers of sunlight is
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which
Geo Words causes skin damage. The gas
ozone: a molecule called ozone, found in the upper
made up of three atmosphere, shields Earth from
oxygen atoms.
much of the Sun’s harmful UV
radiation. (Ozone is a molecule
made up of three oxygen
atoms.) The source of the ozone
in the upper atmosphere is
different from the ozone that Figure 4 Depletion in the ozone layer over
is produced at Earth’s surface. Antarctica. Rather than actually being
Ozone, often produced by a hole, the “ozone hole” is a large area
automobiles, is a source of of the stratosphere with extremely low
pollution. It is a health hazard concentrations of ozone.
and in no way protects you.
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The levels of ozone in the upper atmosphere have been decreasing.

Scientists agree about the reason for the depletion. Chemicals from
compounds such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are the main cause.
Less ozone means that more UV radiation reaches Earth. This increases
the danger of Sun damage. Future levels of ozone will depend upon
a combination of natural and human-made factors. This includes the
phase-out, now underway, of CFCs and other ozone-depleting chemicals.
Sunspots and Solar Flares
In the Investigate, you saw the number of sunspots varies from year to
year. The number of sunspots and dangerously strong solar flares tends
to peak in 11-year cycles. Sunspots are small, dark areas on the Sun’s
visible surface. They can be as small as Earth or as large as Neptune. They
are formed when magnetic field lines just below the Sun’s surface are
twisted and poke through the solar photosphere. They look dark because
they are about 1500 K (kelvin) cooler than the surrounding surface of the
Sun. Sunspots are highly magnetic. This magnetism may cause the cooler
temperatures by suppressing the circulation of heat in the region of the
sunspot. Sunspots last for a few hours to a few months. They appear to
move across the surface of the Sun over a period of days. Actually, the
sunspots move because the Sun is rotating.
Figure 5 The jagged line represents the actual number of sunspots; the Geo Words
smooth, dark line is the predicted number of sunspots.
proton: a subatomic
particle with a
positive charge,
Both sunspots and solar flares can affect systems here on Earth. During a which is found in the
solar flare such as the one shown in Figure 6 on the next page, enormous nucleus of an atom.
quantities of ultraviolet, X-ray, and radio waves blast out from the Sun. In electron: a subatomic
addition, protons and electrons stream from flares at 800 km/h. These particle with a
high-radiation events can be devastating to Earth-orbiting satellites and negative charge,
astronauts. These events can also be harmful to systems on the ground. which orbits around
the nucleus of an
atom.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
In 1989, a major solar flare created electric currents that caused a surge of
power. It knocked out a power grid in Canada, leaving hundreds of
thousands of people without electricity. Radiation from a flare in 1997
affected an Earth-orbiting satellite that carried telecommunications
traffic. For at least a day, people whose beeper messages went through
that satellite had no service.
Geo Words Solar wind is a flow of charged particles from the Sun. Another name
plasma: a state of for the charged particles is plasma. It flows out from the solar corona
matter in which all in all directions. Solar wind is responsible for “space weather”—the
atoms are ionized; environment outside Earth. Like severe storms in the atmosphere, space
a mixture of free
electrons and free
weather can cause problems for Earth systems. Strong outbursts in this
atomic nuclei. ongoing stream of charged particles can disrupt radio signals by disturbing
ionosphere: the part the upper layers of the atmosphere. The sounds of your favorite
of Earth’s atmosphere shortwave radio station travel as radio waves. These signals travel around
above about 50 km, Earth by bouncing off the ionosphere. This is a layer of the atmosphere
where the atoms are 80 to 400 km above Earth’s surface. The ionosphere forms when incoming
ionized and affect the
transmission of radio solar radiation blasts electrons out of the upper-atmosphere gases. What
waves. is left is a layer of electrons
ion: an atom with and charged atoms, called
one or more electrons ions. The ionosphere acts like
removed or added, a mirror, reflecting a part of
giving it a positive or the radio waves (AM radio
negative charge.
waves in the 1000 kHz range)
aurora: the bright
back to Earth.
emission of atoms
and molecules near Solar flares intensify the
Earth’s poles caused solar wind. This makes the
by charged particles
entering the upper ionosphere thicken and
atmosphere. strengthen. When this
happens, radio signals from
Earth are trapped inside the
ionosphere. This causes a
lot of interference. As you Figure 6 A solar flare jets out from the surface
read, solar activity can also of the Sun.
be a problem for satellite
operations and for astronauts orbiting Earth. Also, people aboard high-
flying aircrafts have reason to worry about space weather. This is a big
concern for those who fly polar routes. This is where exposure to radiation
may be greatest. The United States government operates a Space
Environment Center Web site called “Space Weather Now.” It provides
up-to-date information about current solar activity.
At least one effect of space weather is quite wonderful. When the
solar wind encounters Earth’s magnetic field, it excites gases in Earth’s
atmosphere. This causes the gases to glow. The charged particles from the
solar wind end up in an oval-shaped area around Earth’s magnetic poles.
The result is a beautiful display called an aurora, seen in Figure 7. People
who live in northern or southern areas see auroras more often than those
who live near the equator. However, during periods of heavy solar activity
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an aurora can be seen as far south as Texas and New Mexico. In the
Northern Hemisphere, auroras are often called the northern lights (aurora
borealis). In the Southern Hemisphere they are known as the southern
lights (aurora australis). From the ground, they often appear as green or
red glows. Sometimes they look like a shimmering curtain of white, red,
and green lights in the sky.
Figure 7 The aurora borealis, or northern lights, light up the sky in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Collecting Data About the Sun

How do astronomers collect data about the Sun? From the ground, they
use solar telescopes. These are instruments outfitted with special sensors
to detect the different kinds of solar activity. There are dozens of solar
telescope sites around the world. From space, astronomers study the Sun
using orbiting spacecraft. These spacecraft are equipped with detectors
sensitive to X-rays, radio waves, and other wavelengths of radiation
coming from the Sun. In this way, scientists keep very close track of solar
activity. They can use that information to keep the public informed of any
upcoming dangers.
Some scientists theorize that sunspot cycles affect weather on Earth.
They think that during times of high sunspot activity, the climate is
warmer. During times of no or low sunspot activity, the climate is colder.
A sharp decrease in sunspots occurred from 1645 to 1715. This period of
Checking Up
lower solar activity is called the Maunder minimum. It was first noted by 1. How do solar flares
G. Sporer and later studied by E. W. Maunder. It coincided with cooler interfere with
communication
temperatures on Earth. It was part of a period now known as the Little
and power
Ice Age. Similar solar minimums occurred between 1420–1530, 1280– systems?
1340, and 1010–1050. These periods preceded the discovery of sunspots.
Therefore, no correlation between sunspots and temperature is available.
explain the term
Solar astronomers number the solar cycles from one minimum to the “solar wind.”
next. They start with the 1755–1766 cycle as number 1. Cycle 23 peaked How does the
(was at a maximum) in the year 2000. (See Figure 5.) There is still much Sun contribute to
debate about the connection between sunspot cycles and climate. “space weather”?
3. Describe Earth’s
energy budget.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy

• In what other ways does solar radiation benefit life on the planet?
• In what other ways can solar radiation be harmful or disruptive?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe how
the Sun is structured and emits energy. Discuss the cycles and effects of sunspots, solar
flares, and the solar wind as well.

In this section, you used data tables to plot the number of sunspots in a given year and to
correlate strong solar flare activity with larger numbers of sunspots. You found out that the
number of sunspots varies from year to year in a regular cycle and that strong solar flares
occur in greater numbers during high-sunspot years. In your Chapter Challenge, you will
need to explain sunspots and solar flares, their cycles, and the effects of these cycles on
your community.

1. Study the graph that you made showing sunspot activity. You have already determined
that sunspot activity occurs in cycles. Using graph paper, construct a new graph that
predicts a continuation of the cycle from 2010 to 2015. Indicate which years you think
would see increased solar flare activity and more dangerous “space weather.”
2. The latest sunspot maximum occurred in 2000 and the latest minimum occurred
in 2008. Using the data from the sunspot-activity data table, predict the next
sunspot minimum.
3. Make lists of the possible consequences of solar flares to the following members of
your community: an air traffic controller, a radio station manager, and the captain
of a ship at sea. Can you think of other members of your community who would be
affected by solar activity?
4. You have read that Earth’s albedo is about 0.3.
a) In your own words, describe what this means.
b) Is Earth’s albedo constant? Why or why not?
c) How does changing a planet’s albedo change a planet’s temperature? Why does
this occur?
d) If Earth’s albedo was higher, but Earth was farther from the Sun, could Earth have
the same temperature? Why or why not?
Continue working on your radio or podcast script for the Chapter Challenge. Describe
how the Sun has affected your community in the past, how it affects you personally,
and how it might affect your community in the future. Provide details about some of
the benefits attained from a study of the Sun. Explain some of the problems caused by
sunspots and solar flares. Also, explain how auroras are caused and why they can or
cannot be viewed in your community. Compare the chances of dangerous effects from
the Sun with the chances of an impact event affecting Earth.
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Inquiring Further
1. Viewing sunspots
Work with an adult during this investigation.
Do not look at the bright image for long
periods of time.
If you have a telescope, you can view sunspots by projecting an image of the Sun
onto white cardboard. Never look directly at the Sun, with or without a telescope.
Stand with your back to the Sun, and set up a telescope so that the large (front) end
is pointing toward the Sun and the other end is pointing toward a piece of white
cardboard. You should see a projection of the Sun on the cardboard, including
sunspots. If you map the positions of the sunspots daily, you should be able to observe
the rotation of the Sun over a couple of weeks. Use the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ to locate good science sites on the
Internet that show daily images of solar activity. Compare your observations of
sunspots to what you see from the large observatories.
2. Auroras
Have people in your community ever seen the northern lights? Even if your community
is not very far north, do some research to see if the auroras have ever been spotted
from your community. Explain how you assessed the reliability of the sources you used
to research auroras.
3. Solar radiation and airplanes
Periods of sunspot maximums increase the amount of radiation that astronauts
and people traveling in airplanes receive. Conduct research on how much radiation
astronauts receive during sunspot minimums and maximums. How much radiation do
airplane passengers receive? How do the amounts compare to the solar radiation you
receive at Earth’s surface? How do scientists balance safety with the issue of the extra
weight that would be added to aircraft, spacecraft, or spacesuits to provide protection?
4. The hole in the ozone layer
People who live near the South Pole of Earth are at risk for increased ultraviolet
exposure from the Sun. This is due to a thinning in the atmosphere called the ozone
hole. Research this ozone hole. Is there a northern ozone hole? Could these ozone holes
grow? If so, could your community be endangered in the future?
5. History of science
Research the life of British physicist Edward Victor Appleton, who was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics in 1947 for his work on the ionosphere. Other important figures
in the discovery of the properties of the upper atmosphere include Oliver Heaviside,
Arthur Edwin Kennelly, F. Sherwood Rowland, Paul Crutzen, and Mario Molina.
Explain how you assessed the reliability of the sources you used in your research.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Section 9 The Lives of Stars

What Do You See?

In this section, you will If you gaze across the sky at night, you will notice stars. If you
• Identify the place of our solar live in a city, it may be difficult for you to see all of the stars in
system in the Milky Way Galaxy. the night sky because of the city lights. People who live in the
• Study stellar structure and the suburbs or out in the country usually have a much better chance
stellar evolution (the life cycle to see the sky lit up with stars on a clear night. Did you know
of stars). that when you look at the night sky, you are looking across huge
• Explore the relationship between distances of space?
the brightness of an object (its
luminosity) and its magnitude. • As you stargaze, what do you notice about the stars?
• Estimate the chances of another • Do some stars appear brighter than others? Do some appear
star affecting Earth in some way. larger or smaller? What colors are the stars?
Record your ideas and sketch some of the stars in your Geo log.
Be prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
the class.
Investigate
You will be investigating the relationship between distance and
brightness of stars, first using three different wattages of light
bulbs and then the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram.
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Part A: Brightness Versus Distance 6. Use your graph to answer the

From the Source following questions:
Do not stare at the light bulbs for extended a) Explain the general relationship
periods of time. between wattage and brightness (as
measured by your light meter or
1. Set up a series of lamps with 40-, 60-,
qualitative scale).
and 100-W bulbs (of the same size
and all with frosted glass) at one end b) What is the general relationship
of a room (at least 10 m away). Use between distance and brightness?
the other end of the room for your c) Do all the bulbs follow the same
observing site. Turn all the lamps on. pattern? Explain your answer.
Close all of the shades in the room.
d) Draw a light, horizontal line across
a) Can you tell the differences in your graph so that it crosses several
brightness between the lamps? of the lines you have graphed.
2. Move the lamp with the 40-W bulb e) Does a low-wattage bulb ever have
forward 5 m toward you. the same brightness as a high-wattage
a) Does the light look brighter than the bulb? Describe one or two such cases
60-W lamp? in your data.
b) Does it look brighter than the f) The easiest way to determine the
100-W lamp? absolute brightness of objects of
different brightness and distance is to
3. Shift the positions of the lamps so that
move all objects to the same distance.
the 40-W lamp and the 100-W lamp are
How do you think astronomers
in the back of the room and the 60-W
handle this problem when trying
lamp is halfway between you and the
to determine the brightness and
other lamps.
distances to stars?
a) How do the brightness levels compare?
7. When you have completed this
4. Using a light meter, test one bulb at a investigation, spend some time outside
time. If you do not have a light meter, stargazing. Think about the relationship
you will have to construct a qualitative between brightness and distance as it
scale for brightness. applies to stars.
a) Record the brightness of each bulb at a) Write your thoughts in your Geo log.
different distances.
5. Graph the brightness versus the distance
from the source for each bulb.
a) Plot distance on the horizontal axis
of the graph and brightness on the
vertical axis. Leave room on the
graph so that you can extrapolate
the graph beyond the data you have
collected. Plot the data for each bulb
and connect the points with lines.
b) Extrapolate the data by extending
the lines on the graph using dashes.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Part B: Luminosity and Temperature

of Stars
1. The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram 2. Obtain a copy of Table 1 and the
is a very important tool in the study second HR diagram that shows the
of stars. Obtain a copy of the first HR locations of main-sequence stars,
diagram shown below. Examine it and supergiants, giants, and white dwarfs.
answer the following questions: a) Using the luminosity of the stars and
a) What does the vertical their surface temperatures, plot the
axis represent? locations of stars shown in Table 1
on the second HR diagram.
b) What does the horizontal
axis represent? 3. Classify each of the stars into one of the
following four categories and record the
c) The yellow dot on the figure is
name in your copy of the table.
the Sun. What is its temperature
and luminosity? a) Main sequence
d) Put four more dots on the diagram b) Giants
labeled A through D to show the c) Supergiants
locations of stars that are:
A. hot and bright d) White dwarfs
B. hot and dim
C. cool and dim
D. cool and bright
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Table 1: Selected Properties of Some Stars

Surface Luminosity Distance Mass Diameter
Star Temperature (Relative to (Light- (Solar (Solar Color Type of Star
(K) Sun) Years) Masses) Diameters)
Sirius A 9100 22.6 8.6 2.3 2.03 Blue
Arcturus 4300 115 36.7 4.5 31.5 Red
Vega 10,300 50.8 25.3 3.07 3.1 Blue
Capella 5300 75.8 42.2 3 10.8 Red
Rigel 11,000 38,679 733 20 62 Blue
Procyon A 6500 7.5 11.4 1.78 1.4 Yellow
Betelgeuse 2300 105,000 640 20 1183 Red
Altair 7800 11.3 65.1 2 1.6 Yellow
156–171
Aldebaran 4300 65 25 51.5 Red
(variable)
Spica 25,300 2121 262 10.9 7.3 Blue
Pollux 4500 31 33 4 8 Red
Deneb 10,500 66,500 1600 25 116 Yellow
Procyon B 8700 0.0006 11.2 0.65 0.02 White
Blue-
Sirius B 24,000 0.00255 13.2 0.98 0.008
white
Note: Mass, diameter, and luminosity are given in solar units. For example, Sirius A has 2.3 solar masses,
a diameter 2.03 times that of the Sun, and has luminosity 22.6 times brighter than the Sun.
1 solar mass = 2 × 1030 kg = 330, 000 Earth masses; 1 solar diameter = 700 , 000 km = 110 Earth diameters.
Digging Deeper
EARTH’S STELLAR NEIGHBORS
Classifying Stars
In the Investigate, you explored the relationship between distance and
brightness of stars. You also used the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram
to study other properties of stars. You read earlier that our solar system
is part of the Milky Way Galaxy. Our stellar neighborhood is about two
thirds of the way out on a spiral arm that stretches from the core of
the galaxy. (Stellar means of or pertaining to stars.) The galaxy contains
hundreds of billions of stars. Astronomers use a magnitude scale to
describe the brightness of objects they see in the sky. A star’s brightness
decreases with the square of the distance. Thus, a star twice as far from
Earth as another identical star would be one fourth as bright as the
closer star. The first magnitude scales were quite simple. The brightest
stars were described as first magnitude, the next-brightest stars were
second magnitude, and so on, down to magnitude 6. Magnitude 6
stars are barely visible to the unaided eye. The smaller the number, the
brighter the star, and the larger the number, the dimmer the star.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Today, scientists use a more precise system of magnitudes to describe

brightness. The brightest star in the sky is called Sirius A, and its magnitude
is –1.5. The Sun is much brighter at –27 and the Moon is –12.6. The dimmest
stars seen by the unaided eye are still 6th magnitude. To see anything
dimmer than that, you have to magnify your view with binoculars or a
telescope. The best ground-based telescopes can
detect objects as faint as 25th magnitude. To get
a better view of very faint, distant objects, you
have to get above Earth’s atmosphere. The
Hubble Space Telescope, for example, can detect
objects as dim as 30th magnitude.
Perhaps you have seen a star described as a
G-type star or an O-type star. This is a way
of classifying stars that depends on the color
and temperature of the star. They also help
astronomers understand where a given star
is in its life cycle. To get such information,
astronomers study stars with spectrographs. They
use the spectrographs to determine temperature
and chemical makeup of the stars. As you can
see in the table below, there are seven main
categories of stars.
Stellar Temperature
Figure 1 This NASA Classification Classification
Hubble Space Telescope O 25,000 K and higher
near-infrared image of
newborn binary stars B 11,000–25,000 K
reveals a long, thin A 7500–11,000 K
nebula pointing toward
a faint companion F 6000–7500 K
object, which could be
G 5000–6000 K
the first extrasolar planet
to be imaged directly. K 3500–5000 K
M less than 3500 K
Geo Words The Lives of Stars

luminosity: the total Astronomers also use the term luminosity to describe stars. Luminosity
amount of energy is the total rate at which a star emits radiation energy. You looked at
radiated by an object apparent brightness before. (That is, how bright the star appears to be.)
every second.
Apparent brightness depends on how far away a star is. On the other
hand, luminosity does not depend on how far away the star is. In the
early 1900s, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell independently
made the discovery that the luminosity of a star was related to its surface
temperature. In the second part of the Investigate, you worked with a
graph that shows this relationship. It is called the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR)
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diagram in honor of the astronomers who discovered this relationship.

The HR diagram alone does not tell you about why the stars appear
where they do on the diagram.
Think about what would happen if you were to plot the IQ versus the
weight of everyone in your school. You would probably find a very weak
relationship between these two variables. Your graph would resemble a
scatterplot more than it would a line. What would happen if you plotted
the height versus weight for the same people? You are more likely to
find a strong relationship. Your data would be distributed along a trend
or line. However, the graph does not tell you why this relationship exists.
That is up to you to determine. Similarly, the HR diagram shows that stars
do not just appear randomly on a plot of luminosity versus temperature.
They fall into classes of luminosity (red giants, white dwarfs, and so on).
The life cycle of a star begins with its formation in a cloud of gas and Geo Words
dust called a molecular cloud. The material in the cloud begins to clump molecular cloud: a
together, mixing and swirling. Eventually, the core begins to heat as more large, cold cloud
made up mostly of
material is drawn in by gravitational attraction. When the temperature in molecular hydrogen
the center of the cloud reaches 15 million K, it is high enough for nuclear and helium, but
fusion to occur. As you have read in an earlier section, in the process of with some other
nuclear fusion, hydrogen atoms join together to form helium with the gases, such as carbon
monoxide. It is in
release of energy. When this occurs, a star is born. Such stars are called these clouds that new
main-sequence stars. Many stars spend 90 percent of their lifetime on stars are born.
the main sequence. main-sequence star:
star formed when
the temperature in
the center of a cloud
reaches 15 million K,
starting up the stellar
fusion.
Figure 2 Scaling stars to 10,000 miles to 1 ft reveals the widely varying

sizes of stars. The relative sizes of the stars are not to scale.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
As these infant stars grow, the cloud surrounding them is flooded with
strong ultraviolet radiation. This action vaporizes the cloud, creating
beautiful, sculpted shapes in the cloud. In the photograph in Figure 3,
the Hubble Space Telescope studied a region of star birth called NGC 604.
Notice the cluster of bright white stars in the center “cavern” of the cloud
of gas and dust. Their ultraviolet light has carved out a shell of gas and
dust around the newborn stars.
Figure 3 The starforming region Figure 4 The Orion Nebula is an example

NGC 604 in Galaxy M33. of a molecular cloud, from which
new stars are born.
How long a star lives depends on its mass. (Masses of selected stars are
shown in Table 1 in the Investigate.) Stars like our Sun will live about
10 billion years. Smaller, cooler stars might go on twice that long, slowly
burning their fuel. Massive, supergiant stars consume their mass much
more quickly, living only a few tens of millions of years. Very hot stars also
go through their fuel very quickly, existing perhaps only a few hundred
thousand years. The time a star spends on the main sequence can be
determined using the following formula:
Time on main sequence = 1 × 10 billion years

M 2.5
where M is the mass of the star in units of solar masses.
Even though high-mass stars have more mass, they burn it much more
quickly and end up having very short lives.
In the end, however, stars of all types must die. Throughout its life, a
star loses mass in the form of a stellar wind. In the case of the Sun, this is
called the solar wind. As a star ages, it loses more and more mass. Stars
about the size of the Sun and smaller end their days as tiny, shrunken
remnants of their former selves, surrounded by beautiful shells of gas
and dust. These are called planetary nebulae. In about 5 billion years, the
Sun will start to resemble one of these ghostly nebulae, ending its days
surrounded by the shell of its former self.
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Geo Words
supernova: the
A B C explosion of a
massive star whose
Figure 5 Three examples of the deaths of stars about the size of the Sun.
core has completely
A: The Butterfly Nebula. B: The Cat’s-Eye Nebula. In both cases, the dying star lies burned out.
embedded in a cloud of material exhaled by the star as it grew older.
C: The Dumbbell Nebula. European Southern Observatory. neutron star: the
imploded core of a
massive star produced
Massive stars (supergiants tens of times more massive than the Sun) by a supernova
explosion.
also lose mass as they age. However, at some point, their cores collapse
stellar black hole:
catastrophically. The end of a supergiant’s life is a cataclysmic explosion the leftover core of
called a supernova. In an instant of time, most of the star’s mass is hurled a massive single star
out into space. What is left behind is a tiny remnant called a neutron after a supernova.
star. If the star is massive enough, the force of the explosion can be so Black holes exert such
large gravitational
strong that the remnant is imploded into a stellar black hole. This is a pull that not even
place where the gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. light can escape.
The material that is shed from
dying stars makes its way into the
space between the stars. There it
mixes with leftover gas and dust
from other dead and dying stars.
Gravitational attraction slowly
contracts the material. It then
begins a new episode of star birth
and, ultimately, star death. Humans
evolved on a planet that was born
from a recycled cloud of stellar mass.
Therefore, humans are very much
star “stuff.” They are part of a long
cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
Astronomers search the universe
to study the mechanics of star
formation. Star nurseries and star
graveyards are scattered through
all the galaxies. In some cases,
star birth is triggered when one
galaxy collides with (actually passes
through) another. The clouds of gas Figure 6 The Crab Nebula is the remnant
and dust get the push they need to of a supernova explosion, first observed in
the year 1054.
start the process.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Scientists also search for examples of planetary nebulae. They want to

understand when and how these events occur. Not only are these nebulae
interesting, but they also show scientists what the fate of our solar system
will be billions of years from now.
What would happen if there were a supernova explosion in our stellar
neighborhood some time in the future? Depending on how close it was,
you could be bombarded with strong radiation and shock waves from the
explosion. The chances of this happening are extremely small. However,
some astronomers think that a supernova some five billion years ago may
have started the development of the Sun and the planets.
The Creation of Elements Through Stellar Processes
As you read, nuclear fusion in a star begins in its core. The size of the core
depends on the mass of the star. In a star about the size of the Sun, the
core extends from its center to about 25 percent of its radius. When the
core temperature reaches 15 million K, hydrogen atoms combine or fuse
to form heavier helium atoms. In the process, energy is emitted. In stars
less massive than the Sun, this is the only reaction that takes place. In all
other stars, fusion reactions involving elements heavier than hydrogen
also occur. In these stars, once all the hydrogen has been converted into
helium, the helium atoms begin to fuse into heavier atoms of carbon and
oxygen. In a lower mass star, such as the Sun, fusion reactions stop at
this point. The core then collapses under the force of gravity. A planetary
nebula forms. All that remains is a shrunken star, made mostly of
carbon and oxygen, surrounded by a shell of gas. Eventually, after many
thousands of years, the gases of the planetary nebula disperse into space.
These gases provide matter for a new episode of star birth.
For stars with masses higher than the Sun, fusion reactions continue.
Heavier and heavier elements are created. These elements form in shells
within the interior of the star. For example, the fusing of carbon atoms
and oxygen atoms forms elements such as neon, sodium, and magnesium.
Fusion reactions transform these elements into silicon, sulfur, and
phosphorus, among others. These elements, in turn, produce even heavier
elements such as cobalt, manganese, and ruthenium. Other reactions
produce even heavier atoms. However, few elements heavier than iron
are produced. Once iron is formed, nuclear fusion in the star’s core comes
to a stop. This is because the energy that binds iron atoms together is
very strong. Iron cannot be fused with other atoms without the input of
additional energy. For many higher-mass stars, the numerous elements
produced through fusion reactions are lost to space. During lifetimes of
the star, these elements drift as gases from their outer layers. They are
also driven away by stellar wind. These stars end their days as shrunken
cores, no longer fusing elements together.
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Elements that are heavier than iron, such as silver, gold, lead, and
uranium, can only be created through a supernova explosion. This process
occurs in supergiant stars under extreme conditions. When such a star
forms an iron core and no longer radiates energy, it collapses under the
force of gravity. The core temperature then rises to over 100 billion K.
The iron atoms are pulled together. The collapse of the core produces
a shock wave. The wave blasts outward into space at thousands of
kilometers per second. The shock wave encounters material in the star’s
outer layers. The material is heated, fusing to form new elements heavier
than iron. The shock wave then blasts this material out into space as
huge clouds of gas and dust. It is from this matter that nebulae form.
Then, under the effects of gravity new stars develop, along with the
planets that orbit them.
Checking Up
1. How do
astronomers
classify stars?
2. Write a brief
description of how
stars are born.
3. What determines
the way a star dies?
Figure 7 This image, taken by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, shows the 4. Explain how
remnants of a supernova blast 160,000 light-years from Earth. lighter and heavier
elements are
formed in stars.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy

• As you stargaze, what do you notice about the stars?
• Do some stars appear brighter than others? Do some appear larger or smaller? What
colors are the stars?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe the relationship
between a star’s brightness and its distance as well as the relationship between the
brightness of a star (its luminosity) and its magnitude.

You measured the apparent differences in brightness of three light bulbs at different
distances. This helped you to see that distance and brightness are important factors in
understanding the objects in our universe. When you look at the stars at night, you are
seeing stars at different distances and levels of brightness. The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR)
diagram that you examined helped you to see that the spectral characteristics of stars
reveal something of their temperature, size, and other characteristics. The light from
distant stars can also be used to understand our own star, and our own solar system’s
makeup and evolution. When you assess danger from space, it is important to understand
that stars, in and of themselves, do not pose a danger unless they are both relatively
nearby and at a stage in their life cycle that could affect Earth. In turn, that helps you to
understand if a given star is, or could be, a threat to Earth. This will help you to describe
the effects of distant objects on Earth as part of the Chapter Challenge.
1. Using an astronomy computer program or a guidebook to the stars, make a list of

the 10 nearest stars, their distances, magnitudes, and spectral classes. What do their
classes tell you about them?
2. What happens when a star loses its mass and how does it figure in the death of a star?
Is the Sun losing its mass?
3. What happens to the material left over from the death of a star?
4. Two identical stars have different apparent levels of brightness. One star is
10 light-years away, and the other is 30 light-years away from us. Which star
is brighter, and by how much?
5. Refer to Table 1 in the Investigate to answer the following questions:
a) Calculate how long the Sun will spend on the main sequence.
b) Calculate how long Spica will spend on the main sequence.
c) Relate your results to the statement, “The more massive the star, the shorter
it lives.”
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6. Explain the relationships between temperature, luminosity, mass, and lifetime of stars.
Your script is heading toward completion. Continue describing our solar system’s
place in the galaxy and how stars are born and die. Explain how stars and the way
they come into existence is tied to the birth of our solar system, the formation of our
planet, and ultimately, the evolution of life on Earth. To address how extraterrestrial
objects and events could affect Earth and your community, explain how the Sun itself
is going through a 10-billion-year-long life cycle and will end as a planetary nebula
some 5 billion years in the future. Also, explain the potential effects of astronomical
phenomena on Earth, such as a supernova explosion, occurring outside of our
solar system.
Inquiring Further
1. Evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy
The Milky Way Galaxy formed some 10 billion years ago, when the universe itself was
only a fraction of its current age. Research the formation of our galaxy and find out
how its ongoing evolution influenced the formation of our solar system.
2. Starburst knots in other galaxies
Other galaxies show signs of star birth and star death. You read about a star-birth
region called NGC 604 in the Digging Deeper of this section. Astronomers have
found evidence of colliding galaxies elsewhere in the universe. In nearly every case,
such collisions have spurred the formation of new stars. In the very distant future, the
Milky Way will collide with another galaxy, and it is likely that starburst knots will be
formed. Look for examples of star-birth nurseries and starburst knots in other galaxies
and write a short report on your findings. How do you think such a collision would
affect Earth (assuming that anyone is around to experience it)?
Colliding spiral galaxies of NGC 5679.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why is there an Earth/Space Science You Learned?

The following is a summary of the principles you learned as you completed each section in
this chapter. You should review the key ideas you have learned and think about how you
can use them to complete your Chapter Challenge. The Earth/Space Science You Learned
can be used as a checklist to see that you fully understood all of the concepts presented
and if you should return to certain sections to refresh your memory of those concepts.
Earth/Space Science
You Learned
Formation of the Universe
Astronomers use special units of measurement for the distances in space: astronomical units, light-
years, and parsecs. Parallax can be used to measure the distance to a star.
The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets, including Earth, and many smaller objects.
The Sun contains over 99 percent of all of the mass of the solar system. The inner planets of the solar
system include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. Planets orbiting stars other than the Sun are called extrasolar planets. There are hundreds
of these and more are discovered each month.
A galaxy is a large grouping of stars in space, held together by the attraction of gravity. Large galaxies
contain more than a trillion stars, while some of the smaller ones have only a few million. Galaxies are
classified according to their shape: elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Earth is in the Milky Way Galaxy.
A constellation is a grouping of stars in the night sky into a recognizable pattern. There are 88
official constellations. To precisely describe the location of an object in the sky, astronomers use a
reference system known as the celestial coordinate system.
The universe formed somewhere between 12 and 14 billion years ago in an event called the big bang.
The expansion and cooling that started with the big bang continues to this day.
The birthplace of our solar system was a nebula, a cloud of interstellar gas and dust, probably cast off
from other stars that used to live in our region of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Earth’s Rotation and Orbit

Johannes Kepler developed three laws of planetary motion that govern orbits. Eccentricity is the ratio
of the distance between the foci and the length of the major axis of an ellipse. The more flattened
an ellipse is, the greater its eccentricity. The greater the angle of tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation, the
greater the difference in solar energy, and therefore temperature, between summer and winter.
Scientists theorize that an object the size of Mars collided with and probably shattered the early
Earth. The remnants of this collision eventually became the Moon. The Moon’s apparent shape and
position changes in the sky because the Moon’s position changes with respect to Earth and the Sun.
Isaac Newton developed the law of gravitation: Every mass exerts a force of attraction on every
other mass. The strength of that force is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the
distance between them.
The gravitational pull between Earth and the Moon stretches the solid Earth and the water in the
oceans along the imaginary Earth-Moon line. The stretching effect in the oceans is greater than in the
solid Earth, because water flows more easily than the rock in Earth’s interior.
In 24 hours, shorelines have two high tides: one when the tidal bulge that points toward the Moon
passes by, and one when the tidal bulge that points away from the Moon passes by.
The gravitational pull of the Sun affects tides. Over a long period of time, the tidal bulge slows down
the rotation of Earth, and causes the Moon to move away from Earth.
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Asteroids and Comets
Asteroids are dark, rocky bodies smaller than planets that orbit the Sun at different distances. Although
some asteroids can be found in the inner solar system, many are found between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter, making up what is called the asteroid belt. Some asteroids have orbits that cross Earth’s orbit.
Perhaps a few dozen of these are larger than 1 km in diameter.
The energy of an asteroid impact event increases with the cube of the radius. Astronomers think that
asteroids at least 1 km in diameter hit Earth every few hundred million years.
Comets are masses of frozen gases (ice) and rocky dust particles that exist mainly in the outer solar
system. Some comets come into the inner solar system while others have orbits that bring them close
to the Sun at regular intervals.
The nucleus of a comet is usually a few kilometers in diameter, but looks much larger as it gets closer
to the Sun because the Sun’s heat vaporizes the ice, forming a cloud (coma). It is thought that the ice
from comet impacts melted to help form Earth’s oceans.
Meteoroids are tiny particles in space, such as leftover dust from a comet’s tail or fragments of
asteroids. They are called meteors in Earth’s atmosphere, and meteorites on Earth’s surface.
Electromagnetic Radiation and Stars

Electromagnetic radiation is in the form of electromagnetic waves that transfer energy as they travel
through space at the speed of light. Electromagnetic radiation has properties of both particles and
waves. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into regions according to its various wavelengths. The
wavelength of radiation with the most energy produced by any object is called its peak wavelength.
The Sun has a layered structure: core (where nuclear fusion occurs), radiative layer, convection
zone, photosphere, chromosphere, and corona. Earth’s atmosphere shields Earth from some of the
most dangerous forms of electromagnetic radiation. The Sun is Earth’s main external energy source,
heating the atmosphere by warming Earth’s surface.
Earth gains energy from the Sun and loses energy to space, but the amount of energy entering
the Earth system is equal to the amount of energy flowing out, on a long-term average. Most of
Earth’s systems depend on the input of energy from the Sun.
Sunspots are small, dark areas on the Sun’s visible surface, lasting from a few hours to a few months.
The number of sunspots varies from year to year and tends to peak in 11-year cycles, along with the
number of very strong solar flares. Some scientists theorize that sunspot cycles affect weather on
Earth. During a solar flare, enormous quantities of ultraviolet, X-ray, and radio waves blast out from
the Sun. The flow of charged particles from the Sun is called the solar wind. It flows out from the
solar corona in all directions.
Scientists learn about distant celestial objects using a variety of instruments to collect radiation from
the objects. These include visible light telescopes, radio telescopes, and X-ray telescopes.
Star colors reflect temperature. Reddish stars are a “cool” 3000 to 4000 K. Bluish stars are hot (over
20,000 K). Astronomers use a magnitude scale to describe the brightness of objects they see in the
sky. A star’s brightness decreases with the square of the distance. Stellar classifications depend on the
color and temperature of the stars. There are seven main categories of stars. The Hertzsprung-Russell
(HR) diagram shows that stars fall into classes of luminosity.
The life cycle of a star begins with its formation in a cloud of gas and dust called a molecular cloud.
How long a star lives depends on its mass. Stars about the size of the Sun and smaller end their days
as tiny, shrunken remnants of their former selves, surrounded by shells of gas and dust. The end of a
supergiant star’s life is a cataclysmic explosion called a supernova.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Earth/Space Science
Chapter Challenge
You will now be completing a second scripts. You also have additional Inputs
cycle of the Engineering Design Cycle as from the Feedback you received following
you prepare for the Chapter Challenge. your Mini-Challenge presentation.
The goals and criteria remain unchanged.
Section 1 You created a scale model of the
However, your list of Inputs has grown.
solar system, identified the strength and
limitations of scale models, and calculated
the distance to objects in the universe in
astronomical units, light-years, and parsecs.
Section 2 You constructed a model of the
night sky and learned how a coordinate
system is used to locate objects in the
universe. You also learned to identify
patterns in the organization and distribution
of matter in the universe.
Section 3 You read about how scientists
explain the formation of the universe, how
stars and planets are formed, and you
examined evidence for planetary systems
outside our solar system.
Section 4 You discovered how planetary
orbits within our solar system can change
over time and how the orbits of comets and
asteroids are similar to and different from the
Goal orbits of planets.
Your challenge for this Section 5 You identified the phases of the
chapter is to write scripts for Moon and the effects of the Sun and the
a special radio series on the possible effects Moon on Earth’s tidal system. You also
that objects from space can have on Earth. explored the origin of the Moon.
Review the Goal as a class to make sure Section 6 You read about the mechanics of
that you are familiar with all the criteria an impact event, compared the consequences
and constraints. of an impact event to natural and human-
made disasters, and investigated the chances
of a collision event.
Section 7 You examined how the
Inputs electromagnetic spectrum helps astronomers
You now have additional learn about the objects in the universe
information to help you and how electromagnetic radiation can
address the topics you will include in your be harmful and beneficial to Earth and
scripts. You have completed all the sections to people.
of this chapter and learned the content you Section 8 You explored the structure of the
need to complete your challenge. This is Sun, the energy it emits, solar wind, solar
part of the Inputs phase of the Engineering flares, space weather, sunspots and how
Design Cycle. Your group needs to apply these solar activities affect Earth, people,
these concepts to develop your radio show and communities.
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Section 9 You studied Earth’s place in the community from outer space. You may
solar system and galaxy, how stars are choose to do an interview show or have a
formed and identified, and the chances of panel discussion of experts, astronomers,
another star affecting Earth. politicians, or community members to
convey the information.
Perhaps you will choose to do a skit, story,
or song to help inform your audience. You
Process may also have your own excellent ideas for
In the Process phase, the radio show. Creativity is encouraged
you need to decide what and will help make your radio narrative
information you have that you will use to memorable. Just make sure that every
meet the Goal. Decide which topics you member of your group is included and
want to cover in your 5-minute scripts. Will knows how he or she will be contributing
you choose to inform your audience about to the show.
how the Sun and the Moon affect Earth?
Tides play an important part in the boating
and fishing industries of communities
located near the ocean. Seasonal changes Outputs
in the Sun’s angle affect climate patterns. Presenting your radio show
Solar wind affects electronic communication to the class is your design-
everywhere on Earth and sunspot cycles cycle Output. Try to create a show that
influence many aspects of the Earth system. is engaging and interesting as well as
Will you choose to discuss how impact informative. Make sure that your facts are
events have affected both Earth and its correct and that the information you present
solar system? Even though small-impact addresses the Earth/ Space Science You
events are frequent, most go unnoticed. Learned at the end of the chapter.
Large-scale events in the past have altered
the biosphere and topography of Earth,
and although rare, significant impact events
have occurred recently within Earth’s solar Feedback
system. How likely is a large scale event Your classmates will give you
for Earth and what effects might it have on Feedback on the accuracy
your community? What information would and overall appeal of your radio show based
people need to protect themselves against the on the criteria of the design challenge.
effects of such an event? This Feedback will likely become part of
Because your presentation will be an audio your grade but could also be useful for
show, consider using sound effects to help additional design revisions. No design is
your audience understand the ideas and perfect because there is always room for
concepts you want to convey. You may want optimization or improvement, no matter
to have the radio show be a news narrative how slight. From your experience with the
providing details and facts to inform your Mini-Challenge you should see how you
audience of the possible hazards to your could continuously refine almost any idea.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why is there an Earth/Space Science Systems Thinking?

This section examines the ways in which Earth can be viewed as a whole and unified
system. It highlights the interactions and interrelationships among the various parts of
the Earth system that you studied throughout the chapter. Within this section, you will
be asked to think about how Earth’s main spheres are interconnected. You will do this by
considering the ways in which matter and energy flow through the Earth system. You will
also recognize the different ways in which Earth’s processes occur over time and space.
Earth/Space Science
Systems Thinking
Revisit the Big Ideas in Astronomy
In this chapter, you looked at the universe, galaxies, solar systems, stars, asteroid belts, and planet
and moon systems. These are the largest systems known to science. They are also very complex.
Their processes involve huge amounts of matter and energy. Like all systems, they contain parts
of various sizes.
The spatial scale of the universe is truly immense. It extends across trillions of light-years and
contains hundreds of billions of galaxies. There is a vast amount of space between the components.
A good way of exploring the connections among the parts is to think about what might happen if
one part were taken away. Remember that a system is greater than the sum of its parts.
All systems have some kind of structure or shape. The structures of major systems in astronomy
are controlled by the laws of physics. Gravity and its relationship to matter often play a central
role. Examining the structures of systems using physics can reveal important clues about the
factors that control the systems.
Motion is a common process in
the universe. The universe has
been expanding outwards since
the big bang. The solar system
is moving within the Milky
Way Galaxy. The 24-hour
revolution of Earth controls the
length of night and day. The
Moon’s orbit is a controlling
factor for Earth’s ocean tides.
Earth’s orbit defines the length
of the year and the appearance
of stars in the night sky.
When you think of energy
in the universe, stars come
to mind. Electromagnetic
radiation is energy produced
from matter in stars. The life
cycles of stars illustrate that
the universe is a very dynamic
place. Stellar processes can have
far-reaching effects on local
planetary systems. For example,
they can warm the surfaces of The remnants of the death of a star.
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planets to the extent that life can exist. But, solar wind can also strip away a planet’s atmosphere.
The explosion of a supernova is one of the most catastrophic releases of energy in the universe.
Eventually, all stars run out of energy.
The gigantic spatial scales of the universe help scientists to look back in time. Looking across very
long time scales, scientists can see that seemingly disconnected systems can affect each other. Time
reveals an order to the universe. Stars, planets, and moons are not permanent features and their
matter is transformed over time scales of billions of years.
Systems Thinking Questions

1. What are the major parts of the solar system and galaxy? Describe each part and
its location.
Asking questions such as, “What are the major parts of our solar system and
galaxy?” will make you think about what a system does and which parts perform
key processes. You will have to consider the importance of larger or smaller systems.
You might want to think about where the different parts are as well.
2. What were/are the major processes in the solar system and galaxy?
Asking questions such as, “When do stars and planets form?” or “How are solar
systems recycled?” helps you to figure out the relationships among major Earth
system processes. You will have to determine which processes have played a
dominant role. Because astronomical systems continue to change over time, you will
also have to evaluate recent astronomical phenomena.
a) Describe the major ways that matter changes in the solar system and galaxy.
Matter lies at the heart of systems. It often moves from one place to another. It
also changes, sometimes between states of matter or in other physical ways.
b) Describe the role of energy in the system.
Energy drives systems. All systems require a source of energy for them to operate.
As systems do work, energy from the source is transformed to different kinds
of energy.
3. Over which spatial scales do the solar system and galaxy operate?
Scientists also like to look at different scales in the same system to seek patterns about
how things work. In astronomy, many different scales are relevant. For example,
consider those of hydrogen and helium, asteroids, moons, planets, and stars. Bigger
systems cover larger regions, typically have more parts, and process more matter.
However, smaller scale systems can sometimes play important roles as well.
4. Across what time scales do the solar system and galaxy operate?
Asking questions such as, “What is the life span of a main-sequence star?” or “How
long does the birth of a galaxy take?” helps you to think more closely about the rates
at which major systems develop.
5. How does the solar system and galaxy affect your community?
Earth has a place in the solar system and the galaxy. The biosphere itself is
composed of matter from the same nebular disk that formed the Sun. Earth’s history
is closely related to many processes at work in the solar system and galaxy. Think
about the environment in which you live and how it is affected by processes in the
solar system and the galaxy.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Why are there Connections to Other Sciences?

The fundamental ideas you have studied in this chapter are also relevant to many
other sciences that you will study in the future. Appreciating the connections among
science disciplines helps scientists achieve a richer understanding of nature. Science
research in the twenty-first century depends heavily upon the way different science
disciplines interact. In this part of the chapter, you will read examples of how the
concepts you studied relate to other sciences.
Earth/Space
E th/S Science
S i
Connections to Other Sciences
Extrasolar Planets Physics The Sun’s outer layer has a temperature
Biology Plants use photosynthesis to harness of 6000°C, but deep within the core it can reach
the energy of the Sun. If the spectrum of light 15,000,000°C. It is here that the temperature
available on an extrasolar planet is different and pressure is so intense that nuclear fusion
from Earth’s light, then another system for occurs and solar energy is created.
absorbing light would probably develop. Read more about nuclear reactions in
Chemistry Gases leave a unique spectral Extending the Connection
fingerprint. Studying the light from an Asteroids and Comets
extrasolar planet, scientists can determine Biology Many scientists believe that comets
some of the gases in the planet’s atmosphere. may have supplied some of the raw material for
Physics The orbits of some extrasolar the origin of life on Earth. Organic molecules,
planets are highly eccentric. One theory trapped in large amounts in comets, could have
suggests that a giant planet must have been released when they impacted Earth.
come close to these planets. The sudden Chemistry Impact craters discovered on Vesta,
gravitational pull sent one into an elliptical an asteroid about 1/7 the size of the Moon,
orbit and ejected the giant planet into space. revealed that it once had a molten interior,
Earth’s Rotation and Orbit much like Earth’s mantle.
Biology Giant prehistoric mammals that Physics Scientists are now recognizing the
could adapt to the much colder conditions on importance of Jupiter, due to its large gravity,
Earth, such as giant sloths, mammoths, and in deflecting incoming objects, such as comets,
saber-toothed cats existed during the ice ages. from reaching the inner solar system.
Chemistry Liquid water on Earth is key to Space Exploration
the formation of life. If Earth’s orbit was only Biology The pull of gravity on your body helps
5 percent closer to the Sun, then its surface to keep your muscles and bones strong. In
water would boil away. If Earth was just 20 space, astronauts experience almost no gravity
percent farther away, its water would freeze. and begin to lose bone mass and strength.
Physics The rotation of Earth adds Chemistry On the International Space Station,
centrifugal effects that cause Earth to slightly samples of different materials are exposed
bulge at its equator and flatten at its poles. outside the spacecraft. Upon return to Earth,
Solar Radiation they will be analyzed to determine which ones
Biology Incident solar radiation and water withstood the harsh environment of space best
are the primary factors that determine the and can be used in future spacecraft.
differences in plant and animal life that can Physics For every force, there is an equal
be found within Earth’s various biomes. and opposite force. The force of the hot gas
Chemistry Photosynthesis transforms simple propelled out of a rocket’s engine produces an
elements into complex carbohydrates which opposing force that propels the rocket upward.
can be used directly as fuel (burning wood)
or made into liquids and gases (ethanol
or methane).
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Extending the Connection
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
You have read that most of the energy received at Earth’s surface comes from the Sun. How is
the Sun able to be a source of energy? Special conditions in the Sun’s interior create extremely
high pressures and temperatures that have a major effect on atoms in the Sun’s core. An atom’s
structure includes a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons (nucleons). These nucleons are
held tightly together with a specific binding energy per nucleon. To free a nucleon requires an
input of energy equal to this binding energy per nucleon. The high pressures and temperatures
in the Sun’s core cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the central cores of
the atoms) to fuse or combine. This is how the Sun generates energy—a process called nuclear
fusion. In this way, the Sun has provided energy to Earth for over five billion years.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclei of relatively light elements with smaller mass than iron have less
binding energy per nucleon. This makes nuclear fusion as an energy source
possible. In nuclear fusion, two lighter nuclei fuse together to produce a
larger nucleus. The larger nucleus has a greater average binding energy
per nucleon than the original smaller nuclei. Energy is therefore released
in the creation of the larger nucleus. However, to achieve fusion, high
temperatures must be generated. The core of the Sun is estimated to be
15 million degrees Celsius. Nuclear fusion also requires extremely high
confinement pressures which also exist within the Sun.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclei of elements with larger mass than iron also have less binding
energy per nucleon than iron. This makes nuclear fission as an energy The Sun is expected to produce
source possible. In nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus can break apart into energy through the fusion of
hydrogen into helium for another
two smaller nuclei. The smaller nuclei have a greater average binding five billion years.
energy per nucleon and energy is therefore released. For example, the
fission of uranium-235 with the absorption of a neutron yields two
(sometimes three, the average is about 2.2) additional neutrons.
235
92 U + 10 n 144
56 Ba + 36
89
Kr + 210 n
The discovery of this reaction, with the formation of its two neutrons, has had an important
impact on society, politically and culturally. This is the main reaction involved in two modern
technologies—nuclear power and nuclear bombs.
The uranium-235 nucleus absorbs one neutron, but gives off two neutrons. In a chain reaction,
each of those two neutrons can be absorbed and more uranium-235 can undergo fission. With
each fission reaction, more energy is released. In a matter of a millionth of a second, a huge
fission explosion can take place. This fission explosion is what occurs in the detonation of a
nuclear bomb. However, the fission chain reaction can also be controlled. By removing neutrons
before the other uranium absorbs them, a controlled reaction takes place. In a nuclear power
plant, the control rods absorb these neutrons, and the uranium is more dispersed, so that the
uncontrolled chain reaction that results in a nuclear explosion cannot take place.
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the process by which the nucleus of an unstable atom spontaneously loses
energy by emitting particles. As a result of this process, the nucleus becomes the nucleus of
another atom. The original nuclei of the atoms before they undergo decay are called
parent nuclei. Daughter nuclei are the nuclei of atoms that have undergone decay.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Three ways in which unstable nuclei decay are alpha, beta, and gamma emission. In alpha
decay, an unstable heavy nucleus “shakes off” some of its excess energy by emitting an
alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus). In beta decay, the neutron in an unstable nucleus turns
into a proton plus electron (beta particle). In gamma decay, an excited nucleus emits some
of its excess energy in the form of a high-energy photon (gamma particle). It is impossible to
predict when a given atom will decay, but radioactive decay of large numbers of nuclei occurs
with incredible precision. Radioactive decay can be used as a “clock” to date items. You will
learn more about this in other chapters.
Benefits and Risks Involved With the Use of Nuclear Energy
There are benefits to the use of nuclear energy but there are also risks involved. Nuclear
energy is used in numerous states to produce electricity. However, nuclear fission does create
some major problems. These problems include security, safety, radiation, removal of spent
rods, and disposal of waste.
Alpha, beta, and gamma emissions can be a health risk or a medical therapy. Used as a
medical tool, radiation has extended the lives of many cancer patients. Although radiation
can be used to kill cancer cells, it can also destroy healthy cells.
As the global demand for energy increases, ongoing scientific research is needed to deal with
the benefits and risks of the use of nuclear energy. Numerous universities and government
facilities are trying to improve the efficiency
of nuclear fission and at the same time trying
to develop nuclear fusion for commercial use.
This research is expensive and depends on the
government, industry, and other organizations
for continued support. Studies and applications
of nuclear energy must themselves be directed
by a careful risk-benefit analysis. These include
scientific assessments as well as political
considerations of what society needs. Nuclear
radiation can be both extremely beneficial and
extremely dangerous. It just depends on how
you use it.
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Earth/Space Science
At Work
How is each person’s work related to the Earth system,
and to Astronomy?
ATMOSPHERE: Astronaut BIOSPHERE: Exobiologist

There is no atmosphere in space, “Did life ever get started on Mars?”
therefore astronauts must have By learning more about the ancient
pressurized atmosphere in their biosphere and environments of the
spacecraft cabins. Compressed air early Earth, exobiologists hope
is pumped into the cabin when that they may be able to answer
the atmospheric pressure outside such questions when space missions
is too low to maintain a safe and return with rocks gathered on
comfortable environment for the Mars. Exobiologists use many
astronauts. Specialized spacesuits different types of science, such
keep astronauts warm and shield as physics, chemistry, astronomy,
them from cosmic rays when they and biology, to investigate possible
perform extra-vehicular activities. life on other planets and to study
biospheres that are very different
from those of Earth.
CRYOSPHERE: Glaciologist
Ice is abundant on Earth’s surface,
in the planetary system, and in
interstellar space. Glaciologists
study the processes and landforms
that occur in glacial systems on
Earth and other planets. Their
research helps to determine whether
ice sheets are growing or shrinking.
This information can then be used
to better understand concepts,
such as global sea level and
climate changes.
GEOSPHERE: Planetary HYDROSPHERE: Lifeguard

Geologist Surfers and other water-sport
Planetary geologists study the solid, enthusiasts rely on lifeguards to
liquid, and gaseous matter that inform them of the time of high and
makes up celestial bodies, such low tides. Low tides or high tides
as the moons, asteroids, comets, can create dangerous situations.
and meteorites of planets. By If conditions become unsafe for
researching Martian volcanism and water activities, a lifeguard will
tectonism, or the geology of the enforce rules to protect those they
icy satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and are supervising. Lifeguards must be
Uranus, planetary geologists hope strong swimmers who are trained
to develop a better understanding and certified to perform emergency
of our place in the universe. rescues if necessary.
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Earth/Space Science
Practice Test
Content Review 5. If a planet moves closer to the Sun, what
will happen to the length of its orbit?
1. According to current theory used to a) It will decrease.
explain the origin of our solar system, the b) It will increase.
planets in our solar system c) It would not change.
a) formed from the same nebular cloud as d) It will increase, then decrease.
the Sun.
b) were captured into orbit by the 6. If Earth mysteriously disappeared, what
Sun’s gravity. would happen to the Moon’s orbit?
c) contain about one tenth the mass of a) It would not change.
the Sun. b) It would continue in a straight-line path
d) formed by fusion of hydrogen in out into space.
their cores. c) It would begin a new orbit of the Sun.
d) It would disintegrate.
2. When using the celestial coordinate
system, which of the following is not true? Refer to the diagram below to answer
a) All of the stars can be observed from Questions 7 and 8.
any location on Earth.
b) Most of the stars appear to rise to the
right in the sky at night.
c) Many stars, planets, and comets can
be located.
d) All of the 88 constellations can
be located.
3. Why is a pinhead sometimes used as an

analogy for the early universe?
a) Matter was destroyed during the
big bang.
b) At time zero all matter was metallic.
c) At time zero all matter was contained in 7. Which of the four positions of Earth
a very small volume. and the Moon shown in the diagram
d) Matter was rapidly dispersed by the correspond to the new-Moon phase?
big bang. a) position A
b) position B
4. If astronomers discover a sister solar c) position C
system to our own, which factors would d) position D
control the distribution of matter that
formed the rocky and gas-giant planets in 8. Which of the following best describes the
this new solar system? tidal conditions on Earth associated with
a) mass and gravity position B of the diagram?
b) volume and gravity a) high tide
c) temperature and volume b) low tide
d) volume and density c) spring tide
d) neap tide
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9. If the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation were 13. If the entire Earth was suddenly and
less than it is today, then compared to permanently covered with a layer of
today, winter would be glistening white snow, the albedo of Earth
a) warmer. would ___________ making Earth a much
b) cooler. ___________ place.
c) the same temperature. a) decrease, warmer
d) None of the above b) increase, warmer
c) decrease, colder
10. If Earth rotated twice as quickly about d) increase, colder
its axis
Refer to the diagram below to answer
a) the tides would be twice as high as now.
Questions 14 and 15.
b) there would be four high tides each day.
c) successive high tides would be separated
by less time.
d) there would be twice as many
spring tides.
11. An astronomer is studying the

electromagnetic radiation from two
different astronomical bodies. The
radiation spectrum from the first body
has a peak wavelength in the visible light
portion of the spectrum, near the blue end.
The second body has its peak wavelength
in the X-ray range of the spectrum. From
this information, the astronomer correctly
concludes that the second body is
a) hotter than the first.
b) colder than the first.
c) moving toward Earth more rapidly than
the first. 14. Which of the four stars shown has the
d) moving toward Earth more slowly than largest diameter?
the first. a) star A
b) star B
12. One evening, several regional electrical c) star C
power grids were disrupted. At the same d) star D
time, cellular telephone users lost service
because several communication satellites 15. If all four stars were equidistant from
stopped functioning properly. Which of the Earth, which two stars would appear to
solar phenomena listed below is the most have the same brightness in the night sky?
likely cause of these disruptions? a) stars A and C
a) solar flares b) stars C and D
b) sunspot activity c) None would appear the same.
c) solar eclipse d) All would appear the same.
d) coronal turbulence
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Chapter 1 Astronomy
Practice Test (continued)

Critical Thinking
16. If the space shuttle could travel at a speed 20. Why doesn’t the Moon collide with Earth?
of 100,000 km/h, how long would it take
to go from Earth to each of the following
21. Explain the relationship between equation
objects? Use the fact that the Moon is on
A and equation B when applied to
average 384,400 km from Earth and the
asteroids and impact events.
table below to calculate your answers.
A. KE = 1 mv
2
a) the Moon 2
b) Mars
c) Neptune B. Energy = 2 πρr 3v 2
3
d) the Sun
Average Distance 22. Compare how NASA’s Chandra X-Ray

Object Observatory works compared to an
From Sun (km)
Mercury 57,900,000
optical telescope by referring to the
Venus 108,200,000
Earth 149,597,890
Mars 227,900,000 23. Stars in our solar neighborhood vary
Jupiter 778,400,000 in many ways, including age, size,
Saturn 1,426,700,000 temperature, and luminosity.
Uranus 2,871,000,000
a) What kind of star is the Sun?
Neptune 4,498,300,000
b) What will the future hold?
17. Explain why you cannot calculate the

true distance between two sets of celestial
coordinates in space.
18. Explain how astronomers are able to detect

extrasolar planets without actually seeing
them directly.
19. Think about the roles that the Sun and

Moon play in causing the ocean tides.
a) If Earth had no Moon, how would
ocean tides be different? Explain
your answer.
b) How would the ocean tides be different
if the Moon were twice as close to Earth
as it is now?
c) What differences would there be in the
ocean tides if the Moon orbited Earth
half as quickly as it does now?
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Chapter Challenge
2 Plate Tectonics
Getting Started
An earthquake or an erupting volcano almost always makes the news
headlines. A catastrophic earthquake took place in Haiti in January
2010. People around the world listened anxiously to news reports of
collapsed government buildings, churches, and schools. Hundreds
of thousands of people were injured or killed. Over a million were
left homeless.
During a 1989–1990 series of eruptions, the Redoubt Volcano in
Alaska sent clouds of gas and ash high into the air. The engines of a
jet flying through the area temporarily failed when it entered the cloud
of ash. The passengers sat in terror. The jet glided in silence for five
long minutes before the crew could restart the engines. Since then, ash-
cloud monitoring systems have been greatly improved. During the 2010
eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland, several airspaces across Europe
were closed due to safety issues. Passengers were stranded at airports
all around the world.
What is the science behind these events? Why are they always so
sudden and destructive? Is there any relationship between earthquakes
and volcanoes? In this chapter, you will be exploring these questions as
well as the ones below.
• What causes volcanoes?
• What causes earthquakes?
• How can a volcano or an earthquake affect your community at each
of the following scales?
– Local (for example, a town or city)
– State (for example, New York)
– Regional (for example, North America)
– Global (Earth)
What do you think? In your Geo log, sketch a picture of Earth,
including its interior. Show what causes a volcano and an earthquake.
Show what effects a volcano or an earthquake can have at the local,
state, regional, and global scales. Write a caption to explain your
drawing. Be prepared to discuss your sketch and ideas with your small
group and the class.
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Scenario
In 1883, on the island of Krakatoa in the East Indies, one of the most violent eruptions
of recorded time took place. Half of the island was blown away by a volcanic eruption.
Over a cubic mile of rock was hurled into the air. The sound of the explosion was heard
in Australia, over 3200 km (2000 mi) away. The following narrative is a close-up account
of an erupting volcano:
“The clouds became thicker, and it was increasingly difficult to see as we struggled up
the narrow, steep path toward the summit. The ground was hot under our feet, but the
moisture from the clouds kept us cold and damp, and made the ash stick to our hair
and eyelashes. We began to see larger volcanic rocks, some as large as two feet across.
Suddenly we came across a large fissure, about 30 cm wide and 20 m long. As I leaned
over it, a hot blast of sulfur-smelling air scorched my nostrils. Then, like a warning growl
from a watchdog, came a rumble from deep within. This was the moment we had been
anticipating with dread…”
An average of about 1,500,000 earthquakes is detected on Earth annually. The following
description of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was written by author Jack London:
“Within an hour after the earthquake shock, the smoke of San Francisco’s burning
was a lurid tower visible a hundred miles away... There was no opposing the flames.
There was no organization, no communication. The earthquake had smashed all the
cunning adjustments of a twentieth century city. The streets were humped into ridges and
depressions, and piled with the debris of fallen walls. Dynamite was lavishly used, and
many of San Francisco’s proudest structures were crumbled by man himself into ruins,
but there was no withstanding the onrush of the flames. The troops were falling back
and driving the refugees with them. From every side came the roaring of flames, the
crashing of walls, and the detonations of dynamite.”
Chapter Challenge
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are always in the news. However, many people do
not know much about them. To survive these sudden and sometimes catastrophic events,
it is important to understand the science behind them. This includes the causes, effects,
monitoring, and lessening the impact of these events. A science-games manufacturer feels
strongly that a game is an engaging way to prepare people to deal with these natural
hazards. She has launched a national competition for high school students to develop
a game about volcanoes and earthquakes.
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Chapter Challenge
The game should cover (at a minimum):
• the causes of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
• the connection between plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
• what happens when volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur
• how often and where they are likely to occur
• the effects of these events on other parts of the Earth system
• how volcanoes and earthquakes are monitored
• what people can do to reduce the risk from volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
The game should include:
• 40 question and answer cards, with 1 point for basic-knowledge questions (20 cards),
3 points for questions that ask the player to interpret a diagram (15 cards), and
5 points for questions about the effects of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes on
the Earth system (5 cards).
• Rules for how to play and win the game.
You will work with your group throughout this chapter to develop and test your game. At
the end of the chapter, you will exchange your game with one from another group. You will
play and critique each other’s games. After making any changes to your game suggested
by the other group, all the games will be put on display to be critiqued by the class. The
class will also decide which game or games have the best chance of being selected by the
science games manufacturer and why. Before you begin, you might find it useful to research
successful games to get ideas about what makes people want to play them.
Assessment Criteria
and your teacher to define the criteria for assessing your work. Record all this information.
Make sure that you understand the criteria as well as you can before you begin. Your
teacher may provide you with a sample rubric to help you get started.
Engineering Design Cycle
Your Chapter Challenge is to develop a game about
volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate tectonics. It should
be designed to prepare people to deal with these
hazards. Your game should include why volcanoes and
earthquakes occur, where they occur, their effects, and
ways in which people can reduce the risk of living in
areas where they occur. In addition, you will need to
address how plate tectonics has shaped continents and
ocean basins. Included in the game will be 40 question
and answer cards using the concepts and vocabulary
found in the chapter. You will use a simplified
Engineering Design Cycle to help your group develop
the game.
The first step is to establish a clear Goal. With your
group, you will need to define the type of game you want
to create. You should decide who the players of the game will be. Think through some of
the constraints that you will face. Then discuss possible formats for your game. Remember,
it is important to engage the players of your game, so be creative. With your teacher’s
approval, you may even wish to develop the game in a language other than English.
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As you experience each of the Earth/Space Science Corner
chapter sections, you will be
gaining information. These Plate Tectonics
are the Inputs to use in the
Engineering Design Cycle. These • Convergent, divergent, • Magma composition and
Inputs will include concepts and and transform plate properties
vocabulary about volcanoes, boundaries • Ocean trenches and
• Earth’s layered structure seafloor spreading
earthquakes, and plate tectonics. • Earthquake hazards • Paleomagnetism
Consider making a list of these • Earthquake intensity and • Seismograms and
as you read the sections. This magnitude seismometers
will help you create the 40 • Earthquake or seismic • Subduction of plates
waves • Topography
question and answer cards. • Earthquakes and plate • Viscosity
After the first six sections of tectonics • Volcanic eruptions and
the chapter, you will work on • Epicenter and focus plate tectonics
• Hot-spot volcanism • Volcanic hazards
part of the challenge. You will • Lithospheric plate • Volcanic landforms
receive Feedback from your movement • Volcanism at plate
classmates and teacher as to boundaries
how you can refine your project.
This Mini-Challenge will be the
first Output of the Engineering
Design Cycle. You will construct
a diagram about one of the
concepts you have learned and
four related question cards. You
will then revisit the Engineering
Design Cycle after the second
half of the chapter when you
have gained the other Inputs to
complete your project design.
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Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
Section 1 Where Are the Volcanoes and Earthquakes?

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are sudden and often
• Search, describe, and account for destructive events. When they occur, they grab headlines and
patterns in the global distribution our attention.
of volcanoes and earthquakes.
• Find the latitude and longitude of
• Can volcanoes form anywhere on Earth? Why or why not?
volcanoes and past earthquakes • Can earthquakes occur anywhere on Earth? Why or why not?
nearest to your community.
• Make inferences about possible
locations of future volcanic and prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
earthquake activity. the class.
• Describe the interior structure
of Earth. Investigate
• Connect volcanoes and
earthquakes with the theory
In this Investigate, you will plot the locations of volcanoes
of plate tectonics. and earthquakes on a world map. You will then compare the
information on your map to that on the This Dynamic Planet
map to find patterns in volcano and earthquake distribution.
Part A: The Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes
1. Obtain a blank copy of the world map and some
colored pencils.
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a) Plot the locations of the volcanoes 3. Choose a different colored pencil.

shown in Table 1 (on the next page). a) Plot the locations of earthquakes
Use a colored pencil to draw small shown in Table 2 (on the next page)
triangles that mark their locations. using small dots.
(Remember that the lines of latitude
run from east to west and the lines of b) Add this information to your key.
longitude run from north to south.) c) What patterns do you see in the
distribution of earthquakes on Earth?
2. Using the same world map from Step 1:
d) What areas seem to have
a) Make a key to show the color that many earthquakes?
you used for the volcano triangles.
e) What areas seem to have no
b) What patterns do you see in the earthquakes? What ideas do you
distribution of volcanoes on Earth? have about why this might be so?
c) What areas seem to have f) What relationships do you observe
many volcanoes? between the patterns of volcanoes
d) What areas seem to have no and the patterns of earthquakes?
volcanoes? What ideas do you have How could you explain this? Talk it
about why this might be so? over with your group.
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Table 1: Global Volcanic Activity Table 2: Global Earthquake Activity

Over a One-Month Period Over a One-Week Period
Latitude Longitude Region Latitude Longitude Region
DR Congo, Eastern 47°N 151°E Kuril Islands
1°S 29°E
Africa
28°S 178°W Kermadec Islands
38°N 15°E Aeolian Islands, Italy
30°N 52°E Iran
37°N 15°E Sicily, Italy
36°N 140°E Honshu, Japan
15°S 71°W Peru
34°N 103°E Gansu, China
0° 78°W Ecuador
40°S 177°E New Zealand
12°N 87°W Nicaragua
0° 36°E Kenya, Africa
0° 91°W Galapagos, Ecuador
38°N 21°E Ionian Sea
19°N 103°W Western Mexico
North Mid-Atlantic
16°N 47°W
19°N 155°W Hawaii, United States Ridge
56°N 161°E Kamchatka, Russia 6°S 147°E New Guinea
54°N 159°E Kamchatka, Russia 55°N 164°W Unimak Island, Alaska
43°N 144°E Hokkaido, Japan 24°S 67°W Argentina
39°N 141°E Honshu, Japan 13°N 91°W Guatemala coast
42°N 140°E Hokkaido, Japan 4°N 76°W Colombia
1°S 101°E Sumatra, Indonesia 40°N 125°W North California coast
4°S 145°E Papua New Guinea South Sumatra,
5°S 102°E
Indonesia
5°S 148°E Papua New Guinea
South Mid-Atlantic
15°S 167°E Vanuatu 44°S 16°W
Ridge
16°N 62°W Montserrat, West Indies
51°N 179°E Aleutian Islands
12°N 86°W Nicaragua
15°S 71°W Peru
37°N 25°W Azores
49°N 128°W Vancouver, Canada
35°N 103°E Gansu, China
Learning Through Technology

expand your understanding
of where volcanoes and
earthquakes occur on
Earth, go to the EarthComm Web site
at http://www.agiweb.org/education/
earthcomm2/. There you will be able to
use an interactive version of the This
Dynamic Planet map to collect more
detailed information on specific volcanoes
and earthquakes around the world.
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Part B: Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and

b) Find and record the latitude and
Your Community
longitude of the three earthquakes
1. Obtain a copy of the This Dynamic that occurred closest to your school.
Planet map. Look at the map legend
to interpret the meaning of the various 3. Use your findings to answer the
symbols on the map and how to use the following questions:
map scale. a) Suppose that tomorrow a volcano
a) What does each of the four kinds forms somewhere in the United
of triangles represent? Compare States. Could it form in or near your
the This Dynamic Planet map to state? Support your answer with
your world map from Part A. What evidence from this Investigate.
patterns in volcano and earthquake b) Suppose that tomorrow an
distribution does the This Dynamic earthquake occurs somewhere in the
Planet map clarify? United States. Could it occur in or
2. Use the This Dynamic Planet map to near your state? Support your answer
help you complete the following. Write with evidence from this Investigate.
your answers in your log. c) Compare your data with that of
a) Find the latitude and longitude of other groups in your class. Did your
the three volcanoes closest to your class agree on the locations of the
community. Make a data table to nearest, historically active volcanoes
record your results. and earthquakes? How did you
resolve any differences?
Digging Deeper
THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES Geo Words
AND EARTHQUAKES geologist: a scientist
who studies the
Earth’s Interior Structure materials, processes,
and history of Earth.
In the Investigate, you looked at the locations of volcanoes and earthquakes
geoscientist: a
throughout the world. You saw that there is a pattern in which they are scientist who studies
distributed across the surface of Earth. You will look closer at this pattern the processes of
and learn more about volcanoes and earthquakes. However, first you need the geosphere,
to understand a little bit about the internal structure of Earth. atmosphere,
hydrosphere,
Geologists (types of geoscientists who study the materials, processes, and cryosphere, and
history of Earth) divide Earth into layers by chemical composition. The biosphere on Earth
and other planets.
layers are the core, the mantle, and the crust, as shown in Figure 1 on the
crust: the thin, solid,
next page. Geologists base this division on several kinds of evidence. You
outermost layer of
will learn more about the evidence in later sections. You will also learn Earth.
about the chemical structure of each layer. oceanic crust: the
The crust is the thin, solid, outermost layer of Earth. It is the thinnest crustal rocks that
underlie the ocean
layer and its rocks are also the least dense of all the layers. The crust is basins.
divided into oceanic and continental crust—the crust beneath the oceans continental crust:
and the crust that makes up the continents. The oceanic crust is younger the crustal rocks
than, and not as thick as, the continental crust. that underlie the
continents.
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Geo Words Beneath Earth’s crust is

mantle: the zone of the mantle. The boundary
Earth below the crust between the crust and the
and above the core.
It is divided into the
mantle is well defined. There
upper mantle and is a change in the chemical
lower mantle with composition of the rocks.
a transition zone The rocks of the mantle are
between.
not the same as those of the
core: the central part crust. Most of Earth’s mass is
of Earth; it is divided
into an outer core contained in the mantle.
that may be liquid Below the mantle, is the core.
and an inner core
that may be solid. It is the innermost and hottest
lithosphere: Earth’s part of Earth.
crust and the Earth’s interior can also be
uppermost part of
the mantle. divided into layers based on Figure 1 Schematic diagram showing the
physical properties. As you layered structure of Earth’s interior.
asthenosphere: lower
part of Earth’s mantle move from the crust to the
that can flow very interior of Earth, there is an increase in the temperature, pressure, and
slowly. density of the materials. You will learn more about density in a later
section. The topmost part of the mantle is cooler than the parts below.
This uppermost part of the mantle moves as a rigid block, carrying the
crust with it. The top part of the mantle, together with the crust, is called
the lithosphere. Lower down in the mantle, it is hot enough so that the
mantle material can flow very slowly, just like a very thick liquid. That
part of the mantle is called the asthenosphere. Below the mantle lies
the outer core, which is liquid. The innermost and hottest part of Earth
is the inner core, which is primarily solid.
Figure 2 The layered structure of the upper mantle.
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The Pattern of Volcanoes and Earthquakes

In the Investigate, you observed a pattern of volcanoes and earthquakes. You
saw that the volcanoes and earthquakes were concentrated along the edges
of some continents. For example, you saw that there are many volcanoes and
earthquakes along the western coasts of North and South America. You also
observed that volcanoes were concentrated in a linear pattern. They formed
straight lines along the central parts of many ocean basins.
When you looked at the patterns on the This Dynamic Planet map, you Geo Words
saw that the surface of Earth is broken into gigantic slabs. These gigantic lithospheric plate: a
slabs are called lithospheric plates. These plates move in relation to one rigid, thin segment of
another. There are three types of movement at plate boundaries. The type the crust and part of
the upper mantle. A
of movement is used to differentiate the boundaries. There are convergent lithospheric plate can
plate boundaries or collision boundaries, divergent plate boundaries or be assumed to move
spreading regions, and transform boundaries or transform faults. horizontally and
adjoins other plates.
At a convergent plate boundary, two or more lithospheric plates move
convergent plate
toward each other and collide. A divergent plate boundary exists boundary: a region
between two plates that are moving away from each other. At a where two (or more)
transform boundary, the relative motion of the plates is horizontal. You lithospheric plates
move toward one
will learn more about what scientists know about how and why these
another and collide.
plates move in a later section.
divergent plate
The theory that explains this large-scale movement of Earth’s lithosphere boundary: a region
is called plate tectonics. Tectonics comes from a Greek word meaning where lithospheric
plates are moving
“builder.” Geologists who study tectonics examine the structures and away from each
processes in the lithosphere. They study volcanoes and earthquakes and other.
the forces and movements that create them. transform boundary:
a region where
Earth’s Volcanoes and Their Locations lithospheric plates are
moving horizontally
A volcano is a vent or fissure in Earth’s crust that allows magma, gases,
in relation to one
and ash to escape from below the surface. Magma is the molten rock another.
material generated within Earth. When the molten rock comes out of plate tectonics: a
a volcano, it is called lava. Geologists have known for a long time that theory in which the
there are many volcanoes along the edges of certain continents. lithosphere is divided
into a number of
plates that move
relative to one
another.
volcano: a vent
in the surface of
Earth through
which magma and
associated gases and
ash erupt.
magma: naturally
occurring molten rock
material generated
within Earth.
Figure 3 Lava flows occur on the continents and on the ocean floor. lava: fluid rock that
comes out of a
volcano.
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Volcanoes can erupt under the ocean or on land. Volcanoes under the
ocean form in the following way. All of Earth’s ocean basins have a
continuous mountain range extending through them. This range is called a
mid-ocean ridge. These ridges are broad rises in the ocean floor. They are
usually in water depths of 1000 or 2000 m. They are 50,000 km long in
total. Figure 4 shows a vertical cross
section of a mid-ocean ridge. At the
crest of the ridge there is a steep-
sided rift valley. Magma from deep
in Earth rises up into the rift valley
to form volcanoes under the sea.
Volcanic rocks on the floors of all
the ocean basins are evidence that
there are more volcanoes under
water than on land. Volcanoes have
also been observed by scientists in
deep-diving submersibles. (A
submersible is equipment that is
intended for use under water.) At a
few places along the mid-ocean
ridges, as in Iceland, volcanic activity
is especially high and volcanoes
build up enough to form islands.
Figure 4 Cross section of a mid-ocean ridge.

Geo Words
mid-ocean ridge: a
continuous mountain
range extending
through the North
and South Atlantic
Oceans, the Indian
Ocean, and the South
Pacific Ocean.
rift valley: the deep
central cleft in the
crest of the mid-
ocean ridge.
Figure 5 The plates of Earth and the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean. The
circles show active volcanoes.
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Volcanoes that erupt on land are much more dangerous than volcanoes
beneath the ocean. Eruptions along the western edge of the United
States have formed the Cascades volcanic mountain range. They also
form island chains, such as the Aleutians in Alaska. Volcanoes like these
are common in a narrow belt all around the Pacific Ocean.
Geologists call this the “Ring of Fire.” A famous example of an eruption
along the Ring of Fire was the dramatic eruption of Mount Saint Helens
in Washington in 1980. A small percentage of volcanoes occur in the
interior of a plate. The Hawaiian Islands, shown in Figure 6, are an
example. Studies of volcanic rock show that the islands get older the
further northwest they are located. Only the youngest island, the “Big
Island” of Hawaii, has active volcanoes.
Figure 6 The Hawaiian Islands chain and the Emperor seamount chain.
Figure 7 Satellite image of the Hawaiian Islands.
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Geo Words How do geologists explain the pattern of the Hawaiian Islands? Deep
hot spot: a fixed beneath Hawaii, there is a fixed source of abundant rising magma, called
source of abundant a hot spot. As a plate moves across this area, it passes over the fixed hot
rising magma that spot. Magma from the hot spot forces its way through the moving plate
forms a volcanic
center that has to form a chain of islands. The sharp bend in the chain was formed when
persisted for tens of the direction of movement of the plate changed abruptly at a certain time
millions of years. in the past. Far to the northwest, the chain consists of seamounts.
seamount: an
elevation of the Earthquake Patterns and Plate Tectonics
seafloor, 1000 m or Earthquakes are another geologic process that takes place on Earth’s crust.
higher, either flat-
topped or peaked. An earthquake is a sudden motion or shaking of Earth as rocks break
earthquake: a sudden along an extensive surface within Earth. The concentration of earthquakes
motion or shaking along plate boundaries is very high. (See Figure 8.) As you read earlier,
in Earth, caused by Earth’s plates move relative to one another at their boundaries. In some
the abrupt release of places, two plates slide past one another. In other places, plates move
slowly accumulated
strain. away from each other or toward each other. These motions cause forces
earthquake (seismic)
in the rocks near the plate boundaries. When the forces build up to
wave: a general term be greater than the strength of the rocks, the rocks break, causing an
for all elastic waves earthquake. The sudden release of energy as rocks rupture causes intense
in Earth produced vibrations called earthquake (seismic) waves that extend in all directions.
by earthquakes or
generated artificially
by explosions.
Figure 8 The directions that Earth’s lithospheric plates move are shown by arrows.
The circles show earthquake locations.
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Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the surface of Earth. The
place in Earth where rupture (the break) occurs is called the earthquake Geo Words
focus (plural: foci). The epicenter is the geographic point on Earth’s focus (plural: foci):
surface directly above the focus. (See Figure 9.) The depths of earthquake the point of an
earthquake within
foci match the types of boundaries where the earthquakes occur. Earth where rupture
first occurs to cause
an earthquake.
epicenter: the point
on Earth’s surface
directly above
the focus of an
earthquake.
Checking Up
1. Name three main
layers of Earth.
2. What is the
difference between
the lithosphere
and the
asthenosphere?
3. What evidence do
geologists have
that volcanoes
occur on the
Figure 9 The relationship between the focus and the epicenter of an earthquake.
ocean floor?
4. What is the Ring
Earthquakes and volcanoes of Fire and where
are closely related to the is it located?
movement of Earth’s crust. 5. Where do most
However, they do not always volcanoes on land
happen in the same places. form?
During explosive volcanic 6. How are rift
activity the crust can be valleys formed?
fractured. This breaking of the 7. What are hot
crust is often accompanied by spots? Provide an
the release of seismic waves. example of a hot
Other kinds of volcanism spot on Earth.
happen without any great 8. What is an
shaking of the ground. earthquake?
Movements of the crust that 9. Explain how
release earthquakes may earthquake waves
occur without any volcanoes. are generated by
an earthquake.
For example, the movement
of Earth crust along the San 10. What is the
Figure 10 Aerial photograph of the relationship
Andreas Fault in California
San Andreas Fault. between the focus
does not involve volcanoes.
and the epicenter
of an earthquake?
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• Can volcanoes form anywhere on Earth? Why or why not?
• Can earthquakes occur anywhere on Earth? Why or why not?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Use the distribution of volcanoes and
earthquakes evidence you examined in this section as part of your explanation.

The data you examined showed patterns in the locations of Earth’s volcanoes and
earthquakes. You saw that volcanoes are abundant along the edges of certain continents.
Volcanoes are far more abundant under water than on land. You found that most
earthquakes occur along linear belts in oceans. You also found scattered or broad bands
of earthquakes on most continents. This is information that you will need to include in
the game that you develop.
1. What difficulties did you have finding the latitude and longitude of volcanoes
and earthquakes?
2. Where on Earth do most volcanoes occur? Explain your answer.
3. Where on Earth do most earthquakes occur? Explain your answer.
4. In your own words, describe the likely cause of historically active volcanoes in:
a) the continental United States.
b) the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska.
c) the Hawaiian Islands.
5. Based on your results from the Investigate, list the five states that you feel are most
likely to experience the next volcanic eruption. Explain each choice.
6. Do most volcanoes on land occur in the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern
Hemisphere? Explain why you think this is so.
7. Compare the cause of earthquakes in California with those in Indonesia.
For your game, think about the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes.
How is Earth structured in such a way that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur
at these locations? What questions can you ask about where most volcanoes and
earthquakes occur in North America and where they have not happened recently?
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Inquiring Further
1. Forming questions to investigate
Write down other questions you have about the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes
and their effects. How would you go about gathering information to answer these
questions? Write your ideas in your log.
2. Earth science careers
Do you think you would like to study volcanoes or earthquakes for a career? To see
what a volcanologist or seismologist does at work, visit the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
3. Eruptions near your community
Find out more about the historical eruptions of the volcanoes nearest to your
community. The Volcano World Web site lists hundreds of historically active
volcanoes. (Consult the EarthComm Web site for current addresses.)
4. Volcanoes and the water on Earth (the hydrosphere)
Do some research to find answers to the following questions and any other questions
that you have formed.
• How do volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges affect the temperature of seawater?
• How do volcanoes change the chemistry of seawater?
• How does seawater affect the composition of the volcanic rock that is formed at the
mid-ocean ridge?
• Would volcanoes affect a small body of seawater, such as the Red Sea, the same way
as a large ocean, such as the Atlantic?
• Can a change in the volume of volcanic rock formed at mid-ocean ridges change
sea level?
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Section 2 Earth’s Moving Lithospheric Plates

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Think about motion. How can you tell if something is moving? The
• Determine the direction and motion of anything (you, a vehicle, a lithospheric plate, or the Milky
rate of movement of plates, Way Galaxy) has to be described in relation to something else.
using data from the Global
Positioning System. • How can you locate your position on Earth’s surface?
• Recognize that the rate and • How would you be able to find out whether your position on
direction of plate motion is not
Earth has moved?
necessarily constant.
Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Include
sketches as necessary. Be prepared to discuss your responses with
your small group and the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will use Global Positioning System (GPS)
data to discover how the lithospheric plates move. The GPS uses
a number of satellites that work together to transmit information
that can determine an object’s location, speed, and direction at a
given time.
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1. Data from GPS satellites will help you b) In what compass direction is WES2
find out if the positions of plates have station moving? Be specific.
changed over time. The following map
c) The arrow in the lower-right corner of
shows measurements of movements at
the map is a scale. It shows the length
GPS recording stations in North America.
of a 20 mm/yr arrow. Is the WES2
Each station has a four-character symbol.
station moving more than or less than
Arrows show the rate and direction of
20 mm/yr? Explain your answer.
motion of Earth’s surface at that station.
Longer arrows indicate faster motion d) Are all stations on the map moving
than shorter arrows. The motions shown at the same speed? Explain
are relative to the GPS frame of reference, your answer.
which you can think of as being e) Are all stations on the map moving
“attached” to Earth’s axis of rotation. in the same direction? Explain
a) Find the WES2 station (in the your answer.
northeastern United States). How do f) What is the general or average
you know that the WES2 station has direction of movement of
moved over time? North America?
Measurements of movements at GPS recording stations in North America.
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2. A series of measurements of the location 3. The top graph shows movement of the
and elevation of a GPS station over time station to the north or south. Northward
is called a GPS time series. The graphs movement is indicated by positive values
below show the GPS time series for the and southward movement is indicated
WES2 station. The solid sloping lines by negative values. Find the calculation
on the three graphs are the “best-fit” above the top graph. How many
lines through the data points. Use the millimeters per year did WES2 move?
map and the time series to answer the Convert this value to centimeters per
following questions: year. In which direction did it move?
a) How many years of data does the a) Record the rate (in cm/yr) and the
time series show? direction of motion in your log.
b) Were measurements recorded 4. The middle graph shows movement to
continuously or only at certain the east or west. Eastward movement
times? Explain your answer. is indicated by positive values and
westward movement is indicated by
negative values. Find the calculation
above the middle graph. How many
millimeters per year did WES2 move?
Convert this value to centimeters per
year. In which direction did it move?
a) Record the rate (in cm/yr) and the
direction of motion in your log.
5. The bottom graph shows the movement
up or down.
a) Has the WES2 station always stayed
at the same elevation? Explain.
6. Look at the speed and direction of
motion of WES2 shown in the graphs.
a) Do the speed and direction of motion
of WES2 shown in the graphs match
the direction and length of the arrow
shown on the map?
7. Look at the “best-fit” line in the top
and middle graphs.
a) Did the WES2 station move at a
constant speed since 1996? Explain
your answer.
b) What additional data would you need
to decide whether the differences
between the measured data points
The location and elevation of GPS station WES2 over and the best-fit straight line are due to
time. The vertical lines above and below each point the overall motion of the plate or are
are called “error bars.” They show the uncertainty in
the measurement. They tell you that the real value caused by processes in the local area
might lie anywhere within the error bar. around the WES2 station?
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learn more about how
scientists use GPS to
track plate movement,
go to the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.agiweb.org/education/
earthcomm2/.
Digging Deeper
MEASURING THE MOTION OF
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
Types of Crust
Did you notice that Earth’s moving plates carry parts of continents and
parts of oceans? As you read in Section 1, there are two kinds of crust:
continental and oceanic. Continental crust forms Earth’s continents. It
is generally 30–50 km thick and most of it is very old. Some continental
crust has been dated as 4 billion years old. The geologic structure of the
continental crust is generally very complicated, as you will learn later. In
contrast, the oceanic crust is only 5–10 km thick and it is young in terms
of geologic time. All of the oceanic crust on Earth is younger than about
200 million years old.
Figure 1 A schematic cross section through the outer part of Earth.
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Geo Words Measuring Plate Motions With GPS

Global Positioning The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of 24 satellites. These
System (GPS): a satellites orbit Earth at a height of 20,200 km. Receivers at stations on
satellite-based system Earth use the signals from satellites to calculate the location of the station.
for accurate location
of points on Earth. An example of a station is WES2 in Westport, Massachusetts. Geologists
have set up a network of targets all over the world. They use the targets
in order to monitor the movement of lithospheric plates. Steel spikes
pounded into the ground make up the targets. The spikes are located in
solid rock. A high-precision GPS receiver is then mounted on a tripod. It
is positioned directly above the target, as shown in Figure 2. The targets
are revisited over a period of months or years. The receiver measures the
distance to four or more GPS satellites. The receiver then uses stored data
on satellite locations to compute the location of the target. Changes in
horizontal and vertical positions can be detected within several millimeters.
Checking Up
1. What does the
abbreviation “GPS” Figure 2 A GPS receiver is used to measure changes in the elevation of
stand for? this volcano.
2. From where does a
GPS receiver get its GPS data collected at stations all over the world confirm that the surface
signal? of Earth is moving. However, GPS time series data do not go back very far.
3. Why are GPS data GPS is a new technology and a global network of GPS stations has only
not enough to existed since 1993. How do scientists know that the surface of Earth has
confirm that Earth’s been moving for a longer period of time? The answer to this question
surface has been
comes from the study of rocks.
moving for many
years?

• How can you locate your position on Earth’s surface?
• How would you be able to find out whether your position on Earth
has moved?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Include the use of GPS
technology as part of your answer.
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You learned that when you use GPS data collected over time, you can find the speed and
direction of movement of your plate. We are all riding on pieces of Earth’s lithosphere.
What questions can you develop for your game that will help the players understand the
relationship between plate movement and volcanoes and earthquakes?
1. Describe the direction and the rate of motion for movement of the plate on which
you live.
2. Examine the scale of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map
of your community. Given the rate of plate motion in your community, estimate
the number of years it would take for a change in the location of your school to be
detected on the topographic map.
3. How does GPS provide evidence that the surface of Earth moves over time?
4. What evidence examined in this section suggests that the direction and rate of motion
of plates is not constant?
What questions can you ask about the structure of the crust beneath you? How is
your community moving as part of the movement of a much larger segment of Earth’s
lithosphere? What is the evidence for your ideas?
Inquiring Further
1. Technology used to detect plate motions
Explore how GPS allows plate movement to be measured. Excellent Web sites
that describe how GPS works can be found on the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
2. Investigating scales of motion
Plate motion is extremely slow. Make a list of other things you know about (or have
heard about) that move or take place slowly. Possible examples include growth of
fingernails, grass growth, tree growth, tree-trunk diameter growth, and so on.
Find out how fast they move. Compare the rate of these motions to the rate of
movements of plates.
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Section 3 What Drives the Plates?

What Do You See?

In this section, you will If someone challenged you to show how Earth’s lithospheric plates
• Calculate the density of liquids and are moving, how could you do it? What materials would you need
compare their densities with their and what data would you have to collect to show how the plates
position in a column of liquid.
change position?
• Observe the effects of
temperature on the density • What causes lithospheric plates to move?
of a material.
Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Be
• Examine a model of natural heat prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
flow from within Earth.
the class.
• Identify the results of uneven
heating within Earth.
Investigate
• Identify the causes of the
movement of lithospheric plates. In this Investigate, you will explore the density of various
materials. You will observe how density affects where a material
is positioned in a column of liquids. Then you will calculate the
density of some common rocks found in Earth’s crust. This will
help you to understand the layered structure of Earth.
Part A: Effects of Density on the Position of Material
1. Obtain 30 mL each of water, corn syrup, and vegetable oil.
Suppose you were to carefully pour a small volume of each
liquid into one graduated cylinder or clear tube.
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a) Predict what you think will happen. Part B: Effects of Temperature on

Sketch and explain your prediction. Density of a Material
2. Add a drop of red food coloring to 1. Place a beaker or small aluminum pan
the corn syrup and a drop of blue on a wire rack. Pour about a 1-cm-thick
food coloring to the water so you can layer of vegetable oil into the beaker
distinguish the liquids. One at a time, or pan.
carefully pour 10 mL of each liquid into 2. Cut out two small squares about 1 cm
a cylinder or clear tube. on a side from a piece of colored
a) Record your observations. transparency paper. Place the pieces
of transparency on top of the oil in the
b) Do your observations support center of the beaker or pan. Adjust their
your predictions? positions with the tip of a pen or pencil
c) Does the order in which you pour so they are about 5 mm apart, edge to
the liquids make a difference in what edge. See the diagram below.
you observe? a) Predict what you think will happen
3. Develop a method to determine the to the transparency pieces as the oil
density of each of the three liquids is heated from below. Record your
using a graduated cylinder, 10 mL of ideas in your log.
each liquid, and a scale. Density is Follow your teacher’s safety advice about using
mass per unit volume. Thus, the a heat source. Clean up spills immediately.
density of each liquid equals the mass
of liquid (in grams) divided by the 3. Light a candle and place it under
volume (10 mL). the center of the beaker or pan for
30 seconds. Align the candle so the
a) Write down your procedure for flame is under the space between the
finding the density of each liquid. transparency pieces.
b) Make a data table to record your a) Observe the transparency pieces.
measurements and calculations for Record any changes you notice.
each liquid.
b) Use diagrams to record the changes
c) After your teacher has approved your you observed.
procedure, determine the density of
c) Do your observations support your
each liquid.
predictions? What do you think
4. Compare your calculations with your caused the results you observed?
observations in Step 2.
a) Describe how the densities
you calculated explain what
you observed.
b) If layers of materials of different
densities within Earth behave like
layers of liquids of different densities,
what would you predict about
the position of the rock layers of
different densities in Earth?
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granite basalt sandstone
Part C: Densities of Earth Materials

1. Collect samples of rock from your a) Write down your procedure
community and also obtain samples of for finding the density of each
granite, basalt, and sandstone. rock sample.
2. If you can, predict qualitatively the b) Make a data table to record your
densities of the samples. Recall that measurements and calculations for
a qualitative observation is not based each rock sample.
on measurements or counting. Which
c) After your teacher has approved
sample appears to be least dense?
your procedure, determine the
Which appears to be most dense?
density of each rock sample.
a) Record your predictions in your log.
4. Compare your calculations with
3. Develop a method to find the density of your predictions.
each rock sample quantitatively. Use the
a) How do the densities of the rock
sample, water, a graduated cylinder, and
samples from your community
a scale. Density is mass per unit volume.
compare with the densities of
Thus, the density of each rock equals
granite, basalt, and sandstone?
the mass of the rock (in grams) divided
by the volume of the rock (in cubic
centimeters). Note that 1 mL = 1 cm3.
Qualitative and Quantitative Observations

An observation is information that you get through your senses. When you describe
the qualities of objects, events, or processes, the observations are qualitative. If you
say that something smells spicy, tastes sweet, or feels sticky, you are making
qualitative observations.
Observations that are based on measurements or counting are quantitative, because
they deal with quantities. The temperature of the air is a quantitative measurement.
In this Investigate, you determined the density of a rock sample both qualitatively
and quantitatively.
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Digging Deeper
EARTH’S INTERIOR STRUCTURE
Evidence for Earth’s Layered Structure
In the Investigate, you explored the densities Geo Words
of different materials. Density refers to density: the mass
how concentrated the mass (atoms and per unit volume of a
material or substance.
molecules) in an object or material is.
Density can be defined as mass per unit
volume of a material. Less dense material
tends to rise upward and float on more
dense material. You observed that water
floats on corn syrup. Vegetable oil floats
on water. Then you calculated the density
of each substance. You found that the
vegetable oil was less dense than water and
water was less dense than corn syrup.
Here are some other examples. A less dense
solid floats in a more dense liquid. In Figure 1,
the white piece floating on top of the water
(dyed blue) is wax. It is less dense than
water and therefore floats on it. A more
dense solid sinks to the bottom of a less
dense liquid. In Figure 1, the piece of
aluminum is at the bottom of the test tube
because it is more dense than all the liquids.
Rocks in Earth’s crust are less dense than the
rocks of the underlying mantle. The crust
“floats” on the more dense interior material.
How do scientists know that the rock that
is deep below the surface of Earth is denser
than the rock on the surface? Several kinds
of evidence reveal that density varies within
Earth. Laboratory experiments in high-
pressure apparatuses show that rocks deep Figure 1 These liquids and solids
have separated because of their
in Earth are denser than the same rocks different densities.
when they are at the surface. The weight
of the overlying rock applies a force on
the rock below, making it denser. The densest material should be at the
center of Earth, where the pressure is greatest.
A second line of evidence comes from the average density of Earth.
You cannot put Earth on a balance scale to find its mass. However, its
mass can be found indirectly. To find the density of Earth you can use
Newton’s law of universal gravitation. According to that law, every object
in the universe attracts every other object with a gravitational force (F).
This force is directly proportional to the product of their masses.
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The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between

their centers of the masses. Mathematically, it can be expressed this way:
m1m2
F =G
d2
where m1 and m2 stand for the masses of two objects,
d stands for the distance between them, and
G stands for the gravitational constant (known from experiments).
Figure 2 Diagram illustrating Newton’s law of gravitation.
Earth exerts a certain force on a body (like yours) with a certain mass (m1)
on Earth’s surface. The surface of Earth is some 6400 km from its center.
You can substitute these known values into the equation and calculate
the mass of Earth (m2). Dividing the mass of Earth by its volume gives an
average density of Earth (in metric units) of 5.5 g/cm3.
You calculated the density of some rocks commonly found at the surface
(granite, basalt, and sandstone). You found their density to be much
lower than 5.5 g/cm3. The average density of surface rocks is 2.8 g/cm3.
The density of Earth’s interior must be much greater than 2.8 g/cm3 for
the entire Earth to average 5.5 g/cm3. This is partly due to the effect of
compression. However, it is also partly because the material in Earth’s core
is mostly iron. Iron is much more dense than rocks, even when it is not
under great pressure.
The Flow of Matter and Energy Within Earth

The temperature of Earth increases with depth. This can be observed
directly in mines and in oil wells. At a depth of about 3.5 km below Earth’s
surface, the temperature of a mine can reach 55°C. One of the sources
of Earth’s internal heat is the decay of radioactive elements. Radioactive
decay is the process by which an unstable nucleus of an atom gives off
energy. Other sources of Earth’s internal heat include the original heat of
Earth’s formation and heating by the impact of meteorites early in Earth’s
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history. Earth can be thought of as a massive heat engine. The transfer of

heat from Earth’s interior to its surface drives the movements of Earth’s
crust and mantle.
Temperature affects the density
of materials. Hot-air balloons
show this effect well. When the
air inside a balloon is heated it
expands (increases in volume).
The mass of the air in the balloon
stays the same, but the volume
increases. When the ratio of mass
to volume decreases, the density
decreases. Therefore, heating
makes the air in the balloon
less dense than the surrounding
air. The hot-air balloon begins
to rise. Similarly, as rocks in the
interior of Earth are heated
enough, their density decreases.
The less dense rock rises slowly
over time, unless the rocks are
too rigid to allow flow.
In the Investigate, you heated
vegetable oil and observed
the movement of transparency
pieces. Why did the transparency Figure 3 The decreased density of the heated
pieces move? The answer air inside a hot-air balloon causes it to float. Geo Words
lies in the process of thermal thermal convection: a
convection. Heating lowers the density of the oil at the bottom of the pattern of movement
container. The less dense material begins to rise. As the oil approaches in a fluid caused by
heating from below
the surface, it flows to the side, making room for more oil rising from and cooling from
below. As it moves to the side, it cools. As it cools, it becomes more above. Thermal
dense, and it sinks back to the bottom of the container. At the bottom convection transfers
of the container it is heated and rises again. This kind of density-driven heat energy from
the bottom of the
circulation is called thermal convection, as shown in Figure 4 on the next convection cell to
page. Thermal convection transfers thermal energy, in the form of heat, the top.
from one place to another by the movement of material.
In 1929, Arthur Holmes proposed the idea that there were convection
cells in Earth’s mantle. He suggested that this thermal convection is
like a conveyor belt. He reasoned that rising mantle material can
break a continent apart. It then forces the two parts of the broken
continent in opposite directions. The convection currents would then
carry the continents.
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Figure 4 One possible

pattern of thermal
convection in Earth’s
mantle. Convection
cells like this might
provide at least some
of the driving force
for the movement of
lithospheric plates.
Mantle convection cannot be observed directly. You cannot see the

convection the way you could have observed convection in the corn
syrup if you had put some tiny marker grains in the syrup. Geologists are
sure that the mantle is convecting. However, they are still unsure of the
patterns of convection. The patterns probably do not look much like what
is shown in Figure 4. Geologists now think that the lithospheric plates
are not just passive riders on the convection cells. Instead, they think the
plates themselves play a major part in driving the convection. Do you
remember from Section 1 that the mid-ocean ridges are broad rises in the
ocean floor? Mid-ocean ridges slope gradually down to the deep ocean
nearer to the continents. That means that the plates on either side of the
ridge crest slope downward away from the ridge crest. They tend to slide
downhill under the pull of gravity. In this way, they help the convection
cell to keep moving, instead of the other way around. Also, you might
recall that most materials expand when they are heated and shrink when
Checking Up they are cooled. The plates in the ocean are denser than the deeper
1. How can the mantle. They have almost the same composition, but they are not as hot.
density of Earth be They sink into the mantle by the influence of gravity. In that way, they
calculated? help to keep the convection cell moving.
2. How does the
density of Earth According to this hypothesis, material is heated at the core-mantle
provide evidence boundary. It rises upward and spreads out horizontally. The material
that the interior cools and sinks back into the interior. These convection cells are very slow
of Earth is denser moving. They might provide the driving force that moves the lithospheric
than the surface? plates. (See Figure 4.) Material rises to the surface at places where the
3. How do convection plates spread apart from one another. Material sinks back into Earth
currents begin? where plates converge. The idea of convection cells was not widely
4. What part of recognized during Holmes’s time. However, mantle convection cells
Earth’s interior were important in the development of the plate tectonic theory.
layers is in motion
due to density
differences?
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• What causes lithospheric plates to move?
Record your ideas about this question now. Reflect on Earth’s structure and use the
concept of density in your explanation.

You examined evidence that liquids of different densities will form layers in a container
with the densest liquid on the bottom. You also ran a model that showed how a solid
floating on a liquid can be moved from below by the liquid if it is undergoing convection.
You saw evidence that different rocks are likely to have varying densities. You are now
beginning to understand Earth’s interior and the flow of matter and energy in Earth. You
should now be able to explain why lithospheric plates can float and what might cause
them to move. This information will be important when you are including the cause of
earthquakes as part of your game.
1. Look at the map of lithospheric plates near

South America and the relative “horizontal”
motion between these plates.
a) At point A, two plates are moving away
from each other. What is happening
between them?
b) At point B, two plates are moving toward
each other. What happens as they continue
to push toward each other if they have:
I) different densities?
II) the same density?
2. Sketch two diagrams side by side. Make one the experiment with oil and transparency
pieces. Make the other Earth’s interior structure. Show where heating and cooling
occur and use arrows to indicate the movement of material (the flow of matter and
energy in both systems). Label the parts in each diagram and show how they relate
to each other.
3. List some natural processes that occur when heat from Earth’s interior is transferred
to the surface.
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4. Use your understanding of density to calculate the missing values in the table below.
Mass Volume Density

Object
(g) (cm3) (g/cm3)
Iron 41.8 7.6
Quartz 39.75 15.0
Gold 8.0 19.3

Think about the questions you can ask about the composition of Earth and how it
is structured. What are some good questions about how the transfer of matter and
energy from one place to another within Earth drives the movements of Earth’s crust
and mantle? What diagrams could you use to illustrate your ideas?
Inquiring Further
1. Investigating driving forces for plate motions
What questions do you have about the driving forces behind plate tectonics? Develop
a plan that would help you find an answer to one of your questions. Record your plan
in your log. What additional information might help you answer your questions?
2. Earth’s interior
Watch a sci-fi movie(s) about Earth’s interior and review it (them) from a scientific
standpoint.
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Section 4 Plate Motions and Plate Interactions

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Earth’s crust is constantly being formed in some places and
• Run a model of a plate moving destroyed in others. Suppose you could take a ride on a
beneath another plate (subduction). lithospheric plate that was moving at a fast rate.
• Describe several lines of evidence
for plate motion.
• Where do you think you would find the most “action”
on Earth in regard to crust formation? Why?
• Classify and label the types of
movement at plate boundaries • Where would be logical places to look for crust being
using a world map that shows destroyed? Why do you think that?
relative plate motion.
• Identify the distribution of plates by
means of the world map of relative sketches as necessary. Be prepared to discuss your responses with
plate motions. your small group and the class.
• Describe the present plate tectonic
setting of your community. Investigate
In this Investigate, you will simulate (run a model that shows)
what happens when one plate moves beneath another. You will
also model what happens when plates move apart from one
another at a spreading ridge. Finally, you will investigate
different types of plate boundaries, including the one closest
to your community.
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Part A: Forces Causing One 4. Dip the ruler end of the plastic sheet
Lithospheric Plate to Move Beneath into the water to a depth of about 1 cm.
Another (Subduction) Immediately place the plastic sheet on
1. Partly fill a large, rectangular tub with the water surface. Do this by holding
warm water. Wait until any tiny air the ends up and letting the sagging
bubbles have disappeared. The water middle part of the sheet touch the
has to be perfectly clear. water surface first, to avoid trapping
air bubbles under the sheet. Observe
2. Very slowly and carefully, put a few what happens. Repeat this step as
ounces of liquid dish detergent in the many times as you need to make
water and mix it slowly and carefully careful observations.
with a mixing spoon. If any soap
bubbles remain on the water surface, a) Record your observations. Include
scrape them off with a damp sponge. a description of the motion of the
plastic sheet in the water.
3. Cut a piece of vinyl plastic to be about
15 cm wide and about 30 cm long. b) What is the force that makes the
Trim a flat, clear plastic ruler with plastic behave as it did?
scissors to be the same width as the c) How does this demonstration show
plastic sheet. (The ruler should sink in what happens in a place where one
water.) Tape the ruler to one end of the plate moves beneath another plate
plastic sheet. (subduction zone)?
Keep your work area clean and dry. Have paper

towels ready for the wet plastic that is taken out
of the tub.
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Part B: Modeling Plate Motions and sure to unroll the paper strips at the
Plate Interactions same rate, so that the numbers of the
1. Obtain the equipment shown in the stripes stay matched up as they appear.
diagram below. a) What do the rolled paper strips on
2. Use the equipment to model a steady the dowels represent?
seafloor spreading and subduction, as b) What does the section of paper
follows. One student holds the two between the dowels and the
rolled-up dowels in one place, loosely, continental lithosphere (the piece
so that they can turn but not shift of 1” × 2” lumber) represent?
their position. Another student holds c) What happens to the length of
the stapled piece of 1” × 2” lumber this section of paper as the
“continent” and pulls it away from the dowels are unrolled?
rolled-up dowels. A third student holds
the dowel and piece of 1” × 2” lumber d) As the dowels are unrolled, what
“subduction zone” at the other end happens to the width of the section
loosely in place. A fourth student pulls of paper between the dowels and the
the paper strip from under the piece of subduction zone (the other piece of
1” × 2” lumber “subduction zone.” Be 1” × 2” lumber)?
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3. Use the equipment to model a collision

a) In the first part of the modeling
of a spreading ridge and a subduction
(Step 2), how long will the ocean on
zone, as follows: Begin with the the “subduction” side last?
materials arranged in the same way as
at the end of Step 1. While two students b) In the second part of the modeling
pull the paper strips to unwind the two (Step 3), what do you think
rolled-up dowels, the student holding would happen in real life when
those dowels slides them slowly toward the spreading ridge arrives at the
the subduction zone. The student subduction zone?
operating the subduction zone needs c) In the second part of the modeling
to make sure that the stripes appearing (Step 3), how would the ocean on
at the spreading ridge continue to have the “continent” side change after
their numbers matched up. the spreading ridge arrives at the
subduction zone?
a) What happens to the length of
the strip of paper between the d) In both cases, what do you think
dowels and the “continent” side in would actually happen to Earth’s
this situation? crust if a continent became blocked
in its movement away from the
b) What happens to the length of the spreading ridge by something
strip of paper between the dowels happening on the other side of
and the “subduction zone”? the continent?
c) At what “place” does the spreading Part C: Plate Boundaries on World Maps
ridge eventually arrive?
1. Look at the following world map that
4. Think about the following questions shows the relative motion of the plates.
and write a brief answer to each in Observe what it shows about how
your Geo log. plates move relative to each other.
World map of major lithospheric plates. Arrows show the motions of the plates relative to the African Plate,
which happens to be moving most slowly relative to Earth’s axis of rotation.
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a) Name two plates that are moving the divergent plate boundaries
toward each other (converging (where plates are moving away from
or colliding). one another) and the transform
boundaries (where plates slide past
b) Name two plates that are moving one another). Make a key that shows
apart (diverging or spreading). this color code.
c) Name two plates that are sliding past Part D: The Plate Tectonic Setting of
each other (transform). Your Community
2. Use a blank world map to make a map 1. Describe the plate tectonic setting of
that shows the three major types of your community. Refer to your world
plate boundaries. map and the This Dynamic Planet map
(USGS) in your description.
a) On the map, color the boundary lines
that separate two converging plates a) How far is your community from the
(where plates are moving toward nearest plate boundary?
each other). Do not outline both of b) What type of plate boundary is it?
the plates completely. Highlight only
the boundary between the two plates. c) How might your community
change its position relative to plate
b) Using two other colors, highlight boundaries in the future?
Digging Deeper
THE MOTION OF LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
Types of Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are active. Therefore, they are interesting areas for
geologists to study. In the Investigate, you ran a model that showed what
happens when one plate moves beneath another. This process is called Geo Words
subduction. You also modeled what happens when plates move apart subduction: the
from one another. This occurs at a spreading ridge. You also investigated process of one
lithospheric plate
different types of plate boundaries. Geologists use three descriptive terms to moving beneath
classify the boundaries between plates. You read about them in Section 1. another.
At divergent plate boundaries two plates move away from each other.
At convergent plate boundaries two plates move toward each other. At
transform plate boundaries two plates slide parallel to each other.
Seafloor Spreading and Divergent Plate Boundaries
You have already read some things about divergent plate boundaries. You
learned that mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries. The mid-
ocean ridges are places where mantle asthenosphere rises slowly upward.
As it rises, some of the rock melts to form magma. Why does melting
happen there? To understand that, you need to know that the melting
temperature of rock decreases as the pressure on the rock decreases.
As the mantle rock rises, its temperature stays about the same because
cooling takes a long time. However, the pressure from the overlying rock
is less so some of the rock melts. The magma then rises up because
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it is less dense than the surrounding rock. It forms volcanoes in the central
valley of the mid-ocean ridge. Geologists in deep-diving submersibles can
observe these undersea volcanoes.
The water pressure in the deep ocean is very great. Also, water provides a
cooling effect on the magma. As a result, the undersea volcanoes behave
differently than volcanoes on land. The lava oozes out of cracks in the
rocks, like toothpaste out of a tube. Some of the magma stays below the
Geo Words seafloor and crystallizes into rock there. All of these new rocks formed by
igneous rock: rock volcanic activity (called igneous rocks), at the seafloor and below, make
formed by volcanic new oceanic crust. This crust then moves away from the crest of the ridge.
activity.
basalt: a kind of In the Investigate, you modeled how the “continent” moved farther
volcanic igneous rock, and farther from the “spreading ridge.” Look back at the world map of
usually dark colored,
with a high content
lithospheric plates from Part C. In both the North Atlantic Ocean and the
of iron. South Atlantic Ocean, there is no plate boundary along the coastlines on
either side of the ocean. That tells you that the Atlantic Ocean is getting
wider as time goes on. Why? Because new lithosphere is being created all
the time at the mid-ocean ridge but is not being consumed at the edges
of the continents. Does that make you wonder what would happen if you
could go back in time and watch the ocean shrink? At some time in the
past, there was no Atlantic Ocean.
At mid-ocean ridges, lava cools to form new crust made of basalt. (Basalt
is an iron-rich volcanic rock that makes up the ocean floor.) Its iron
minerals (such as magnetite)
become magnetized. These
magnetic minerals have been
able to “lock in” the polarity of
Earth’s magnetic field. All
magnets and materials that have
magnetism have magnetic
polarity. That is, they have a
north and south direction. Rocks
with normal magnetic polarity
match that of Earth’s magnetic
field. (The north end of the rock’s
“compass needle” points toward
magnetic north.) Other rocks
have magnetic minerals with
reversed polarity. (The north end
Figure 1 The formation of magnetic striping.
of the rock’s compass needle
New oceanic crust forms continuously at the points toward magnetic south.)
crest of the mid-ocean ridge. It cools and
becomes increasingly older as it moves away Beginning in the 1950s, scientists
from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading: began noting patterns in the
a. the spreading ridge about 5 million years magnetism of rocks on the ocean
ago, b. about 2 to 3 million years ago, and floor. This pattern is shown in
c. present day.
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Figure 1. They noticed alternating belts of higher and lower-than-average

magnetic field strength. The belts with the higher polarity were of
normal polarity. The bands with lower polarity were reversed.
In 1963, F. J. Vine and D. H. Matthews proposed the theory of seafloor
spreading to explain this pattern. They thought that the matching
patterns on either side of the mid-ocean ridge could be explained by new
ocean crust forming. The new crust formed at the ridge and then spread
away from it. As ocean crust forms, it obtains the polarity of Earth’s
magnetic field at that time. Over time, the strength of Earth’s magnetic
field changes. When new ocean crust forms at the center of the
spreading, it obtains a new kind of magnetic polarity. A series of
magnetic “stripes” are formed over time. The rolled paper strips on the
dowels of your seafloor-spreading model represented this process with
alternating black and white stripes.
Since the theory of seafloor spreading was proposed, core samples of
volcanic rock have been taken from the ocean floor. The samples have
shown that the age of the rock increases from the crest of the ridge. This
is just as the theory predicts. Geologists have also measured both the age
and magnetic polarity of rocks on land. They have developed a time scale
that shows when the magnetic field has reversed its polarity. The magnetic
striping on the ocean floor records the reversals of Earth’s magnetic field.
As a result, geologists can
calculate the average rate
of plate movement during
a given time. These rates
range widely. The Arctic
Ridge has the slowest rate.
It moves less than 2.5 cm/yr.
The East Pacific Ridge has
the fastest rate. It moves
more than 15 cm/yr.
Geologic data are also used
to find the direction of
movement of the plates.
Surveys of the depth of
the ocean floor, mainly
since the 1950s, reveal a
great mountain range on
the ocean floor. This range
encircles Earth, as shown
in Figure 2. This mid-ocean Figure 2 Map of the world’s ocean floor. The crest
of the mid-ocean ridge system is shown as a broad,
ridge zigzags between the light blue line throughout the ocean floor. The
continents. It winds its way flanks of the mid-ocean ridges slope gradually
around the globe like the down to the deeper part of the oceans, nearer to
seams on a baseball. the continents.
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The mid-ocean ridge is not straight. It is offset in many places. (See

Figure 3.) The offsets are perpendicular to the axis of the ridge. Geologists
combined these finding with knowledge that the ocean floor is spreading
apart at mid-ocean ridges. They realized that the offsets are parallel
to the direction the plates are moving. They mapped the orientations
of these offsets and entered this data into a computer model. From
this information, scientists are able to determine the directions of plate
motions. Comparisons between GPS measurements and results from
geologic computer models show very good agreement.
Checking Up
1. Name the three
types of boundaries
between
lithospheric plates.
2. What has caused
the “zebra
pattern” in the
rock of the ocean
floor?
Figure 3 This map shows the network of fractures along the mid-ocean ridge
3. What is the in the eastern Pacific Ocean floor. Because the ocean floor spreads away from
significance of the both sides of the ridge, the fractures indicate the direction of plate motion.
patterns of offsets
along mid-ocean
ridges?

• Where do you think you would find the most “action” on Earth in regard to
crust formation? Why?
• Where would be logical places to look for crust being destroyed? Why do you
think that?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Describe exactly what is
happening at your chosen location that makes it have the most “action.”
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You saw that plates can interact in three different ways. They can converge, diverge, or
move parallel to each other. You gained some experience in recognizing the three kinds of
plate boundaries on world maps. You are better prepared for the next section, about the
different kinds of landforms that develop at the different kinds of plate boundaries, and
how earthquakes and volcanoes are caused at or near plate boundaries.
1. How do studies of the magnetism of rocks on the seafloor provide evidence that the
surface of Earth moves over time?
2. How can ocean basins change in size?
3. Look at the world map of major lithospheric plates from the Investigate. This map
shows how plates move relative to each other.
a) Look at the names of the plates. On what basis does it appear that the plates
were named?
b) Write down the name of your plate and all the plates that border it. Describe the
motion of your plate relative to all the plates that border it.
What would be some good questions to ask about how plate movements and their
interactions at plate boundaries can change the arrangement and shape of continents
and ocean basins on Earth? What evidence is there that the surface of Earth moves
over time?
Inquiring Further
1. Study animations of plate motions
Visit the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ for
the address of animated images of the motions of lithospheric plates. Describe how the
motions shown in the animations match your analysis from this section.
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Section 5 Plate Boundary Environments

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Rocks high in the Himalayas, almost 8000 m (26,247 ft) above
• Describe the location, nature, and sea level, contain fossils of marine animals. How do you think
cause of volcanic arcs in terms of these fossils got there?
plate tectonics.
• Describe the location, nature, and
• Why are most high mountain ranges located at or near
cause of hot spots. plate boundaries?
• Explain how plate tectonic Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include
processes have caused continents sketches as necessary. Be prepared to discuss your responses with
to grow through geologic time.
your small group and the class.
• Explain how plate tectonic
processes produce major
landforms. Investigate
In this Investigate, you will explore the features on Earth’s surface
that are formed as a result of lithospheric plate movement.
1. With your group, closely examine the diagram on the next
page of a cross section of two subduction zones. Recall that
you examined a model of subduction zones in the previous
section.
2. Use the diagram to answer the following questions.
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Cross section of two subduction zones.
a) Note the two zones where an oceanic g) Is the hot spot related to subduction?
plate is being subducted (plunged) If yes, in what way?
under another plate. Volcanoes are h) Where does the hot spot begin to
common in a zone that is located produce a pool of magma?
a certain distance away from the
trench where the subducted plate 3. In a class discussion, compare the
first bends downward. Explain why answers you developed in your group
the volcanoes occur, and why they with those of other groups. Were their
are located where they are. answers different from yours? If they
were different, did their answers still
b) Under what two types of plates is the seem reasonable?
oceanic lithosphere being subducted?
c) What differences between oceanic
volcanic arcs and continental Learning Through Technology
volcanic island arcs can you see or
infer from the cross section? Go to the EarthComm
Web site at http://www
d) Explain why you think few
.agiweb.org/education/
volcanoes occur very far inland
earthcomm2/ to access
within a continent. online tools with information to help
e) If volcanic rock is found far inland you model different plate boundary
within a continent, what is one environments.
possible reason why it is there?
f) Note the location of the hot spot
in the middle of one of the oceanic
plates. Where does it appear that the
hot spot originated?
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Digging Deeper
“BUILDING” FEATURES ON EARTH’S SURFACE
Divergent Boundaries and Breaks in Earth’s Crust (Rifting)
Geo Words In the Investigate, you examined a diagram showing a cross section of two
subduction zone: a subduction zones. Earlier, you read about what happens at the mid-ocean
long, narrow belt ridges, which are divergent plate boundaries. You simulated how new
in which one plate
oceanic crust forms at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge. This new crust is
moves downward into
the mantle beneath formed where the seafloor spreads. You also saw how the crust is older as
the edge of another you move away from the crest of the ridge.
plate at a convergent
plate boundary. Continental rift boundaries are divergent plate boundaries. They occur
rift: a long crack in where two parts of a continent move apart from each other. The process
a lithospheric plate begins when hot mantle material moves upward beneath a continent.
formed by hot mantle Geologists are still not certain how these zones of upwelling begin. As a
pushing up from result, the lithosphere of the continent bulges upward and is stretched
below.
sideways. Eventually it breaks along a long crack, called a rift. See Figure 1
rift valley: a large,
long valley on a
for what a newly formed rift valley looks like. Magma rises up to feed
continent, formed volcanoes in the rift. As the rift widens, nearby ocean water invades the
where the continent rift. Eventually, a new ocean basin forms. The basin gets wider as time
is pulled apart by goes on. The East African Rift Valley is a good example of a continental
forces produced
when mantle material
rift boundary. Here, two parts of the African continent are moving apart
rises up beneath the from each other. As the rift continues to widen, eventually a new ocean
continent. basin takes its place.
Figure 1 The formation of a rift valley on a newly rifted continent.
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Oceanic Convergent Plate Boundaries

At a convergent plate boundary, two plates are moving toward each
other. Your common sense might tell you that one of them has to go
under the other. One plate stays at the surface, and the other plate dives
down beneath it at some angle. This process is called subduction.
In some places, two
oceanic lithospheric plates
are converging. Figure 2
shows two cross sections of
subduction zones. Look at
the lower part of Figure 2.
There are good examples
of these along the western
edge of the Pacific Ocean.
Look back at the world map
of lithospheric plates from
the previous section. The
Pacific Plate and the Indo-
Australian Plate are moving
toward one another in the
South Pacific. The Pacific
Plate and the Philippine
Plate are moving toward
one another in the
Western Pacific.
Other subduction zones
are located at the edges
of continents. Look at the
upper part of Figure 2.
In places like this, the
downward-moving plate is
always oceanic lithosphere.
The plate that remains at the
surface is always continental
lithosphere. That is because Figure 2 Cross sections of subduction zones.
the continental lithosphere The lower cross section shows subduction of
is less dense than the oceanic an oceanic lithospheric plate beneath another
lithosphere. The west coast oceanic lithospheric plate (“ocean-ocean
of South America is a good convergence”). The upper cross section shows
subduction of an oceanic lithospheric plate
example. This is where beneath a continental lithospheric plate (“ocean-
the Nazca Plate and the continent convergence”).
South American Plate are
converging.
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Oceanic Trenches
Look at Figure 2 on the previous page again. Notice where an oceanic
plate is subducted under another plate. The oceanic plate bends
Geo Words downward as it enters the subduction zone. The valley that is formed
trench: a long, above the zone of bending is called a trench. Oceanic trenches are very
narrow, elongated deep. Many are deeper than 10,000 m. This is twice the average depth of
depression of the the deep ocean. The word “valley” is a bit misleading, because trenches
deep seafloor.
are wide, and their side slopes are not very steep. You can easily spot
hydrothermal vent:
a very hot spring on
the locations of trenches in most world atlases. They are shown with
the ocean floor where the darkest blue shading on maps of the world’s oceans. Trenches are
heated, mineral-rich common in many places in the western Pacific, where there is ocean-ocean
water exits from subduction. There is a long trench along the west coast of South America.
cracks in Earth’s crust.
It is where the Nazca Plate is being subducted under the continent.
Volcanoes at Plate Boundaries
You already know that volcanoes are common along mid-ocean ridges.
This is where basalt magma rises up from the asthenosphere to form
new oceanic crust. Volcanoes are also common along subduction zones.
With ocean-ocean subduction, magma rises up to the ocean floor. A
chain of volcanic islands, called a volcanic island arc is formed. Ocean-
continent subduction is similar in many ways to ocean-ocean subduction.
However, the volcanic arc is built at the edge of the continent rather than
in the ocean. The Andes mountain range in western South America is an
example of a continental volcanic arc.
A volcanic arc begins at a depth of 200 to 300 km. At this depth magma is
produced above the subducted plate. It rises toward the surface because
it is less dense than the surrounding rock. At first it was thought that
the magma was produced as rock near the top of the downward-moving
plate and was heated by friction. However, geologists are now convinced
that the melting is for a different reason. When the oceanic crust is
first produced at the mid-ocean ridges, a lot of water is combined with
certain minerals in the igneous rocks. As the pressure and temperature
increase down the subduction zone, this water is driven off and rises
upward from the plate. It is known that the melting temperature of the
mantle rock above the plate is lowered when water is added to it. This
causes some of the mantle rock to melt. This is a good way to explain why
melting does not start until the plate has reached a certain depth of the
subduction zone, and then stops at a slightly deeper depth. This melting
at subduction zones all around the Pacific causes the Ring of Fire.
Hydrothermal Vents
There are places on the ocean floor where very hot, mineral-rich water
exits from cracks in Earth’s crust. They are known as hydrothermal vents.
Most are found in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. They are at an average
depth of about 2100 m below the ocean surface. They are most abundant
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in areas of seafloor spreading along mid-ocean ridges. As plates move

apart, cracks are created in the ocean floor. Ocean water seeps into these
openings. The water is heated by magma. Hydrothermal waters are
geologically important. They are able to contain minerals in solution as
well as alter the rocks they contact. The heated water rises and follows a
path back out into the ocean through an
opening in the seafloor. Rapidly emerging
water has little time to lose heat. Its
temperature may be as high as 400°C. The
minerals dissolved in the water form chimneys
around some vents. “Black smokers” are the
hottest type of hydrothermal vents. They emit
what appears to be black smoke. However, it
is actually minerals containing iron and sulfur.
(See Figure 3.)
Hydrothermal vents are interesting to
scientists for several reasons. They are
believed to play an important role in
the chemistry of the oceans. They supply
chemicals to ocean water. While most of
the deep ocean contains little life, many
different types of organisms exist around the
vents. These living things fascinate scientists.
They are the only organisms on Earth whose
immediate energy source is not sunlight.
Instead, they get their energy from different
chemicals in the water gushing out of a vent.
These organisms include bacteria, tubeworms,
huge clams, and eyeless shrimp.
Hot Spots
Not all volcanoes are associated with mid-
ocean ridges and subduction zones. Hot spots,
which originate at the boundary between the
mantle and the outer core, are narrow plumes
of unusually hot mantle material. These
plumes rise up through the mantle. They
Figure 3 Hot, mineral-rich
melt the rock at the base of the lithosphere, water flows out of
creating pools of magma. This magma then hydrothermal vents.
rises to the surface, resulting in hot-spot
volcanoes. Some hot spots are located under
continents. The hot spot producing the hot springs at Yellowstone
National Park is an example. (See Figure 4 on the next page.) One theory
suggests that the bulge created by a hot spot may initiate the rifting of a
continent. It is thought that a hot spot lies below the Great Rift Valley of
Africa. This hot spot is responsible for this valley. There is also
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evidence suggesting that the New Madrid Fault may represent an aborted
rift zone originally created by a series of hot spots. This fault runs down
the Mississippi River Valley.
The largest series of earthquakes in the United States, outside of Alaska,
occurred on the New Madrid Fault. They took place in the early nineteenth
century. The earthquakes actually were responsible for ringing bells as far
away as Philadelphia. They also caused the Mississippi River to run
backward for a short time. In this way, plate tectonics can even affect
areas that are within the heart of a continent.
Figure 4 A hot spot produces the hot springs at Yellowstone National Park.
Growth of Continents at Subduction Zones

As an oceanic plate moves from a mid-ocean ridge to a subduction zone,
oceanic sediment is deposited on the top of the plate. The depth of the
sediment can be as much as 100 m or more. At the subduction zone, this
sediment is scraped off. It is then added to the edge of the other plate.
This material is deformed into very complicated structures and is turned
into rock by heat and pressure. It becomes a solid part of the other plate.
When material is added to the edge of a continent in this way, the
continent grows larger at its edge. Continents also grow as the igneous
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Geo Words
rock of volcanoes and batholiths are added to the continent above the batholith: a large
subduction zone. Batholiths are large masses of igneous rock formed mass of igneous
rock formed when
when magma intrudes and solidifies. The growth of a continent along magma intrudes and
its edge in these ways is called continental accretion. This has been solidifies.
going on through geologic time. The continents have been growing continental accretion:
larger and larger. the growth of a
continent along its
Continental Convergent Plate Boundaries edges.
The third kind of convergent boundary occurs where two continental suture zone: the zone
on Earth’s surface
lithospheric plates have collided with each other. What happens when a where two continents
spreading ridge arrives at a subduction zone? The spreading ridge goes have collided and
down the subduction zone, never to be seen again. After a spreading have been welded
ridge disappears, the plate that was on the other side of the spreading together to form a
single continent.
ridge is consumed down the subduction zone. The continent on the other
side of the ocean moves closer and closer to the subduction zone. This is
how two continents can come together at a subduction zone. Remember
that continental lithosphere is much less dense than the mantle.
Therefore, continental lithosphere cannot be subducted. The subduction
stops. The continent that was coming along toward the subduction zone
keeps working its way under the other continent for hundreds of
kilometers. This continues until finally the friction between the two
continents is so great that plate movement stops.
The zone where two continents have met and become welded into a
single continent is called a suture zone. There is only one good example
on today’s Earth. The Indo-Australian Plate has collided with the Eurasian
Plate and is still working its way under it. (See Figure 5.) There is a good
reason why the Tibetan Plateau is the
largest area of very high elevations
in the world. The continental
lithosphere is much thicker there
because one continent has moved
under another.
Figure 5 The Himalayas and the Tibetan

Plateau were formed by the collision of the
Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.
The Indo-Australian Plate is being shoved
horizontally underneath the Eurasian Plate,
so the continental crust in the Himalayas
and the Tibetan Plateau is much thicker
than normal.
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Mountains at Plate Boundaries

Most of the great mountain ranges of the world are located near
convergent plate boundaries. There are number of different mountain
ranges on Earth. The Alps in Europe, the Himalayas in southern Asia, the
Andes in South America, and the coastal mountain ranges in western
North America are some examples. Mountain ranges like those are formed
in mainly two ways. You already know that the magma that is generated
above the subducted plate rises up to form a chain of volcanoes. Much
of the magma remains below the surface and cools to form batholiths.
Volcanoes at the surface and batholiths deep in the crust add a lot of
new rock to the area above the subduction zone. This addition of new
rock makes the elevation of the land much higher. Also, many subduction
zones experience compression. This occurs when the two plates are
pushed together by plate movements elsewhere. In places like that, great
masses of rock are pushed together and stacked on top of one another.
These stacked masses of rock form high mountains. This also happens
where two continents collide with each other, as in the Himalayas.
Transform Plate Boundaries
At transform boundaries, plates slide past one another. The surface along
which the plates slide is called a transform fault. Transform faults connect
the offsets along mid-ocean spreading ridges. Most are short, but a few
are very long. The most famous transform fault forms the boundary
between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate, in California. It
is several hundred kilometers long. You can see from the map in Figure 6
that the San Andreas Fault connects short segments of spreading ridges at
its northern and southern ends.
Figure 6 Plates showing a transform boundary.
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The movement along the transform fault is limited to the distance Checking Up
between the two segments of the ridge crest. Figure 7 is a sketch of a 1. Why is “plate
mid-ocean ridge, showing segments of the ridge crest offset by transform tectonics” a
faults. Between points 1 and 2, plates A and B are sliding past each other. suitable name for
the study of plate
motion? Explain.
2. What geographic
features would you
expect to see at
plate boundaries?
3. How do geologists
suggest that hot
spots are related to
plate tectonics?
explain the process
of continental
accretion.
5. How and where
are rift valleys
formed?
6. Convergent plate
Figure 7 Sketch of a mid-ocean ridge, showing segments of the ridge crest offset by boundaries can be
transform faults. in three different
settings. What
are they?
Plate Tectonics 7. Describe subduction.

8. How can transform
You can now see why the field of study of plate motion is called plate faults be used
tectonics. “Tectonics” comes from the Greek word tekton, which means to figure out the
“builder.” Plate tectonics refers to the building of the features on Earth’s directions of plate
surface due to deformation caused by plate movements. movements?
You have read that plate movements create mountain ranges, trenches, 9. Why is it that
subduction zones
and rift valleys at or near plate boundaries. Also, there is a clear
cannot be used
relationship between volcanoes and plate boundaries. There is also to figure out the
a relationship between earthquakes and plate boundaries. This is directions of plate
particularly evident around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The subduction movements?
of oceanic plates around much of the rim results in volcanic arcs and 10. What happens
earthquakes. Tectonics has far-reaching effects on the geosphere. New when two
crust is generated. Large-scale surface features are formed. continents collide
along a convergent
plate boundary?
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• Why are most high mountain ranges located at or near plate boundaries?
Record your ideas about this question now. Be sure to consider surface processes as well as
those beneath the crust.

You observed features on Earth’s surface that are formed as a result of crustal plate
movements and activity within the geosphere. You also saw that plate tectonic processes
can cause plates to increase in size. Finally, you saw that plate movements can cause
earthquakes that can be associated with specific plate boundaries. What questions can you
ask in your game that will help the players understand these concepts?
1. Review your work on earthquakes and volcanoes one more time.

a) Summarize where most earthquakes occur compared to where plate boundaries
are located.
b) Summarize where most volcanoes are located compared to where plate boundaries
are located.
2. Although most earthquakes and volcanoes are associated with plate boundaries, they
are not always located directly along the boundaries. Considering boundaries between
oceanic and continental plates:
a) Why are volcanoes usually found on the continental side of a plate boundary?
b) Why do earthquakes usually occur on the continental side of a plate boundary?
3. Many volcanoes and earthquakes are located far from modern plate boundaries. Write
a paragraph giving one idea you think might explain how at least some of them have
formed. Be sure to point out examples by describing their location.
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4. Make a list of the various plate tectonic settings where mountain ranges are likely to be
formed. For each item on the list, draw a cross section that shows the mountain range
and how it relates to the plate tectonic setting. For each item, give an example from
somewhere in the world.
5. To understand why volcanic arcs are called arcs, look at the Andes Mountains on a
topographic map. The Andes are topped with volcanoes that are part of a volcanic arc.
They appear to run along a straight line. Run a string or thread along their length
on a globe.
a) What is the shape of the line on the globe?
b) Why are lines of volcanoes called arcs?
c) What does the volcanic arc along the Andes Mountains suggest about the plate
tectonic setting of that part of the world?
6. If volcanic rock is found far inland within a continent, what is one possible reason why
it is there?
7. The map above shows hot spots around the world.

a) Where are most hot spots?
b) Are they clustered or randomly located?
c) What famous area of the continental United States sits over a hot spot?
d) What sits atop another famous hot spot in the United States?
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Plate tectonics has an influence on every part of the world. A community can be
affected by events that occur great distances away. The movement of lithospheric plates
affects surface features at plate boundaries and within the interiors of both oceanic
and continental plates. What questions will help people understand these ideas? What
is important for them to know about the relationship between volcanoes and plate
boundaries, and between earthquakes and plate boundaries?
Inquiring Further
1. Plate tectonics and the local climate
Distant mountain ranges and plateaus created by
plate tectonics can affect airflow in many ways,
affecting local climate and thus vegetation, soil,
wildlife, and drainage patterns. Research and
report how your local region has been affected
directly or indirectly by plate tectonics. Evaluate
the reliability of the sources you used in your
research. You may even wish to include some of
this research in your Chapter Challenge.
2. Evolution of the biosphere at mid-ocean ridges
New forms of life were first discovered at mid-
ocean ridges in 1977. Since then, many more
discoveries have been made. These life forms
thrive in the presence of superheated, mineral-
rich water that spews from hydrothermal vents.
This life does not depend upon the Sun for
energy, but instead upon the energy and matter
from Earth’s interior. How has life evolved in
such environments? For further information
check the EarthComm Web site at http://www
.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
Black smokers, which vent superheated

water from below Earth’s crust, form at
the mid-ocean ridges.
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Section 6 The Changing Geography of Your Community

What Do You See?

In this section, you will You have seen how Earth’s lithospheric plates move and change
• Use several present-day distributions over time. In some ways, the plates can be compared to gigantic
of minerals, rock formations, pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
and fossils to help figure out the
distribution of continents. • How would you be able to decide if all the pieces came from the
• Construct a map showing the
same puzzle?
position of continents 250 million • How could you convince someone else that the pieces came
years ago by reversing the present
from the same puzzle?
direction of plate motion.
• Recognize a convergence of Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Include
presently widely scattered minerals, sketches as necessary. Be prepared to discuss your responses with
rock formations, and fossils when all your small group and the class.
the continents were part of Pangea.
• Describe the context in which the Investigate
hypothesis of continental drift was
proposed and why it was subject In this Investigate, you will learn about the evidence that supports
to criticism. the theory that Earth’s plates have moved and changed over time.
• Show that your community has
moved through different ecological
1. Begin your work individually. Obtain three copies of the
regions over time. diagram on the next page, showing the outlines of the
continents at sea level, as well as the boundaries between the
continental crust and the oceanic crust. The diagram also
shows the locations of rock and mineral deposits, mountain
ranges, and plant and animal fossils. Cut out the continents
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on the first sheet along the edges of a) Why cut the pieces at the boundaries
the continental shelves, which in most between the continental and
places are close to the boundaries oceanic crust?
between the oceanic lithosphere and b) In which ecological region is your
the continental lithosphere. community today: tropics, subtropics,
mid-latitudes, subpolar, or polar?
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c) Coal deposits originated in the a) Draw a border around the map.

swamps of tropical forests. Are the
b) Sketch in and label the equator and
coal deposits shown on the map in
latitude lines at 30° and 60° north
the tropics today?
and south.
d) Where do you find mountains
c) Title this map “250 Million
similar in structure to the
Years Ago.”
Appalachian Mountains?
e) Where do you find rock formations 4. The following diagram shows the
similar to those in South America? reconstruction of Pangea that is
generally accepted by geologists. Your
f) Glossopteris is an extinct seed fern reconstruction is likely to be somewhat
that had leaves like ferns of today. different because the evidence you had
It produced seeds too large to travel is less detailed. Compare your map
by air or float on water. Where are with the following map, and adjust the
fossils of these ferns located today? positions of the continents on your map
g) Mesosaurus is an extinct freshwater as necessary.
reptile that thrived during the Triassic
Period (251 to 200 million years ago).
Where are fossils of this reptile
found today?
2. Rearrange the cut pieces on a blank
sheet of paper as the continents now
appear and tape them in place.
a) Label the outlines “Present.”
b) Draw a border around the map.
c) Sketch in and label the equator and
latitude lines at 30° and 60° north
and south.
d) Title the map “Present.”
3. Cut out the continents from the second
Generally accepted reconstruction of Pangea, in the
sheet, in the same way as before. Try
Permian Period of geologic time, 250 million years ago.
to arrange them on another sheet of
paper, as they would have appeared 5. Use your adjusted map, “250 Million
250 million years ago, before the Years Ago,” to answer the following:
Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean
began to open. You can do this by using a) Which two continents fit
two methods: (a) Move each continent together best?
in the direction opposite of that shown b) Why do you think the continents do
by the arrows on the map of plate not fit together exactly?
motions in the Investigate of Section 4;
(b) Match similar rock and mineral c) From the map of Pangea, what can
deposits, mountain ranges, and fossils you say about the latitude of your
from continent to continent. When you community 250 million years ago?
have moved all the continents together,
tape them in place.
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d) In what ecological region was your Arrange them on a new piece of paper,
community 250 million years ago? as they might appear 250 million years
in the future. You can do so by starting
e) Many coal deposits were made more
with the present distribution of the
than 280 million years ago in the
continents and then moving each in
tropics. Where were they 250 million
the direction shown by the arrows on
years ago? Does this make sense?
the map of plate motions. Remember
Explain your answer.
that some plates will be subducted
f) Do the Appalachian Mountains line under others.
up with other mountain ranges that
a) What will fill the spaces between the
they resemble?
continents in the future?
g) Do rock formations in South
b) What will happen to the
America line up with other
Mediterranean Sea? What will be
formations that they resemble?
created in southern Europe?
h) How does Glossopteris appear to
c) Where will the southern coast of
have migrated to its present fossil
California be in 250 million years?
distribution, although its seeds could
not be carried by the wind or float d) In what latitude and in which
on water? ecological region might your
community lie in 250 million years?
i) How does Mesosaurus appear to
have migrated to its present fossil e) How might the change in ecological
locations, although it could not swim region affect your community?
in the salty ocean?
f) Why might your prediction regarding
6. Cut out the continents from the third the future location of your community
sheet, in the same way as before. and continent be in error?
Digging Deeper
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
In the Investigate, you looked at some of the evidence that supports the
idea that the continents of Earth have moved during geologic time. Two
Geo Words features of Earth were the subject of intense study in the late 1800s.
fossil: any evidence of The first was the discovery of similar fossils on continents that are now
past life preserved in separated by oceans. The second was the origin of mountain ranges. Both
sediments or rocks.
played a part in the early stages of the development of the theory of
plate tectonics.
In the late 1800s, an Austrian geologist named Eduard Suess (1831–1914)
tried to solve a basic geologic question. How do mountain ranges form?
He based his model of mountain formation on some of the same
principles that you have explored in this chapter. Suess stated that as
Earth cooled from a molten state, the most dense materials contracted.
These dense materials sank toward the center. The least dense materials
“floated” on top. They cooled to form the crust. He then speculated that
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mountain ranges formed from the contraction and cooling of Earth. He

likened this to the way that an apple wrinkles and folds as it dries out
and shrinks.
Suess went on to explain the origins of oceans and continents. He also
explained why there were similar fossils on different continents now
separated by oceans. In his model, during the cooling process, parts
of Earth sank deeper than others. This is how the ocean basins were
formed. Suess claimed that certain parts of the seafloor and continents
could rise and sink as they adjusted to changes in the cooling Earth.
This led him to propose land bridges between continents. Suess coined
the term “Gondwanaland.” This is term he used for a former continent
made up of central and southern Antarctica, Africa, Madagascar, and
peninsular India. These areas all contained similar fossils, hundreds of
millions of years old. Suess thought that the land bridges allowed various
animals and plants to migrate and spread without crossing an ocean.
Other geologists proposed different models to explain mountains,
oceans, and fossils. However, they all generally agreed that Earth’s crust
moved up and down. They did not think that it moved very far sideways.
Many geologists agreed with the idea of land bridges. It was thought Geo Words
that these bridges allowed organisms to move between continents now fold: a bend in a
separated by oceans. According to Suess and others, the land bridges planar feature of
sank into the ocean long ago. They no longer exist. rock.
Not all geologists accepted the

theory of a contracting Earth.
In 1912, the German geologist
Alfred Wegener (1880–1930)
proposed the hypothesis of
continental drift. He saw a variety
of problems with the contraction
theory. One problem was the
Alps appear to be pressed
together. The Alps are a young
mountain range. Rock layers in
the Alps have severe folds. The
layers are also stacked up on top
of one another. This indicates
that the original distances have
been made shorter in a horizontal Figure 1 Wegener used the severe folding
direction. (See Figure 1.) Wegener and compression of the Alps as evidence to
thought that contraction could not support his hypothesis of continental drift.
produce such great shortening
of Earth’s crust. He also thought that contraction should produce
uniform “wrinkles” in Earth. Contraction could not explain narrow
zones of folding. Also, heat from radioactive decay in Earth was
discovered in Wegener’s time. (Radioactive decay is the process
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by which an unstable nucleus of an atom emits particles. In the process,

energy is released.) This provided further evidence against cooling. Heat
from radioactive decay in Earth would work against the cooling and
Geo Words contraction process.
Pangea: Earth’s most According to Wegener, there was a huge supercontinent called Pangea.
recent supercontinent, (Pangea is Greek for “all land.”) About 200 million years ago, it broke into
which was rifted
apart about 200
separate continents. The continents then moved apart. Wegener claimed
million years ago. that mountains were formed at the leading edge of the moving continent.
He was also able to explain the different ages of the various mountain
ranges. He claimed that the breakup took place over a period of time. Some
parts of Pangea separated earlier than others. His evidence included the
puzzle-like fit of the continents. The similarity of rocks, geologic structures,
and fossils on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean provided further
evidence. Wegener’s hypothesis eliminated the need for land bridges.
But how did continents move? Wegener thought that the material
beneath Earth’s lithosphere acts like a slow-moving fluid. If this is true
for vertical movements, it should also be true for horizontal movements.
To picture Wegener’s argument, think about a piece of taffy or putty.
At the right temperature, taffy will shatter when struck with a hammer.
However, it will deform by flowing rather than by breaking when a force
is applied slowly and constantly. Other geologists saw folded mountains
as evidence of contraction. Wegener saw folded mountains as evidence
of horizontal compression. Movement of the continents caused this
compression. The fact that there were folded mountains convinced
Wegener that there were powerful forces within Earth. These forces were
powerful enough to move continents. A quote from Wegener sums up his
ideas about the way that all the geologic evidence fit together.
“It is just as if we were to refit the torn pieces of a newspaper by matching
their edges and then check whether the lines of print run smoothly across.
If they do, there is nothing left to conclude but that the pieces were in
fact joined this way. If only one line was available to the test, we would
still have found a high probability for the accuracy of fit, but if we have
n number of lines, this
probability is raised to the
nth power.”
The reaction to Wegener’s
hypothesis was mixed.
Some scientists accepted
his arguments. Others
argued against him. They
felt it would be impossible
for continents to “plow
through” the ocean floor.
Figure 2 Wegener’s proposal that continents plowed
through oceanic crust was not accepted by many (See Figure 2.) Most
other geologists. geologists rejected
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Wegener’s hypothesis. In 1926, there was an international meeting to

discuss continental drift. Only a handful of scientists agreed with Wegener’s
ideas. One scientist had 18 different arguments against Wegener’s evidence.
Wegener’s evidence for drift was strong. However, his explanation of why
the drift of the continents happened was not very good.
After World War II, much of the seafloor had been explored and
mapped. By the late 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics had been
developed. It was based on many types of evidence. Today, there is so
much evidence that almost all geologists accept the theory. Much of the
evidence that Wegener used to support his hypothesis supports plate
tectonics. However, new evidence has emerged. This evidence provided a
better explanation for the movement of Earth’s lithosphere.
One piece of evidence
geologists used is the
magnetic striping on the
ocean floor. (This was
described in Section 4.)
The ages of the volcanic
rock (basalts) on the ocean
floor also provided evidence.
Recall that similar fossils and
rock types were found on
widely spaced continents.
This indicated that the
continents at one time
could have been a single
landmass.
Using this evidence,
geologists have
reconstructed the record
of the breakup of Pangea.
About 200 million years
ago, Pangea started to
break up. Continental rifts
(divergent zones) began to
open. As Pangea continued
to be rifted apart, oceanic
crust formed between the
northern continents, called
Laurasia. Oceanic crust also
began to form between
the southern continents,
called Gondwanaland. New
ocean floor was also formed
between Antarctica and Figure 3 The breakup of Pangea.
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Australia and between Africa and South America. India started to separate
from Antarctica and travel northward.
The maps shown in Figure 3 summarize what has been reconstructed as the
breakup of Pangea, from 250 million years ago to the present. As you can
see, continents that are now connected were not always that way. Continents
that are now widely separated were once part of the same landmass.
Of course, 250 million years is a small fraction of Earth’s 4.6-billion-year
history. There may be rocks in your community much older than that.
The positions of the continents prior to 250 million years ago can also be
reconstructed. To do this, the same types of evidence used for reconstructing
Pangea can be used. This is shown in Figure 4. However, the task is much
more difficult. The oldest oceanic crust geologists have ever found is
only 200 million years old. Thus, the evidence must be gathered from the
continents. Old mountain belts help locate ancient collision zones between
continents of the past. These mountain belts include the Appalachians
of North America and the Urals. (The Urals separate Europe from Asia.)
Rock types and fossils provide evidence for the locations of ancient seas,
Geo Words glaciers, mountains, and ecological regions. Continents like Pangea are
supercontinent: called supercontinents. Supercontinents consist of all of Earth’s continental
a large continent lithosphere in one single piece. Geologists are fairly sure that there was
consisting of all of
Earth’s continental
at least one earlier supercontinent before Pangea. There may have been
lithosphere. others as well. Supercontinents undergo a cycle of assembly, breakup, and
Supercontinents are reassembly. This is called the Wilson cycle.
assembled by plate
tectonic processes
of subduction and
continent-continent
collision.
Figure 4 Evidence used to reconstruct Pangea.
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Paleomagnetism
In Section 4, you learned that the mineral magnetite “locks” Earth’s
magnetic field into its atomic structure as it cools. Geologists collect rock
samples containing magnetite and measure the past magnetism the rocks Geo Words
recorded. The term for past magnetism is paleomagnetism. Geologists paleomagnetism:
do this by putting the sample in a special room. In this room, the present the record of the
past orientation
magnetic field of Earth is canceled out. and polarity of
Earth’s magnetic
field recorded in
rocks containing the
mineral magnetite.
Figure 5 The diagram shows how the lines of Earth’s magnetic

field are arranged.
Earth’s magnetic field has the same pattern that would be observed
if there were a giant bar magnet inside Earth. You can imagine this
magnet lying along Earth’s axis of rotation. There is not really a big
magnet in Earth. The magnetic field is thought to exist because of
movements of liquid iron in Earth’s core. Figure 5 shows how the lines
of Earth’s magnetic field are arranged. The angle that the magnetic
field lines make with Earth’s surface changes from the equator to the
poles. Near the equator, the lines are nearly horizontal, and near the
poles they are nearly vertical. This means that the paleomagnetism of
a rock sample can tell you the latitude of the sample when it formed.
This is called the paleolatitude. Measurements of paleolatitude are one
of the things geologists use to reconstruct past supercontinents
like Pangea. The big problem is that there is no way of measuring
paleolongitude. This is because the magnetic field lines are always
oriented north-south. That is why no longitude lines are shown on the
map of Pangea that is in the Investigate.
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Earth 250 Million Years From Now

The evidence supporting the formation and breakup of Pangea is quite
strong. But how will the continents be positioned in the future? Scientists
have made predictions for how the continents are going to move over the
next several hundreds of millions of years. They used equations relating
rate, time, and distance.
Figure 6 The location of Earth’s continents 50 million years from now.
Over the next 50 million years the continents will continue to move.
Scientists believe that they will continue to move in similar directions and
velocities as to those of today. Over the long course of geologic time, this
will have an effect on Earth’s geography. For example, Africa will move
north. It has been doing so for the past 100 million years. It will continue
colliding with Europe, closing off the Mediterranean Sea. It will also form
a giant mountain range in southern Europe. In the Southern Hemisphere,
Australia will also continue moving north. It will eventually collide with
the southern islands of southeast Asia. Meanwhile, the Atlantic Ocean will
continue to open. This will force North and South America further away
from Africa and Europe.
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It is difficult to predict precisely how the continents will move beyond

50 million years. The movement of the crust involves complex mechanics.
This is especially true along plate margins. It is also hard to predict how
the mantle will behave over very long periods of time. Scientists think
that the collision of Australia with the islands of southeast Asia will
cause it to rotate. It will then collide with south China. Eventually, it
will become absorbed into the Asian continent. Scientists also predict
that a subduction zone will form on one side of the Atlantic Ocean. This
will probably be somewhere along the east coast of North and South
America. Subduction will slowly drag the seafloor of the western Atlantic
into the mantle. Eventually, the mid-ocean ridge that runs through the
Atlantic will be pulled down as well. With this, the Atlantic Ocean will
stop getting wider. It will slowly begin to shrink. Over tens of millions of
years, North and South America will collide with the merged European
and African continents. This continent-to-continent collision will create a
giant mountain range. The range will form along the contact between
the continents, much like that of the Himalayas today. Scientists think
that in about 250 million years from now most of the continents will be
joined into Earth’s next supercontinent. They have already given this
supercontinent the name Pangea Ultima.
Checking Up
1. How did Suess
explain the
formation of
mountain ranges?
2. What evidence was
found to contradict
the proposal by
Suess that Earth
is cooling and
shrinking?
3. What evidence did
Wegener use to
support his theory
of the breakup of
Pangea?
4. How did Wegener
propose that the
continents move
horizontally?
5. How was fossil
Figure 7 The possible geography of Earth’s continents 250 million years from now. evidence used
to reconstruct
Pangea?
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• How would you be able to decide if all the pieces came from the same puzzle?
• How could you convince someone else that the pieces came from the same puzzle?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to your reconstruction of Pangea as
part of your answer.

You saw that by moving the continents in directions opposite to their present movement,
you can make the continents fit fairly well as a single continent. You also saw that
features like rock and mineral deposits, mountain ranges, and plant and animal fossils
that are similar, but are now separated by wide oceans, are brought together when the
continents are assembled into the single, large continent of Pangea. You now have some
idea about how far a particular place on a continent might have moved in the 200 million
years since Pangea broke apart. You will want to include this information in your game.
1. Geologists often try to figure out paleogeography (the geography of land and sea
in the geologic past) using the clues given on your continent puzzle pieces. What
additional evidence would you need to be more confident about your “250 Million
Years Ago” map?
2. Paleoclimatology (the study of climate in the geologic past) is also used to show how
continents were connected in the past. What type of climate data might have been
helpful to you in making your “250 Million Years Ago” map?
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3. Why was the theory of continental drift questioned when it was first proposed by
Alfred Wegener?
4. What discoveries helped scientists begin to accept the idea that parts of Earth’s
lithosphere move? Why were the more modern clues not available in Wegener’s time?
5. New scientific theories often take many years to be accepted by the scientific
community. Explain why this is so, using the theory of plate tectonics as an example.
6. Describe what has happened to the lithosphere under the Atlantic Ocean during the last
200 million years. What has happened to the lithosphere under the Pacific Ocean? How
does this information support the theory of plate tectonics?
What questions can you ask about how the positions of the continents and oceans have
changed over geologic time? Be sure to include how you can figure out how continents
and oceans in the geologic past were arranged.
Inquiring Further
The history of the development of the theory of plate tectonics is a fascinating one. A
very important piece of evidence that supported plate tectonic theory was the discovery
of paleomagnetism in ocean-floor basalts. How was this paleomagnetic evidence of
seafloor spreading discovered?
In your log, write down at least one additional question you have about the geologic
history of your community. How would you go about gathering information to answer
these questions? Write your ideas in your log.
2. Plate tectonics and the Earth system

Write an essay explaining how Earth systems would change if plate tectonics were to
“stop.” You might begin with something directly connected to plate tectonics, such as
volcanism or mountain building. For example, “If plate tectonics were to cease, then
global volcanism...”
3. Monitoring Earth’s tectonic plates
Research how NASA’s LAGEOS satellites
are able to monitor the motion of Earth’s
tectonic plates.
The LAGEOS 1 Satellite.
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Your challenge for this chapter is to

develop a game for a science-games
manufacturer. The game should prepare
people to deal with the hazards of
volcanoes and earthquakes in an
engaging way. This Mini-Challenge is designed to
help you organize your thoughts and ideas for the
game. You now have enough information to start
creating the question cards and developing the basic
concept of the game. Here are some Inputs you
have read about which can help you develop your
Mini-Challenge:
• The distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes
throughout the world.
• How your community is part of a much larger
system of Earth’s lithospheric plates.
• How the transfer of matter and energy within Earth drives the movement of Earth’s crust
and mantle.
• The different landforms created at plate boundaries and how they shape continents and
ocean basins.
• How scientists use clues from paleogeography to answer questions about how the positions
of the continents and oceans have changed over geologic time.
Your Mini-Challenge is to develop a diagram and four questions for the game you are
designing. The diagram and questions should illustrate an idea or theory from what you
have investigated so far. The diagram should help the players understand the concept you have
selected. Include relevant vocabulary in your diagram and make it engaging for the players.
You will present the diagrams and questions to your teacher and the class for Feedback. The
Mini-Challenge will help you organize your thoughts for the Chapter Challenge.
Look back at the Goal you wrote at the beginning of the chapter. Rewrite your Goal so that
you are clear about what you will prepare for the Mini-Challenge. Review the Goal as a class
to make sure you have all of the criteria and the necessary constraints.
You have completed six sections of this chapter and read about some aspects of
Earth’s system of volcanoes and earthquakes. These will be part of the Inputs phase
of the Engineering Design Cycle. Review what you have studied below and the
related vocabulary to help develop your diagram and four questions for your game.
Section 1: You found patterns in the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes. You
located volcanoes and earthquakes nearest to your community and learned how the basic structure
of Earth’s interior and crustal movements create volcanoes and earthquakes in the Earth system.
Section 2: You examined the structure of Earth’s crust and underlying mantle and evidence that
Earth’s lithospheric plates move over time. You determined the direction and rate of movement of
the plate on which your community is located.
Section 3: You looked at the flow of matter and energy within Earth and how thermal
convection and the force of gravity drive the movement of Earth’s plates. You examined evidence
that demonstrates how the density and temperature of Earth increases with depth.
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Section 4: You examined three kinds of lithospheric plate boundaries. You located the plate
boundary closest to your community. You learned about mid-ocean ridges and how they contribute
to the makeup of Earth’s crust.
Section 5: You saw that plate boundaries are dynamic places where Earth’s crust is created
or destroyed and how plate movement influences Earth’s surface features. You determined the
relationship between earthquakes, volcanoes, and plate boundaries and described the features in
your region that indicate plate tectonic activity.
Section 6: You examined evidence that supports the idea of continental movement throughout
geologic time.
In addition to the above information, you may want to show how GPS, satellites, and other
technology are used to gather data and evidence to support the above concepts and include this
information in your game.
information you have that will help meet the criteria of the Goal. This Mini-Challenge
requires a thorough understanding of one concept you have explored so far to develop
the diagram and four question cards. You can perform a Resource Analysis by creating
a list of what you have studied in the first six sections before selecting the concept you
want to use for your poster. As you work on your diagram consider the following:
• How it will help illustrate the process in Earth’s crust that you have selected.
• How it will help the students understand the concept that you have selected.
• How it will help teach the related vocabulary.
Your Resource Analysis has revealed which topics in the first six sections will be helpful in
developing your game. Your group might assign individuals or teams of two to work on specific
parts of the game and then put all the parts together at a later time. Each person or team will now
know which chapter section or sections they can use to help develop their part of the game. During
your Resource Analysis, you can also make a list of missing information you still need to complete
your plans for the Chapter Challenge.
The Outputs of your Engineering Design Cycle for the Mini-Challenge is the diagram
of one concept that you have developed into a poster and four related question cards.
Remember, everyone is working with the same requirements and constraints. You only
need to do a good job of meeting the Goal requirements to do well.
Finally, you will receive Feedback from your classmates that will tell you what you have
done well according to the criteria of the Goal. They might also tell you some things you
can improve to make a better final project. To give good Feedback, it is important to
consider each point of the Goal requirements as well as the constraints. Your statements
should say which parts were satisfied and which, if any, were not. This is an objective
process and should focus on the products, not the student scientists who produced them.
have enough time to make corrections and improvements, so you will want to pay attention to the
valuable information your classmates provide. Remember to correct any parts of your diagram
and questions that you received critical feedback on. You may have also learned something from
watching presentations that you want to add to your group’s plan. It will be easier and faster to
improve your design now rather than waiting until the chapter is complete. Remember to record
all your information in a safe place so that it will be ready to use in the Chapter Challenge. As you
complete the remaining sections, look for additional information that will help you improve
your game.
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Section 7 Volcanic Landforms

What Do You See?

In this section, you will When most people think about volcanoes, they probably think
• Draw a topographic map from of a steep-sided cone in the midst of a violent eruption. Many
a model. volcanoes, however, have very gentle slopes.
• Explore the meanings of contour
line, contour interval, and relief.
• Why do different volcanoes have different shapes?
• Interpret topographic maps. Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include
• Recognize volcanic landforms on sketches as necessary. Be prepared to discuss your responses with
a topographic map and predict your small group and the class.
where lava would flow on them.
• Identify basic relationships Investigate
between magma composition and
type of volcano formed. In this Investigate, you will make a topographic map of a volcano
model. You will then compare your topographic map to an actual
map of a volcano.
1. Use a sheet of paper and tape to make a model of a cone-
shaped volcano. The model should be small enough to fit into
a rectangular tub. Place the model on a table.
2. Draw horizontal curves on the model at regular heights
above the table. To help you draw the lines, attach a strip
of stiff cardboard at right angles to a centimeter ruler at the
1-cm mark, as shown in the diagram on the next page. Hold
the ruler upright on the table, with the zero end down, and
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move it around the model so that the 6. Remove the transparency from the box.
cardboard strip is near the surface Write an elevation on each line of the
of the model. Make a series of small transparency. Let each centimeter in
dots on the model at this 1-cm height, height on the model represent 100 m
and then connect the dots to form a in elevation on the map. The numbers
horizontal curve. Repeat this with the should increase toward the center of
cardboard strip attached at the 2-cm the transparency.
mark. Continue increasing the height 7. Compare your map to the map of Mt.
above the table by 1 cm until you reach St. Helens shown below. Answer the
the top of the model. following questions in your log and
on your map.
3. Place the model into a rectangular tub.

4. Clip an overhead transparency onto a
clear clipboard. Lay the clipboard on
the tub.
5. Look straight down into the top of the
tub at the lines you drew on the volcano.
With a grease pencil or marker, trace the
lines onto the transparency. Be sure to a) Describe two similarities between
keep looking straight down whenever the maps.
you are tracing the lines. Also, it might b) Note the legend on the map of Mt.
help to keep one eye closed. St. Helens. Add a legend to your
These are contour lines, or lines of map. Include a scale, north arrow,
equal elevation above Earth’s surface. and contour interval (the difference
between consecutive contour lines).
c) What do the shaded regions on the
map of Mt. St. Helens represent?
d) Why do the shaded regions cross the
contour lines at right angles?
e) Which part of Mt. St. Helens is
steeper: the slope between 1500 m
and 2000 m, or the slope between
2000 m and 2500 m? Explain
your answer.
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f) What are the lowest and highest g) Note the locations A, B, C, and D on
elevations on the map of Mt. St. the map. If lava erupted at point A,
Helens? What is the difference in would it flow toward point B, C, or
elevation between these two points? D? Explain your answer.
Digging Deeper
TOPOGRAPHY OF VOLCANIC REGIONS
Topographic Maps
In the Investigate, you made a topographic map of a model volcano.
Geo Words You also compared this to the topographic map of an actual volcano.
contour line: a line on Topographic maps have contour lines. These are curves that connect
a map that connects all points at the same elevation. The contour interval is the difference
points of equal
elevation of the land in elevation between contour lines that are next to one another. A
surface. topographic map shows how steep or gentle a slope is. It also shows
contour interval: the elevation and shape of the land. Relief is the difference in elevation
the vertical between the highest and lowest points on the map.
distance between
the elevations The following are some important points to consider when interpreting
represented by two topographic maps.
successive contour
lines on a topographic • Contour lines never cross. (However, two or more can run together,
map. where there is a vertical cliff).
topographic map: • The closer together the contour lines, the steeper the slope.
a map showing the
topographic features • Contour lines for closed depressions, such as a volcanic crater, are
of the land surface. marked with “tick marks.” (These are short lines at right angles to
relief: the physical the contour line.) The marks point downward into the depression.
configuration of
a part of Earth’s • On most topographic maps, every fifth contour line is darker. Its
surface, with elevation is always marked.
reference to
variations of height Magma Composition
and slope or to
irregularities of the Volcanoes are often pictured as cone-shaped mountains. However,
land surface. volcanoes come in many shapes and sizes. Ice, wind, and rain can
change the shape of a volcano. These changes can take place between
eruptions or after the volcano becomes dormant. A large eruption or
giant landslide can remove the top or side of a volcano. The chemical
composition of magma can have an even greater effect on the shape
the volcano takes as it forms.
Magma is melted rock (a liquid). Magma may also contain dissolved
gases. The most abundant chemical elements in magma are silicon and
oxygen. As the magma cools, minerals form. Silicon and oxygen are the
building blocks of the most common minerals. They are called silicate
minerals and form from magmas. One silicon atom and four oxygen
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atoms become tightly bonded together. They form an ion called

the silicate ion. These combine with ions of other elements. Mainly,
they combine with aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and
magnesium to form silicate minerals. You will learn more about minerals
and rocks in another chapter.
Igneous rock is rock that is formed when molted materials become solid.
When geologists analyze an igneous rock, they express the results as a
percent of several “oxides.” These include SiO2, Al2O3, or CaO. In one
way, this is deceiving. Real oxide minerals are a very small part of most
igneous rocks. However, it is just a generally accepted practice. Because
silicon and oxygen are the most abundant elements in magmas, the Geo Words
“oxide” SiO2, called silica, is the most abundant “oxide.” silica: silicon dioxide
(SiO2), the most
The percentage of silica in magma varies widely. This is important to abundant oxide in
know for two reasons. First, magmas rich in silica tend to have more magma.
dissolved gases. Second, silica content affects how easily magma flows. viscosity: the
Magmas that are rich in silica do not flow nearly as easily as magmas property of a
that are poor in silica. Because of this, silica-rich magmas are more likely substance to offer
internal resistance
to remain below Earth’s surface, at shallow depths, rather than flowing to flow; its internal
freely out onto the surface. These two factors combine to make friction.
eruptions of silica-rich magmas likely to be dangerously explosive. Here
is why. As the magma rests below the surface, the dissolved gases
gradually bubble out. This is because the pressure on the magma is
much less than it was down deep in Earth where the magma was
formed. It is just like what happens when you pour a carbonated drink
into a glass. The carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid gradually bubbles
out of solution. Unlike your carbonated drink, however, the magma is
viscous. The bubbles cannot readily escape. Viscosity refers to the
property of a substance to resist flowing. Instead, the bubbles build up
pressure in the magma. This often leads to a violent explosion. Table 1
shows how magma properties relate to magma composition.
Table 1: Properties of Magma as They Relate to Magma Composition
Magma Composition
Magma Property
Low Silica Medium Silica High Silica
Silica content (% SiO2) ~50 ~60 ~70
Viscosity lowest medium highest
Tendency to form lava highest medium lowest
Tendency to erupt explosively lowest medium highest
Melting temperature highest medium lowest
Volume of an eruption highest medium lowest
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Types of Volcanic Landforms

When low-silica magma erupts, lava tends to flow freely and far. If it
Geo Words erupts from a single opening (vent) or closely spaced vents, it forms a
shield volcano: a broad shield volcano, as shown in Figure 1.
broad, gently sloping
volcanic cone with
a flat-dome shape,
usually several tens or
hundreds of square
miles in extent.
Figure 1 Volcanoes such as these are called shield volcanoes because they somewhat
resemble a warrior’s shield. They are formed when low-silica magma erupts.
Figure 2 The
eruption of low-
silica magma along
long, narrow
openings in the
Columbia Plateau
flowed over a
vast area. The
result was a broad
lava plateau that
makes up the cliffs.
Silica-rich magmas are far less fluid. They often stop moving before
they reach the surface. If they do reach the surface, they ooze slowly,
like toothpaste squeezed out of a vertical tube. The viscous lava forms
volcanic domes with steep slopes, as shown in Figure 3. If the volcano’s
vent gets plugged, gases cannot escape and pressure builds up. The
pressure can be released in a violent eruption that blasts pieces of lava
and rock (pyroclastics) into the atmosphere.
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Geo Words
A composite cone, as composite cone
shown in Figure 4, forms by (stratovolcano):
many eruptions of material a volcano that is
constructed of
with medium- or high- alternating layers of
silica content. They erupt lava and pyroclastic
violently when pressure deposits.
builds up in the magma. caldera: a large
After the explosion, gooey basin-shaped volcanic
depression, more
(viscous) lava oozes out or less circular, the
of the top. The volcano diameter of which is
becomes quiet. Over time, many times greater
pressure may build up and than that of the
Figure 3 Silica-rich magma does not flow readily included vent(s).
repeat the cycle. Composite and often forms a volcanic dome, such as the
volcanoes are tall and have one shown in this photograph.
steep slopes because the
lava does not flow easily.
When a very large volume
of magma is erupted,
the overlying rocks may
collapse. The collapse
produces a hole or
depression at the surface
called a caldera, shown in
Figure 5. A caldera is much Checking Up
larger than the original 1. Explain in your own
vent from which the Figure 4 Composite cones include the beautiful, words the meaning
yet potentially deadly Cascades in the northwestern of a contour
magma erupted.
United States (which includes Mt. Shasta, Mt. line, contour
Rainier, and Mt. St. Helens). interval, relief, and
topographic map.
2. Arrange corn
syrup, water, and
vegetable oil in
order of low to
high viscosity.
3. What is the silica
Figure 5 Calderas are content of magma
deceptive volcanic that has a low
structures. They are viscosity?
large depressions
4. Why do silica-poor
rather than conical
peaks. Oregon’s magmas produce
Crater Lake, formed broad volcanoes
nearly 7000 years ago, with gentle slopes?
is an example of this 5. Why does high-silica
type of volcano. magma tend to
form volcanic domes
with steep sides?
6. How is a caldera
formed?
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• Why do different volcanoes have different shapes?
Record your ideas about this question now. Be sure to explain how magma composition
affects the shape and structure of a volcano.

You made a map from a model of a volcano. The map showed lines of equal elevation.
These lines are contour lines, and the map is a topographic map. You can use topographic
maps to predict volcanic hazards. Gravity pulls the lava erupted from volcanoes downhill.
A topographic map shows the paths the lava might take. The chemical composition of
magma affects the shape of the volcano. Silica-rich magma does not flow readily and
often forms a volcanic dome. Shield volcanoes are formed when low-silica magma erupts.
You may want to include questions about the connection between the shape of volcanoes
and the chemical composition of magma as part of your game.
1. What is the contour interval on the topographic map of Mt. St. Helens in
the Investigate?
2. Sketch a contour map of a volcano that shows a:
a) gentle slope
b) steep slope
c) nearly vertical cliff
d) crater or depression at the top
3. Imagine that your paper model was a real volcano. Lava begins to erupt from the top.
Shade your topographic map to show where a stream of lava would flow. Explain
your drawing.
4. For the volcanoes shown in Figures 1 and 4, sketch a topographic map. Show what
the volcano would look like from above. Apply the general rules for interpreting
topographic maps. Include a simple legend.
5. Use a copy of the topographic map on the next page, or obtain a topographic map of
your state or region, to do the following:
a) Record the contour interval, and the highest and lowest elevations. Calculate
the relief.
b) Identify areas that look like the volcanic landforms you explored in this section.
Describe possible paths of lava flows.
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What game questions could you ask about the basic relationships between magma
composition and the type of volcano formed? How does the composition of magma
determine how explosive a volcanic eruption can be?
Inquiring Further
1. Cascade volcano in your community
Build a scale model of a Cascade volcano and a scale model of your community.
To do so, find a topographic map of a Cascade volcano. Trace selected contours on
separate sheets of paper. Cut and glue each contour level onto pieces of cardboard or
foam board. Stack the board to make a three-dimensional model. Do the same using a
topographic map of your community. Make sure that the scales of the maps match.
Be careful when cutting the cardboard or

foam board.
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Section 8 Volcanic Hazards: Flows

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Only one person in the entire city of St. Pierre, on Martinique
• Measure and understand how in the Caribbean, survived the hot ash and rock fragments that
volume, temperature, slope, and swept over the city from the explosive eruption of Mount Pelée
channelization affect the flow
in 1902. He was a prisoner in a dungeon deep underground.
of fluid.
• Apply an understanding of factors • How do volcanoes affect the biosphere?
that control lava flows, pyroclastic
Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Be
flows, and lahars (mudflows).
prepared to discuss your responses with your small group
• Apply understanding of
and the class.
topographic maps to predict lahar
flow (mudflow) patterns from a
given set of data. Investigate
• Describe volcanic hazards
In this Investigate, you will explore the factors that affect the
associated with various kinds
of flows.
flow of lava and lahars (mudflows).
• Become aware of the benefits Part A: Area of Lava Flow
of Earth science information
in planning evacuations and
1. Suppose a volcano produces twice the amount of lava than
making decisions. it did in a previous eruption. Write a hypothesis based upon
• Show understanding of the
the following question: What is the relationship between the
nature of science and a volume of an eruption and the size of the area it covers?
controlled experiment.
a) Record your hypothesis in your log.
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2. Check your hypothesis to see if it

a) Write down your hypothesis.
could be disproved. A hypothesis must
be a prediction that can be falsified. b) Record your procedure in your log.
The statement “Some stars will never c) Describe the variables you investigated.
be discovered” cannot be disproved.
Therefore, it is not a hypothesis. 9. Present your procedure to your teacher
for approval. Then run your test.
3. In this investigation, you will use liquid
soap to simulate flow during a volcanic a) Record your data.
eruption. Volcanic flows include lava, b) Summarize your conclusions.
gases, and mixtures of solid particles
and gases. c) Was your hypothesis correct?
a) In your log, set up a data table. The
Heat sources can cause burns. Hot objects and
table should help you record the liquids look like cool ones. Feel for heat at a
relationship between the volume of distance before touching.
liquid soap and the surface area that
Clean up any spills immediately. Liquids being
the soap covers. You will do trials used can cause floors and equipment to be
with 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 cm3 sticky or slippery.
(cubic centimeters) of liquid soap.
4. Place an overhead transparency of a Part B: Travel Time of Lahars
square grid on a flat surface. 1. Examine the table of expected travel
3
5. Pour 0.5 cm of liquid soap onto the times of lahars triggered by a large
transparent graph paper. eruption of Mt. St. Helens. The values
in the table come from computer
6. When the soap stops flowing, measure simulations and actual behavior of
the area of the flow. mudflows in the 1980 eruption.
a) Record the area of the flow in your
Expected Travel Times for Lahars
data table. Triggered by a Large Eruption of
7. Wipe the surface clean. Repeat the Mt. St. Helens (USGS)
trials using 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 cm3 Distance (via Estimated Travel Time
of liquid soap. River Channels) (hours:minutes)
From Mt. St. North Fork South Fork
a) Record your data in your table. Look Helens (km) Toutle River Toutle River
for patterns.
10 0:37 0:11
8. Develop a hypothesis and design a
20 1:08 0:30
test for one of the following questions
related to the flow of fluids. Remember 30 1:37 0:54
that during scientific inquiry, you can 40 2:16 1:21
return to the materials or your data and 50 2:53 1:49
revise your procedures as needed.
60 3:27 2:20
• What effect does temperature have on
70 3:48 2:53
resistance to flow (viscosity)?
80 4:43 3:31
• What happens to fluid when slope
changes from steep to gentle? 90 6:36 4:18
• What effects would you see if fluids 100 8:50 5:12

moved through narrow channels?
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2. Convert the travel times into minutes. a) Which area (North Fork or South
Fork) is more likely to have a steeper
a) Record the times in your log.
gradient? Use the results of the
3. Make a graph of travel time (in minutes Investigate in Section 7 to support
on the vertical axis) versus distance (in your answer.
kilometers on the horizontal axis) for b) Explain the evidence in your graphs
both data sets. that suggests that the gradients are
a) Plot both data sets on the same graph. not constant.
b) Connect the data points so that you c) Based on the information in the table,
can compare the data. explain whether or not you think
that a community located 50 km
c) Calculate an average velocity for
from Mt. St. Helens along either
mudflows along each fork of the
of these river valleys would have
Toutle River.
time to evacuate in the event of an
4. Answer the following questions in unexpected massive eruption.
your log:
Digging Deeper
FLOW-RELATED HAZARDS
Lava
In the Investigate, you explored the effects
of temperature, volume, channels, and
slope on the flows of lava and lahars from
volcanoes. Lava flows are streams of molten
rock that come from vents and fissures in
Earth’s crust. Lava flows destroy almost
everything in their path. However, most
lava flows move slowly enough for people
to move out of the way. Slope and cooling
affect the flow of lava. Lava flows faster on
a steeper slope. As lava cools, it flows less
and less easily.
Lava that is low in silica is less viscous. (See
Table 1 in the previous section that shows
the properties of magma as they relate to
magma composition.) Flows of low-silica
lava can travel tens of kilometers from the
Figure 1 Lava tubes form when
the surface of a flow cools and source. Sometimes, it sets up an internal
Geo Words “plumbing system.” The surface may cool,
crusts over, but the interior of
lava flow: an the flow is still fluid. crust over, and insulate the interior. This
outpouring of molten
lava from a vent
keeps the lava at a higher temperature as
or fissure; also, the it moves away from the source. Evidence of
solidified body of
rock so formed.
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Geo Words
this is found in the lava tubes that can form in flows of low-silica lava. lava tube: a hollow
This is shown in Figure 1. When lava breaks out of the leading edge of space beneath the
a flow, the lava can drain out. A hollow tube remains behind. surface of a solidified
lava flow.
Basalt flows can move at speeds of up to 10 km/h (kilometers per hour) pyroclastic flow: a
on steep slopes. On a shallow slope, basalt flows move less than 1 km/h. high-density mixture
Basalt flows within channels or lava tubes can travel very fast. They can of hot ash and rock
fragments with hot
reach speeds of 45 km/h. Basalt flows can cover a large area. The largest gases formed by a
lava flow in recent history occurred in 1783 at Laki in Iceland. Lava volcanic explosion or
erupted from the Laki fissure covered 500 km2. This is an area roughly aerial expulsion from
equal to 100,000 soccer fields. a volcanic vent.
Lava flows can be dangerous and destroy property. The Kilauea volcano
in Hawaii started erupting in 1983. Since then, lava flows have entered
communities in the area many times. The flows have destroyed homes,
highways, and historical sites. The village of Kalapana was buried in 1990
by 15–25 m of lava. These eruptions took
place over a period of seven months. See
Figure 2.
It is sometimes possible to control the flow
of lava. In 1973, lava flows at Heimaey,
Iceland threatened to cut off an important
harbor. Citizens sprayed water onto the
lava from ships in the harbor. This stopped
the flow. Lava flows can also be diverted
away from populated areas. Workers must
carve a new channel or pathway for the
lava to follow.
Andesitic lava is cooler and has a higher
silica content than basaltic lava. It moves
only a few kilometers per hour. Andesitic
lava rarely flows beyond the base of the
volcano. Dacitic and rhyolitic lavas are even
higher in silica. They are even more viscous.
Their lava usually forms steep mountains,
called lava domes. These domes extend only
short distances from the vent.
Pyroclastic Flows
Topography plays a role in two other
types of volcanic flows. It plays a role in
pyroclastic flows and lahars. Pyroclastic
flows are high-density mixtures of hot
ash and rock fragments with hot gases.
Pyroclastic flows occur in explosive
eruptions. They move away from the Figure 2 The former village
vent at speeds up to 350 km/h. of Kalapana was buried by
lava flows.
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Pyroclastic flows often have two parts.

A lower flow of coarse fragments moves
along the ground. A turbulent cloud of
ash rises above the lower flow. Both
parts ride upon a cushion of air. This
enables the material to move rapidly.
The more dense material follows the
topography in a twisting path
downslope. The ash falls to the ground
downwind of the volcano. Pyroclastic
flows are extremely dangerous. They
destroy everything in their path. The
pyroclastic flow produced by the Mt. St.
Helens eruption was impressive, but it Figure 3 Flow of pyroclastic
was small compared to pyroclastic flows materials from Mt. St. Helens
in prehistoric times. See Figure 3. destroyed everything in its path.
Geo Words Lahar

lahar: a wet, cement- A lahar is a wet, cement-like mixture of water, mud, and volcanic rock
like mixture of water, fragments. This mixture flows down the slopes of a volcano and its river
mud, and volcanic
rock fragments that
valleys. Lahars carry rock debris of varying sizes. They range from clay, to
flows down the slopes gravel, to boulders more than 10 m in diameter.
of a volcano and its
river valleys.
Checking Up
1. Name two factors
that influence the
viscosity of a lava
flow.
Figure 4 The dark flow down the side of Mt. St. Helens is an
2. Describe two ways example of a lahar flow.
in which lava flows
can be controlled. Eruptions may trigger lahars. Heat from the eruption may melt snow and
3. What is a ice, or the eruption may displace water from a mountain lake or river.
pyroclastic flow? Lahars sometimes form when the erupted material dams the mountain’s
4. What is a lahar? drainage, causing a lake to form. The lake may spill over the loose volcanic
material and send water and debris down valley. Lahars are also formed
5. How are lahars
formed? when rain soaks the loose volcanic debris during or after an eruption,
causing it to start to flow. As a lahar flows downstream, it poses a risk to
6. Explain how
topography
everyone in the valley downstream. When a lahar finally comes to a stop,
influences volcanic it can bury an entire village under many meters of mud.
flows.
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• How do volcanoes affect the biosphere?
Record your ideas about this question now. Be sure your answer includes the hazards
associated with the various kinds of flows produced by volcanoes.

You found that temperature, viscosity, and volume affect the flow of lava on slopes of
various angles. Analyzing data from a computer model, you predicted the flow of volcanic
fluids down river valleys near Mt. St. Helens. You can now describe the volcanic hazards
associated with various kinds of flows and factors that affect the flows. You may wish to
include volcanic hazards among the questions in your game.
1. How does the volume of an eruption affect the area it covers? Describe any
mathematical patterns in your data.
2. When the Mauna Loa volcano erupted in 1984, lava flowed toward Hilo, Hawaii.
This is an excellent example of how scientists used their understanding of the factors
that control the flow of lava to predict where lava would flow and decide whether to
evacuate residents. The map shows the path of a series of lava flows from Mauna Loa.
Each flow is given a letter (A through G) in the order it happened.
Source: USGS
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a) Look at flow D on the map. What is the elevation of the top of flow D, and what
is the elevation of the Kulani Prison?
b) How close did flow D get to the prison?
c) Do you think that the prison was put on alert?
d) Look at flow E on the map. The flow was channeled. Do you think it moved
swiftly or slowly? Explain.
e) Lava from flow E crossed an important road. It headed straight for the city of
Hilo. The lava then broke through walls of the channel. What do you think
happened to the width of the flow after it broke through the channel? How do
you think this changed the speed of the flow?
3. Refer back to the reading that described the lava flow at Heimaey, Iceland.
a) Why did spraying the lava flow with water slow it down?
b) This was a very unusual circumstance. What factors made this effort successful?
4. Why might a lahar affect a community more severely than a lava flow?
What game questions could you ask about the various kinds of volcanic flows? Include
in your questions the conditions that affect where, how far, and how fast volcanic
flows travel. You can also ask about the hazards associated with the various kinds
of flows and what people do to control volcanic flows and reduce their hazards.
Inquiring Further
1. Research a famous lava flow
Search the Web for information about the Columbia River Basalt Group in the
Northwest. Prepare a report to the class about the members of this famous basalt
group in relation to largest, longest, thickest, cooling characteristics, effects on ancient
topography, and cause. Be sure to use reliable sources and include in your report how
you assessed their reliability.
2. Lava and the biosphere
How have lava flows at Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes affected Hawaiian
communities? How does the lava that enters the Pacific Ocean in Hawaii affect coastal
ecosystems? What kinds of organisms develop and thrive at the “black smokers” along
mid-ocean ridges? Research the 1783 Laki fissure flow in Iceland. It was 40 km long
and covered 500 km2 . How did it affect vegetation and livestock?
3. Lava and the cryosphere
What happens when lava erupts from an ice- or snow-capped volcano? This is an issue
in the Cascade volcanoes. Mt. Rainier, which overlooks Seattle, has 27 glaciers. You
might gain some insights from exploring the 2004 eruption at Grimsvötn in Iceland.
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Section 9 Volcanoes and the Atmosphere

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Following the eruption of Tambora in Indonesia in 1815, snow
• Interpret maps and graph data from fell in New England during each of the summer months that
volcanic eruptions to understand year. The weather grew so cold in many parts of Earth that
the range in scale of volcanic
1816 became known as “The Year Without a Summer.”
eruptions.
• Measure the amount of dissolved • What kinds of materials are emitted during a volcanic eruption?
gas in a carbonated beverage. • Could material from a volcanic eruption affect your community?
• Understand that volcanoes emit
rock, lava, and gases, such as water Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be prepared
vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur to discuss your responses with your small group and the class.
dioxide.
• Describe how volcanoes are part of Investigate
the hydrosphere and water cycle.
• Demonstrate awareness of how
In this Investigate, you will study what happens when volcanoes
volcanoes can affect global erupt ash and gases.
temperatures. Part A: Airborne Debris
• Recognize that volcanoes are part
of interactive systems on Earth.
1. Look at the map of the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens on
the next page. It shows the pattern of fallen ash. Use the map
to answer the following questions:
a) How many states showed at least a trace of volcanic ash?
b) In what direction did the ash move?
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c) Was Canada affected by ash from 3. Use your graph and the table to answer
Mt. St. Helens? Why or why not? the following questions. Record your
answers in your log.
d) Would you consider this a small,
medium, large, or gigantic eruption? a) Can you group the eruptions by size
Explain your choice. (small, medium, and so on)? Mark
the groups on your plot. Explain
how you chose the groups.
b) What group does the 1980 eruption
of Mt. St. Helens fit into?
c) Suppose you wanted to predict the
area that would be covered with
ash by each eruption. What other
information (besides volume erupted)
would help you to predict how far
the ash would go?
Distribution of ash from the Mt. St. Helens eruption. 4. The map on the following page shows
the areas covered by five of the eruptions
2. Make a bar graph of the data shown in in the data table. Use the map, data table,
the table below. and your bar graph to do the following:
a) Plot the name of each volcano on the a) Rank the area of eruptions in order
horizontal axis. from smallest to largest. Record
your rankings.
b) Plot the volume of volcanic
eruption on the vertical axis. b) Compare the areas to the volumes.
Arrange the volumes in order Describe any relationships you notice.
from least to greatest.
Volumes of Volcanic Eruptions

Volume
Volcano Date
(cubic kilometers)
Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010 0.25
Ilopango, El Salvador 300 40
Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 2.4
Long Valley, California
740,000 years ago 500
(Bishop Tuff)
Mazama, Oregon 4000 BCE 75
Mt. Pelée, Martinique 1902 0.5
Mt. St. Helens, Washington 1980 1.25
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 1985 0.025
Pinatubo, Philippines 1991 10
Santorini, Greece 1450 BCE 60
Tambora, Indonesia 1815 150
Valles, New Mexico 1.4 million years ago 300
Vesuvius, Italy 79 3
Yellowstone, Wyoming
600,000 years ago 1000
(Lava Creek Ash)
Note: Volumes are approximate.
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c) Compare the location of each volcano 3. Devise a way to use the materials
to the path of the ash. Describe any to capture and measure the gas that
patterns you notice. What might escapes from the carbonated beverage.
explain any patterns you see? Note: You will need to heat the
beverage after you have opened it. To
do this safely, put the can in a water
bath (container of water) and heat the
water bath.
a) Draw a picture of how you will set
up your materials.
b) Write down the procedures you will
follow. Include the safety precautions
you will take.
4. After your teacher has approved your
design, set up your materials. Run
your experiment.
a) Record your results.
b) How do your results compare to
your prediction?
Map showing the distribution of ash by five c) Describe anything that might have
eruptions. affected your results.
Part B: Volcanic Gases d) Describe how the gas escaping from

the can resembles a volcano.
1. You will model the escape of gases from
a volcano. Use a can of a carbonated
beverage to explore the quantity of
gas that can be dissolved in a liquid
under pressure.
a) How many milliliters (mL) of liquid
are in the carbonated beverage?
b) Predict how many milliliters of
gas (carbon dioxide) a carbonated
beverage contains. Record and
explain your prediction.
2. Obtain these materials: a heat source,
a one-liter glass beaker, water, rubber
tubing (about 50 cm), a smaller beaker
or bottle, a plastic container, modeling
clay, and safety goggles.
Plan your experiment carefully and in detail to

avoid potential hazards.
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Digging Deeper
VOLCANOES AND THE ATMOSPHERE
Hazards of Volcanic Ash
Geo Words In the Investigate, you explored what happens when ash and gases are
tephra: a collective erupted from volcanoes. Tephra is a term for pieces of volcanic rock and
term for all the lava that are ejected into the air. It ranges from less than 0.1 mm to
pyroclastic material
ejected from
more than 1 m in diameter. Tephra is classified by size. Names for sizes
a volcano and of tephra include volcanic bombs (greater than 64 mm), lapilli (between
transported through 2 and 64 mm), and ash (less than 2 mm). Bombs and lapilli usually
the air. It includes fall to the ground on or near the volcano. Ash can travel hundreds to
volcanic dust, ash,
cinders, lapilli, scoria,
thousands of kilometers. (See Figure 1.) The height of the ash and the
pumice, bombs, and wind speed control how far the ash travels.
blocks.
volcanic bomb: a
blob of lava that
was ejected while
viscous and received
a rounded shape
(larger than 64 mm
in diameter) while in
flight.
lapilli: pyroclastics in
the general size range
of 2 to 64 mm.
ash: fine pyroclastic
material (less than
2 mm in diameter).
Figure 1 Ballistic debris refers to volcanic bombs
and lapilli that fall on or near the volcano. Ash
can travel much further.
A volcanic eruption can send ash many kilometers into the atmosphere.
Ash from the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens reached a height of
19 km. Winds carried the ash to the east. Five days after the eruption,
instruments in New England detected ash. An eruption at Yellowstone
2 million years ago produced 1000 times as much ash. One meter of ash
covered an area of 1000 km2. Ten centimeters of ash covered an area of
10,000 km2. You could look at it this way: If the ash from Mt. St. Helens
filled a shoebox, the ash from Yellowstone would fill a bedroom to a
depth of a meter.
Volcanic ash presents many kinds of hazards. Ash that falls on homes,
factories, and schools can collapse roofs. More than 800 people died
after the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo in the Philippines. Most of these
deaths were caused by roof collapse. At ground level, fine ash causes
breathing problems in humans and animals. It can also damage
automobile and truck engines. Ash that coats the leaves of plants
interferes with photosynthesis. Ashfall accumulations of only a few
millimeters can be a significant hazard to airports. Between 1944 and
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2006, 101 airports in 28 countries were impacted 171 times by eruptions

at 46 volcanoes. Since 1980, volcanic eruptions have affected an average
of five airports per year. Ash injected higher into the atmosphere can also
damage aircraft. Since 1973, more than 100 aircraft have been affected
by volcanic ash while flying. The only death outside the immediate area
of Mt. St. Helens occurred from the crash of a small plane that was flying
through the ash. Ash that falls on the slopes of a volcano poses great
risk. When soaked by rain, loose ash can form lahars. Years after the
eruption, lahars remain a source of concern to communities at the base
of Pinatubo.
Volcanic Gases
Gases that escape in the greatest amount from volcanoes are water
vapor, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and nitrogen. These and
certain other gases play an important role in the Earth system. They have
been important over the long span of geologic time. They continue to be
important at the present time.
There was a lot of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth early in its
history. However, there was no oxygen. Partway through Earth’s history,
primitive algae appeared. They changed carbon dioxide to oxygen
through photosynthesis. Over time, the carbon dioxide emitted by
volcanoes was changed to oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is more dense than air. It can sometimes collect in a low
spot near a volcanic eruption. High concentrations of carbon dioxide are
hazardous. It can cause people and animals to suffocate.
Water vapor is an essential part of the Earth system. It is especially
important for human communities, because it sustains life. When you think
of the water cycle, do you think of volcanoes? Volcanoes release large
amounts of water vapor. Most of Earth’s surface water seems to have been
released from Earth’s interior by volcanoes throughout Earth’s history.
Some volcanoes emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide gas. Sulfur dioxide
combines with water vapor and oxygen to form sulfuric acid. The sulfuric
acid is washed out of the atmosphere by rain. This occurs over large areas
downwind of the eruption. Rain that contains sulfuric acid, and certain Geo Words
other acids as well, is called acid rain. It is produced not only by volcanoes acid rain: rain or
but also by power plants that burn coal containing sulfur. Acid rain other forms of
precipitation that is
damages plants both on land and in lakes. unusually acidic.
Volcanoes and Climate Change
How do volcanoes affect climate? If the Earth system were simple,
answering that question might be easy. Suppose that volcanic activity
is the independent variable. This is the variable that, when changed,
causes a change in something else. The something else is the dependent
variable. In a simple model, climate would be the dependent variable.
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Temperature is an aspect of climate that can be measured. You could

plot volcanic activity over time against temperature. You could then
compare volcanic activity to temperature. You could use the graph to
make inferences about the effects of eruptions on climate.
However, the Earth system is complex. Records of climate and
volcanic activity are imperfect. Some volcanic products should warm
the atmosphere. These include carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
Others should cool the climate. For example, dust reduces sunlight.
Understanding climate change is very complicated. However, evidence
Checking Up suggests that major volcanic eruptions can lower the average
1. In your own temperature of Earth’s surface by a few tenths of a degree Celsius
words, explain the for as long as a few years.
meaning of tephra
and how volcanic
It is often thought that volcanic eruptions increase or cause rainfall
bombs, lapilli, near or downwind of the eruption. Volcanoes put dust into the air.
and ash relate to Water droplets in clouds form around small dust particles. Eruptions
tephra. can also heat the local atmosphere. This should increase convection, or
2. Name two factors circulation, of the atmosphere. Finally, some volcanic eruptions release
that can affect great quantities of water vapor. Water vapor is needed to form clouds
the distance that and rain. However, a number of studies show that an increase in rainfall
volcanic ash can is rare after an eruption. The major eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 did
travel.
not increase rainfall. It occurred during the wet (monsoon) season. It
3. What gases escape seems that there have to be certain conditions in the atmosphere near
from volcanoes?
a volcanic eruption for rainfall to increase just because of the eruption.
4. Why does the
emission of carbon A volcanic eruption can put huge amounts of sulfur dioxide gas all the
dioxide pose a way into the stratosphere. (This is the upper layer of the atmosphere.
threat near volcanic It is above the layer where the weather occurs.) The gas then slowly
eruptions? reacts with water. It forms tiny droplets of sulfuric acid. The droplets
5. How are volcanoes are less than a thousandth of a millimeter in diameter. Unlike in the
connected to the troposphere, these sulfur dioxide droplets are not affected by the
water cycle? water cycle. (The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
6. How is acid rain This is where weather occurs.) The droplets of acid stay suspended in
formed? the stratosphere for as long as a few years. Large quantities of very
7. Are volcanoes the fine volcanic ash particles can also reach the stratosphere during major
only source of acid volcanic eruptions. Along with the acid droplets, they reflect sunlight.
rain?
Scientists think that this may cause the global cooling that is often
8. Do volcanic observed for a few years after a major volcanic eruption. For example,
eruptions increase
following the 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia, many areas in
or decrease the
temperature of
the United States and Canada had unusually cold summer weather.
Earth? Explain your
answer.
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• What kinds of materials are emitted during a volcanic eruption?
• Could material from a volcanic eruption affect your community?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Consider volcanic eruptions of different
scales in your answer.

You saw that ash from volcanic eruptions can affect a large region. You also saw that there
is a range in the distribution of ash and volumes of volcanic eruptions. You then worked
with a material that resembled volcanic products. When you opened the carbonated
beverage, you lowered the pressure inside the can. This allowed carbon dioxide (the
dissolved gas) to come out of solution. Dissolved gases emerge from Earth’s interior in
much the same way. This section should help you develop some interesting questions about
the effects of volcanic eruptions on the Earth system.
1. In your own words, compare the sizes of the areas affected by lava, pyroclastic flows,
and ash falls.
2. Is volcanic ash a concern only in the western United States? Explain your answer.
3. Think about the air you are breathing. How much of it came from some
distant volcano?
4. If warm air rises, why would hot gases from a volcano be a threat to people in the
valley below? (Hint: Think about volume’s effect in your work with the lava-flow lab.)
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5. If a system consists of many parts that affect each other, how are volcanoes part of
Earth’s systems?
Think about game questions you can ask about how localized volcanic eruptions can
affect local communities across the globe. Include details about the materials emitted
into the air by a volcano and the range in scale of volcanic eruptions. You may be
able to come up with an Earth system question about how these materials can be
hazardous and can change conditions within different parts of the Earth system.
Inquiring Further
1. Make a model of tephra transport
Build a model of a volcano. Run a tube up through the vent of the volcano. Mix a
small amount of baby powder with some sand. Use a funnel to pour the sand mixture
down the other end of the tube. Attach a bicycle pump to pump the sand out of the
volcano. Use a fan or hair dryer to simulate winds. Devise a method to outline the
distribution of material when there is no wind, weak wind, and strong wind. Compare
how far the sand travels and how far the baby powder travels. Consider the factors of
particle size, wind speeds, wind direction, and topography.
2. Cascades eruptions
Examine the figure showing the eruptions of Cascade volcanoes during the last
4000 years.
a) Which volcano has been most active? Which volcano has been least active?
Explain.
b) Which three volcanoes do you think are most likely to erupt next?
c) Visit the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/
for a link to the USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory Web site. Find out about their
monitoring efforts.
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Section 11 Detecting Earthquake Waves

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Earthquakes are detected and monitored through a huge,
• Construct a simple seismometer. worldwide network of over 150 monitoring stations. Together,
• Record motion in two dimensions these instruments are called the Global Seismographic Network,
and also within a fixed time frame. or GSN. The GSN measures the energy released by earthquakes
• Understand how seismometers in the form of seismic waves. It then reports its data through
record earthquake waves. the United States Geological Survey’s National Earthquake
• Recognize P waves, S waves, and Information Center and other national and international agencies.
surface waves on seismograms.
• What specific observations would you want to make to study
• Read a graph to determine
the distance to the earthquake
an earthquake?
epicenter. • How could you detect and record the arrival of earthquake
waves: P waves, S waves, and surface waves?
the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will explore how seismologists detect and
measure earthquake waves.
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1. Attach one end of a spiral spring or 3. Obtain a piece of heavy paper or light
thick rubber band to a small, heavy cardboard and a very soft pencil or thin
weight (a non-lead fishing-line sinker felt-tipped marker. Hold the marker
would work well). Attach the other firmly in place above the paper so that
end of the spring or rubber band to the its tip is just touching the paper. This
bottom of a rectangular, open-sided can be done by having the member of
storage box, such as a small milk crate. your group with the steadiest hand hold
Turn the box upside down so that the the marker in place above the paper.
weight is suspended and hanging freely. Have another group member move the
paper under the marker in order to
write the word “Earthquake” in cursive.
Move only the paper, not the pen.
a) Record what you observe and how
this writing is achieved.
4. Smoothly drag the paper across the
table toward you (with the tip of the
marker touching the paper). Then
pull the paper toward you again,
but this time jiggle it back and forth
perpendicular to the direction in which
you are pulling.
a) What does the resulting line look like
when the paper was smoothly pulled
toward you?
b) What does the resulting line look like
when the paper was jiggled?
Be sure the spring and weight are securely 5. Repeat Step 4, but this time use a
fastened to the crate.
timer or the second hand on a watch
to record the time it takes to pull the
2. Move the frame of the box rapidly paper through. Use a roll of paper this
back and forth (horizontally). Now time so you have a strip of paper a
move the box vertically up and down. meter or so long. Have a third person
Move it back and forth in one direction make a little mark on the edge of the
(horizontally), then back and forth in paper strip every second as you move
the other direction (vertically). the strip along.
a) In your log, write a detailed
description of what you observe.
b) Are the motions you generate similar
to the motions produced by the
coiled spring in Section 10, or are
they different?
c) How would you describe the motions
of the weight in comparison to the
motions you made to the box?
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6. Examine the record of the waves of a 7. Make or obtain a copy of the diagram
real earthquake shown in the figure showing the record of the waves of a
below. real earthquake.
a) Is the size (height) of the recorded a) Label the arrival of the P waves and
wave the same for the entire duration the S waves.
shown on the seismogram?
b) How much time separates the arrival
b) Is the shape of the recorded wave the of the two waves?
same for the entire duration shown
c) Use the diagram and the difference in
on the seismogram?
arrival times to determine the distance
from the epicenter to the seismometer.
The January 12, 2010 Haiti earthquake recorded in Katami National Park, Alaska.
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Digging Deeper
RECORDING EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Seismometers
In the Investigate, you built an instrument that detected motion. You also Geo Words
examined data that were generated by a seismometer. A seismometer seismometer
(also known as a seismograph) works on the principle of inertia. Inertia (seismograph): an
is the tendency for a mass at rest to remain at rest. Seismometers similar instrument that
detects seismic waves.
to the device you built were first used in the 1800s. They had a cylinder It receives seismic
coated with soot. A stylus scratched a mark as it registered vibrations. In impulses and converts
today’s instruments (see Figure 1), the relative motion between the mass them into a signal
and its frame creates an electric signal. The signal is then increased. It such as an electrical
voltage.
is then passed on to a recording destination. Sometimes ink pens make
the recording on paper. A
narrow beam of light can
record the vibrations on
photographic paper. The
recording might be made
by a device that records a
magnetic signal on tape. It
can also be on a computer
screen. It takes three
seismometers to record all
the motions of the ground
during an earthquake.
Two horizontal cylinders at
right angles to each other
record sideways motions
(north-south and east-
west). The third cylinder is
vertical and records up and
down motions.
Instruments used to Figure 1 In the 1960s, a worldwide network of
detect earthquakes are seismometers was developed to verify nuclear
test-ban treaties. When a nuclear device is tested,
attached to the ground.
seismometers around the world record the seismic
They record any motion of waves that result from the blast.
the ground to which they
are attached. These motions can be natural. For example, the ground
can move as a result of earthquakes or landslides. People can also cause
the ground to move. Large trucks, passing airplanes and helicopters, and
blasting during construction can also cause movement of the ground.
Interpreting Seismograms Geo Words
A seismogram is a written or mechanically produced record of seismogram: the
earthquake waves. You just read about different ways these records record made by a
seismometer.
are produced. Figure 2 on the next page shows a seismogram recorded
in Dallas, Texas. Note the separation of P waves and S waves on the
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seismogram. This seismogram was recorded about 1600 km from the

earthquake’s epicenter. If it had been recorded closer to the epicenter,
the two waves would appear much closer together. All the waves are
produced during the rupture. As distance from the epicenter increases,
the separation and arrival times between the wave types increase. That
is because different kinds of waves travel at different speeds.
Figure 2 Seismogram recorded in Dallas, Texas.
P waves travel the fastest through Earth. Therefore, they arrive first at a
distant station. S waves arrive shortly after. Waves that arrive after the
direct P waves complicate the seismogram. Various reflected and refracted
P and S waves bounce off and along layers of Earth’s interior and
eventually reach the station.
Using Travel-Time Curves

P and S waves travel at
different speeds, so they
arrive at different times
at a seismological station.
The difference in their
arrival times increases
with the distance from
the epicenter. Travel-
time curves show this
relationship. (See Figure 3.)
The graph shows the data
from a magnitude 8
earthquake in the Kuril
Islands on December 3,
1995. Here you can see
the relationship between
distance and the difference
in arrival times for P waves
and S waves.
Figure 3 Travel-time curve for an earthquake.
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Seismology and the Study of Earth’s Interior

People have always been fascinated by Earth’s interior. To this day, the
deepest hole ever drilled into Earth’s crust is in the Kola Peninsula, Russia.
It extends more than 12 km into continental crust. However, that crust
is 70 km thick in places. Volcanism rarely brings up samples from deeper
than 150 km. This means that no one has ever made direct observations
of Earth’s deep interior.
In Section 1, you saw a diagram showing the concentric structure of
Earth’s crust, mantle, and core. Earth’s radius is 6378 km. This is a well-
established fact among scientists. But, how do scientists know the depths
at which Earth’s interior properties change? The answers come from the
application of physics to geology. Since the 1900s, scientists have used
seismic waves to study the interior of Earth.
Physicists have found that seismic waves travel much faster through
rigid material than plastic or soft material. This means that changes in
the speeds of seismic waves can be used to make inferences about what
makes up Earth’s interior. (In science, there is a difference between
velocity and speed. In this section, assume they mean the same.)
You may have seen this change in
speed of waves when you looked
at a straw in a glass of water.
When you observed from the side
of the glass, the straw appeared
to be broken at the boundary
between the water and air. (Note
that the thin glass causes very
little distortion.) This occurs
because light travels at different
speeds in different media. The
light rays bend when they pass
from one medium and into a
second medium. This process is
known as refraction. Because
the light is traveling in different
directions from the glass and to
your eye, a visual distortion occurs.
Your brain determines the location
of the straw to be at the place
where the light rays originate.
Because the eye and brain assumes
light travels in a straight path, the
brain misplaces the location of
the straw. As a result, the straw Figure 4 The refraction of light rays moving
appears to be broken. between water and air makes this straw
appear distorted.
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Imagine the inside of Earth to be completely uniform. What would

happen to seismic waves traveling from the surface into the interior
of Earth? The waves would travel at a constant speed. This is shown in
Figure 5 using wave rays. Wave rays are the travel paths of lines drawn
perpendicular to wave fronts. In a uniform Earth, wave rays travel in
straight paths without bending.
Figure 5 If Earth’s interior were Figure 6 If Earth’s interior gradually

completely uniform, wave rays increased in rigidity with depth, wave
would travel along straight paths. rays would travel along curved paths.
Now imagine that Earth’s interior gets more rigid with depth. In this case,
the speeds of seismic waves passing downward through Earth would
increase with depth. This is shown in Figure 6. The speed of the waves
would increase, causing the wave rays to bend. That is because the wave
rays move into a more rigid material deeper in the interior. Wave rays
would follow a curved path. If the speed of the waves and the distance they
travel is known, then scientists can use any acceleration (change in velocity)
as an indication of a change in the media through which they travel.
Data from studies of seismic waves have shown that waves change speeds as
they pass through Earth’s interior. They speed up or slow down depending
on which part of Earth’s interior they travel through. This would not happen
if Earth’s interior were uniform. From this, scientists have concluded that
Earth’s interior is not uniform. Instead, the speeds of seismic waves suggest
that the physical properties of Earth’s interior vary with depth.
Seismic waves are believed to bend as they travel through Earth. Figure 7
shows how the wave rays from an earthquake’s P waves radiate through
Earth’s mantle and core to reach distant locations. The behaviors of the
rays depend on their directions and the media they encounter. Notice how
ray 1 bends gently within the mantle and emerges at the crust. All rays
bend gently within the mantle. This is because the mantle becomes more
rigid with depth. Ray 2 also passes through the mantle. It approaches
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the core-mantle boundary at very low angle and continues its curved
path. It reaches the crust at 103° from the earthquake source. However,
if ray 2 crossed the core-mantle boundary, it would take a very different
path. This is shown as ray 2a. It would cross the boundary at a very low
angle and get refracted strongly toward the core. This is because of the
physical differences between the core and mantle. Ray 3 also crosses
the core-mantle boundary, but at a much steeper angle than ray 2a.
It is refracted less strongly into the core. Compare what happens to
rays 2a and 3 as they exit the core. They both travel back into the mantle
and are refracted once more. However, ray 2a meets the boundary at
a lower angle than ray 3. Ray 2a is refracted more strongly and reaches
the surface farther than 180° from the earthquake source. In contrast,
ray 3 strikes the core-mantle boundary at a higher angle. It is refracted
less and reaches the surface at 143°. Notice what happens to ray 4. It
strikes both boundaries at steep angles. It is deflected much less than
ray 2a and 3. Thus, the angle of refraction depends on the angle at which
the rays strike the boundary or the core-mantle boundary. The lower the
angle that the rays strike the boundary, the higher they are refracted.
Figure 7 The pathways of seismic waves passing through Earth’s

interior. Earth’s core creates a shadow zone between 103° and
143° away from the earthquake source.
Whenever an earthquake occurs, there is always a large area on the

opposite side of Earth where seismic waves do not travel. This is called Geo Words
the shadow zone. The shadow zone for P waves is located between 103° shadow zone: an
and 143° away from the earthquake source. (See Figure 7.) The shadow area where there is
little penetration of
zone occurs because the core blocks the seismic waves. The location of
seismic waves due to
the shadow zone is as a result of the physical properties of the mantle refraction at the core-
and the core. Seismic studies have enabled scientists to calculate that mantle boundary.
the core-mantle boundary is about 2900 km below the surface.
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A shadow zone also exists for

S waves. The core has very strong
effects on whether S waves can
pass through it. P waves travel
through any solid, liquid, or gas
substance. S waves, however, only
pass through solid material. They
cannot pass through a liquid. No
S waves are received beyond 103°
from the source of an earthquake.
This creates a massive shadow
zone. This zone is almost one
hemisphere in size. (See Figure 8.)
The S wave shadow zone provides Figure 8 The S wave shadow zone
evidence that Earth’s outer core is created by Earth’s liquid outer core.
liquid because it blocks S waves.
Recently, scientists have observed some very weak P waves within the
103°–143° P wave shadow zone. This is shown in Figure 9. Weak P waves
emerge at around 120° from the earthquake source. This suggests that
Earth’s core is divided into a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
The boundary of the solid inner core deflects the weak waves into the
outer core. They continue through the mantle and to the surface,
within the shadow zone.
Figure 9 Weak P waves in the shadow zone reveal the presence of an

inner and outer core.
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The network of seismic monitoring stations around the world allows

for the accurate recording of variations in seismic speeds. Using this
information, scientists have been able to make inferences about the
structure of the planet. For example, the Moho represents the base of
the crust and a change in the composition towards much denser silicate
minerals. The Moho occurs at 5–70 km below the surface, depending
on the type of crust (remember that continental crust is thicker than
oceanic crust). At 100–250 km below the surface, the Guttenberg low
velocity zone occurs. Here, the mantle is near to its melting point, though
less than five percent is probably liquid. Nonetheless, liquid films that
surround the mineral grains of mantle rocks slow the passage of P and
S waves. This zone within the asthenosphere is very important for plate
motion. Without this weak and ductile zone the upper and lower mantle
would be “locked” together and the movement of Earth’s lithospheric
plates would be significantly reduced.
Figure 10 Graph showing seismic velocities at depth in Earth.
Seismic Tomography
Earthquakes occur often around the world. As a result, scientists are
able to analyze the speeds of hundreds of thousands of seismic waves
as they travel though Earth in different directions. Using this data, they
have produced images. These images reveal zones within Earth where
seismic waves move faster or slower than normal. Experiments have
shown scientists that seismic waves are slowed by unusually hot rock.
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Figure 11 Earthquakes produce seismic waves that travel through Earth’s

mantle. They reflect off the core-mantle boundary, revealing the structure
of Earth from crust to core. Blue areas represent cooler than average parts
of the mantle. Sometimes they show descending slabs of subducted crust
that has not yet melted completely.
Geo Words Hot rocks are typically less rigid than cooler rocks. The study of three-
seismic tomography: dimensional imagery from seismic data is called seismic tomography.
a technique adapted Look at Figure 11. The tomography shows the upper mantle to be cooler
in the late 1960s
from medical
beneath the continents and hotter beneath the ocean floor. The hot blobs
computer-aided in the mantle are located along mid-ocean ridges. Hot blobs also appear
imaging that uses in zones of mantle upwelling. In both places, seismic waves have reduced
seismic waves speeds because the rocks are hotter and less dense than surrounding rock.
triggered by
earthquakes or Gravity Anomalies
human-made
explosions to build In physics, you may have investigated Earth’s gravity. You learned that
images of Earth’s a body falling to Earth will accelerate at 9.8 m/s2. However, to use one
structure. value only, you must assume that Earth is uniform. In fact, the topography
of Earth’s surface is highly irregular. Both the continents and the oceans
contain mountains, flat regions, and valleys. Also, some of the surface is
covered by ice. Other parts of the crust have caves that contain little matter.
In addition, as you have read, oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust.
Earth’s interior varies both vertically from the base of the crust to the core.
It is also varies laterally. Some parts of the mantle are hotter and therefore
less dense than others. Gravity is directly related to mass. Because different
features contain more or less mass than others, very small variations in
gravity exist across the surface of the planet. Anomaly is a word used to
describe variations of what would normally be expected.
NASA and the German Aerospace Center have launched the GRACE
mission. This is the short form for Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment. Its purpose is to measure anomalies in Earth’s gravity. The
measurements will be more precise than ever before. Scientists will use
this data to make inferences about Earth’s surface and interior.
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Data is being collected by

twin satellites in the same orbit.
The satellites are separated by
220 km. They are traveling at an
altitude of 460 km above Earth’s
surface. The lead satellite speeds
up when it detects very small
increases in gravity. The second
satellite uses a pulse of microwave
energy to measure the change
in distance to the lead satellite.
The changes in distance are tiny.
They are only about one tenth
the width of a human hair!
GRACE maps Earth’s entire gravity
field every 30 days. Changes in
gravity over time reveal important
changes in Earth’s mass. Scientists
can observe the distribution of
ice sheets, the bulges in oceans,
Figure 12 Map of Earth’s gravity anomalies
and flows within Earth’s water showing regions of greater positive and
cycle. According to NASA, negative variations from a calculated value
measurements between 2003 of average gravity.
and 2006 showed a decrease in
gravity over the Antarctic ice
sheet. This indicates a decrease
in ice mass. This ice mass has
decreased by about 150 billion
tons per year. GRACE is also able
to detect changes in Earth’s crust.
After the 2004 earthquake in
the Indian Ocean, GRACE
measured a decrease in gravity.
This indicates that the density of
the rock beneath the surrounding
seafloor had changed.
Figure 13 shows gravity
anomalies. They are shown as
departures from the predicted
gravity of a smooth and uniform
Earth. Some of the greatest
Figure 13 Gravity anomalies are shown by
anomalies, shown in red, occur
relief. Places where gravity is greater than
in the middle of the Atlantic predicted are shown in red and by raised
Ocean. They occur along the elevation. Dark blue depressions indicate
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These are areas of lower than predicted gravity values.
due to the occurrence of thick,
dense oceanic crust.
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Figure 14 shows that at the very center of the ridge the gravity value is
actually lower than in the surrounding parts of the ridge. This is because
at the center of the ridge the lithosphere is very thin. The hot and less
dense asthenosphere extends nearly to the surface. Rocks near the ridge
have low seismic velocities of between 3.7–5.8 km/s. Figure 14 shows that
velocities increase in all directions away from the ridge. The rocks are more
rigid further away from the ridge. In contrast, the Puerto Rico Trench has
one of the most negative gravity anomalies on Earth. The trench is the
deepest part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is over 8400 m deep. You can see it
as dark blue areas. Here, the North American Plate is strongly tilted. It is
descending into the trench.
Checking Up
1. What is the
function of a
seismometer?
2. a) How many
seismometers
do you need at
a given place to
fully record the
motions arising
from earthquake
waves?
b) How should
these
seismometers
be oriented, and
why?
3. What is a Figure 14 Heat flow and gravity values reveal the internal structure of the mid-ocean
seismogram? ridge. Seismic values vary away from the ridge crest. They increase with depth and
4. What information away from the center. The names of various igneous rocks that form oceanic crust
is provided by a are given.
travel-time curve?
5. What causes a
shadow zone?
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• What specific observations would you want to make to study an earthquake?
• How could you detect and record the arrival of earthquake waves: P waves, S waves,
and surface waves?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to the use of seismometers and
seismograms for measuring the shaking that occurs during an earthquake.

You constructed a simple instrument that recorded passing vibrations. Your instrument
used a stationary mass (like the fishing-line sinker) to provide a fixed reference against
which vertical and horizontal movement could be compared. By marking time on your
record, you could determine the “arrival” of the waves you generated. What you made
is a very simple seismometer. A seismometer is a device for measuring shaking. You also
made a seismogram, or record of shaking. Seismologists use similar (but more complex)
instruments to record passing earthquake waves. Time is also marked on their records.
This allows the arrival times of P waves, S waves, and surface waves to be determined.
Interpreting seismograms might be an interesting idea to include in your game.
1. a) Where would be the best place to put a seismometer in your school? Why would
you choose this location?
b) Where would be the worst place(s) in your school to put a seismometer? Why
should this (these) location(s) be avoided?
c) Where in your community might be a good place to put a seismometer? Why?
d) At what locations in your community is it unwise to place a seismometer? Why?
2. a) How are the devices you worked with in this section good models of a
modern seismometer?
b) In what respects are they poor models?
c) What could you do to improve your models?
3. What advantages would be gained by having more seismometers at a
particular location?
4. Not all vibrations of Earth are made by natural earthquakes.
a) In your log, write as many things as you can think of that could cause strong
vibrations of Earth’s surface.
b) How might you be able to distinguish seismograms of “natural” earthquakes
from “human-made” earthquakes?
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5. What would happen to the top of the P wave shadow zone if Earth’s core were smaller
and the mantle were larger?
6. How can Earth’s gravity be greater in some locations than others?
7. Why do seismic waves travel more slowly in the hot asthenosphere below mid-ocean
ridges than they do in the upper mantle?
Think about the game questions you could ask about methods used to detect
earthquake waves and determine the distances to earthquake epicenters. What
can you ask about how seismographs record earthquakes?
Inquiring Further
The study of earthquakes has a fascinating history. People have always felt the effects
of earthquakes. Early civilizations interpreted the shaking of Earth in different ways.
How have the methods used to study earthquakes changed over time? Use electronic
or print resources to prepare a report.
2. Seismic activity
Visit the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/
for a description of how to conduct an online investigation into seismic waves that
travel complicated paths within Earth.
3. Virtual earthquakes
Find out about the Virtual
Earthquake Web site at the
EarthComm Web site. Practice
using seismograms to find
the distance to an earthquake
epicenter. Simulate an earthquake
in the region of your choice.
Print out a record of your results.
Include the seismograms and
the map showing the epicenter
location, but do not do the
magnitude activity at this time.
In 132 CE, a Chinese scholar named Chang Heng made

one of the earliest known devices used to record the
occurrence of an earthquake.
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Section 10 Earthquakes
What Do You See?

In this section, you will Earthquakes result from the movements of Earth’s lithospheric
• Generate and describe two types of plates. In some earthquakes, the ground shakes enough for small
seismic waves. objects to be overturned, doors to swing open, and pictures
• Determine the relative speeds of hanging on walls to turn sideways. Very large earthquakes can
compressional and shear waves. be so violent that they can level parts of a city in a few minutes.
• Simulate some of the motions
associated with earthquakes.
• If you have experienced an earthquake, describe your most
vivid memory. If you have not experienced an earthquake,
• Infer the origin of earthquakes
and the mechanism of transfer of
what would you expect to see, feel, and hear?
seismic wave energy. Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Be
and the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will examine a model that shows what
happens to energy from an earthquake.
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Part A: Rupture and Rebound

1. You will observe rupture, energy
release, and energy transmission,
the main processes in the occurrence
of earthquakes. Obtain two L-shaped
wooden blocks that have a slot cut in
their short lengths, as shown in the
diagram. Place the blocks so that the
slots line up. Put a thin piece
(1 to 2 mm thick) of styrene foam
into the two slots so that it connects
the two blocks. 3. Continue to increase the offset until the
styrene foam snaps. Watch carefully
what happens to the styrene foam as
it ruptures.
a) Record and sketch your observations
in your log.
b) Did you feel a vibration in the
wood? When?
Part B: Vibration
1. Place a coiled spring on the floor. Have
one person in your group hold one end
of the coiled spring and a second person
hold the other end. Back away from
each other so that the coiled spring
stretches out about 5 m long.
2. Have one person quickly push the end
of the coiled spring a short distance
toward the other person. Observe the
2. Put on your safety goggles. Holding the motion of the coiled spring. Repeat the
two blocks together, move the blocks pulse until each member of your group
parallel to each other, but in opposite can describe the resulting motion of
directions. Do this very slowly. Gradually the coiled spring. Observe the direction
increase the offset between the blocks in which the coiled spring moves
without breaking the styrene foam. compared to the direction in which
the pulse is moving.
a) Record and sketch your observations
in your log. a) Record your observations.
Styrene foam should not splinter. Do not

substitute other material.
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3. With the coiled spring stretched out Observe the direction in which the
about 5 m, have a person at one end coiled spring moves compared to the
quickly move the end of the coiled direction in which the pulse is moving.
spring back and forth (left to right). a) Record your observations.
Observe the motions of the coiled
spring. Repeat the pulse until each A stretched coiled spring can move unpredictably
member of your group can describe the when released. Spread out so that you can work
without hitting anyone. Release the stretched coiled
resulting motion of the coiled spring. spring gradually.
Digging Deeper
WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?
Earthquakes
In the Investigate, you made models of what happens with the release
of energy from an earthquake. Recall that an earthquake is a sudden
motion or shaking of Earth as rocks break along an extensive surface
within Earth. The rock masses on either side of the fault plane slip
past one another. This slippage can be for distances as much as 10 m
during the brief earthquake. The rocks break because of slowly built-up Geo Words
bending. The sudden release of energy as rock ruptures causes intense seismologist: a
vibrations. These vibrations are called seismic waves or earthquake waves. scientist who studies
seismic waves and
Seismologists explain the occurrence of earthquakes in the following the information
way. A fault is a surface between two large blocks or regions of rock, they provide about
the structure of the
along which there has been rupture and movement in the past. Faults interior of Earth.
are very common in the rocks of Earth’s crust. Large-scale forces within fault: a fracture or
Earth’s crust push the fault blocks in opposite directions. The movements fracture zone in
of Earth’s plates cause most of these forces. You looked at a variety of rock, along which
different types of faults earlier in this chapter. rock masses have
moved relative to one
another parallel to
the fracture.
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As the forces gradually build up over time, the blocks are bent on either
side of the fault, the same as with the styrene foam strip. The region
Geo Words of bending can extend for very long distances away from the fault. All
shear strength: the rocks have shear strength. The shear strength of a rock is the force that is
force needed to break needed to break the rock when it is acted upon by forces in two opposite
a solid material.
directions. Eventually, the forces overcome the shear strength of the rock.
elastic deformation: The rock then breaks along the fault plane. The blocks then suddenly
a nonpermanent
deformation slip for some distance against each other to undo the bending (elastic
(bending), which deformation). The stored energy is released. The straightening movement
recovers when the is called elastic rebound.
deforming force is
removed. Usually, the rocks in a fault zone have already been ruptured by earlier
elastic rebound: the earthquakes. Why do the rocks not just slip continuously as force is
return of a bent applied? In some places, they do slip continuously. In most places, however,
elastic solid to its the fault becomes “locked.” It does not move again for a long time. There
original shape after
the deforming force is are two reasons for this. One reason is that there is a lot of friction along
removed. the fault plane, because the rock surfaces are rough and are pressed
friction: the force that together by the great pressure deep in Earth. You can see for yourself how
resists the motion of effective this rock friction is. Imagine gluing sandpaper to two wooden
one surface against blocks and then trying to slide the sand-papered surfaces past one another
another surface.
while you squeeze the blocks together. The blocks would resist movement.
fault plane: the The other reason is that new minerals tend to be deposited along the fault
surface of a fault
along which rock by slowly flowing water solutions. This new mineral material acts as a
masses move. “cement” to restore some of the shear strength of the rock.
primary wave (P
wave): a seismic wave Earthquake or Seismic Waves
that involves particle When an earthquake occurs by rupture along a fault, the elastic energy
motion (compression
and expansion) in the
of bending is released. The energy spreads out as seismic waves from the
direction in which the focus. Earthquakes produce several kinds of seismic waves. The different
wave is traveling. kinds of waves travel through rocks at different speeds. Each kind of wave
causes a different kind of motion in the rock as it
passes by. The various kinds of waves arrive at some
distant point on Earth at different times. When each
kind of wave arrives depends on its relative speed
and its path through Earth. (See Figure 1.)
Compressional waves cause rapid compression and
expansion of rock as they pass through Earth. (See
Figure 2a.) As the waves pass, the rock material
is moved back and forth in the direction of wave
motion. Compressional waves are the first to reach
a location away from the focus. They are called
primary waves, or just P waves. Primary waves are
similar to sound waves. They can move through
solids, liquids, and gases. They move through solid
Figure 1 Earthquakes
produce several types rock at a speed of about five kilometers per second,
of seismic waves. or about fifteen times the speed of sound in air.
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Shear waves arrive

at a location after
compressional waves.
That is why they are Geo Words
called secondary secondary wave
waves, or just S waves. (S wave): a seismic
Shear waves move rock wave produced by a
shearing motion that
material at right angles involves vibration
to the direction of their perpendicular to the
motion. (See Figure 2b.) direction in which
S waves can travel only the wave is traveling.
It does not travel
through solids, not through liquids, such
through fluids. They as those forming the
move through rock at outer core of Earth.
a speed of about three surface wave: a
kilometers per second seismic wave that
travels along the
Surface waves, which surface of Earth.
travel along Earth’s
surface, are the last
to arrive at a location.
They travel slower than
S waves. There are two
kinds of surface waves.
One kind creates an
up-and-down rolling
motion of the ground, Checking Up
very much like a wave 1. What is an
on a water surface. earthquake?
(See Figure 2c.i.) The 2. Explain how
other kind of surface seismic waves are
wave shakes the generated by an
ground sideways. (See earthquake.
Figure 2c.ii.) Surface 3. Use a diagram
waves usually cause to describe
the most movement the differences
at Earth’s surface, between P waves,
Figure 2 This diagram shows how a. primary
(compressional), b. secondary (shear), and c. surface and therefore are the S waves, and
waves move through Earth. surface waves.
most damaging.
4. Rank P waves, S
waves, and surface
waves in order
from fastest to
slowest.
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• If you have experienced an earthquake, describe your most vivid memory. If you have
not experienced an earthquake, what would you expect to see, feel, and hear?
Record your ideas about this question now. Include a description of how Earth’s surface
moves as stored energy is released and travels through Earth.

In the investigation with the styrene foam, you gradually applied a force to a solid
material (the styrene foam strip). The force caused the strip to bend. Bending like that is
called elastic deformation. If you had removed the force before the strip broke, the strip
would have returned to its original shape. Rocks in Earth’s crust behave in the same
way. The material broke when the force exceeded the shear strength of the material. This
instantly released the energy you had stored in the material by applying a force to bend
it. In your model, you felt the sudden release of energy during rupture as a vibration in
the wood. As the styrene foam strip broke, its ends “jumped” a short distance in opposite
directions, to straighten themselves out again.
Energy can be transmitted from one place to another without permanent movement of the
material. In the investigation with the coiled spring, you put energy into the coiled spring
by shaking it at one end. This energy was transmitted away from the source. The coiled
spring did not change its position after the waves had passed. Earthquake waves similar
to the ones that you modeled carry the energy of the earthquake for long distances as they
travel through Earth. You may wish to include some of the diagrams of earthquake waves
as part of your game cards.
1. What kinds of motion would you expect to feel in an earthquake?

2. What effects might earthquake motions have on buildings, roads, and
household furnishings?
3. Of the types of earthquake waves discussed in this section, which do you think
are the most dangerous? Why?
4. Many people have some common beliefs about earthquakes. One of these is that
earthquakes occur more frequently in areas of warm climates.
a) How would you design an investigation that might test this idea?
b) Do you have information available to you that either supports or contradicts
this idea?
c) Write a short paragraph either supporting or refuting this belief.
5. What other ideas about earthquakes did you have before doing these investigations
that were either supported or contradicted by what you have learned through the
Investigate? Describe your original ideas and how they were either confirmed
or refuted.
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6. Some faults are frequently active and produce numerous small earthquakes. Other
faults are rarely active but produce large earthquakes. Based on the investigations you
completed, propose factors that might influence the number and size of earthquakes
produced by a fault.
7. In the rupture investigation, you provided the energy needed to break the styrene foam.
Use this idea to describe why earthquakes reveal that Earth is a dynamic planet.
What questions can you ask about the causes of earthquakes, how they transmit
energy, and how different types of seismic waves move? What diagrams can you make
on question cards to illustrate your ideas?
Inquiring Further
1. Using seismic waves to explore for oil and gas
Understanding the behavior of seismic waves allows seismologists to use them as tools
to study deep layers of Earth. Find out how exploration seismologists use seismic waves
to draw inferences about the layers of sedimentary rock in which they find oil and gas
deposits. Consult the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/
earthcomm2/.
2. Earth science careers
Do you think you would like to study earthquakes for a career? To see what a
seismologist does at work, visit the EarthComm Web site.
Marine seismic vessel.
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Section 12 Earthquake Magnitude

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Earthquakes can be so small that people cannot feel them.
• Rank the effects of earthquakes. They can be so great that the seismic energy of a magnitude 8
• Map the intensity of earthquakes. earthquake would supply one day’s worth of electrical energy for
• Interpret a map of earthquake the entire United States.
intensity to infer the general
• What factors would you look at to “measure” the size of
location of the epicenter.
an earthquake?
• Identify geologic materials that
pose special problems during • What damage do passing earthquake waves cause?
earthquakes.
Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log.
• Explain how the magnitude of an
Be prepared to discuss your responses with your small group
earthquake is determined.
and the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will compare the effects of an earthquake
felt in various locations. You will map the intensities of the effects
on a map of the United States and look for patterns in the data.
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Measurement of Earthquake Effects 2. Use the data and your ranking to map
1. The reports listed below describe the the intensity of earthquake effects on
effects of an earthquake felt in many the map of the eastern United States.
cities in the eastern United States. a) Draw several curves on the map
a) In your group, rank the effects in connecting points or regions of
order of intensity. Assign numerical equal intensity.
values to your ranking. Be prepared b) Label each curve with the intensity
to explain your ranking system. value it represents.
Newspaper data: c) Attach your intensity scale.
Detroit, MI: “Did you feel the earthquake?
Last night a slight earth tremor was felt in
this area.”
Pittsburgh, PA headline: “Items Broken By
Earthquake. Small Earthquake Awakens
Many.”
Syracuse, NY: “Mayor’s 10th-floor office
chandelier sways in the earthquake.”
Baltimore, MD: “Citizens dash outside as
earthquake brings down plaster in many
homes.”
Philadelphia, PA: “Doors and windows
rattle as earthquake strikes.”
Cleveland, OH: “Earthquake felt on top of
new 23-story department store.”
Roanoke, VA: “Pedestrians report parked
cars rocked back and forth by earthquake.”
Charleston, SC: “Almost no one here
notices earthquake.” 3. Use the map to answer the
New York, NY: “Skyscraper offices sway in following questions:
earthquake.” a) Describe any pattern you observe.
Washington, D.C.: “Chimneys tumble, new b) What can you infer about the
prefabricated buildings collapse in violent probable location of the epicenter of
earthquake felt here.” the earthquake? Provide a reason.
Richmond, VA: “Furniture moved about
by earthquake, but no major damage
reported.”
Winston-Salem, NC: “Patients in hospital
report that building shakes in earthquake.”
Atlanta, GA: “Earthquakes reported north
of here apparently miss Atlanta.”
Indianapolis, IN: “Few people here feel
recently reported earthquake.”
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4. Share your results with the class.

a) How do the rankings of earthquake
effects compare? Visit the EarthComm
b) How close were the estimates of the Web site at http://www
epicenter of the earthquake? .agiweb.org/education/
earthcomm2/ to find the
c) What problems did you have finding location of the Virtual Earthquake Web
the epicenter? site. At this site, you can simulate a new
d) What other information do you think earthquake.
would have helped you to locate the a) Follow the directions to calculate
earthquake more accurately? the magnitude of the earthquake.
e) How would you describe your b) How does the amplitude (height) of
measurement scale? Is it qualitative a seismic wave change when the size
or quantitative? of an earthquake changes?
f) What property or properties of the c) How would you expect the
earthquake were you measuring? amplitude as recorded on a
Explain your answer. seismogram to change as you get
farther from the epicenter?
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Digging Deeper
DESCRIBING EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake Intensity
In the Investigate, you ranked an earthquake’s intensity in various
locations. You used descriptions given about the effects of the quake.
You also looked for patterns in earthquake intensities in various locations
in the eastern United States. The effects of an earthquake on Earth’s
surface are an indication of its intensity. Intensity scales are based on
certain key responses to the shaking of an earthquake. Examples include
people awakening, damage to brick and stone structures, and movement
Geo Words of furniture. The intensity scale used in the United States is called the
modified Mercalli modified Mercalli scale. There is no quantitative basis for the scale. It
scale: an arbitrary does not use mathematics as part of its description. It is simply a
scale for earthquake
intensity based on ranking based on observed effects. This is similar to what you did in
observed effects of the Investigate.
shaking.
Earthquake intensity is a measure of the effects at a certain location.
Intensity value is important to the average person. It has more meaning
than a magnitude value. The greatest intensity is often observed near
the epicenter. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Sometimes,
areas with the maximum intensity are not nearest to the epicenter. In
the Mexico City earthquake in 1985, the epicenter was hundreds of
kilometers away. However, areas within the city experienced much
higher intensities.
Modified Mercalli Scale of Earthquake Intensity

Value Description of Effects
I • not felt, except rarely by a few
II • felt by few, especially on upper floors of buildings
• delicately suspended objects may swing
III • felt indoors by some
• vibration similar to a passing truck
• not always recognized as an earthquake
IV • felt indoors by many, outdoors by few
• awakens some sleeping people
• dishes, windows, and doors rattle, walls creak
• standing cars rock
• hanging objects swing
V • felt indoors by mostly everyone, outdoors by many
• awakens most sleeping people
• some dishes break, windows and plaster walls crack
• small unstable objects overturned
• hanging objects and doors swing considerably, pictures knocked out of plumb
• some liquid spilled from full containers
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Modified Mercalli Scale of Earthquake Intensity (continued)
Value Description of Effects

VI • felt by everyone
• general excitement and some fear
• slight damage to poorly built structures
• considerable amount of glassware and windows broken
• some furniture overturned, and some heavy furniture moved
• pictures and books fall from walls and shelves
• some fallen plaster and damaged chimneys
• small bells ring
VII • everyone frightened, some have difficulty standing
• negligible damage to well-designed, well-built structures, slight to moderate
in well-built ordinary structures, considerable in poorly built or designed
structures
• weak chimneys broken
• large church bells ring
• trees and bushes shaken, water in lakes and ponds disturbed, some stream
banks collapse
VIII • general fear, approaching panic
• slight damage to structures designed to withstand earthquakes, considerable
damage to ordinary structures, great damage in poorly built or designed
structures
• heavy furniture overturned
• chimneys and monuments topple
• sand and mud ejected from the ground
• changes in flow of wells and springs
IX • general panic
• considerable damage to structures designed to withstand earthquakes, well-
designed buildings shifted off of foundations, great damage and partial
collapse of substantial buildings
• ground noticeably cracked
• some underground pipes cracked
X • severe damage to well-built wooden structures, most masonry structures and
foundations destroyed, well-built brick walls cracked
• bridges severely damaged or destroyed
• ground severely cracked
• considerable landslides from steep slopes and riverbanks
• sand and mud on beaches shifted
• water splashes over banks of canals, rivers, and lakes
• underground pipes broken
• open cracks and wavy patterns in concrete and asphalt
• railroad tracks slightly bent
XI • few structures remain standing
• bridges destroyed
• broad fissures in the ground
• Earth slumps and landslides in soft, wet ground
• sand- and mud-charged water ejected from the ground
• underground pipelines completely out of service
• railroad tracks greatly bent
XII • total damage to all works of construction
• numerous rockslides and landslides, riverbanks slump
• waves seen on the ground
• objects thrown up in the air
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Earthquake Effects
The main effect of earthquakes is shaking of the ground as seismic waves
pass through an area. The main result of ground shaking is the collapse
of buildings. Motion along a fault can break power lines, pipelines, roads,
bridges, and other structures that cross the fault.
The duration of an earthquake can affect the extent of damage. For
example, buildings made of reinforced concrete may withstand a
20-s main shock. However, they will collapse in a smaller-magnitude
earthquake that lasts longer.
Many earthquakes in the San Fernando Valley of California caused
horizontal movement of the ground. In the past, structures had collapsed
with this kind of motion. They were rebuilt to withstand this kind of
motion. However, the motion of the 1994 Northridge earthquake was
different. It had a strong vertical component. Many of the rebuilt
structures and freeways collapsed again.
Sometimes, some structures are affected by ground motion when others
are not. All structures have a natural period of swaying. This back-and-
forth movement is called an oscillation. The shaking of the ground during
an earthquake may be close to the natural oscillation period of a building.
When the oscillation of the ground is nearly the same as the natural
Geo Words oscillation period of the building, the swaying is greatly intensified. This is
resonance: the natural called resonance. The swaying of the building at its maximum contributes
oscillation period of to the collapse of the building. You might know about resonance if you
an object.
have ever been on a swing. The swing has a natural period of oscillation.
When you “pump” your legs to go higher, you pump at about the same
period as the natural period. Pumping at a different period would get
you nowhere.
The 1985 earthquake in Mexico City
badly damaged or destroyed about
500 buildings. Ground vibrations were
increased by the vibrational properties
of tall buildings. This caused 10- to
14-story buildings to sway even more. It
resulted in damage to many structures
of this height. Nearby, shorter and taller
buildings were not damaged.
Building materials also make a difference.
Stone, brick, wood, concrete, and adobe
all have different responses to the forces
they experience during an earthquake.
Figure 1 In 2008, a magnitude Building design must take into account
7.9 earthquake in China caused the structure of the building. However, it
massive damage and killed at
must also take into account the material
least 68,000 people.
from which the structure is made.
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EarthComm

Fire is a secondary hazard in cities. Fire can cause much more damage
than ground movement during an earthquake. In the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake, 70 percent of the damage was due to fire. Fires start when
ground motion breaks fuel lines, tanks, and power lines. Often, water
lines are also disrupted or broken. This reduces the water available to
fight the fires. One of the ways to reduce the risk of heavy fire damage
is to place many valves in the water and fuel pipelines. If one part of the
pipeline is damaged, those pipes can be isolated from the system.
Landslides are another serious secondary effect of earthquakes.
Earthquakes can trigger the failure of unstable slopes. The best way to
minimize this hazard is not to build in areas with unstable slopes. Because
buildings already exist in such areas, it is difficult to reduce the risk. Geo Words
When an undersea or nearshore earthquake occurs, a tsunami can be tsunami: a great
generated. A tsunami is sometimes called a seismic sea wave. Tsunamis sea wave produced
by a submarine
are like the ripples that form when you throw a rock in a pond. Of earthquake (or
course, they are much larger. Tsunamis occur when a large area of the volcanic eruption).
ocean floor rises or falls suddenly in an earthquake. This causes waves to
move away from the area. In the open ocean, the waves have very long
wavelengths (greater than 500 km). The heights of the waves are only a
meter or so. The waves are so long and so low that ships at sea cannot
tell they are passing by. If you
have been to the seashore,
you might have noticed that
ordinary ocean waves get
much higher and then break
as they move into shallower
water. The same thing
happens with tsunami waves,
only more so. As they come
onshore, the waves build to
heights as great as 30 m.
One of the difficulties in
preparing for tsunamis is
their great speed. They move
very fast over very long
distances in the ocean. They
can move at speeds of 1000 Figure 2 Moving to a higher elevation is one
km/h. On average, there are way to protect yourself from a tsunami.
two destructive tsunamis in
the Pacific basin each year. An early warning system now monitors sea
level around the Pacific. A tsunami can take several hours to travel across
the Pacific. If a tsunami is detected, its estimated time of arrival is sent to
areas in danger. People can then be evacuated from the area. This early
warning system has had many successes. However, there have been some
failures, since it was begun in 1948. It works well for areas far from the
earthquake. It is not very effective for areas close by, because the waves
move so rapidly.
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The Effect of Local Geologic Conditions on Intensity

Often, seismic waves increase in amplitude when they pass from solid
bedrock to softer material. For example, the amplitudes of the waves
increase as they pass onto sand, mud, or landfill. The processes that cause
this change are complex. However, you can get an idea of how this might
happen. Think about what happens when you shake a soft, jelly-like
material. Compare this to shaking a much more rigid material such as
metal or rock. The Mexico City earthquake in 1985 showed how local
geologic conditions influence the intensity of an earthquake. This
earthquake caused about 4 billion dollars in damage. It resulted in at
Geo Words least 8000 deaths. The earthquake epicenter was about 300 km from
liquefaction: the Mexico City. There was soft sand and clay deposits from an old lakebed
temporary change of
water-saturated soil under part of the city. This amplified (increased) the ground motions 75
and sand from a solid times. The amplification of shaking caused damage to some tall buildings.
to a liquid state. Nearby structures on bedrock were relatively undamaged.
Richter scale: a Liquefaction is another process that affects earthquake intensity. It is a
numerical logarithmic
scale for earthquake temporary change in water-saturated soil and sand. The soil and sand
magnitude. turns from a solid to a liquid state. It liquefies. The Marina district in San
Francisco experienced this during the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989.
The district was built on wet landfill. Studies revealed that the landfill
Checking Up liquefied during the earthquake. The earthquake was centered 80 km
1. Why is the south of the city. Nearby parts of the city built on hard bedrock did not
intensity value of
an earthquake experience intensities as high as in the Marina district.
more meaningful
than magnitude to
Earthquake Magnitude
a nonscientist? Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves
2. Is the greatest recorded on a seismogram. Charles F. Richter was a seismologist at the
intensity of an
earthquake always California Institute of Technology. He developed the first magnitude scale in
found at the the 1930s. His basic idea was to observe the maximum amplitude recorded
epicenter? Explain on a seismogram at a known distance from an earthquake. Earthquakes
your answer. could be ranked quantitatively by size or strength. The amplitude measured
3. What are the direct is the “swing” of the stylus. The wider the swing, the “stronger” the
hazards of an
earthquake? vibrations. The greater the vibration, the stronger the earthquake.
4. Why are fires able The original Richter scale was developed only for shallow earthquakes.
to cause extensive These were the ones measured in southern California by a certain type of
damage after an
earthquake?
seismometer. Since then, the scale has been modified for more general
5. What is a tsunami?
use. Modern measurements of magnitude are still based on the amplitude
of the waves. However, more sophisticated methods are used today. The
6. Why is it difficult to
prepare against the magnitude of an earthquake depends on which method a seismologist is
destruction caused using. The results using different methods can vary by one unit or more.
by a tsunami?
An important aspect of magnitude scales is that they are logarithmic.
7. What geologic
conditions influence They are based on powers of 10. This means that seismic wave amplitudes
the intensity of an increase by 10 times for each unit of the scale. For example, suppose an
earthquake? earthquake is a magnitude 6. The measured amplitude is 10 times that in
8. What does an a magnitude 5 earthquake.
earthquake
magnitude scale
measure?
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EarthComm


• What factors would you look at to “measure” the size of an earthquake?
• What damage do passing earthquake waves cause?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe how the effects
of an earthquake are an indication of its intensity.

To reduce earthquake risks, scientists study the potential effects of earthquakes. You
made an intensity scale by ranking the effects of earthquakes on people and structures.
You used the distribution of intensities to find the general area where an earthquake
started. If you were able to access the Virtual Earthquake Web site, you learned that the
amplitude of seismic waves on a seismogram is used to measure magnitude. For most
earthquakes, both intensity and magnitude decrease as you move farther away from
the epicenter. Intensity requires human observers. Magnitude requires a seismometer.
A question about quantitative and qualitative measurements might be an interesting
one to include for people.
1. The Magnitude/Intensity Comparison table below compares the magnitude and

intensity scales. The intensities listed are those typically observed at locations near the
epicenter of earthquakes of different magnitudes. If intensity and magnitude measure
different characteristics of earthquakes, how can such a chart be compiled? Why is it
not like comparing apples to oranges?
Magnitude/Intensity Comparison
Magnitude Intensity
1.0–2.9 I
3.0–3.9 II–III
4.0–4.9 IV–V
5.0–5.9 VI–VII
6.0–6.9 VIII–IX
7.0 and higher X or higher
2. What is the highest intensity/magnitude that you would consider exciting to experience,
but not dangerous? Explain your reasoning.
3. The table on the next page shows the average number of earthquakes per year of a
given magnitude. Use the table to answer the following questions:
a) Roughly how many earthquakes occur in a given year?
b) Do people feel most earthquakes?
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c) How many earthquakes did you hear about in the last year?
d) What were their approximate magnitudes?
e) Does this generate a bias in your perception of the number of earthquakes that
happen per year and their sizes? Explain your answer.
Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year of Given Magnitudes
Description Magnitude Number Per Year

Great earthquake 8.0 and higher 1
Major earthquake 7.0 to 7.9 15
Destructive earthquake 6.0 to 6.9 134
Damaging earthquake 5.0 to 5.9 1319
Minor earthquake 4.0 to 4.9 13,000*
Smallest usually felt by people 3.0 to 3.9 130,000*
Detected but not felt 2.0 to 2.9 1,300,000*
*estimated
4. In a major earthquake, where in your school and in your community would you be
safest? What places are prone to the greatest risks from the effects of an earthquake?
Explain why you selected these locations.
What game questions could you ask about the different methods scientists use to
measure earthquakes and their advantages and limitations? Other questions to
think about include: What are the effects and hazards of earthquakes, including
the conditions that can increase earthquake intensity? What can be done to reduce
the effects of earthquakes on people, property, and infrastructure (roads, bridges,
and so on)?
Inquiring Further
1. Reporting earthquakes
Does your community experience frequent earthquakes? Maybe you would like to
help seismologists when an earthquake happens in your community. The Earthquake
Felt Report Form allows you to contribute your intensity observations directly to
seismologists so that they can construct isoseismal maps. Visit the EarthComm Web
site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ to find the Web site that will let
you know the kinds of observations you need to detect and record.
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2. Determine the intensity of an earthquake from a description

Do you know someone who has experienced an earthquake? If so, ask the individual
to describe the experience to you. Compare the person’s descriptions to the modified
Mercalli scale. Are the descriptions of earthquake effects in the modified Mercalli
scale consistent with the person’s experience? Use the scale to rate the intensity of the
earthquake the person experienced. If the person recalls the approximate magnitude
of the earthquake he or she experienced, how well does the magnitude/intensity table
match that experience?
3. Investigate earthquake measurement
Write down other questions you have about the ways earthquakes are measured. How
would you go about gathering information to answer these questions? Write your ideas
in your log. Visit the EarthComm Web site for suggestions of useful Web sites
to explore.
4. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has provided successful advance warnings
of potentially dangerous tsunamis that may affect areas distant from the original
earthquake. Find out about this tsunami warning system.
a) In your log, record your ideas and any information you find on tsunamis and
tsunami prediction.
b) Why is it possible to predict a tsunami, but not an earthquake, in time to save lives?
c) If your community is near the ocean, find out how well your community is prepared
to deal with a tsunami warning.
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Earth/Space Science
Plate Tectonics
You Learned
The internal structure of Earth contains a solid inner core, a liquid (molten) outer core, a
deformable solid mantle, and an outer solid crust.
Continental crust forms Earth’s continents. It is generally 30–50 km thick, and most of it is very
old. Oceanic crust is only 5–10 km thick, and it is relatively young in terms of geologic time.
Rocks in Earth’s crust are less dense than the rocks of the underlying mantle. The crust “floats”
on the more dense interior material.
The upper solid part of the mantle, together with the crust, is called the lithosphere.
Earth’s crust is broken into gigantic slabs called lithospheric plates. The field of study of plate
motion and its effects is called plate tectonics. Plates may contain oceanic crust, continental
crust, or more commonly, both kinds. Divergent plate boundaries are where two plates move
away from each other. Convergent plate boundaries are where two plates move toward each
other. Transform plate boundaries are where two plates slide parallel to each other.
Subduction zones are places where one plate moves downward into the mantle beneath the edge
of another plate at a convergent plate boundary.
Mantle convection is the driving force that moves Earth’s lithospheric plates. Material is heated
at the core-mantle boundary. It rises upward, spreads laterally, cools, and sinks back into the
interior to create slow-moving convection cells.
All of Earth’s ocean basins have a continuous volcanic mountain range, called a mid-ocean
ridge, extending through them.
Over time, the strength and orientation of Earth’s magnetic field changes. As new oceanic crust
forms at mid-ocean ridges, magnetic minerals record Earth’s magnetic polarity.
When continents collide to form a single continental landmass, a supercontinent forms. About
200 million years ago, a huge supercontinent called Pangea broke into separate continents that
moved apart.
Volcanoes
Most of Earth’s volcanoes are hidden beneath the oceans and are located in mid-ocean ridges.
A seamount is an elevation of the seafloor that forms above a hot spot or mantle plume.
Volcanoes form on the surface of continents above subduction zones.
A volcanic island arc forms where oceanic crust is subducted under another oceanic plate. In
these places, magma rises up to the ocean floor to form a chain of volcanic islands.
Hot spots, which originate at the boundary between the mantle and the outer core, are narrow
plumes of unusually hot mantle material. These plumes rise up through the mantle and melt
the rock at the base of the lithosphere, creating pools of magma. This magma then rises to the
surface, resulting in hot spot volcanoes.
Magma is a mixture of liquid, melted rock, and dissolved gases. Magmas rich in silica tend to
have the most dissolved gases.
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Volcanic domes with steep slopes form from silica-rich magmas that ooze slowly. Composite
cone volcanoes are tall and have steep slopes. They form from multiple eruptions of material
with medium or high silica content. When low-silica magma erupts, lava tends to flow freely
and far. If it erupts from a single opening (vent) or closely spaced vents, it forms a broad
shield volcano.
A caldera forms when a very large volume of magma is erupted and the surface of the crust
collapses to fill the space left by the erupted magma.
Pyroclastic flows are high-density mixtures of hot ash and rock fragments with hot gases.
Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving, extremely dangerous, and destroy everything in their path.
A lahar is a wet, cement-like mixture of water, mud, and volcanic rock fragments that flows
down the slopes of a volcano and its river valleys. Lahars can flow at high velocities and
threaten everything downstream.
Pieces of volcanic rock and lava that are ejected into the air are called tephra and can be
classified by their size. Volcanoes release abundant water vapor. Most of Earth’s surface water
seems to have been released from Earth’s interior by volcanoes throughout Earth’s history.
Some volcanoes emit sulfur dioxide gas that combines with water vapor and oxygen to form
sulfuric acid. The sulfur dioxide droplets, as well as the large quantities of very fine volcanic
ash particles that also reach the stratosphere, reflect sunlight and are thought to cause the
global cooling that is often observed for a few years after a major volcanic eruption.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden motion or shaking of Earth as rocks break along an extensive
surface within Earth. The sudden release of energy as rock ruptures causes intense vibrations
called seismic (or earthquake) waves that extend in all directions. Earthquakes are common
along transform faults where two plates slide past one another.
A fault is a major surface within rocks along which there has been rupture and movement in the
past. An earthquake focus is the location within Earth where the rupture along a fault occurs.
The epicenter is the geographic point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Earthquakes produce compressional waves that cause rapid compression and then expansion of
the crust. Compressional waves are the first to reach a location away from the focus, so they are
called primary waves, or just P waves. They can move through solids, liquids, and gases.
Shear waves move rock material at right angles to the direction of their motion. Shear waves
can travel only through solids, not through fluids. Shear waves arrive at a location after
compressional waves, so they are called secondary waves, or just S waves.
Surface waves travel along Earth’s surface and are the last to arrive at a location. One kind of
surface wave creates an up-and-down rolling motion of the ground, while the other kind shakes
the ground sideways. Surface waves do the most damage.
Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves recorded on a
seismogram. The effects of an earthquake on Earth’s surface, including people and buildings,
are an indication of its intensity. These effects can include collapse of structures, roads, and
pipelines as well as fires, tsunamis, and landslides.
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Earth/Space Science
Chapter Challenge
You will now be completing a second cycle of from the Feedback you received following your
the Engineering Design Cycle as you prepare for Mini-Challenge presentation. Review what you
the Chapter Challenge. The goals and criteria have studied below to help develop your game
remain unchanged. However, your list of Inputs and question cards.
has grown. Section 1 You identified patterns in the global
distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes.
You located volcanoes and earthquakes nearest
to your community. You learned how the basic
structure of Earth’s interior and the movement of
the crust at plate boundaries generates volcanoes
and earthquakes in the Earth system.
Section 2 You examined the structure of Earth’s
crust and underlying mantle and evidence that
Earth’s lithospheric plates move over time. You
determined the direction and rate of movement
of the plate on which your community is located.
Section 3 You looked at the flow of matter and
energy within Earth and how thermal convection
and the force of gravity drive the movement
of Earth’s lithospheric plates. You examined
evidence that demonstrates how the density and
temperature of Earth increases with depth.
Section 4 You examined three kinds of
lithospheric plate boundaries. You located the
plate boundary closest to your community. You
Goal learned about the importance of mid-ocean
Your challenge for this chapter ridges and how they contribute to the makeup
is to develop and create a of Earth’s crust.
game to teach people about earthquakes, Section 5 You saw that plate boundaries are
volcanoes, and how plate tectonics operates in dynamic places where Earth’s crust is created or
the Earth system. The game should include 40 destroyed and how this movement influences the
question and answer cards about the concepts surface features of Earth. You determined the
and vocabulary found in this chapter. Review relationship between earthquakes, volcanoes, and
the Goal as a class to make sure that you are plate boundaries and described the features in
familiar with all the criteria and constraints. your region that indicate plate tectonic activity.
Section 6 You examined evidence that supports
the idea of continental movement throughout
geologic time.
Inputs Section 7 You looked at how the chemical
You now have additional composition of magma affects the shape of
information to help you a volcano and influences how explosive an
develop your game. You have completed all the eruption can be.
sections of this chapter and learned the content Section 8 You examined the factors that control
and vocabulary you need to complete your lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars, and
challenge. This is part of the Inputs phase of the described the hazards associated with them.
Engineering Design Cycle. Your group needs You then learned about some of the measures
to include these concepts in the development that can be taken to control volcanic flows and
of your game. You also have additional Inputs reduce their hazards.
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EarthComm

Section 9 You learned about the rock, lava, and how many will play at a time and how long
gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and the game will last. Decide what concepts and
sulfur dioxide, emitted by volcanoes and how vocabulary you want to teach and how you will
they might affect different parts of the Earth structure the question cards. Is your game fun as
system. You also considered the frequency, well as informative? Are your rules clearly stated
periodicity, and distribution of volcanic eruptions and easy to follow?
over time. Creativity is encouraged and will help make
Section 10 You described the causes of your game memorable. Remember, you should
earthquakes, how they transmit energy, and be engaging the players. Just make sure that
how different types of seismic waves arrive at every member of your group is included in
some distant point on Earth at different times. the process and knows how he or she will be
You learned that surface waves usually cause contributing to the development of the game.
the most displacement of Earth’s surface and are
responsible for significant earthquake destruction.
Section 11 You examined the ways in which P
waves, S waves, and surface waves are detected Outputs
and recorded. Presenting the game to the class
Section 12 You explained the different methods is your design-cycle Output. Try
used to measure earthquakes, the effects and to create a game that is engaging and interesting
hazards of earthquakes, and conditions that as well as informative. Make sure that your facts
increase their intensity. You then learned about are correct and that the information you include
some measures that can be taken to reduce the in the game addresses the Earth/Space Science
effects of earthquakes on people and structures. You Learned located at the end of the chapter.
Include questions about volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and plate tectonic processes in
your game.
Process
In the Process phase, you need
to decide what information you
have that you will use to meet the Goal. Decide Feedback
which topics and vocabulary you want to cover After playing your game,
in your game and the format you will use to your classmates will give you
engage the players of your game. Feedback on the accuracy and overall appeal
Because your project will be a game, it is of your game and question cards based on the
especially important to consider how you will criteria of the design challenge and the Goal set
engage your players as well as teach them. at the beginning of the chapter. Then, the entire
Will your question cards be true/false, multiple class will have a chance to critique all the games
choice, short answer, or something else? and decide which one is most likely to be chosen
You may want to model your game after the for production by the game company. This
format of a well-known or classic card game, Feedback will likely become part of your grade,
board game, or TV show. You may want to but could also be useful for additional design
have players work individually or as a team to revisions. No design is perfect because there is
compete. Will your game need dice, a timer, always room for optimization or improvement,
spinner, ball, or computer to play? Consider the no matter how slight. From your experience
rules of your game, how points will be earned, with the Mini-Challenge you should see how
and how the winner will be determined. Discuss you could continuously refine almost any idea.
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Earth/Space Science
Systems Thinking
Revisit the Big Ideas in Plate Tectonics
In this chapter, you focused on the role of plate tectonics in the geosphere. Think about the scale at
which plate tectonics operates. Processes such as mantle convection, seafloor spreading, plate
movements, volcanoes, and earthquakes are gigantic. As a result, they operate almost independently
of other parts of the Earth system. This means that plate tectonics is not dependent upon any other
part of the Earth system. It is not driven by any other part of it either. If you think about the spheres
that make up the rocky planets and moons of the solar system, you will see that a geosphere can
exist on its own. It can exist without a biosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, or even an atmosphere.
However, it is their interactions that make Earth such a unique and fascinating place.
Both the shapes and the locations of continents and oceans are controlled by
plate tectonics. In turn, the shapes and locations of continents and oceans
influence weather and climate patterns. For example, the latitude of your
community in North America will not always be the same. It will change with
the northward movement of the continent. About 300 million years ago, the
Appalachians were close to the equator. Today, they are much further north.
Mountain ranges affect local climates and temperatures. Mountains also act
as barriers to the flow of large bodies of air or air masses. For instance, the
mighty Himalayas trap the moisture from monsoon rains that blow in from
the Bay of Bengal. Within its rain shadow lies the semi-arid Tibetan Plateau.
Upland regions are so efficient at catching rain that most of Earth’s great
rivers flow from great mountain ranges.
On the continents, the soil from which plants grow is made up of fragments
of weathered rock. Where volcanoes rise from the ocean, even on new crust
too young for soil to develop, lichens find a place to live. In the oceans, light,
which plants need to make food, can only penetrate a short distance. It never
reaches the depths of the abyssal plains. Yet, even in places as deep and harsh
as the volcanic mid-ocean ridges, complex ecosystems thrive.
The mid-ocean ridges or the nearest active plate margin may feel distant. Yet, when they cause
catastrophic events, everyone pays attention. In 2004, the Indian Plate, an oceanic plate, was being
subducted beneath part of the larger Sunda plate. As this took place, a gigantic magnitude 9.2
earthquake was released. The rupture of seafloor extended 1200 km in eight minutes. It resulted in
a massive tsunami. Waves up to 30 m high washed inland. More than 230,000 people were killed.
Fourteen countries were affected.
Mid-ocean ridge settings can also be
hazardous. Eyjafjalljökull is a volcano in
Iceland. In early 2010, it erupted several
times. The eruptions were relatively small.
However, the ash they spewed disrupted air
travel across Western Europe for nearly a
week. According to newspapers, as many
as one million people were affected by the
event. In 2004, the eruption of a volcano
under the Vatnajökull Ice Cap in Iceland
melted part of the glacier. It created a river
4 m high and 600 m wide. During its
peak, it was temporarily ranked the second
greatest river on Earth after the Amazon.
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Humans inhabit the continental part of the crust. It is a relatively
small part of the geosphere. Not only is the geosphere where
humans live, but it is also the source of most commonly used
materials. Early humans learned to craft tools and weapons from
rocks. Rocks that contained metals are now used in industry.
Today, humans are dependent on rocks for the minerals and metals
they contain. Most of Earth’s food supply is grown or raised
on its soil-covered surface. Each of these essential resources is a
by-product of the rock cycle, the recycling system for Earth’s
crust and driven by plate tectonics.

1. What are the major parts of the plate tectonic system? Describe each part and
its location in the geosphere.
Asking questions such as, “What are the parts of a volcano?” helps you to figure
out the structure of the system you are studying. The same method can be applied to
larger or smaller systems. You might want to think about where the different parts
are as well. This will help you to understand a system’s structure even more clearly.
2. What are the major processes in the plate tectonic system?
Asking questions such as, “Why do volcanoes erupt?” helps you to figure out the
operation of the system you are studying. The same method can be applied to larger
or smaller systems. For example, you can apply this to processes along a volcanic
chain or in an individual magma chamber. You might also want to think about
how one part of the system affects another. This will help you to better understand
interactions with the system.
a) Describe major ways that matter changes in the system.
Matter lies at the heart of systems. It often moves from one place to another. It
also changes sometimes between states of matter or in other physical ways.
b) Describe the role of energy in the system.
Energy drives systems. All systems require a source of energy for them to operate. As
systems do work, energy from the source is transformed to different kinds of energy.
3. Over which spatial scales does the plate tectonic system operate?
Scientists also like to look at different scales in the same system to seek patterns
about how things work. Think about for example, the different scales of a single
volcano in the Hawaiian Islands as a seamount system in the Pacific to the entire
Cascadian subduction zone off the west coast of the North American continent.
Bigger systems cover larger regions, typically have more parts, and process more
matter. They require a large and continuous source of energy.
4. Across what time scales does the plate tectonic system operate?
Asking questions such as, “How long do volcanic eruptions last?”, “What is the life
span of a subduction zone?”, or “How long does it take for a mountain range to rise
by a single meter?” helps you to think more closely about systems.
5. How does the plate tectonic system affect your community?
Humans are part of the Earth system. They both affect and are affected by the Earth
system in many ways. The patterns and processes involved in plate tectonics affect
your life. Think about the environment in which you live and how it is affected by
plate tectonics.
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Earth/Space Science
Volcanic Gases Physics The height of ash emitted by an
Biology Complex microbial ecosystems have erupting volcano and the wind speed and
been discovered living near certain small direction above and downwind from the
volcanic vents. Volcanic gases probably volcano effects how far ash from the
played a part in the evolution of Earth’s volcano travels.
first living things, which is believed to have Seismic Waves
occurred in volcanic environments. Biology Scientists theorize that some animals
Chemistry Some volcanoes emit have the ability to feel seismic waves by means
sulfur dioxide gas in great abundance. of sensors in their joints. Elephants can locate
Atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in other elephants based on the seismic shockwaves
the presence of water forms sulfuric acid that their masses produce.
(H 2SO4), a constituent of acid rain. Chemistry Solids, liquids, and gases differ from
Physics A gas that decreases in pressure each other in the movement of their molecules.
will increase in volume. This principle can Because of this, compressional waves produced
be applied to volcanic gases that undergo a by an earthquake can travel through solids,
tremendous increase in volume when magma liquids, and gases but shear waves can travel
rises to Earth’s surface and erupts. only through solids, not through fluids.
Transform Faults Physics The P waves produced by an earthquake
Biology Wildlife is not greatly affected by are longitudinal waves. They cause rapid
earthquakes. When possible, animals tend compression and expansion of rock as they pass
to move away from danger. Human-made through Earth. The shear waves are transverse
structures and the people inside them tend waves. They move rock material at right angles
to suffer the most damage. to the direction of their motion.
Chemistry A solution is a homogeneous Mountain Building
mixture composed of two or more Biology Great mountain ranges, such as
substances. New minerals are deposited the Himalayas, support a broad range of
along a ruptured fault by slowly flowing biodiversity. This is because of the great range
water solutions. This new mineral material of elevations that occur over relatively short
acts as a “cement” to restore some of the distances resulting in many different climates.
shear strength of the rock. Chemistry During mountain-building processes,
Physics The force of friction along a fault subducted rocks can sometimes get buried deep
plane holds rock masses on either side of the in the crust. Here, they are subjected to high
fault in place as they attempt to slide past temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical
one another. When the resistance by friction reactions that change the rocks to new mineral
is exceeded by the force applied along the assemblages.
fault, failure begins resulting in earthquakes. Physics The concept of forces is fundamental
Volcanic Ash to the study of physics. However, it would have
Biology A volcanic eruption can send ash required an incomprehensible amount of force
into the atmosphere, reducing the sunlight to lift the floor of an ancient sea over 8000 m to
reaching Earth’s surface. The change in the height of the summit of Mount Everest. Yet,
sunlight affects the rate at which plants the presence of marine fossils at the top of the
photosynthesize. mountain provides evidence that this did occur.
Chemistry Volcanic ash is hard, does not The theory of plate tectonics uncovered the
dissolve in water, is extremely abrasive and mystery behind these unbelievable forces.
mildly corrosive, and conducts electricity Read more about why you should support the
when wet. theory of plate tectonics in
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Earth/Space
E arrth/Space S
Science
cience
At Wor
Work
rk
and to Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plate Tectonics?
ATMOSPHERE: Air Traffic BIOSPHERE: Insurance Agent

Controller Insurance agents need to consider
Air traffic controllers are the risks involved in insuring
responsible for the safe passage a building and the lives and
of aircraft in their airspace. One property of its owners. Part of
important aspect of their job is their job is to ensure that people
to coordinate the movement of have the right coverage for their
air traffic to ensure that aircraft homes, commercial structures, and
stay a safe distance apart. Air businesses based on their specific
traffic controllers must also work areas of risk. Depending on the
to minimize delays by efficiently location of a building project, the
directing aircraft through their potential for natural disasters,
assigned sector of airspace. such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or
floods, need to be factored into
CRYOSPHERE: Tour Guide risk assessment.
Some of the most spectacular
scenery can be found on and off
the shores of Alaska. Tourists
are interested in the geography
of the areas they visit. A tour
guide can provide tourists with
many different kinds of facts and
information, including the cultural
and historical background of
the land.
GEOSPHERE: Civil Engineer HYDROSPHERE: Harbor

Transportation networks, whether Master
within a city, or within the country, Harbor masters and marina
are a vital lifeline in today’s operators are responsible for the
society. The public relies on safe vessels that are tied up at their
roads and bridges. Civil engineers docks. They are responsible for
have a strong background in enforcing the harbor’s regulations
mathematics, construction, and so as to ensure safe navigation and
the physical sciences, which allows the correct operation of harbor
them to properly survey and plan facilities. Millions of dollars worth
transportation networks. of boats could be housed in a single
marina. As a result, they must
evaluate local coastal conditions
and communicate local safety
information to prevent damage to
these vessels.
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Earth/Space Science
Practice Test
Content Review 5. What event is most likely to occur when
an oceanic lithospheric plate collides with
1. Which of the following best describes the a continental lithospheric plate?
global distribution of volcanoes? a) The oceanic lithospheric plate will
a) Most volcanoes occur in linear patterns. be subducted.
b) Most volcanoes occur at Earth’s poles. b) The continental lithospheric plate will
c) Most volcanoes occur on land. be subducted.
d) Most volcanoes occur in c) A rift valley will form in the continental
coastal California. lithospheric plate.
d) A hot spot will form in the oceanic
lithospheric plate.
2. At which of the following locations would
you least expect volcanic activity?
6. How do volcanic island arcs form?
a) Iceland
b) Washington and Oregon a) by plates carrying oceanic crust passing
c) Kansas over hot spots
d) the middle of the Atlantic Ocean b) by magma upwelling between divergent
plates at mid-ocean ridges
3. How is the lithosphere part of the mantle c) by magma rising from a subduction
the same as the asthenosphere part of zone through oceanic crust
the mantle? d) by magma rising from a subduction
zone through a continent
a) in temperature
b) in composition
7. If you used the theory of plate tectonics
c) in movement
to predict the most likely place for the
d) It has no similarities.
next earthquake or volcanic eruption, you
should predict that it is most likely to occur
4. Which of the following is the best
hypothesis for material that takes part in a) along boundaries between colliding
mantle convection? lithospheric plates.
b) where one has not happened in at least
a) Heating begins in the asthenosphere
10 million years.
where material rises, spreads, cools,
c) in the interior of any continent.
and sinks.
d) where a continental lithospheric plate
b) The hot molten outer core generates
is being subducted beneath an oceanic
Earth’s magnetic field.
lithospheric plate.
c) Heating begins at the core-mantle
boundary and material rises, spreads,
8. The theory of continental drift did
cools, and sinks.
not adequately account for which of
d) Heating begins at the core-mantle
the following?
boundary where material sinks, spreads,
rises, and cools. a) Why similar rock types were found on
continents separated by oceans.
b) Why similar fossils were found on
continents separated by oceans.
c) Why continents drifted across
Earth’s surface.
d) Why the coastlines of some continents
appeared to fit together.
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9. Compare the relief of mountainous 12. When magma from beneath Earth’s
topography to an area of dry lakes. surface erupts as a volcano, which of the
a) both have low relief following happens?
b) both have high relief a) The amount of gas dissolved in the
c) high to low relief magma increases.
d) low to high relief b) The pressure on the magma increases.
c) The amount of gas dissolved in the
Question 10 refers to the map below. magma decreases.
d) The amount of water vapor in the
air decreases.
13. Walking to school one day you feel the

ground move in an up-and-down rolling
motion. You are experiencing a type of
earthquake wave known as
a) primary waves.
b) secondary waves.
c) surface waves.
d) breaking waves.
14. Which kind of earthquake waves travel

the fastest through Earth?
10. What is the most likely location of a a) P waves
new volcano? b) S waves
a) A c) P and S waves
b) B d) C waves
c) C
d) D 15. The amplitude of seismic waves created by
an earthquake with a Richter magnitude
11. On a walk in your community, you 9.0 is how many times greater than a
discover a surface layer of igneous rocks magnitude 7.0 earthquake?
composed of volcanic bombs. You continue a) 2
walking in the same direction and discover b) 1000
a layer composed of lapilli that were c) 100
welded together. What might you infer d) 2500
about the direction you are walking?
a) You are walking toward the coast.
b) You are walking toward the crater of Critical Thinking
a volcano.
c) You are walking away from the crater 16. Are most volcanoes on land caused by
of a volcano. Earth’s plates moving away from each
d) You are walking toward a fault. other or moving toward each other?
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17. Describe at least one advantage of using 24. Examine the diagram below that shows
GPS technology to gather evidence of seismic waves passing through Earth from
plate motion. an earthquake.
a) Explain why no S waves were detected
18. What evidence is there at Earth’s at station X.
surface for unequal heating somewhere b) What are shadow zones?
within Earth? c) What shape are shadow zones on a
spherical Earth?
d) Are shadow zones predictable?
19. Earth’s crust is divided into lithospheric
plates that carry either oceanic or
continental crust.
a) Why is oceanic crust typically younger
than continental crust?
b) How might continental granitic crust be
younger than oceanic crust?
20. The New Madrid Fault is considered by

some scientists to be an aborted rift valley.
a) What does this mean?
b) How might the geology of North
America be different if it was an active
rift valley?
25. The map below shows the earthquake risk
21. The theory of plate tectonics is now
for the United States.
accepted by almost all geologists. The
theory overcomes the objections many a) Explain why areas in southeast
scientists had to the idea of continents Missouri and coastal South Carolina
moving around the globe. How does plate are at such high risk.
tectonics explain the seeming movement of b) Why does Florida have a much
continents through rigid oceanic crust? lower risk of earthquake hazards
than California?
22. Different magmas can have very

different chemistry.
a) What is the evidence for this?
b) What causes the chemical differences
between magmas?
23. If a volcano erupts huge amounts of ash,

would you expect global temperatures to
go up or down? Explain your answer.
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Chapter Challenge
3 Minerals, Rocks, and Structures

Getting Started
Have you ever seen the debris left behind by a creek or river after
overflowing its banks? Maybe you have seen the shape of a beach
changed after a storm. In the news, you might have heard about
mudslides triggered by an earthquake or the eruption of a volcano
somewhere on Earth. All these are relatively small-scale changes to the
physical features at the surface of the crust. Now, imagine the effects
of thousands upon thousands of smaller-scale changes over geologic
time. What types of changes do you think could result from many
smaller-scale changes added together? Could all these changes produce
effects as large as those caused by plate tectonics and the movement of
continents and ocean basins?
Think about the rocks that you can see in your community. At first
glance, they may not seem as if they have changed or can change
very much. However, these rocks would “tell a different story” if
you connected them to the rocks thousands of meters down below
your feet. This “story” would cover hundreds of millions of years
of geologic history. That is enough time to include some very large-
scale changes. You might even see changes that you never could have
imagined happening to your region.
Reconstructing the geologic
past of your community
can help you understand
the geology of where you
live. It will also help you
understand connections
between the Earth’s
systems. To do so, you
must learn to “read the
story” in the rocks. Think
about the following:
• What are the major geologic features in your region?
• How old are these features?
• How did the features form?
• What do they tell about the region’s history and how it developed?
What do you think? Write down your ideas about these questions in
your Geo log. Be prepared to discuss your ideas with your small group
and the class.
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Scenario
Your local museum recently received a big grant. It came from a very supportive donor. She
is a retired businessperson who began her career as a geologist. For years, she has served
on the museum board. She now has the ability to donate $500,000 to the institution.
The grant comes with some conditions. The donor wants to see the museum create exhibits
that really get the general public excited about the geologic history of your region. She also
wants the exhibit to illustrate that Earth is a system. She thinks that a fresh approach is
what the museum needs. She would like to involve high school students as exhibit design
consultants. In her opinion, exhibits designed by teens will attract teens. It is an audience
she particularly wants to influence. In partnership with the museum, she is challenging
local students to come up with amazing exhibit ideas.
Chapter Challenge
Your challenge is to design a new exhibit on the geologic history of your region. It will be
displayed in your local museum. Use your imagination. The exhibit should use the latest
visual technology and other creative means. Be sure, however, that the science in your
exhibit is accurate and current. Your group needs to put together an exhibit portfolio.
It should include the following:
• A two-paragraph introduction. It needs to describe how the exhibit will educate the
community about your local geology and the geologic history of your region. The
introduction should also include how you think your exhibit will change the way people
think. This includes their thinking about the landscape, geologic history, space, and time.
• Architecture-style plans and scaled drawings of the exhibit.
• Description of the technology you will use in your exhibit.
• The images for your exhibit.
• Text that goes with the exhibit explaining major events in the geologic evolution of your
region and how your local geology fits into a larger geologic system.
• A section on your region’s geologic future that explains what will happen to your region
as the Earth system continues to change.
• A handout for visitors giving details on specific places of geologic interest in your region.
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Chapter Challenge
The exhibit needs to cover the following science concepts:

• Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
• Tectonic processes drive the formation of igneous rocks.
• Tectonic processes cause the formation of sedimentary basins and other
sedimentary environments.
• The igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks found in your region.
• Large bodies of rock contain various geologic structures.
• Geologic time is divided into periods characterized by major geologic events.
• The geosphere is a part of the Earth system with parts and processes that transfer energy
and matter.
• Very large-scale systems, like the geosphere, contain parts of various scales ranging from
very small scale to very large scale.
In designing your exhibit, you are going to need to think about the methods that museums
use to deliver information.
Assessment Criteria

Your challenge is to design a new exhibit for your region. The exhibit needs to show the
geologic history of your region. Your group needs to put together an exhibit portfolio.
The items that need to be included are listed earlier.
You will use a simplified Engineering Design Cycle
to help your group develop the exhibit. Establishing
a clear Goal for your project is the first step in
the process. With your group, define the type of
exhibit you want to create. Identify the Assessment
Criteria. Think through some of the constraints
that you will face. Then discuss possible formats
for your project. Remember, it is important to
engage the targeted museum audience of teenagers.
As you work through each section of the chapter,
you will be gaining information. These are the
Inputs to use in the Engineering Design Cycle.
These Inputs will include science concepts. You will
also encounter new vocabulary. Consider making
a list of these concepts and vocabulary. You will
want to include them in the exhibit.
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After the first four sections of Earth/Space Science Corner
the chapter, you will work on
part of the challenge. You will Minerals, Rocks, and Structures
receive Feedback from your
classmates and your teacher • Characteristics of • Igneous rock-forming
as to how you can refine your igneous rocks environments
project. This Mini-Challenge • Deformation of rocks • Interpreting strata using
will be the first Output of the • Development of geologic principles
Engineering Design Cycle. It metamorphic rocks • Kinds of sedimentary rocks
will be the first design for your and textures • Mineral and rock specimens
museum exhibit. It will include • Formation of • Physiographic regions of the
the concepts you learned in sedimentary rocks United States
the first four sections. You will • Geologic history of • Properties of minerals
then revisit the Engineering your community • Rock units
Design Cycle after the second • Geologic maps • Structural geology: folds
half of the chapter when you • Geology of the United States and faults
have gained the other Inputs
to complete your challenge.
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Chapter 3 Minerals, Rocks, and Structures
Section 1 What Are Minerals?

What Do You See?

In this section, you will There are an estimated 9000 different species of birds around
• Define the term “mineral” in the world.
your own words.
• What are some ways to identify birds?
• Evaluate the usefulness of
various physical properties Even if you are not a birdwatcher, try to list at least four or five
for describing and identifying different features that could help you identify different kinds of
different minerals. birds. Make sure you consider other features besides purely visual
• Explore how mineral crystals ones. Record your ideas in your Geo log. Be prepared to discuss
are constructed and how the
your responses with your small group and the class.
external form of a crystal
reflects its ionic structure.
• Identify a variety of mineral
Investigate
specimens according to their In this Investigate, you will observe the properties of crystals and
physical properties.
mineral samples. You will then use a set of observations and tests
to identify minerals.
Part A: Properties of Crystals
1. In a small group, use a magnifying glass or dissecting
microscope to observe three different kinds of crystals: table
salt (sodium chloride), alum (hydrated potassium aluminum
sulfate), and Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate). You might find
it easiest to view the crystals on black construction paper.
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2. What differences do you notice between

d) Which properties are the least useful?
their shapes? In what ways are the
crystals similar? 2. Make a class list of all the properties
the different groups came up with
a) Record your observations and sketch to describe the minerals. Discuss the
the shape of each of the crystals in usefulness of the properties.
your log. Label each type of crystal.
a) In your log, keep a record of the
Part B: Properties of Minerals class list of the most useful properties
1. Examine the photographs of the in describing minerals.
minerals shown, or a set of mineral Part C: Mineral Identification
samples that you are provided.
1. Work in small groups to identify the
a) Make a list of properties you can mineral samples you examined in Part
use to describe the minerals. For B of this Investigate. Your teacher will
example, color may be a property give you a test kit containing:
that you would use to describe a • a piece of unglazed porcelain tile
particular mineral. (called a streak plate),
Check your list of properties with your teacher • a magnet or paper clip, and
before testing the minerals. Some properties, • some of the minerals of the Mohs
while useful, should only be tested with teacher
direction.
scale to test hardness.
Decide how you could use each piece
b) Write a brief description of each of equipment to help you identify
mineral sample using the properties the minerals. Read the appropriate
that you listed. sections of the Digging Deeper to
help you determine what tests would
c) Which properties are the most
be appropriate.
useful in describing an individual
mineral sample?
A B C D
E F G H
I J K L
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Check your plan with your teacher before b) Use the following Mineral
proceeding.
Identification Key to assign mineral
Test as many of the properties as names to your samples. Compare
you can to describe each mineral as your list of mineral properties and
completely as possible. names to those of other groups. Your
teacher will lead a discussion on the
a) Record your findings in a data table. correct mineral names and why some
Be sure to note any special properties groups might have gotten different
exhibited by your samples. names for the same mineral.
Mineral Identification Key

Specific
Mineral Name Hardness Streak Cleavage Crystal Shape Color Other Properties
Gravity
Corundum 9 White 4 None Commonly six- Gray, red, brown,
(Med.–High) sided crystals blue
Topaz 8 White 3.5 One perfect Orthorhombic or Colorless, yellow,

(Med.–High) massive blue, brown
Quartz 7 White 2.7 None Hexagonal or Any color to Conchoidal fracture,
(Medium) massive colorless glassy to greasy luster
Potassium 6 White 2.6 Two at 90° Monoclinic or White, pink,
feldspar (Medium) triclinic brown
Plagioclase 6 White 2.6 Two at 90° Triclinic (rare) Blue-gray, black, Striations on some
feldspar (Medium) white cleavage planes
Magnetite 6 Dark 5.2 None Massive Dark gray to black Magnetic, metallic
gray (High) luster
Pyrite 6 Dark 5.0 None Commonly cubic Brass yellow, may Metallic luster, brittle
gray (High) crystals tarnish brown
Apatite 5 White 3.1 One poor Commonly six- Brown, green,
(Medium) sided crystals blue, yellow, black
Hematite 5 Red to 5.0 None Hexagonal Red, steel-gray Red form—earthy
red- (High) luster, gray form—
brown metallic luster
Fluorite 4 White 3.0 Octahedral Commonly cubic Colorless, purple,
(Medium) crystals blue, yellow, green
Calcite 3 White 2.8 Three Hexagonal Colorless, white, Transparent to
(Medium) perfect yellow, gray translucent, reacts
with HCl
Muscovite mica 2.5 White 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic Colorless, yellow, Elastic, flexible sheets
(Medium) light brown
Biotite mica 2.5 Gray- 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic Very dark brown to Elastic, flexible sheets
brown (Medium) black
Galena 2.5 Gray 7.5 Cubic Commonly cubic Silvery gray Metallic luster
(Very high) crystals
Halite 2.5 White 2.5 Cubic Cubic crystals Colorless, white Salty taste
(Medium)
Talc 1 White 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic (rare) White, gray, yellow Soapy feel, pearly or
(Medium) greasy luster
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Digging Deeper
MINERALS
Types of Minerals Geo Words
In the Investigate, you first observed the properties of crystals and crystal: a solid
mineral samples. Crystals are solid materials. The particles of crystals are material, whose
atoms, molecules, or
arranged in an orderly, repeating pattern. You then used observations
ions are arranged in
and tests to identify minerals. Minerals have been important to humans an orderly, repeating
for a long time. Early humans used red hematite and black manganese pattern.
oxide to make cave paintings. People in the Stone Age made tools out mineral: a naturally
of hard, fine-grained rocks. In the Bronze Age, people discovered how occurring, inorganic,
to combine copper and tin from minerals into a metallic mixture (alloy) solid material that
consists of atoms
called bronze. Later, in the Iron Age, people made tools of iron. Iron is that are arranged
contained in minerals like hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Fe is in a regular pattern
the chemical symbol for iron. and has characteristic
chemical composition,
Today, minerals are used in thousands of ways. Feldspar is used to make crystal structure, and
porcelain. Calcite is used to make cement. Iron and manganese, together physical properties.
with small amounts of several other metals, make steel that is used to
make buildings, trains, cars, and many other things. Gypsum is used
to make plaster and wallboard. These are just a few examples of how
minerals are used in your daily lives.
Figure 1 The minerals red hematite and black manganese oxide were used
by early humans to make cave drawings.
To be considered a mineral, a material must meet five criteria.

• Minerals are solid, not gas or liquid.
• Minerals are inorganic. That means they are not alive and never
have been.
• Minerals occur naturally. They are not manufactured.
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• Minerals have definite chemical compositions. These can be expressed as

chemical formulas, such as SiO2, Ag, or Fe2O3.
• Minerals have a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms. This is
Geo Words called a crystal structure.
native-element Some minerals, called native-element minerals, consist of only one
mineral: a mineral element. (See Figure 2.) A good example is gold (Au), which is often found
consisting of only one as nuggets or pieces of pure gold not combined with any other element.
element.
Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and silver (Ag) are other native elements. However,
element: a substance
that cannot be most minerals are combinations of elements. For example, quartz, with the
broken down into formula SiO2, is made of silicon and oxygen. (See Figure 3.) Calcite (CaCO3)
simpler substances is made of calcium, carbon, and oxygen.
by chemical means;
an element is
composed of atoms
with identical atomic
numbers.
rocks: naturally
occurring collections
of mineral grains.
aggregate: a
collection of particles
of a material.
Figure 2 Copper is a native-element mineral.
Figure 3 Quartz is a mineral composed of the elements silicon and oxygen.
Rocks are naturally occurring collections or aggregates of mineral grains.

Some rocks consist of only one mineral. However, most contain several
different kinds of minerals. Sometimes you can see the mineral grains, and
other times they are too small to see without being magnified. Granite
consists mostly of large crystals of feldspar, quartz, and mica, as shown in
Figure 4. Basalt consists mostly of tiny crystals of feldspar and pyroxene.
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Figure 4 Granite is a rock composed of several different types of minerals.

Geo Words
Rocks that contain valuable minerals are called ores. To remove the ores: rocks that
valuable minerals, the ore first has to be mined. Two methods of mining contain valuable
include surface mining and underground mining. After being mined, the minerals.
valuable mineral is then separated from the rest of the ore. This is done atom: the smallest
unit of a chemical
through processes like crushing, sieving, melting, or settling through a element that has
liquid. Most metals and many important nonmetals are refined from all the element’s
ores. Valuable minerals are not found evenly in Earth’s crust. Finding new properties; it
deposits is an important first step in mining. The mining company needs to consists of a nucleus
surrounded by
understand the properties of the minerals and the ores that contain them. electrons.
The Chemistry and Structure of Minerals ion: an atom with
one or more electrons
As you saw in the Investigate, minerals can be very different from one removed (or added),
another. The reason for this is that all minerals have a specific chemical giving it a positive
makeup. Minerals consist of atoms of one or more chemical elements. (or negative) charge.
Atoms are the smallest unit of a chemical element that has all the electron: a subatomic
particle with a
element’s properties. Each chemical element has different chemical negative electric
and physical properties. charge, which orbits
around the nucleus
The atoms in minerals occur in a regular three-dimensional arrangement. of the atom.
(See Figure 5 on the next page.) The atoms in almost all minerals are in
the form of ions. Ions are atoms that have an electric charge. This charge
is due to electrons being added to or removed from the atom. Electrons
are particles that orbit around the nucleus of the atom. They have a
negative charge. The ions in a mineral are packed together in a way
that brings the ions as close together as possible. As a result, positively
charged ions are in close contact with negatively charged ions. Objects
with unlike electric charges are attracted to each other. These forces of
attraction hold the mineral together as a solid.
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Figure 5 This expanded view of

halite (sodium chloride) shows
the orderly three-dimensional
arrangement of sodium and
chlorine atoms.
Identifying Minerals
The atoms in a mineral affect the color, shape, hardness, and other
properties of the mineral. The way the atoms are arranged also affects
the properties. Geologists use a variety of tests to describe, compare,
and identify minerals. Some of these tests are simple. They can be done
with simple equipment. In the Investigate, you tested mineral samples
for hardness, luster, streak, and color. You also tested to see if they
were attracted to a magnet. Cleavage is another important property of
minerals. Cleavage describes how a mineral breaks when under stress.
You may have observed this in your investigation. Other tests require
special, expensive equipment. These include specific gravity, crystal shape,
electrical conductivity, and reaction to acid.
Geo Words Hardness

hardness: the Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. Mineralogists use a
resistance of a relative scale of hardness. It is called the Mohs scale and is given below.
mineral to scratching.
1. Talc
Mohs scale: a
standard of 10 2. Gypsum
minerals by which the
3. Calcite
hardness of a mineral
may be rated. 4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
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Each mineral in the scale scratches minerals earlier in the scale and is
scratched by minerals later in the scale. Diamond (with a hardness of 10)
is the hardest natural substance known. The mineral talc (with a hardness
of 1) is one of the softest. The way to test the hardness of an unknown
mineral is to scratch it with a material of known hardness. If the mineral
is scratched, it is not as hard. If the unknown mineral scratches the
known material, then it is harder. Here are the hardnesses, on the Mohs
scale, of some common materials:
fingernail: about 2.5
iron nail: about 4.5
knife blade: a little more than 5
window glass, masonry nail: 5.5
steel file: 6.5
Luster Geo Words
Luster describes the way a mineral reflects light. Luster is either metallic luster: the reflection
or nonmetallic. Minerals with metallic luster look like polished metal. of light from the
surface of a mineral,
Nonmetallic lusters are often described as glassy (or vitreous), waxy, described by its
pearly, earthy, or dull. Pyrite and galena have metallic luster. Quartz quality and intensity.
and calcite have a vitreous (glassy) to greasy luster. Feldspar has a pearly
luster. (See Figures 6a–d.)
Figure 6a Quartz has a vitreous luster. Figure 6b Feldspar has a pearly luster.
Figure 6c Galena shows a metallic luster. Figure 6d Pyrite has a metallic luster.
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Geo Words Streak

streak: the color Streak is the color of the powdered mineral. To determine the streak of
of a mineral in its
a mineral, scratch it across a piece of unglazed porcelain tile (a streak
powdered form,
usually obtained by plate). Many minerals have a distinctive streak color. Streak color may be
scratching the mineral different from the color of the mineral sample. For example, hematite is
on a streak plate and often dark gray in color, but it always has a red streak.
observing the mark it
leaves. Specific Gravity
specific gravity: the
ratio of the weight Specific gravity is a ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of
of a given volume of an equal volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1. Galena is
a substance to the a mineral that contains lead. It has a specific gravity of about 7.5. That
weight of an equal means it is about 7.5 times as dense as water. Most nonmetallic minerals
volume of water.
have specific gravities less than 3. These include minerals such as quartz,
cleavage: the
feldspar, and calcite.
breaking of a mineral
along regularly Cleavage
oriented planes
of weakness, thus Many minerals have cleavage. This means that when they break, they tend
reflecting crystal to break along regularly oriented planes of weakness. (See Figures 7a–d.)
structure.
Cleavage planes form along planes of weak atomic bonds in the mineral.
For example, mica splits easily into sheets because there are very weak
Figure 7a Muscovite has one direction of Figure 7b Halite has three directions of
cleavage. cleavage. They are at 90° to each other.
Figure 7c Calcite has three directions of Figure 7d Feldspar has two directions of
cleavage. They are not at 90° to each cleavage.
other.
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atomic bonds between the layers of atoms in mica. Galena and halite
break in cubes because they have cleavage in three directions, all at right
angles to one another. Feldspar has cleavage in two directions, at nearly
right angles. However, it breaks irregularly in other directions. Some
minerals, such as quartz, have no cleavage. Quartz breaks into irregular Geo Words
shapes. It often shows a curved surface called conchoidal fracture. conchoidal fracture:
a type of mineral
Crystal Shape fracture that gives
a smoothly curved
When minerals grow in surface.
unconfined spaces, they
usually have a regular
crystal shape. Quartz
crystals grow as six-sided
(hexagonal) columns with
pointed tops. (See Figure 8.)
Garnets often grow in
regular twelve-sided
shapes. These shapes are Figure 8 Quartz crystals grow in hexagonal
called dodecahedra. (See columns.
Figure 9.)
Color
Color is usually the first
thing you notice about
a mineral. However, it is
the least reliable property
in identifying a mineral.
Many minerals have
different colors depending
on what impurities are
present. Corundum (Al2O3)
Figure 9 Garnets often grow in dodecahedral
is sometimes tinted red by shapes.
small amounts of chromium.
These crystals are known
as rubies. A sapphire is the
same mineral tinted blue
by small amounts of titanium. Quartz is usually transparent. However,
it can be many other colors, depending on what impurities are present.
Some minerals tarnish or change color when their surfaces are exposed
to air. Many minerals have the same color as others. Many prospectors in
the gold rush days were fooled by pyrite. Pyrite is known as fool’s gold.
It has a metallic luster and a color similar to gold. However, it has a lower
specific gravity than gold. It is also brittle (gold is malleable), and leaves a
black streak on a white porcelain tile (gold has a gold-colored streak).
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Other Properties
Some minerals have special properties. These make them easy to identify.
They also make these minerals useful for specific purposes.
• Metals have properties that make them useful in machinery. Most metals
are malleable. This means that under pressure they can be changed in
shape without breaking. Also, metals are very useful in the production
and distribution of power. Metals tend to be good conductors of
electricity. Most are also ductile. This means that they can be stretched
into wire.
• Some minerals have a chemical reaction to acids. Carbonate minerals are
Checking Up an example. They fizz when a drop of weak hydrochloric acid is applied.
1. What is a mineral? Acid breaks down the chemical bonds in the carbonate. The fizz is CO2
2. Why do different
gas being released. Acid is a good test to identify the calcium carbonate
minerals have mineral calcite.
different • A few minerals are radioactive. The atoms of radioactive materials are
properties? not stable. They release subatomic particles and radiation as they decay.
3. Is color a good Uranium minerals are radioactive. They can be detected with a Geiger
identifying property counter. (This an instrument that detects radiation.)
of a mineral? Why
or why not? • Some minerals are magnetic. Magnetite is an important ore of iron.
It is magnetic.
4. What is the
difference between • Some minerals are fluorescent. They change ultraviolet light to
cleavage and other wavelengths. Fluorite is one example. A few minerals are
crystal shape of a phosphorescent. They store light energy. Then they slowly release it.
mineral?

• What are some ways to identify birds?
Record your ideas about this question now. Think about the many different
ways to describe minerals. Describe all the properties you can think of that
can be used to identify birds.

You saw that there are many different ways to describe minerals. Some
properties are more useful than other properties when describing and
comparing minerals. Being able to describe minerals accurately helped to
identify them. You also read about how atoms are arranged in mineral crystals,
and how the geometry of the arrangement affects the physical properties of the
mineral. You must be able to identify minerals and understand their properties
to make a useful analysis of the rocks in your local community, state, and
region. Knowing your local rocks and how they formed will help you to develop
your museum exhibit on the geology of your region.
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1. Make a concept map that demonstrates your understanding of minerals. Include the
following terms: mineral, element, rock, ore, and compound.
2. A student claims that diamond is the hardest mineral because carbon, from which
diamond is made, is a very hard element. Use what you have learned about minerals
to provide a different explanation as to why diamond is the hardest mineral.
3. Correct the following misconception: “Quartz is always clear or transparent.”
4. Give at least one advantage and one disadvantage to using a native element to produce
a product (for example, a beverage container).
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Being able to distinguish among different
kinds of minerals is a useful skill. Be sure that you are able to recognize some of the
important characteristics of the minerals you examined. When identifying minerals,
think about the environments in which they formed as well. Also think about the role
of observing minerals in your museum exhibit. You might want to consider having a
hands-on section of your exhibit in which visitors to the museum observe the properties
of common minerals and then link these properties with how the minerals were formed
by Earth processes. You could also include an interactive map in your exhibit that
shows the location of the minerals in your region. Visit the EarthComm Web site
at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ for resources on where to locate
minerals in your region.
Inquiring Further
1. Mineral groups
Investigate the major mineral
groups and the environments in
which they form.
2. Mineral makeup of Earth
Investigate the proportions of
various materials in the crust of
Earth. Which minerals are most
common? Which elements make
up most of the minerals?
3. Metallic and nonmetallic resources
from minerals
Which minerals are the source of
metals like iron, silver, lead, and
copper? What are some nonmetallic
resources? Which minerals are the
sources of these resources?
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Section 2 Igneous Rocks and the Geologic History

of Your Community
What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
• Goals Text
In this section, you will Igneous rocks cool and crystallize from molten rock (magma).
• Identify and classify several
igneous rocks using a rock
• In what kinds of environments do igneous rocks form?
chart. • In what ways are some igneous rocks different from others?
• Describe how the two main
types of igneous rocks form.
a quick sketch. Be prepared to discuss your responses with your
• Determine that igneous rocks
are classified based on how
small group and the class.
they form.
• Use a geologic map and legend Investigate
to search for evidence of past
igneous rock formation.
In this Investigate, you will examine the properties of a set of
igneous rocks. You will then use a geologic map of your area to
• Recognize that classification
helps scientists organize the
locate igneous rocks.
natural world into smaller, Part A: Working With Igneous Rocks
workable components.
1. Examine the photographs of the igneous rocks shown, or a set
of igneous rock samples that you are provided.
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Section 2 Igneous Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community
a) List some ways you can divide

these igneous rocks into groups
or categories.
2. Separate the samples into the categories
you have decided to use. You might sort
them in more than one way.
a) List the rocks that you place in
each category.
b) Describe the difficulties you
experienced trying to categorize
them in each way you used.
3. Compare your classification system
with the categories used by a
different group.
a) Add any categories to your list that
the other group used that you had
not thought about.
4. Refer to the Classification of Igneous
Rocks table in the Digging Deeper.
a) Use the table to name each igneous
rock sample.
b) How do geologists classify
Part B: Evidence of Igneous Rocks in
igneous rocks?
Your Community
c) Describe the similarities and
differences between your 1. A geologic map shows the rocks and
classification scheme and that sediments at Earth’s surface. Each color
of geologists. or symbol on the map stands for a type
and/or age of rock. Geologic maps have
d) What is an advantage of classifying
a legend. Colors and symbols in the
rocks into different groups?
legend explain the types and/or ages
5. Magma cools faster at Earth’s surface of rock shown on the map. Examine
(for example, after a volcanic eruption) the geologic map of your community
than it does when it cools below the or region.
ground. The faster the cooling and
a) Are there any igneous rocks
crystallization occur, the smaller the
described in the legend? If so,
crystals. Observe the rock samples (or
write down a list of the rock types,
photographs) and use the Classification
locations, and ages (in millions of
of Igneous Rocks table to answer the
years) if possible. Make a data table
following questions:
to record your observations. If there
a) Does rhyolite form at or below are numerous igneous rocks in your
Earth’s surface? Explain. community, limit your data table to
b) Does gabbro form at or below about five different examples.
Earth’s surface? Explain.
b) What are the most common igneous
c) Does obsidian form at or below rocks in your area?
Earth’s surface? Explain.
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c) Many igneous rocks are very resistant

to weathering, and thus erode more
slowly than other kinds of rocks. When
igneous rock is surrounded by softer
rock, a distinct elevated landform may
develop. Locate an elevated or prominent
landform in your community or region
(choose a familiar hill, mountain, rock
exposure, or cliff). Is the landform made
of igneous rock?
Digging Deeper
IGNEOUS ROCKS
The Nature of Igneous Rocks
Geo Words In the Investigate, you first looked at the properties of igneous rocks.
geologic map: Then you used a geologic map to locate these rocks in your area. All
a special map that igneous rocks are made of interlocking crystals of minerals. The minerals
shows geologic
features.
have cooled and crystallize out of magma. (Recall that magma is molten
rock.) These crystals make the rocks very resistant to physical weathering
igneous rock: a rock
that solidified from and erosion. Minerals are the building blocks of igneous rocks and all
molten or partly other rocks as well. As you read in Section 1, minerals are usually are made
molten material, that up of several chemical elements. Each mineral has a specific chemical
is, from magma.
makeup and crystal structure. Each mineral has a chemical formula. The
magma: naturally chemical formula shows the amount of the various chemical elements in
occurring molten rock
material, generated its makeup.
within Earth, from There are thousands of kinds of minerals in Earth’s crust. However, only
which igneous rocks
have been derived six are common in igneous rocks. They are quartz, feldspars, micas,
through solidification pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivines. These are all called silicate minerals.
and related processes. Their basic structure is very tightly bonded units made up of silicon and
physical weathering: oxygen (called silica). These units are bonded less strongly to various other
the processes of atoms. Of the six kinds, all but quartz are listed in the plural form. This is
weathering by which
rock is broken down because the details of their chemical makeup can vary widely even though
by physical forces or the basic nature of the mineral is the same. For example, plagioclase and
processes, including potassium are two kinds of feldspar. They have slightly different structures
gravity, water, ice, and very different chemical makeups. Muscovite and biotite are two kinds
wind, or human
actions at or near of mica. Again, both have slightly different structures, but very different
Earth’s surface. chemical makeups.
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Geo Words
erosion: the wearing
Magma, Lava, and Igneous Rock away of soil or rock
by weathering, mass
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of magma. Suppose that wasting (downhill
you could drill a hole very deep into Earth. You would find that Earth’s movement of material
under the influence
temperature initially rises by about 30°C with every kilometer of depth.
of gravity), and the
This rate of increase slows down at deeper depths. At a depth of 100 to action of streams,
350 km, the temperature is high enough for large volumes of rock to glaciers, waves, wind,
melt and form magma at certain times and places. Nearly all substances and underground
water.
expand when they are heated. When rock is melted into magma, its
volume increases by about 10 percent. This makes the magma less dense silicate: a compound
whose basic structure
than the surrounding rock. Like a hot-air balloon that rises through less consists of very
dense surrounding air, magma rises toward Earth’s surface. (See Figure 1.) tightly bonded units
Some magmas cool and solidify into igneous rock before they reach the consisting of silicon
surface. The rock that forms in this way is called intrusive igneous rock. and oxygen (called
silica) that are bonded
The magma “intrudes” into solid rock that was already there. In some less strongly to
places, magma reaches the surface before it solidifies into igneous rock. various other atoms.
Magma that reaches the surface is called lava. Rock that is formed intrusive igneous
rock: an igneous
when lava cools is called extrusive igneous rock. The lava is “extruded” rock formed at
onto Earth’s surface, like toothpaste from a tube. As you will see, the considerable depth by
appearance of an igneous rock reveals whether or not it formed below the crystallization of
or at Earth’s surface. magma.
lava: magma that
reaches Earth’s
surface.
extrusive igneous
rock: an igneous
rock formed by the
crystallization of lava
that has erupted onto
the surface of Earth.
Figure 1 Cross section of a subduction zone showing the locations of igneous rocks that
form by the solidification of minerals from cooling magma in various settings. Seafloor
spreading typically produces igneous rocks that are closer in composition to the mantle
asthenosphere compared to those in continental crust produced by partial melting.
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Classifying Igneous Rocks: Texture

The crystal size of an igneous rock largely
depends on how fast the magma cools. When
magma cools very slowly, only a small number
of crystals are formed in a given volume of the
magma. However, these crystals have plenty of
time to grow large. The resulting igneous rock
is coarse grained. The mineral grains are usually
several millimeters, or even a few centimeters, Figure 2 Granite with
in size. See Figure 2. On the other hand, when coarse-grained texture.
magma is extruded at Earth’s surface and
cools very rapidly, a large number of crystals
are formed in a given volume of the magma.
However, there is not enough time for them to
grow large. The resulting igneous rock is very fine
grained. The mineral grains are usually too small
to be seen without a magnifying glass. If the lava
cools even more quickly, a glassy-textured rock
called obsidian can form. Obsidian forms when
Figure 3 Granite with
magma cools so quickly that crystals do not have medium-grained texture.
time to form.
Classifying Igneous Rocks: Chemical and Mineral Composition
The color of an igneous rock is due mainly to its chemical makeup.
Therefore, the color depends on what minerals the rock contains. Think of
the common minerals found in igneous rocks. Quartz, potassium feldspar,
and muscovite mica are light in color. Igneous rocks with high percentages
of these minerals tend to be light in color. They are the most common
minerals in igneous rocks found in the continental crust. Pyroxenes,
amphiboles, plagioclase feldspar, biotite mica, and olivines are darker in
color. Igneous rocks with high percentages of these minerals tend to be
dark in color.
Igneous rocks that consist mostly of minerals such as quartz, potassium
feldspar, and muscovite mica are lighter in color. This is because these
minerals contain a lot of silica (silicon and oxygen). They contain little iron
and magnesium. Igneous rocks containing these minerals are usually white,
Geo Words light gray, or pink. These rock types, whether intrusive or extrusive, are
lithospheric plate: a associated with lithospheric plates. They are found where the plates are
rigid, thin segment of moving together and magma is formed. Magmas rich in silica do not flow
the outermost layer
of Earth, consisting of very easily. They usually cool before they reach Earth’s surface, forming
Earth’s crust and part granite. Granites found at Earth’s surface today formed below the surface
of the upper mantle. long ago. They have been exposed by uplift and erosion. Uplift is the slow
It can be assumed raising of the crust by large-scale forces acting within Earth. You will read
that the plate moves
horizontally and more about this in a later section. If the same magma reaches the surface,
adjoins other plates. it cools quickly. It forms an extrusive igneous rock called rhyolite.
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Igneous rocks that contain minerals rich in iron and magnesium (olivines,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and biotite mica) are dark in color. They are
typically black to dark green. One extrusive igneous rock of this kind,
basalt, is the most common rock on Earth’s surface. It is the major rock
found in the oceanic crust. Basalt is formed where lithospheric plates are
spreading apart. Here magma is rising through a mantle hot spot. These
rocks are common in the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland. Gabbro is an
intrusive igneous rock that contains minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
It is the coarse-grained counterpart of basalt. It is common deep in the
oceanic crust.
Some igneous rocks are mixed in chemical makeup. These rocks are made
of a mix of minerals that contain iron and magnesium. As a result, they
are also mixed in color. Two examples are andesite and diorite. Andesite
is an extrusive rock. Diorite is the corresponding intrusive rock. Andesite is
named for the Andes Mountains. It is abundant in that area. Diorite often
forms where an oceanic lithospheric plate is being subducted beneath a
continental lithospheric plate. Water rising up into the mantle from the
downward-moving plate causes some of the mantle rock to melt. The
magma rises up through the continental plate. There it melts some of the
continental rocks, causing it to have a mixed makeup.
Classification of Igneous Rocks

Color Light Intermediate Dark Dark
Mineral quartz (≥ 5%) quartz (< 5%) no quartz nearly
composition plagioclase feldspar plagioclase feldspar plagioclase feldspar 100% iron-
potassium feldspar potassium feldspar (~50%) magnesium
iron-magnesium rich iron-magnesium rich no potassium feldspar rich minerals
minerals (≤ 15%) minerals (15–40%) iron-magnesium rich
minerals (~40%)
Crystals granite diorite gabbro
> 10 mm pegmatite pegmatite pegmatite
Crystals granite diorite gabbro peridotite
Texture
1–10 mm
Crystals rhyolite andesite basalt
< 1 mm
Glassy obsidian obsidian
Frothy pumice scoria
Explosive Volcanic Eruptions

Some magmas have a high content of dissolved gases, such as water vapor
and carbon dioxide. This is especially true of magmas with high-silica
content. When these magmas rise up near Earth’s surface, the dissolved
gases tend to bubble out of the magma. This happens because the
pressure is so much lower at the surface than deep in Earth. Sometimes
the pressure is released suddenly by an explosive volcanic eruption.
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This was the case at Mt. St. Helens in the Pacific Northwest in 1980. The
products of such an eruption are pieces of mineral grains and broken
igneous rock, called volcanic ash. In one sense, the rock formed from
volcanic ash is a sedimentary rock because it is formed by the deposition
Checking Up of material. (You will investigate sedimentary rocks in the next section.)
However, because it came directly from a volcano, it is usually considered
describe the to be an igneous rock. Pumice is a volcanic rock that consists mainly of
difference between bubble holes. There are only thin walls between the holes. Because of its
an intrusive very low density, pumice floats on water.
igneous rock
and an extrusive
igneous rock.
2. How do the two
main types of
igneous rocks
form?
3. Explain the
relationship
between
the mineral
composition of an
igneous rock and
the color of the
rock.
4. Explain how
the texture of
an igneous rock
reveals how the Figure 4 Pumice sample from Mt. St. Helens.
rock formed.

• In what kinds of environments do igneous rocks form?
• In what ways are some igneous rocks different from others?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Include a description of the
chemical and mineral composition of both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
in your answer.

Visitors to your museum exhibit will need to understand that different igneous
rocks have different physical and/or chemical properties. Your exhibit will need
to explain how the properties of igneous rocks are connected to how these rocks
formed over time. You might want to use an animation as part of your exhibit
to demonstrate how the igneous rocks formed.
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1. Use the photographs of the rocks shown, or obtain several new samples of igneous
rocks. Use the Classification of Igneous Rocks table to answer the following questions:
a) Is the rock light, intermediate, or dark in color?
b) Is the rock glassy, or does it have fine crystals or coarse crystals?
c) Is the rock intrusive or extrusive?
d) What is the name of each rock?
2. Examine the geologic map of your community and the list of igneous rocks that you
generated in Part B of the Investigate.
a) Did the igneous rocks in your community or area form underground or at Earth’s
surface? Explain your answer.
b) Describe any evidence of igneous rocks in your local community.
In your exhibit, you will need to explain where igneous rocks can be found in your
region. Use the information you have gathered about the igneous rocks in your local
area to explain to museum visitors what geologic processes resulted in the formation
of igneous rock in your region.
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Inquiring Further
1. Igneous rocks and famous landscapes
Investigate one of the following:
• Ship Rock, New Mexico
• Sierra Nevada Batholith, Yosemite
National Park, California
• Devil’s Postpile National Monument,
California
From what igneous rock is the famous
landform made? What does the landform
and its rock composition tell you about the
geologic history of that location?
Devil’s Postpile National Monument, California.
Ship Rock, New Mexico.
Sierra Nevada Batholith, Yosemite National Park, California.
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Section 3 Sedimentary Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community
Section 3 Sedimentary Rocks and the Geologic

History of Your Community
What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
• Goals Text
In this section, you will Sedimentary rocks, which are made of sediment, cover about
• Identify and classify several three fourths of Earth’s land surface.
sedimentary rocks.
• How does sediment “turn into” sedimentary rock?
• Describe how the three main types
of sedimentary rocks form. • What are some of the distinguishing features of
• Determine that sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks?
are divided into groups based on
how they form.
• Infer the environment in which
sediment was deposited when you
are given a sedimentary rock.
• Recognize that classification helps Investigate
scientists organize the natural world
into smaller, workable components.
In this Investigate, you will run models that show how
sedimentary rocks are formed. You will then examine samples
of actual sedimentary rocks. Finally, you will use a geologic map
to identify and locate sedimentary rocks in your area.
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Part A: Making Models of • Close and shake the container, then

Sedimentary Rocks let it stand.
• Observe the container over the next
Clean up spills immediately. Take care not to get
sediments into your eyes. Wash your hands after
several days.
you have completed this part of the Investigate. a) Describe what you observe
immediately, by the end of class,
1. Mudstone and over the next several days.
• Spread some wet mud in a pan. 6. Examine the rock samples that you
• Set it out in the sunlight undisturbed made. These samples are models of
until all the moisture has evaporated sedimentary rocks.
from the mud. a) Sketch and label a diagram of each
2. Rock salt sedimentary rock that you made.
• Add salt to a container of warm water
Part B: Observing Sedimentary Rocks
until salt will no longer dissolve.
• Pour a few millimeters of the water
into a shallow plate, dish, or pan.
• Let the water evaporate overnight.
Do not disturb the setup until all the
water has evaporated.
3. Sandstone
• Make a mixture that is half water and
half white craft glue.
• Combine this mixture with a handful
of sand in a small container. Pour off
any excess liquid.
• Line a small bowl or beaker with wax
paper and pour in the sandy mixture.
• Let it stand undisturbed until all the
water has evaporated, which may take
several days.
4. Conglomerate 1. Examine the photographs of the
• Make a mixture that is half water and sedimentary rocks shown, or a set of
half white craft glue. sedimentary rock samples that you
are provided. Common sedimentary
• Combine this mixture with a handful
rocks include limestone, dolomite,
of sand, gravel, and clay in a small
mudstone, sandstone, siltstone, shale,
container. Pour off any excess liquid.
conglomerate, rock salt, and coal.
• Line a small bowl or beaker with wax Carefully observe and describe the
paper and pour in the mixture. rock samples.
• Let it stand undisturbed until all the
water has evaporated, which may take a) Make a data table to record
several days. your descriptions of each
sedimentary rock. Note any
5. Sediment deposition
distinguishing features.
• Pour a mixture of clay, silt, sand,
and gravel into a clear, sturdy
container filled with water.
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b) The three major sedimentary rock shown on the map might be exposed
types are described below. Based at the surface, or it could be covered
on your descriptions, determine by a thin layer of soil or very recent
the sedimentary rock type of each sediment. Every geologic map has a
rock sample. legend that shows the kinds of bedrock
that are present in the map area. The
legend also shows the rock bodies or
Sedimentary
Rock Type
Description rock units that these rocks belong to,
and their geologic age. You will learn
Clastic Fragments of rocks and
more about rock units in a later section
minerals that have been
physically transported of this chapter.
and deposited and then
converted into rock.
Working with your group, interpret the
data on the geologic map by answering
Organic Remains of plants and the following questions:
animals that have been
converted into rock. a) Are any sedimentary rocks described
Chemical Direct precipitation of in the legend? If so, write down
minerals from a solution. the rock types, the names of the
rock units they belong to, and
Part C: Sedimentary Rocks of their locations.
Your Community b) What are the most common
1. Examine the legend of a geologic map sedimentary rocks in your area?
of your community, local area, or state.
c) Which is the oldest sedimentary
A geologic map of southern Florida
rock unit?
is shown on the following page. A
geologic map shows the distribution of d) Which is the youngest sedimentary
bedrock at Earth’s surface. The bedrock rock unit?
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Digging Deeper
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN EARTH’S CRUST
Distribution of Sedimentary Rock
In the Investigate, you looked at several models. You simulated ways in
which sedimentary rocks form. You then looked at actual sedimentary
rocks. Next, you used a geologic map of your region. You identified and
located sedimentary rocks in your area. Geo Words
Except for a thin layer of soil and very young sediments at Earth’s sediment: solid
surface, Earth’s crust is made of solid bedrock. Sediments are loose fragments or particles
that are transported
materials that have not been formed into rocks. The crust consists of a
and deposited by
very wide range of rock types. However, sedimentary rocks are by far the wind, water, or ice.
most common type in the upper crust. If you could somehow take off the bedrock: solid rock
thin layer of soil and sediment from the top of the crust and look at the that is connected
exposed bedrock, about three fourths of it would be sedimentary rock. continuously down
Over large areas of the continents, sedimentary rocks form layers, called into Earth’s crust,
rather than existing
strata. (See Figure 1.) as separate pieces or
masses surrounded by
loose materials.
sedimentary rock: a
rock, usually layered,
that results from
the consolidation
or lithification
of sediment, for
example a clastic rock,
such as sandstone, a
chemical rock, such
as rock salt, or an
organic rock, such as
coal.
strata (plural of
stratum): layers
of rock, visually
separable from other
layers above and
below.
Figure 1 The Grand Canyon is a striking example of layering in sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary layers may be found near an ocean. This means that the
area was most likely below sea level in the past. Sedimentary layers
may also be found in the middle of a continent. This may mean one
of two things. The area might have been low relative to nearby
mountain ranges. The sediments to cover the low area came from
the mountains. The other possibility is that the area was covered by
a shallow sea in the past.
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Geo Words
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
clastic sedimentary Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of fragments, called clasts. The
rock: a sedimentary clasts are eroded from other rocks. Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
rock made up mostly mudstone, claystone, and shale are clastic sedimentary rocks. Clasts are
of fragments derived
from preexisting classified according to their size. The smallest clasts are too small to see
rocks and transported without a microscope. They are called clay. Clasts with sizes between clay
mechanically to their and sand are called silt. Claystone consists of clay-sized particles. Siltstone
places of deposition. consists of silt-sized particles. Mudstone consists of a mixture of silt-sized
clast: an individual and clay-sized particles. When a claystone or mudstone breaks into small,
fragment of
flat chips, it is often called a shale. Sandstone is made of sand-sized
sediment produced
by the physical particles. Conglomerate is made of gravel-sized particles. The size of the
disintegration of a particles ranges from small pebbles to large boulders. The particle size
larger rock mass. usually reflects the strength of the medium that carried the sediment.
precipitation: the Pieces of gravel are much larger than tiny clay particles. Therefore, faster
process of forming flows of water are needed to move them from where they originate to
solid mineral
constituents from where they are deposited.
a solution by
evaporation. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
chemical sedimentary Sometimes, water cannot hold all of the material that is dissolved in it.
rock: a sedimentary When this occurs, some of the material comes out of the solution as solids.
rock formed by direct
This process is called precipitation. It can happen when some or all of the
chemical precipitation
of minerals from a water evaporates. It can also happen when the water is cooled. Chemical
solution. sedimentary rocks consist of materials that have precipitated from ocean
water or lake water. (See Figure 2.)
In Part A of the Investigate, you
ran a model of the deposition of
a chemical sediment. You did this
by allowing a saturated saltwater
solution to dry. The salt crystals
that formed precipitated out of
the solution. Limestone is the most
common chemical sedimentary
rock. It consists of the mineral
calcite. This is a calcium carbonate
mineral with the formula CaCO3.
Some of the calcium carbonate
is precipitated directly out of
seawater. Some is precipitated
by marine animals to make their
shells. Dolomite is another common
chemical sedimentary rock. It
consists of the mineral dolomite.
(The mineral and the rock have the
same name.) Its chemical formula is
Figure 2 Evaporation of rainwater
produces salt flats, as in Death Valley.
·
CaMg(CO3)2. Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O)
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and halite (NaCl) are also precipitated out of solution. They are also
called rock salt. They form when solvent evaporates. The concentration of
the solution then increases. At some point, the concentration is enough
for the rock salt to precipitate out of solution. Areas with arid (dry)
climates are where intense evaporation is most likely to occur.
Organic Sedimentary Rocks Geo Words
Organic sedimentary rocks are made of organic materials. Coal is the organic sedimentary
best example. Coal forms when plants in swamps with a lot of vegetation rock: a sedimentary
rock consisting mainly
die and are buried by the remains of later plants. The plant material of the remains of
becomes compacted. Over time, the weight of overlying sediment turns organisms.
the vegetation into rock. The first material to form is called peat. Peat
is shown in Figure 3. It has not yet been buried deeply. Peat is used by
humans for fuel and for agriculture. With time and greater compaction,
peat is converted to lignite (“brown coal”). With further compaction,
bituminous coal (“soft coal”) forms. Approximately 35 m of original plant
matter is compacted to form 30 cm of bituminous coal. The most deeply
buried coal is called anthracite (“hard coal”).
Figure 3 In Ireland, peat harvested from bogs is often used as a source

of fuel.
Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that are deposited in
various places at Earth’s surface. For example, limestone is usually
deposited in a shallow ocean. Sandstone can also be deposited in a
shallow ocean. However, it can form in a beach, desert, or river as well.
Coal is usually formed in swamps. A sedimentary rock can therefore tell
you something about the environment in the past. Each rock “tells a
story” about the geologic environment in which it formed. However, it
may not be easy to read that story.
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Sedimentary Rocks and Climate

Sedimentary rocks can tell you about past climates. For example,
sandstone that was deposited as desert sand dunes records a time
when the area was dry. Protective vegetation would have been lacking.
Limestones suggest deposition in warm, shallow oceans. Coal forms in
tropical to subtropical climates. Ancient coal is found in Antarctica. This
suggests that the climate has changed over time in the Antarctic.
Geo Words
compaction: the How Sediment Becomes Rock
reduction in bulk In many places, sediments are deposited for a long time. They become
volume or thickness
of fine-grained buried deep below Earth’s surface. The pressure on the sediment
sediments due to increases. As a result, the particles are pressed together. This process
increasing weight of is called compaction. Water solutions from deep in Earth can filter up
overlying material that through the pore spaces of the sediment. Materials precipitate from
is continually being
deposited. these solutions. They are deposited around the sediment particles.
cementation: the
The material acts like a cement. This process is called cementation.
process by which Compaction and cementation cause the sediment to turn into a solid
sediments are sedimentary rock. In Part A of the Investigate, your mixture of glue
converted into rock and water modeled the natural cementation process. Clastic sediments
by the precipitation
of a mineral “cement”
usually turn into solid rock deep under the surface. This usually occurs
among the grains of after many hundreds, or even thousands, of meters of burial. On the
sediment. other hand, chemical sediments can become sedimentary rocks with very
shallow burial. They can form from meters to a few hundreds of meters
below the surface.
Checking Up
1. What does the Classifying Sedimentary Rocks
presence of
Sediments are deposited in many different environments. As a result,
sedimentary rock
layers reveal about there are many different types of sedimentary rocks. Scientists have
sea level or past developed a classification system for these rocks. They have grouped
topography in a them by features they find important. It helps them discuss the different
region?
types of rocks with each other.
2. Why is gravel more
likely to be found You looked at the sedimentary rocks in the Investigate. You thought
on a river bottom about how to put them into groups. Each person that makes a
than on a lake classification system decides on which features to use. For example, you
bottom?
might have chosen color, texture, roundness of grains, or other features.
3. The top of Mt.
Everest is made of Did you find differences among your group members or between
limestone. What groups? If you did, you experienced exactly what geologists did. In this
does this suggest section, you read that the rocks can be classified as clastic, chemical, and
about how the organic. It is about the simplest scheme that can be used. There are much
topography of that
area has changed more detailed systems. However, they all use two main features. These
through time? are the composition and size of the sediment particles.
4. Rock salt is mined
throughout the
Great Lakes region.
What does this
suggest about the
past climate of this
area?
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• How does sediment “turn into” sedimentary rock?
• What are some of the distinguishing features of sedimentary rocks?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to the three main types
of sedimentary rocks in your answer.

Your exhibit should help visitors understand the processes that formed sedimentary rocks
in your region. You might want to have people make models of sedimentary rocks as you
did in the Investigate, or have them observe samples of the common sedimentary rocks
in your region. They could then use a geologic map of your state to see where these rocks
are located and how old they are. This information will help visitors to understand the
geologic history of the local area and region.
1. In your own words, explain how the three main types of sedimentary rocks form.
2. From your knowledge of sedimentary rocks, label the following interpretations of
depositional environments as true or false. Explain your answers.
a) Coal and peat form from the same material.
b) Limestone indicates that a shallow sea once covered an area.
c) The presence of sandstone indicates that the area was once a shoreline.
d) Rock salt indicates that a region once had an arid climate.
e) Claystone is deposited by fast-flowing streams.
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3. Look at the three rock samples shown in the photographs or the rock samples
provided to you by your teacher.
a) What is the name of each of the sedimentary rocks?
b) Describe a possible depositional environment in which each formed.
c) How did the models you made help you identify these rocks?

One strategy to engage visitors at your exhibit might be to have them take a short
interactive quiz at a kiosk before and after they tour your exhibit. For example, you
could have them identify the sedimentary rocks in your region. They could also be
quizzed on the ages of the rocks. (You can use a geologic map of your state to find
this information to make your quiz.) Your quiz could also have visitors match the type
of environment in which each sedimentary rock might have formed with the type of
rock. This evidence from the sedimentary record will help visitors understand how the
geologic history of your region has changed over time.
Inquiring Further
1. Sedimentary rocks and energy
resources
What sedimentary environments
lead to the formation of oil and
natural gas? Investigate the types of
rocks associated with the successful
mining of oil and natural gas.
2. Sedimentary rocks in the making
Where are Earth’s largest
sedimentary basins? How thick
are the sediments in those basins?
Where are some of the largest
chemical sedimentary deposits
forming today?
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Section 4 Metamorphic Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community
Section 4 Metamorphic Rocks and the Geologic

History of Your Community
What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
• Goals Text Think About It
In this section, you will Metamorphism is the amazing process that transforms a rock into
• Identify and classify several a new kind of rock.
metamorphic rocks using a
rock chart. • What factors are responsible for changing a rock from
• Describe two agents of
one kind to another?
metamorphism. • Where does metamorphism occur?
• Use a geologic map to search for
evidence of past metamorphism in
• What are some of the distinguishing features of
your community. metamorphic rocks?
• Recognize that properties of Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Provide
materials can change over time. a sketch. Be prepared to discuss your responses with your small
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will examine the properties of
metamorphic rocks. You will then make and use a model of how
rocks change their shape, or deform, during metamorphosis.
Finally, you will use a geologic map to locate metamorphic rocks
in your local area and wider region.
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Part A: Classifying Metamorphic Rocks

1. Examine the photographs of the
metamorphic rocks shown, or a set
of metamorphic rock samples that
you are provided, and the following
Classification of Metamorphic
Rocks table.
a) What properties do geologists use to
classify metamorphic rocks?
b) Use the Classification of Metamorphic
Rocks table to identify your rock
samples (or the pictured rocks).
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Rock Before
Texture Rock Name Description
Metamorphism
Strongly foliated: rocks Slate Very fine grained, usually dark, Mudstone, claystone,
in which platy minerals splits easily along parallel planes. shale
are arranged to be
Phyllite Fine grained, usually dark, splits Mudstone, claystone,
approximately parallel,
easily along parallel planes: often shale
causing the rock to split
crinkled or folded; not as fine
easily along parallel
grained as slate.
planes, or where
mineral bands develop Schist Medium grained to coarse grained, Mudstone, claystone,
in which individual with parallel alignment of platy shale, some volcanic
grains show common mineral grains like micas. rocks
alignment.
Gneiss Medium grained to coarse grained, Granite, rhyolite, some
often with alternating layers of sandstones, some
light and dark minerals. volcanic rocks
Weakly foliated or Marble Usually light colored, composed of Limestone
nonfoliated: rocks calcite crystals.
without abundant platy
Quartzite Usually light colored, composed of Quartz sandstone
mineral; the rocks do
quartz crystals.
not split easily along
parallel planes. Greenstone Dark green, fine grained, made of Basalt
various minerals rich in iron and
magnesium.
Amphibolite Dark colored, medium grained to Basalt
coarse grained, with abundant
amphibole minerals.
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Part B: Modeling Deformation During b) How does the line parallel to the sheets
Metamorphosis change when you deform the stack?
1. Obtain a ream (500 sheets) of paper, c) How does the line perpendicular to
or an old, very thick (at least 3 cm) the sheets change when you deform
telephone book or catalog. the stack? Record your observations
2. On the side of the stack of sheets, draw in your log along with a sketch of the
a large circle. Then draw a straight line stack before and after deformation.
through the center of the circle parallel 4. What do you think would happen to a
to the sheets, and another straight line rock if it is sheared in the same way as
perpendicular to the sheets. See the the ream of paper or the book?
diagram below.
a) Record your conclusions in your
log. Compare your conclusions
with those of the other groups,
and discuss any differences in
your conclusions.
Part C: Evidence of Metamorphic Rocks
in Your Community
1. Examine the geologic map of your
community or region.
3. Change the shape of the stack of a) Are any metamorphic rocks described
sheets by sliding them parallel to in the legend? If so, make a list of
one another so that the stack “leans the rock type, locations, and ages
sideways.” Change in the shape of an (in millions of years). Record your
object is called deformation. The kind observations in a data table. If there
of deformation you are producing here are numerous metamorphic rocks in
is called shear. If you use a ream of your community, limit your data table
paper rather than a book or catalog, to about five different examples. Be
you will be able to make the stack lean sure to include any evidence found
farther (in other words, you will be able in the area that you have selected for
to make it deform more). your Chapter Challenge.
a) How does the shape of the circle b) What are the most common
change when you deform the stack? metamorphic rocks in your area?
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Digging Deeper
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
In the Investigate, you looked at what properties geologists use to
classify metamorphic rocks. You then classified several samples. You
also simulated how rocks change their shape, or deform, during
metamorphosis. Finally, you used a geologic map to locate metamorphic
Geo Words rocks in your local area and region. Sedimentary and igneous rocks can
metamorphic be turned into metamorphic rocks. To do so, they need to be subjected to
rock: rock that
has been changed
high temperatures and/or pressures. The process is called metamorphism.
(metamorphosed) The changes occur while the rock is still solid. The temperature of the rock
into a different is not so high that part of the rock melts. If the temperature becomes too
rock type, without high, part of the rock melts to form magma. The magma later cools to
actually melting,
by an increase in
form an igneous rock.
temperature and/or Crystals of a mineral can grow only in a certain range of temperature
pressure, and/or the
action of chemical and pressure. Suppose a mineral crystal in a rock is subjected to the high
fluids. temperatures and pressures outside of this range. Metamorphosis occurs.
fault: a fracture or The mineral crystal is changed into crystals of one or more different
fracture zone in minerals. This is why the minerals in a metamorphic rock are usually
rock, along which very different from the minerals in the original rock. However, a few
rock masses have
moved relative to one common minerals, such as quartz and calcite, do not change form.
another parallel to When a limestone is metamorphosed, the calcite continues to exist.
the fracture. However, the crystals grow to be much larger. All evidence of the
regional original features of the limestone is destroyed. For example, there
metamorphism: a is no more evidence of fossils.
general term for
metamorphism Geologists have learned a lot about metamorphic rocks in labs. They
affecting an extensive use special furnaces. These furnaces can be heated to extremely high
region.
temperatures. They are also under tremendous pressure. These are
the temperatures and pressures under which metamorphic rocks can
form. Using these studies, the geologist can infer the temperatures
and pressures in Earth when the rocks were formed. Recall that every
rock “tells a story.” Metamorphic rocks have their own story to tell.
The temperature of a rock can be increased in two ways. Rocks can be
buried deeper and deeper in Earth. This can happen by deposition of
a very thick layer of sediment on top of the rock. It can also happen by
movement along faults. Very thick masses of rock are shoved on top of
the rock. As the rock is buried, its temperature gradually increases. This
is because the temperature in Earth increases with depth. Enormous
volumes of rock can be metamorphosed in this way by deep burial.
This is the most important kind of metamorphism. It is called regional
metamorphism, because large regions of Earth’s crust can be affected
in this way.
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Figure 1 Diagram explaining regional metamorphism.
The temperature of a rock

can also be increased if a
body of magma passes near
the rock. As the magma
cools, the surrounding
rock is heated. This can
metamorphose the rock.
See Figure 2. If the intrusion
is small, only a thin layer
of the surrounding rock is
metamorphosed. However,
very large intrusions
can metamorphose a
large amount of rock.
Surrounding rock for
thousands of meters away
from the intrusion can
be changed. The further Figure 2 When an igneous rock intrudes another
away from the intrusion, rock, the intense heat of the intrusion can result
in metamorphism of the surrounding rock. This is
the less the degree of
known as contact metamorphism.
metamorphism.
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Deformation in Metamorphism
Extreme deformation is common during regional metamorphism. In
Part B of the Investigate, you modeled the deformation of a rock by
shearing. The same thing happens, usually even more so, when rock
is sheared by forces within Earth. This is especially common where
one lithospheric plate slides down beneath another. You saw in the
Geo Words Investigate that when a material is sheared, lines or planes within it
transposition: the become more parallel. This is called transposition. In many metamorphic
process by which rocks, all kinds of features and structures are “smeared out” by
lines or planes within
transposition to become nearly parallel planes. The layering you see in
a material become
more parallel when a metamorphic rock may not have anything to do with layering in the
they are sheared. original rock. Forces within Earth can also stretch or compress the rock.
foliation: the In some metamorphosed conglomerates, the pebbles are stretched into
tendency for a a shape similar to a test tube.
metamorphic rock to
split along parallel Foliation in Metamorphic Rocks
planes.
Some sedimentary rocks contain a high percentage of very fine flakes of
mica minerals. These include claystone, mudstone, and shale. These rocks
become metamorphosed first to slate. Then they become phyllite, and
then schist. It depends on the intensity of metamorphism. You looked
at the classification table in the Investigate. You noticed that all of these
rocks tend to split easily along parallel planes. This is because the mica
minerals in the rock have grown to be parallel to one another. This causes
weakness in the direction parallel to the planes of the mineral grains. The
parallel growth develops for two reasons. First, the mica minerals grow
with their planes perpendicular to the direction of greatest force on the
rock. Second, when the rock is sheared, the mica grains tend to become
parallel, as you read earlier. The tendency for a metamorphic rock to
split along parallel planes is called foliation. Foliation, as shown in the
photograph in Figure 3, is a major feature of many metamorphic rocks.
Figure 3 This gneiss is an example of a strongly foliated metamorphic rock.
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The Protoliths of Metamorphic Rocks

The rock from which a metamorphic rock was formed is called the Geo Words
protolith. Both sedimentary and igneous rocks are protoliths of protolith: the
metamorphic rocks. The protolith can also be older metamorphic rock from which a
metamorphic rock
rock. Geologists are always interested in trying to figure out what the was formed.
protolith of a rock was. Sometimes this is easy. For example, a quartzite
probably started out as a quartz sandstone. Marble probably started
out as a limestone. However, it is sometimes very difficult to guess the Checking Up
protolith of a metamorphic rock. 1. In your own
words, describe
two sources of
heat that lead to
metamorphism.
2. Why do
temperature and
pressure increase
with depth in
Earth?
3. Why is the mineral
composition of a
metamorphic rock
Figure 4a Quartz sandstone. Figure 4b Quartzite. usually different
from the mineral
composition of
the protolith (the
original rock)?

• What factors are responsible for changing a rock from one kind to another?
• Where does metamorphism occur?
• What are some of the distinguishing features of metamorphic rocks?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Include the role of pressure and
temperature in your answer.

Your exhibit will need to show visitors how metamorphic rocks in your region were
formed by tectonic processes. You might want to show images similar to what you
saw in the Investigate about how materials can be deformed by shear forces. You can
also include samples of metamorphic rocks and geologic maps showing metamorphic
rocks in your community. It will be important to communicate to visitors that sometimes
you have to look deep in the crust to find the old metamorphic roots of a continent.
Discuss with your group how you can best show the connections between metamorphic
rocks far below the surface in your region and how they were formed.
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1. Why is foliation more likely to occur during mountain building than through the
contact of rock with magma?
2. Why are some metamorphic rocks foliated while others lack foliation?
3. Calculate the mass (in kg) of a column of rock that covers an area of one square
meter (m2) and is 100 m deep. Assume that the density of the rock is 2700 kg/m3.
Repeat this for a depth of 500 m, 1 km, 2 km, 4 km, 8 km, and 16 km. Graph your
results. Use your results to describe the relationship between pressure and depth in
Earth. (Remember that 1 km = 1000 m.)
4. Look at the photographs of the metamorphic rocks, or the samples of metamorphic
rocks provided by your teacher.
a) Are the rocks foliated or nonfoliated?

b) What are the names of these metamorphic rocks?
c) How did these rocks form?
5. Examine the geologic map of your state and a sketch of a deep rock core. Look at
the ages of the metamorphic rocks in your area. Did you find evidence of more than
one period of metamorphism? Discuss reasons why you might see more than one time
period of metamorphism.
6. In your own words, describe how metamorphic rocks demonstrate the principle
that the properties of materials can change over time. Discuss crystal size,
foliation, and hardness.
You have read about how metamorphic rocks are formed. You have also read that
looking at the features in a rock can provide clues about the history of the rock. In
addition, you have gathered information about metamorphic rocks from a geologic
map. You can add this information to your museum exhibit about the geologic history
of your local area and region. In preparation for making the explanatory part of your
exhibit, write a one- or two-paragraph description about the events and evidence for
metamorphism in your local area and region. Make sure that your description is easy
for a general audience of museum visitors to read.
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Inquiring Further
1. Metamorphism in the United States
Research the history of the formation of metamorphic rocks in the Appalachian
Mountains. Discuss how you determined the reliability of the sources you used in
your research.
2. Metamorphism and mineral resources
A third major type of metamorphism is caused by the movement of heated solutions
of mineral-rich groundwater. The groundwater is heated by bodies of hot magma.
Investigate how hydrothermal alteration leads to the formation of deposits of valuable
minerals, such as gold, silver, and copper.
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Your Chapter Challenge is to show the geologic

history of your region. You will do this by
preparing an exhibit for your local
museum. You must think about the
geologic events that have formed
your region. You need to decide which
ones to include in your exhibit. You now
have enough information to start
developing the design of your project.
Your Mini-Challenge is to create the
design for your exhibit. This will help
you organize your thoughts, ideas, and
portfolio for the final product. Look back
at the Goal you wrote at the beginning of
the chapter. Rewrite your Goal so that you
are clear on what you will prepare for the
Mini-Challenge. Review the Goal as a class to
make sure you have all of the criteria and the
necessary constraints.
You have completed four sections of
this chapter. You have also read about some aspects of the
rock and mineral history of your region. These will be part of the Inputs phase of
the Engineering Design Cycle. As you develop your design, include information
about the formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. You will also
want to point out where they are in your region. Review what you have studied below to help
begin developing your museum exhibit.
Section 1: You observed the properties of crystals and mineral samples. You then used a set of
observations and tests to identify minerals.
Section 2: You examined the properties of a set of igneous rocks and used a geologic map of
your area to locate igneous rocks.
Section 3: You ran models that showed how sedimentary rocks are formed and then examined
samples of actual sedimentary rocks. Finally, you used a geologic map of your region to identify
and locate sedimentary rocks in your area.
Section 4: You examined the properties of metamorphic rocks, then made and used a model of
how rocks change their shape, or deform, during metamorphism. Finally, you used a geologic
map to locate metamorphic rocks in your local area and wider region.
information you have that will help meet the criteria of the Goal. This Mini-
Challenge requires you to think about what you have learned so far. This will help
you decide how to design the exhibit.
Visit a local museum to get ideas about how museums educate visitors. You could also research
online by going to the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
Here you will see examples of Earth science museum exhibits that engage audiences. Study
the styles and think about the ways the exhibits provide information. Discuss with your group
which ones are the most informative and attractive. What features do they include that you
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could use? Decide which ones you found least attractive to a teenage audience. What features
do they have that you should avoid?
Consider how people learn best in a museum setting. You might want to include a hands-on
portion of your exhibit in which visitors observe the properties of common minerals and rocks.
Then they could link these properties with how the minerals and rocks were formed by Earth
processes. You could also include an interactive map in your exhibit that shows rocks in your
area. You might want to use an animation to demonstrate how igneous rocks form.
You can perform a Resource Analysis. Develop a list of what you have learned, and the
concepts you have studied in the first four sections of this chapter. Then relate these concepts
to the geologic history of your region. With your group decide on the following:
• What is the best way of getting your main topic or idea across to the public?
• What are the most important geologic events and information you have studied so far that
you want to put into your exhibit?
• What are effective and engaging ways of communicating the rest of the information in
your exhibit?
After you have completed your first design, you may want to test it with a sample of visitors.
Design a short questionnaire. Use it to gather data from potential visitors. Your Resource Analysis
has revealed which topics in the first four sections will be helpful in developing your exhibit. You
may want to divide your region into smaller sections. You may decide to give different geologic
time periods to different members of your group. However, be sure that the various parts of your
exhibit fit well together. During your Resource Analysis, you can also make a list of missing
information you still need to help complete your plans for the Chapter Challenge.
The Output of your Engineering Design Cycle for the Mini-Challenge is the first
design for your exhibit. It will include some concepts from the first four sections.
Remember, everyone is working with the same requirements and constraints. You
only need to do a good job of meeting the Goal requirements to do well.
Presenting your exhibit design to the class is your design-cycle Output. The presentation of your
design should include the design you chose. You should indicate why you selected this method.
Explain why you think this way best informs the public about the geologic history of your
region. Describe how your exhibit will deliver content. Also indicate what aspects will make it
attractive to a teenage audience.
Finally, you will receive Feedback from your classmates. They should be prepared to
tell you what you have done well. They might also tell you some things you can
improve to make a better final product. To give good Feedback, it is important to
consider each point of the requirements and the constraints. Consider how well each
different design satisfies them. Your statements should say which parts were satisfied
and which, if any, were not.
have enough time to make corrections and improvements. Therefore, you will want to pay
attention to the valuable information your classmates provide. Remember to correct any parts of
your exhibit design that you received critical feedback on. You may have also learned something
from watching other presentations. You want to add to add this to your group’s plan. Just be
sure to give the other group credit in your final design. It will be easier and faster to improve
your design plan now rather than waiting until the chapter is complete. Remember to record
all your information in a safe place so that it will be ready to use in the Chapter Challenge.
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Section 5 Rock Units and Your Community

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Rock types exposed at Earth’s surface generally vary from place to
• Recognize that rocks are place, but the rock type is often about the same over large areas.
arranged in Earth’s crust as
well-defined bodies or units.
• If you start out at an outcrop of bedrock and see a particular
kind of rock, how far would you have to walk until the rock
• Identify the general shapes of
rock units based on rock type.
type changes?
• Read and interpret geologic Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Be prepared
maps and geologic cross to discuss your responses with your small group and the class.
sections.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will be exploring large areas of similar
rock types in Georgia and Alabama.
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1. Use the geologic map and cross section units compare to the distance covered
of Georgia and Alabama to answer the (lateral extent) by the rock units?
following questions about sedimentary
d) Sedimentary rocks are originally
rocks.
deposited in flat, horizontal layers.
a) Read the legend. What kinds of Given this fact, why do you think
sedimentary rocks are shown on the that some of the sedimentary layers
map and cross section? in the cross section are tilted?
b) What do you think the environment e) On the cross section, follow the units
was like during the deposition of the named Eutaw and Tuscaloosa (green
sedimentary rocks in this area? layers). Are the units continuous?
c) On the cross section, how does the Explain your answer.
thickness (vertical extent) of the rock
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2. Use the geologic map and cross section are they different? How are they
of Georgia and Alabama to answer the similar? How do they differ from
following questions about igneous rocks. the Pinckneyville Granite?
a) What kinds of igneous rocks are f) Describe the relationship between
shown on the map and cross section? the Pinckneyville Granite, Paleozoic
Granite, and Jurassic-Triassic
b) Are the igneous rocks shown Intrusives and the surrounding
intrusive or extrusive? sedimentary rocks.
c) Compare the map and the cross 3. Use the geologic map and cross section
section. Are the igneous rocks that of Georgia and Alabama to answer the
you see in the cross section visible following questions about metamorphic
on the map? Explain your answer. rocks.
d) Compare the rock units labeled a) What kinds of metamorphic
Pinckneyville Granite, Paleozoic rocks are shown on the map
Granite, and Jurassic-Triassic and cross section?
Intrusives. How do their sizes vary?
b) How does the placement of the
e) Look at the Paleozoic Granite and metamorphic rock units compare
the Jurassic-Triassic Intrusives. How with the surrounding rock units?
Digging Deeper
ROCK UNITS
What Are Rock Units?
In the Investigate, you compared large areas of similar rock types in
Georgia and Alabama. The number of different rock types in Earth’s crust
is enormous. However, if you examine exposed bedrock on Earth’s land
surface, you would find that the rocks are generally about the same type
over large areas. You might walk for hundreds or thousands of meters,
or even for tens of kilometers, and find about the same rock type. This
is because rocks, whether sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic, are
Geo Words originally formed in large volumes by a specific process. The rock bodies
rock unit: a body of that are formed during the same process are called rock units. When
rock that consists geologists work in the field, they try to recognize or identify such rock
dominantly of a
certain rock type, or a
units. The change from one rock unit to another is usually abrupt. It
combination of types. occurs across some surface or narrow zone of change. This surface or zone
contact: the surface is called a contact. It is what geologists plot on their geologic maps. You
or zone where there saw many examples of contacts between rock units in the Investigate.
is a change from one Rock units vary greatly in their size and shape. The size and shape depend
rock unit to another. on the processes that form them.
Sedimentary Rock Units
Early geologists believed that sediments were laid down in uniform
sheets over large areas of Earth. This concept is referred to as “layer cake”
geology. Geologists now understand that at any given time, different
kinds of sediments are deposited in different places. At times, these
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deposits are very close together. Different sedimentary rock units can
be exposed in the same area of the land surface. They might consist of
conglomerate, sandstone, shale, or limestone. However, just because they
represent different rock units, you should not assume that they are all of
different ages. In many places, such units can be of the same age. They
were deposited in different environments at the same time. As you saw
in the cross section, sedimentary rock units usually have a “width” (lateral
extent) that is much greater than their thickness. They typically range
in thickness from tens of meters to thousands of meters. Their lateral
extent can be hundreds of kilometers. Sedimentary rock units have two-
part names. The first part is the name of some place like a town, river, or
mountain where the unit is found. The second part is the name of a rock
type, or just the word “Formation.”
Igneous Rock Units
In Section 2, you read that igneous rocks
are formed in two ways. The first way is by
cooling and crystallization of magma below
Earth’s surface. This is the way intrusive
igneous rocks are formed. The second way
is by volcanic activity. This involves extrusion
of lava, or explosive eruption of pyroclastic
material. Intrusive igneous rock units vary
greatly in size and shape. Their size and
shape depends on how the magma was Geo Words
put in place in the surrounding rock. Sills sills: sheets of igneous
are sheets of igneous rock that intruded rock that intrude
along layers of sedimentary rocks. Dikes along layers of
sedimentary rocks.
are sheets of igneous rock intruded along
dikes: sheets of
fractures that cut through any existing rock. igneous rock intruded
(See Figure 1.) Batholiths are large masses Figure 1 Dikes and sills cut along fractures that
of intrusive igneous rock with irregular through existing rocks. cut through any
shapes. (See Figure 2.) Units existing rock.
of intrusive igneous rocks can batholiths: large
be seen today because the masses of intrusive
igneous rock with
land surface has slowly been irregular shapes.
worn down by weathering and
erosion As a result, the once
deeply buried igneous rock body
is exposed. Volcanic igneous
rock units are very much like
sedimentary rock units in their
size and shape. This is because
they are also spread over the
land surface in broad layers.
Igneous rock units are given Figure 2 The Sierra Nevada Batholith is a
names in much the same way massive intrusive structure in California.
as sedimentary rock units.
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Checking Up
1. Why is the shape Metamorphic Rock Units
of metamorphic
rock units usually As you read in Section 4, any rock can be metamorphosed. Therefore,
much more metamorphic rock units vary greatly in their makeup. Their shapes are
complicated than more complex than those of sedimentary and igneous rock units. The
that of igneous or reason is that metamorphism is usually accompanied by large-scale
sedimentary rock changes in the shape of the rock units. These changes take place by
units?
processes like folding and faulting. You will learn about folding and
2. What is the surface faulting in the next section. Metamorphic rock units are usually named
or zone where in the same way as sedimentary and igneous rock units. In some areas,
there is a change
from one rock unit
sedimentary or igneous rock units change slowly into metamorphic rock
to another called? units. This is because the intensity of metamorphism usually changes
slowly from place to place. You should not be surprised if you see these
3. What is the
difference between slow changes on a geologic map. In one place on the map you might see
a sill, a dike, and a a rock unit called Smithtown Limestown. Then it changes gradually to
batholith? Smithtown Marble in another area of the map.
4. What kinds of
rocks are laid down
in nearly horizontal
layers?

• If you start out at an outcrop of bedrock and see a particular kind of rock,
how far would you have to walk until the rock type changes?
Record your ideas about this question now. In your answer, refer to how rocks
are arranged as well-defined bodies or units in Earth’s crust.

In your museum exhibit, you will need to tell the story of the role of tectonic
processes in forming rock units. Your work in the Investigate should help with
this because you examined how rocks are arranged below Earth’s surface. You
discovered that rocks are not randomly arranged, but are in distinctive bodies
called rock units. You should communicate to museum visitors that the size and
shape of rock units vary greatly, depending on the type of rock and how it was
formed. In your exhibit, you might find it useful to use electronic versions of the
maps and cross sections you used in the Investigate to explain rock units.
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1. If only some of the rocks are visible at Earth’s surface, how do geologists construct
cross sections?
2. Examine your state geologic map and geologic cross sections.
a) Can you tell what rock types are present in the area from the size and shape
of the units? Explain your answer.
b) What rocks are present on Earth’s surface?
c) What rocks are present below Earth’s surface?
d) What is the relative order of the rock units in your community?
e) Is one layer always found beneath another?
f) How do the sizes of the rock units in your community compare with one another?
Which unit is the thickest? Which occupies the most surface area?
To prepare your exhibit’s communication piece about rock units in your region, write
a description of the rock units near your local area and state. Be sure to include a
description of the size, shape, and orientation (horizontal, tilted, folded, and so on) of
each unit, as well as a description of how the units are arranged relative to one another.
Make sure that what you write is easily understandable to the general public. Include
diagrams where necessary.
Inquiring Further
1. Making sedimentary formations
Sift two batches of different colored sand into the ends of a water-filled roasting pan.
Drain the water. Sketch the structure from above. This is your “geologic map.” While
the sand is still damp, cut the “deposit” in half. Sketch the side view. This is your
“cross section.” Describe what you see. How do the “rock units” you have made relate
to each other?
2. Making plutons
Make a series of layers using colored clay. Form a crack, or fissure, in the block of
clay. Inject caulk, toothpaste, or cake frosting into the fissure. Cut the clay block
horizontally, at a distance below the surface that will reveal the upper part of the
“intrusion.” Sketch the block from above. This is your “geologic map.” Then cut the
lower part of the clay block in half vertically. Sketch the block from the side. This is
your “cross section.”
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Section 6 Structural Geology and Your Community

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Marble is metamorphosed limestone, a rock that is deposited in
• Describe the relationship nearly horizontal layers. You may have seen marble in buildings,
between fault movement statues, and headstones in cemeteries. It is commonly used for
and the forces that cause
these purposes because it is soft and easy to carve into shapes.
this motion.
• Understand that Earth • What would happen if you tried to use a powerful machine
movements can create faults to fold a marble bench?
and folds.
• How are rocks able to fold naturally without first breaking?
• Understand that models help
scientists understand how Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
things work. prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will observe models of folds and faults in
rock layers. You will then compare these models to what you can
see in geologic maps and cross sections.
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Part A: Modeling Folds

1. Mold a large lump of soft modeling clay
into the shape shown in the figure
below. The block should be about 10 cm
long, about 8 cm wide, and have a
rounded top. This is your “base block.”
a) In your log, sketch what the folds

in your block look like on the faces
of each of the cuts you made. The
vertical cut is what real folded rocks
look like in a cross-section view, and
the horizontal cut is what real folded
rocks look like in a map view.
2. Put another lump of clay onto a sheet Part B: Modeling Faults
of wax paper and roll it out with a
1. Obtain styrene foam blocks that have
rolling pin or a wooden dowel into
been cut into two pieces at an angle, as
a sheet about 6 mm thick. Drape the
shown in the photograph below. Use
sheet over your base block and trim
colored pencils or pens to create at least
the edges.
three horizontal layers on the sides of
3. Repeat Step 2 with lumps of different your square.
colored clay until you have five or six
layers. As you place the layers on the
block, shape them slightly with your
fingers so that they keep almost the
same shape as the top of your base
block. You now have a block of folded
rock layers.
4. Use your hands to stretch a length
of dental floss or fishing line tightly,
and use it to slice through your folded
block. Make two slices: One should
be straight down through the block, 2. Place the two cut sides of the styrene
perpendicular to its long dimension and foam together, face to face. The plane
off to one side, and the other should be where the two cut surfaces are in
horizontal, through the middle of the contact is a model of a fault plane.
base block and folds, as shown in the Slowly push the two pieces together,
following diagram. so that the upper piece slides upward
relative to the lower piece.
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a) Sketch a side view and a top view of b) Sediments are almost always
what happens. Use arrows to show deposited in nearly flat, horizontal
the direction of force. Use a different layers. What evidence suggests that
type of arrow to show how the the rock layers in this region were
colored layers moved in relation to deformed by forces within Earth?
one another along the fault plane.
c) Were the faults produced by
3. Start over again with the two pieces of compression (pushing forces), tension
styrene foam face to face. Slowly slide (pulling forces), or shear (sideways
the lower piece upward relative to the forces) in the rock layers? Explain
upper piece. your answer.
a) Sketch a side view and a top view of d) Are the folds in the rock layers
what happens. Again, use arrows to consistent with your answer above?
indicate the direction of force and the Explain your answer.
movement of layers.
e) Compare what you see in the cross
b) What is the difference in the way the section and the map to your models of
styrene foam blocks moved in these folds and faults from Parts A and B.
two trials?
4. Return the styrene foam to the original
position. Move the pieces so that they
slide sideways past each other.
a) Sketch a picture of the pieces. Use
arrows to indicate the direction of
force and the movement of layers.
Part C: Interpreting Structure Using
Geologic Maps and Cross Sections
1. Geologic maps have special symbols
to indicate the locations of faults and
folds. Many maps also show one or
more cross sections. A cross section
shows how the rocks are deformed and
makes it easier to infer what forces
caused the deformation. Use a copy of
the following geologic map and cross
section to complete the following:
a) Color the cross section and the map.
Use a different color for each of the
five rock layers A through E.
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Digging Deeper
FORCES IN EARTH’S CRUST
Types of Forces
In the Investigate, you observed models of folds and faults in rock layers
using clay and styrene foam. You then compared these models to what
you could see in geologic maps and cross sections. This Digging Deeper
will help you to understand how rock layers form and then can become
folded or faulted.
Earlier in this chapter, you read that sedimentary rocks form from
sediments that are originally laid down in almost flat, horizontal layers. In
many places on Earth, however, sedimentary and other kinds of rocks are
not found in a horizontal position. Instead, they are tilted at some angle
to the horizontal. Sometimes they are tilted so much that the layers are
vertical. The tilting of the layers is a sign that they have been deformed
by forces acting within Earth. The forces can cause the rocks to become Geo Words
folded. Folds are usually formed when rocks are squeezed together by fold: a bend in a
compressive forces. The forces can cause the rocks to fracture and then to planar feature in
rocks. A fold is
slip along the fracture surfaces. A fracture surface along which rocks slip usually a result of
is called a fault. Forces within Earth that cause folding and faulting are deformation.
created by the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. The plates move tension force: a force
very slowly (2 to 20 cm/yr). However, over hundreds to thousands of years, that tends to pull
great forces build up in Earth’s crust. These forces are transmitted for long material apart.
distances through the crust. As a result, folding and faulting can happen compression force:
not only near plate boundaries but also in the interiors of the continents, a force that tends
to push material
far from plate boundaries. together.
Three different kinds of forces can cause rocks to deform. They are shear force: a force
tension forces, compression forces, and shear forces. As you saw in that tends to make
two masses of
the Investigate, different types of forces have different effects on rock material slide past
layers. Suppose you are holding a solid, rectangular block between your each other.
hands. When you try to pull the block apart at its ends, you are exerting
a tension force. When you push the ends of the block together, you are
exerting a compression force. When you hold two opposite edges of
the block and try to move them in opposite directions, you are exerting
a shear force. In all three cases, if the force you exert is greater than
the strength of the solid material, it deforms. It will deform either by
fracturing or just changing its shape without actually breaking. The forces
that are created in Earth’s crust by the movement of lithospheric plates
are often great enough to deform the rocks.
Folding and Faulting
What determines whether a rock is faulted or folded? It is partly a matter
of temperature. At lower temperatures, as in the upper parts of Earth’s
crust, rocks are brittle. They tend to deform by fracturing. In the lower
parts of Earth’s crust, the temperature of rocks is relatively high.
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When forces are exerted on rocks

at high temperatures, the rocks
tend to deform by changing their
shape continuously rather than
by faulting. Folding is an
example of how rocks can
change their shape continuously
without breaking. This is shown
in Figure 1. Whether a rock is
folded or faulted is also a matter
of time. If forces build up very
fast, rocks are more likely to
fracture. However, if forces build
up very slowly, the rocks are
more likely to change their shape
Figure 1 Intense heat and pressure folded these without breaking.
previously horizontal sedimentary layers.
Faults
A fault can be formed by tension forces. These forces cause the rocks
of the crust to be pulled apart. In that case, the body of rock above
the fault plane slides down relative to the body of rock below the fault
Geo Words plane. (See Figure 2a.) Faults
normal fault: a fault of this kind are called normal
formed by tension faults. A fault can also be
forces that cause the
formed by compression
body of rock above
the fault plane to forces. These forces cause
slide down relative the rocks of the crust to be
to the body of rock pushed together. In that
below the fault plane.
case, the body of rock above
reverse fault: a the fault plane slides upward
fault formed by
compression forces relative to the body of rock
that cause the body below the fault plane. (See
of the rock above Figure 2b.) Faults of this kind
the fault plane to are called reverse faults.
slide upward relative
to the body of rock When the fault plane is
below the fault plane. nearly horizontal, reverse
thrust fault: a reverse faults are called thrust faults
fault in which the instead. When a fault is
fault plane is nearly formed by horizontal shear
horizontal.
forces, the bodies of rock
strike-slip fault: a on either side of the fault
fault formed by
horizontal shear plane slide past each other
forces that cause horizontally. (See Figure 2c.)
the bodies of rock Faults of this kind are called Figure 2 The three major types of faults. When a
on either side of strike-slip faults. reverse fault occurs at an angle of less than 45°,
the fault plane to
it is called a thrust fault.
slide past each other
horizontally.
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Movement on faults usually occurs suddenly

after a long time without movement. The
forces that cause the faulting build up very
slowly. When they become greater than the
strength of the rock, the fault moves. This
relaxes the forces, which then slowly build up
again. Major faults typically move only every
few centuries. Most earthquakes are caused
by sudden movement on faults.
Folds
Folds are especially common when the rock is
layered, like sedimentary rock, and the layers
differ in their stiffness (resistance to being
bent). Here is a “thought experiment” to show
the effect of layering. Make a square block
of soft modeling clay and squeeze it together Figure 3 What kind of fault
from opposite sides. It becomes compressed, is shown in this photograph?
but it does not form folds. Now make a
block that consists of many thin layers of clay
separated by index cards. Squeeze the block
from opposite sides, in a direction parallel to the Geo Words
index cards. The block then deforms by folding. syncline: part of a
Folds in Earth’s crust are usually arranged horizontally. The parts of the fold that is concave
folds that are concave upward are called synclines (Figure 4a). The parts of upward.
the folds that are convex upward are called anticlines (Figure 4b). Folds in anticline: part of a
fold that is convex
rocks can be as small as centimeters or as large as many kilometers. upward.
Figure 4a Sideling Hill in Maryland is an Figure 4b An anticline in Wyoming.

example of a syncline.
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Using Models to Investigate Geologic Structures

Checking Up Geologic processes, such as folding and faulting of rocks, work over
very long time spans. The folding of rocks cannot be observed in
1. Describe tension,
nature as it happens. Models help scientists to understand the
compression, and
shear forces in your
deformation of rocks. Geologists have used layers of colored wax and a
own words. You special “squeeze box” to investigate the folding process. The box had a
may wish to use glass wall for viewing the wax from the side. One side of the box moved
a diagram. along threaded rods, creating a force on the wax as the walls closed in
2. What factors on one another. Wax was poured into the box one layer at a time. A
determine whether knob on one end of the box allowed the wall of the box to be moved
a rock will fault or horizontally. This movement squeezed the wax from the ends. The
fold? model allowed scientists to vary the rate at which the force was applied
3. Why do scientists and the thicknesses of the various layers. The model helped them to
work with models create folds that they saw in nature. From this, they were able to make
to understand interpretations about the forces that created these folds.
folding and
faulting?

• What would happen if you tried to use a powerful machine to fold
a marble bench?
• How are rocks able to fold naturally without first breaking?
Record your ideas about these questions now. In your answer, include
the relationship between forces and fault movements.

Think about what you did in the Investigate that you could adapt for your
museum exhibit. You first observed a model that showed the way that forces
on rocks can cause the rocks to bend. You also observed a model of how the
forces on the rocks, if large enough, can cause the rock to fold or fracture. As
you observed, forces can sometimes move broken pieces up or down. You will
need to help your museum visitors understand that changes within Earth’s crust
can cause folds and fractures, an important part of the geologic history of your
community and region.
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1. Look at the photograph of faulted rock layers
in Pennsylvania.
a) Do the rocks appear to have been pulled
apart, pushed together, or slid past each
other to form this structure?
b) What type of fault is this?
2. Look at the photograph of a fault found
in California.
A rock exposure in Pennsylvania.
a) Were the rocks pulled apart, pushed together,
or slid past each other to form this structure?
b) What type of fault is this?
3. Examine your state geologic map and geologic
cross sections.
a) How many faults do you see near
your community?
b) What types of faults do you see?
c) How many folds do you see near A roadside fault in California.
your community?
d) What types of plate motion does this suggest?
Help your exhibit visitors to interpret the geologic history of your local area and region
in terms of motion in Earth’s crust. To do this, you will need to use your knowledge
of how crustal movements result in faults and folds. If your area has not undergone a
great deal of deformation, try to explain why you think your region is so stable. Think
about the oldest rocks in your area and use words, pictures, or videos in your exhibit to
describe any deformation that might have occurred.
Inquiring Further
1. Geologic structures in a national park
Look at a geologic map and cross section of the Grand Tetons in Wyoming. Research
the types of structures, folds, and faults in this area. Interpret the geologic history of
the area.
2. Careers in structural geology
Visit the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/
to find a structural geologist who lives and works in your state or region. Introduce
yourself through a letter or e-mail message. Briefly describe the work that you are
doing in your EarthComm classroom. Ask one or two questions that will help you
learn about careers in structural geology. Examples include:
• What makes structural geology so interesting to you?
• What made you decide to become a structural geologist?
• What do you think is the most challenging aspect of structural geology?
• What do you enjoy most about your work?
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Section 7 Reading the Geologic History of

Your Community
What Do You See?
Learning Outcomes
• Goals Text
In this section, you will Figuring out the ages of rock units relative to one another is, in a
• Understand the basic principles sense, similar to solving a puzzle.
used to determine the relative
ages of rock units. • When you are studying rocks at an outcrop in your community,
• Understand the nature and
and you identify two different rock units, how can you tell
significance of unconformities which is older and which is younger?
and their role in deciphering
Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include
geologic history.
• Interpret the geologic history
of an area using the basic
geologic principles.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will use models and cross sections to study
the ages of rock layers.
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Section 7 Reading the Geologic History of Your Community
Part A: Basic Geologic Principles

1. Roll out three different colors of soft
modeling clay: red, yellow, and blue.
Place the red layer flat on the table.
Place the yellow layer on top of it,
followed by the blue layer.
a) Which layer is the “oldest” (that is,
has been there the longest)? Which
layer is the “youngest”?
2. The geologic cross section in Figure A
shows a series of layers of sedimentary
units. As you read, sedimentary rocks
are laid down in layers, much like the
layers of clay in Step 1.
a) Which of the units in the cross
section do you think is the oldest?
Which unit do you think is the
youngest? How do you know? 4. Flatten out the clay layers and again
stack them into a block. Make a
slanting cut through the block. Lift the
lower side up relative to the upper side
so that the red layer on the left matches
up with the yellow layer on the right.
Recall from Section 6 that you have
produced a normal fault.
a) Sketch what you see.
3. Examine the clay layers from Step 1.
b) Now, look at the two cross sections
a) Sketch a side view of what you see. shown in Figure C. What is the
b) Now form the layers into folds, as youngest feature in each of the two
you did in the previous section. Sketch cross sections? How do you know?
a side view of what you see now.
c) Sedimentary and extrusive igneous
rocks are originally laid down in
nearly horizontal layers. Why do
you think that the layers are not
horizontal? Number the cross
sections in Figure B in the order in
which they would occur.
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5. The geologic cross section shown in

Figure D shows a sedimentary rock unit
A and an intrusive igneous rock unit B.
a) From what you know about how
intrusive igneous rock units form,
which of these units do you think is
older? How do you know?
Part B: Using the Principles to

Interpret Geologic History
1. The following cross section shows

several rock units in an area that has
had a long and varied geologic history.
a) Put the rock units and other geologic
6. The rock units in the cross section features marked with letters in the
shown in Figure E have been assigned cross section in order of occurrence
approximate age ranges. from earliest to latest. Start by
a) Are the ages continuous, or do you asking yourself what was there first,
see any time gaps? and then work your way forward
through time. You can think of this
b) Assume that these are sedimentary
as a “geologic puzzle.”
rocks that were formed as sediment
was slowly deposited, layer upon
layer. Can you think of an
explanation for why there is a
time gap in the record?
A simplified cross section of strata.
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Digging Deeper
INTERPRETING GEOLOGIC HISTORY
Geologic Events and Processes
In the Investigate, you studied how scientists determine the ages of rock
layers. You did this by using models and cross sections. It is important
for geologists to know the age of the rock layers. Most areas of Earth’s
crust have a long and often complex geologic history. Many kinds of
geologic events can occur. Many kinds of geologic processes can shape
the geologic history of an area. You have read about many of these in
previous sections. Here are some important ones: deposition, erosion,
folding, faulting, uplift, subsidence, igneous intrusion, volcanism,
metamorphism, changes in sea level, and climate change.
The only processes in the list above that you have not yet looked at in Geo Words
detail are uplift and subsidence. Local areas of Earth’s crust can be slowly uplift: the process by
raised (uplift) by large-scale forces acting within Earth. They can also which local areas of
Earth’s crust can be
be lowered (subsidence). Vertical changes in elevation can range from slowly raised by large-
meters to kilometers. Much of uplift and subsidence is caused by the scale forces acting
movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. However, it can also be caused within Earth or the
just by changes in the temperature of the rocks. When rocks cool, they heating of rocks.
contract. That causes subsidence. When rocks are heated, they expand. subsidence: the
That causes uplift. The degree of contraction and expansion is small. process by which local
areas of Earth’s crust
However, great thicknesses of rock are affected (kilometers to tens of can be slowly lowered
kilometers). As a result, uplift and subsidence of Earth’s surface caused by large-scale forces
in this way can amount to hundreds of meters. acting within Earth or
the cooling of rocks.
Basic Geologic Principles
Geologists make geologic maps
of areas of bedrock. The surface
geology shown in these maps
comes from data gathered from a
variety of sources. These include
topographic maps, satellite
images, and bore holes. Rocks
in the field also provide data. A
geologic map contains one or
more cross sections. These are
constructed by projecting the rock
units and other geologic features
seen at the surface downward
into Earth. To do this, geologists
must measure the angles that rock Figure 1 In a series of rock layers, the
oldest rocks are usually found on the
units and structures dip into Earth. bottom while the youngest rocks are
The geologic map is a description on the top.
of the bedrock. Geologists then
use the map to interpret the
area’s geologic history.
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Geo Words
stratigraphy: the The scientific study of rock layers is called stratigraphy. This involves
scientific study of rock the application of several basic principles, which follow. Some of these
layers (called strata).
principles might seem like “common sense” to you. In a way, they
are. However, when they were first developed long ago, they were
revolutionary. They advanced how early geologists thought about the
geologic record. They provide powerful tools for analyzing the relative
ages of rock layers and structures.
• Principle of Superposition: Younger sedimentary and volcanic rocks are
deposited on top of older rocks, as shown in Figure 1 on the previous page.
• Principle of Original Horizontality: Sedimentary and volcanic rocks are
laid down in nearly horizontal layers.
• Principle of Lateral Continuity: Sedimentary and volcanic rocks are
laid down in layers that are usually much greater in lateral extent
than in thickness.
• Principle of Crosscutting
Relationships: If one rock unit
or geologic feature cuts
across another rock unit or
geologic feature, it was
formed later in geologic time.
Here are two examples of this
principle. If you see a rock
unit cut by an igneous
intrusion, such as a dike, you
can be sure that the dike is
younger than the rock unit.
(See Figure 2.) If you see one
or more rock units cut by a
fault, then you know that the
fault is younger than the rock Figure 2 Which rock unit shown in the
units. (See Figure 3.) photograph is the youngest?
Figure 3 After intruding into the surrounding granite, this dike was
offset by a fault.
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Unconformities
There is another important concept to think about when trying to Geo Words
interpret the geologic history of an area. Successions of sedimentary succession: a number
and volcanic rocks are deposited on an earlier rock surface. The of rock units or a
mass of strata that
contact between that earlier rock and the younger layers is called an succeed one another
unconformity. It is important to note that for some period time, nothing in chronological
except perhaps erosion was order; the
occurring on this surface. chronological order
of rock units.
Some period of geologic
time was not recorded at unconformity: the
contact between
the surface. The “missing” an earlier rock and
time might be as short as younger sedimentary
thousands of years. However, and/or volcanic layers.
it is usually much longer. It can
be hundreds of thousands to
many millions of years long.
At some unconformities, more
than a billion years of Earth
history is not recorded.
Figures 4a–b show
two common kinds of
unconformity. In Figure 4a,
younger sedimentary rock is Figure 4a An unconformity in which the older,
resting on an older one. The underlying rocks are at a different angle
older one was folded. Then than the younger, overlying rocks is called an
it eroded down. This occurred angular unconformity.
before conditions changed
and more sediment was
deposited. In Figure 4b,
a younger sedimentary
succession is resting on an
intrusive body of granite.
The granite was placed
deep in Earth. Erosion later
wore down the land surface
to the level of the granite
intrusion. Then conditions
changed for some reason.
Sediment was deposited on
the previously eroded surface.
These examples show that
an unconformity can be
very helpful in interpreting Figure 4b An unconformity developed when
geologic history. older igneous rocks were exposed to erosion
before sedimentary rocks covered them is
called a nonconformity.
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The Use of Fossils in Dating Geologic Successions

As you have read, fossils represent the remains of once-living organisms.
Most fossils are the remains of organisms that are extinct. This means that
they are no longer living anywhere on Earth. Fossil records help to mark
the divisions within the geologic time scale. These divisions are largely
Geo Words based on the appearance and disappearance of specific species of fossils.
principle of faunal
succession: the kinds Scientists use fossils to find information about the ages of rocks. To help
of animals and plants them do this, they have developed the principle of faunal succession. This
found as fossils states that because life on Earth has changed through time, the kinds of
change through time. fossils found in rocks of different ages will also differ. This means that when
When the same kinds
of fossils in rocks are the same kinds of fossils are found in rocks from different places, then those
found from different rocks are the same age. Therefore, if the age range of fossils contained in a
places, the rocks are rock are known then the age of that rock can be determined.
the same age.
Figure 5 Species of mollusks used as index fossils to identify specific periods of

geologic time.
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Fossils that lived for narrow time spans are very important. They can
be used to indicate very specific periods in geologic time. These are Geo Words
known as index fossils. Examples of index fossils are shown in Figure 5. index fossil: a fossil
The presence of a key index fossil in a rock reveals the date of the rock. with narrow age
For example, the trilobite Paradoxides pinus indicates that a rock was range and a wide
distribution that can
deposited between the Ordovician and Cambrian Periods. be used to date rocks.
Most often, rocks contain several fossils without an index fossil. In that biostratigraphy:
case, scientists look at the overlap in the age ranges of the fossils. They the study of and
try to find the period when all the fossils existed at the same time. In differentiation of rock
units based on the
this way, they are able to narrow down the ages of these rocks. This fossils they contain.
approach to finding the relative ages of rocks is called biostratigraphy.
Figure 6 shows the history of five fossils. It illustrates how biostratigraphy
is used to determine the age ranges of three fossil-bearing rocks.
Figure 6 A hypothetical example of the age ranges of five fossils. The ranges are:
Fossil A is Silurian to Ordovician; Fossil B is Cretaceous to Devonian; Fossil C is
Quaternary to Ordovician; Fossil D is Jurassic to Silurian; and Fossil E is Tertiary to
Jurassic. The age ranges of the rocks are: Rock A is Silurian to Ordovician; Rock B is
Cretaceous to Jurassic; and Rock C is Jurassic to Devonian.
Species that make good index fossils have the following characteristics:
• well preserved so they are easy to find
• distinctive body shapes that make them easy to recognize
• large populations so they are abundant
• a widespread distribution that allows for distant locations to
be compared
• existing for relatively short periods of time that indicate
precise ages
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Index fossils are often from animal species that had hard, exterior bodies.
Also, the best index fossils are from animals that lived mainly on or near
the seafloor. The water would also need to be quite calm. For these
reasons, the most common index fossils are marine mollusks. Figure 5
shows many of the different kinds of mollusks used to identify the ages
of rock layers. For example, in sedimentary rocks from the Jurassic and
Triassic Periods, the flat spiraled shells of ammonites are common. They
evolved very rapidly. They could also be found throughout the oceans
during these periods. As a result, they are very useful for comparing the
ages of rocks on all the continents. Earlier than the Paleozoic Era, the
trilobites achieved similar success. They are an index fossil for sedimentary
layers dating back to 520 million years.
Fossils can be used to find the relative age of the rock layers in which
they occur. Then the age can be correlated to other sequences containing
similar layers. Following this approach, a longer sequence can be
constructed from many smaller sequences. Look at Figure 7. The oldest
rocks in Outcrop B appear at its base. The mollusks they contain are the
same age as those at the top of Outcrop A. Therefore, the lower layers in
Outcrop A may provide insight into the geologic history below the oldest
layer of Outcrop B. On the other hand, Outcrop C can be correlated to the
top of Outcrop B. It reveals a younger part of the stratigraphic column.
Figure 7 Biostratigraphic correlation of rock layers from different places using the ages
of fossils found within the layers.
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There are a number of different

reasons scientists want to know
the age of rocks. For instance, this
information is used to predict the
locations of coal and minerals.
It is also used to reconstruct the
geologic history of an area. For
example, scientists have correlated
rock layers in Chesapeake Bay on
the mid-Atlantic coast. This has
helped them determine how this
bay was formed. They determined
that 35 million years ago a Figure 8 The meteorite impact site that
meteorite hit the area. (See formed the Chesapeake Bay.
Figure 8.) It created a massive
impact crater. They found that before the impact, sedimentary
layers extended laterally for long distances. After the impact, these
sedimentary layers were disrupted. (See Figure 9.) They were disrupted
by several faults along the rim of the crater. Using index fossils, they
observed that along these faults, younger layers were moved against
older layers in the sequence. The main impact structure is now buried
beneath sediments in the bay.
Checking Up
1. What causes uplift
and subsidence?
2. How do
unconformities form?
3. Define and explain
two of the major
principles used by
Figure 9 Faults along the rim of the crater disrupted the geologists to
sedimentary beds. The original stratigraphic sequence was interpret the rock
reconstructed using fossils.
record.
4. What is an index
fossil?
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• When you are studying rocks at an outcrop in your community, and you identify two
different rock units, how can you tell which is older and which is younger?
Record your ideas about this question now. Be sure your answer includes the basic
principles used to determine the relative ages of rock units.

In the Investigate and in the Digging Deeper, you read about how geologists can use
the relationships of rock units and geologic features, such as folds or faults, to interpret
an area’s geologic history. You then applied basic principles to interpret the history
of a geologically complex cross section. These are important concepts and skills to
communicate in your museum exhibit. You will need to help your exhibit visitors apply
the basic principles of relative geologic time so that they can understand the geologic
history of your local area and region.

1. Can you think of a situation in which the Principle of Superposition does not work
(that is, when the oldest rocks are on top)?
2. Can the Principle of Original Horizontality be applied to metamorphic rocks? Explain
your answer.
3. Examine your state geologic map and geologic cross sections.
a) Which rock unit near your community is the oldest? Use the legend on the map
and the geologic time scale on the next page to estimate an age range for this rock.
b) Which rock unit near your community is the youngest? Use the legend and the
geologic time scale to estimate an age range for this rock.
c) If there are any faults or folds in your area, when did they occur relative to the
surrounding rocks?
d) Is there evidence for any unconformities near your community? If so, use the
legend and geologic time scale to estimate the length of time that is not recorded.
4. Why are index fossils useful for the study of sedimentary layers of the same rock type
on either side of a suspected fault or unconformity?
5. Examine Figure 6 from the Digging Deeper. Give a relative age range for a rock that
contains fossils B, C, D, and E.
To help prepare your museum exhibit, use the techniques that you have learned to
prepare a chronological list (oldest to youngest) of geologic events that have occurred
in your local area and in your region. Be sure to include the order in which rocks
formed, as well as when events such as folding or faulting may have occurred.
Remember to ask yourself the question: “What was there first?” Think about how you
could display this graphically in your exhibit so that it catches visitors’ eyes and makes
them want to know more.
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Inquiring Further
1. Dating techniques
In this section, you have read about how to tell the relative age of rocks from their
relationships to each other. Geologists also use other techniques to determine the ages
of rocks. Research radiometric dating and describe how it is used and how it differs
from the techniques that you learned in this section. Be sure to cite the sources you
used in your research and discuss how you evaluated their reliability.
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Section 8 Geology of the United States

What Do You See?

In this section, you will The oldest rocks that have been found on Earth are almost four
• Determine the ages of the billion years old.
rocks of the United States.
• If you were instantly transported to another part of the United
• Understand the general
geology of the United States.
States and given only a geologic map, how could you find your
way home using only the local bedrock as your guide?
• Examine the major
physiographic provinces Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include
in the United States. a quick sketch. Be prepared to discuss your responses with your
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will explore two kinds of maps that
describe the geologic history of the United States. You will begin
by studying a geologic map of the United States. You will then
compare what you learn from that map with one showing the
physiographic regions of our country.
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Part A: Bedrock Geology of the these boundaries on a blank map of

United States the United States. The boundaries
1. In your small group, start by examining can be somewhat approximate
the geologic map of the United States in their positions. Use a pencil to
shown on the next page. The map draw the boundaries, because you
shows bedrock by geologic age. Using will probably change your mind a
the legend of the map, identify all the number of times and need to erase
areas of the United States with the some lines.
following ages: Precambrian, Paleozoic, b) Using colored pencils, make each of
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. For the the major divisions of geologic time
subdivisions of these major time the following colors:
divisions, refer to the geologic time • Precambrian, red
scale in the previous section. These • Paleozoic, yellow
major divisions of geologic time include
all of Earth’s history, so all areas of the • Mesozoic, blue
United States fall into one of them. • Cenozoic, green
Like other skilled professionals c) For complex regions, do not try to
(for example, surgeons, engineers, duplicate the patterns that you see.
carpenters, and auto mechanics), Instead, simplify them by drawing
geologists try to think carefully about a single region and coloring it with
a project before they begin to work on “candy cane” stripes of colors that
it. Inspect the map very carefully before correspond to the range of ages
you begin your work. Try not to feel that are represented in that region.
overwhelmed by all the detail you see Geologists know that there is no
on the map. You will see that in some single “right” answer. Some of
parts of the United States, large regions you will decide to generalize more
have rocks that fall into only one of the than others.
major age divisions. In such regions, 3. After your group has finished the
the geology is likely to be fairly simple. map, compare it with maps made by
In other regions, the geology is very other groups. As a class, discuss the
complicated and there are many differences among the maps made by
small areas with bedrock of very different groups.
different ages.
a) Record the major differences in
2. Geologists often need to make your log.
generalizations so that they can see
patterns that hide in masses of detail. 4. Use the simplified geologic map of the
In this exercise, you will need to make United States that you have made to
generalizations when you are working answer the following questions:
with regions of the United States with a) Can you detect any system or
complex geology. regularity to the pattern of colors?
a) Use the geologic map of the United In your log, describe what you see.
States to estimate the position What do you think might have
of boundaries between areas caused such a pattern?
with bedrock of the following b) In what regions did you have to
ages: Precambrian, Paleozoic, make the greatest generalizations?
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Draw Why do you think that is the case?
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Geologic map of the United States.
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5. For each of the major time divisions, Part B: The Geology of the
make a survey of the kinds of rocks Physiographic Regions of the
it contains. To do this, you need to United States
examine the various areas of the 1. Below is a list of several of the major
geologic map and then use the legend physiographic regions of the United
to get an idea of the general rock type States.
present (sedimentary, intrusive igneous,
volcanic igneous, or metamorphic). 1 Eastern Coastal Plain
2 Allegheny Plateau
a) In your log, make a list of the most 3 Valley and Ridge
common rock types found in each of
the major geologic time divisions. 4 Blue Ridge Province
5 Piedmont
b) Where are the oldest rocks in the 6 Central Lowland
United States? What kind of rocks
are they? 7 Great Plains
8 Rocky Mountains
c) Where are the youngest rocks in the
9 Colorado Plateau
United States? What kind of rocks
are they? 10 Basin and Range
11 Columbia Plateau
12 Sierra Nevada
13 Pacific Border
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a) Compare the geologic map of the

United States and the map outlining
the major physiographic regions
of the United States. In your log,
describe the geologic characteristics
of each of the physiographic regions.
Focus on the rock types of the
region, the ages of the rocks in the
region, and the map pattern of the
rock units in the region.
2. You can use what you have learned so
far about how different rock types form
and how they are exposed at Earth’s
surface to interpret the geologic history
of the major physiographic regions of
the United States.
a) In your log, write a brief geologic
history of each region. Focus on how
the rocks present may have formed,
how they may have been exposed so
that they are visible today, and where
the regions lie geographically (on the
coast, in the mountains, and so on).
Digging Deeper
EARTH’S CONTINENTS
In the Investigate, you examined a geologic map of the United States.
You explored what you could learn about the country’s geologic history
from this map. You then looked at a map of the physiographic regions
of the United States. You compared the information on the two maps.
This comparison helped you to understand that North America has a very
long geologic history. The same is true of Earth’s other major continents.
Rocks as old as three billion years are found on all of the continents.
In some places, rocks almost four billion years old are still preserved. In
earlier sections in this chapter, you read about the processes that shape
the geology of the continents. These processes operate on time scales that
are much shorter than the total span of geologic time. That is why the
geology of the continents is so complex. The processes have had so long
to operate.
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Until the 1960s, most geologists thought that Earth’s continents

have always stayed in the same place. Geologists now know that the
continents have moved relative to each other. One continent can be split
apart into two or more continents. Two or more continents can collide
to form a single continent. The processes that cause these changes in Geo Words
continents are called plate tectonics. plate tectonics: a
theory in which the
North America has not always looked the way it does today. About 200 lithosphere is divided
million years ago, North America was part of a single giant continent. into a number of
You need to realize that 200 million years is a short time, geologically plates that move
relative to one
speaking. This giant continent was called Pangea. Then Pangea split another.
apart. The pieces drifted apart from one another to form today’s
Pangea: Earth’s
arrangement of continents. The present outline of North America is most recent
in a sense just an “accident.” It resulted from how Pangea split apart. supercontinent, which
was rifted apart
about 200 million
years ago.
continental accretion:
the growth of a
continent along
its edges.
Figure 1 Generally accepted reconstruction of Pangea, in the Permian

Period of geologic time, 250 million years ago.
The Canadian Shield is shown in Figure 2 on the next page. The Canadian
Shield seems to be the nucleus of North America. It is composed of
granite and gneiss. The rocks in this area are 3.5–3.7 billion years old.
They extend down into the northern United States, near Wisconsin and
Minnesota. Throughout later geologic time, more rocks were added
to North America around that old Precambrian nucleus. The process is
called continental accretion. Continental accretion is the result of the
movement and collision of Earth’s lithospheric plates. For a long time,
geologists were frustrated. They could not account for how North
America developed through geologic time. The development of the
theory of plate tectonics was a big step forward.
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Figure 2 The Canadian Shield is composed of very old igneous rocks and forms
the nucleus of the North American continent.
Long, narrow mountain ranges are found in many areas on Earth. There
are two major mountain ranges in North America. One is the Appalachian
mountain range. It is located in eastern North America. (See Figure 3.)
The other one is the Cordilleran mountain range. It is located in western
North America. The geology of such mountain ranges is very complex. It
involves many processes related with the collision of lithospheric plates.
These include uplift, subsidence, erosion, deposition, deformation,
metamorphism, igneous intrusion, and volcanism.
Figure 3 The Appalachian Mountains are a continuous range stretching from

southern Canada to Georgia.
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Between the major mountain ranges of North America, the crust is very
stable. Folding, faulting, and igneous activity are uncommon. At certain
times in the geologic past, the sea level was quite low. During that time,
this large central area underwent slow erosion. At other times, the sea
level was quite high. During that time, a shallow sea covered more than
half of North America. It was no deeper than a few hundred meters.
The area received widespread thin layers of sediment. The sediment was
eroded from the mountains to the east and west. Do you find it difficult
to believe that a sea covered North America? There is evidence for such a
sea. Marine animals like mollusks have been found in flat-lying shales and
limestones in places such as Iowa.
Checking Up
1. Explain the process
by which new
material is added
to a continent.
2. What is the
name of the
supercontinent that
existed 200 million
years ago?
3. Explain why
the geology of
continents is so
complex.
Figure 4 What kinds of rocks do you think are found below the flat-lying 4. What types of
landscapes of Kansas? rocks would you
expect to find in
Nebraska?

• If you were instantly transported to another part of the United States and
given only a geologic map, how could you find your way home using only
the local bedrock as your guide?
Record your ideas about this question now. Describe the general geology and
the major physiographic regions of the United States in your answer.
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As you design your museum exhibit, you will need to demonstrate how the geology and
geologic history of your region fits into the larger geology and geologic history of the
United States. You can use maps to show visitors how your region’s geology is similar
to and different from other parts of the country. You might also want to use an audio
recording to explain and give reasons for these similarities and differences. In this way,
you can highlight the role of tectonic forces in forming your region and other places in
the United States.
Marble being extracted from a quarry.
1. Locate your community (or state) on the geologic map of the United States.
a) How does the age of the rocks near your community (or state) compare with the
age of the surrounding rock units?
b) How does the size (surface area) of the rock units near your community compare
with the size of other units in the United States? How do you explain the difference?
c) How does the general shape of the rock units near your community compare
with the general shape of other units in the United States? How do you explain
the difference?
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2. a) What are the most common rock types exposed at the surface in the United States?
b) How might you explain the reasons for your answer?
3. From the results you obtained in the Investigate, do you think that the United States
has grown, shrunk, or stayed about the same size through geologic time?
In your exhibit, you will want to include information about what makes the geologic
history of your region unique. Write a paragraph or two that you could include as
background information for your exhibit.
Inquiring Further
1. Development of the Appalachian Mountains
Do some research on the Internet or at the library on the history of development
of the Appalachian Mountains. When and how were the mountains formed?
The Appalachian Mountains.
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Earth/Space Science
Minerals
You Learned
Minerals are crystalline solids which have definite chemical compositions that can be expressed
as a formula of elemental symbols (such as SiO2 , Ag, or CaCO3). The atoms in minerals are
arranged in a regular three-dimensional array called a crystal structure.
The properties of the atoms in a mineral, as well as their geometrical arrangement, affect the
color, shape, hardness, and other properties of the mineral.
Mineral tests include color, crystal shape, streak, hardness, cleavage, luster, and specific gravity.
Other tests can be performed on special properties, for example, conductivity.
Types of Rocks
Igneous rocks are made of interlocking crystals of minerals that cool and crystallize out of
magma (molten rock).
Magmas can cool and solidify before they reach the surface to form intrusive igneous rocks
with coarse-grained textures.
Lava that reaches the surface cools to form extrusive igneous rocks with fine-grained textures.
Igneous rocks are classified according to the abundance of dark and light minerals. The
minerals in igneous rocks indicate the kind of tectonic setting in which they form. For example,
dark black to dark green basaltic rock is indicative of the melting of oceanic crust.
Clastic sedimentary rocks contain fragments of rocks and minerals that have been physically
transported and deposited and converted into rock.
Organic sedimentary rocks contain the remains of plants and animals that have been converted
into rock.
Chemical sedimentary rocks form from the direct precipitation of minerals from a solution.
Sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks can be metamorphosed (turned into a metamorphic rock)
if they are subjected to high temperatures and/or pressures.
Metamorphism occurs while the rock is still solid, before the temperature becomes so high that
part of the rock melts.
Metamorphic rocks have distinctive textures that often exhibit special layers and overgrown
crystals. Layering can occur in rocks that originally did not contain any linear structures.
Geologic Maps
A geologic map shows the distribution of bedrock that is either at Earth’s surface or covered by
a thin layer of soil or very recent sediment.
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Rock Units
Rock bodies that are formed during the same process are called rock units. Like rocks, they can
be igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic in origin.
Rock units usually cover large areas, often hundreds or thousands of square meters, or in some
cases, tens of square kilometers. Typically, they are much wider than they are deep.
Structural Geology
Tectonic plates move very slowly (2 to 20 cm/yr), but over spans of hundreds to thousands of
years, great forces build up in Earth’s crust. Three different kinds of forces can cause rocks to
deform: tension forces, compression forces, and shear forces.
The tilting of rock layers is a sign that they have been deformed by forces acting within Earth.
A fracture surface along which rocks slip is called a fault. There are four types of faults: normal
faults, reverse faults, thrust faults, and strike-slip faults. Each type is defined by its movement.
Movement on faults usually occurs suddenly after a long time without any movement. The
forces that cause the faulting build up very slowly and when they become greater than the
strength of the rock, the fault moves.
Folds are usually formed when rocks are squeezed together by compressive forces. Folds are
especially common when the rock is layered, such as sedimentary rock.
The parts of the folds that are concave upward are called synclines and the parts of the folds
that are convex upward are called anticlines. Folds in rocks can be as small as a few centimeters
to as large as many kilometers.
Reading Geologic History

Geologists apply several basic principles in the interpretation of geologic maps and cross
sections. One of these, the Principle of Superposition, states that younger sedimentary and
volcanic rocks are deposited on top of older rocks.
The Principle of Original Horizontality states that sedimentary and volcanic rocks are laid
down in nearly horizontal layers.
The Principle of Lateral Continuity states that sedimentary and volcanic rocks are laid down in
layers that are usually much greater in lateral extent than in thickness.
The Principle of Crosscutting Relationships states that if one rock unit or geologic feature cuts
across another rock unit or geologic feature, it was formed later in geologic time.
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Earth/Space Science
Chapter Challenge
You will now be completing a second cycle of
the Engineering Design Cycle as you prepare for Inputs
the Chapter Challenge. The goals and criteria You now have additional
remain unchanged. However, your list of Inputs information to help you develop
has grown. your exhibit. You have completed
all the sections of this chapter
and learned the content and vocabulary you need
to complete your challenge. This is part of the
Inputs phase of the Engineering Design Cycle.
Your group needs to include these concepts in the
development of your project. You also have the
additional Input of the Feedback you received
following your Mini-Challenge presentation. In
this chapter, you learned how to look deeper into
the geologic history of your community.
Section 1 You observed the properties of crystals
and mineral samples. You then used a set of
observations and tests to identify minerals.
Section 2 You examined the properties of a set of
igneous rocks and used a geologic map of your
Goal area to locate igneous rocks.
Your challenge for this chapter Section 3 You ran models that showed how
is to design a museum exhibit sedimentary rocks are formed and then examined
that gets the general public samples of actual sedimentary rocks. Finally, you
excited about the geologic used a geologic map of your region to identify and
history of your community. Your exhibit should locate sedimentary rocks in your area.
demonstrate how the geologic history of your
region illustrates that Earth is a system. You are Section 4 You examined the properties of
to do this by showing how the surface features metamorphic rocks, then made and used a model
relate to a long geologic history and how tectonic of how rocks change their shape, or deform,
processes control the formation of crustal rocks. during metamorphism. Finally, you used a
Your exhibit must also show how your local geologic map to locate metamorphic rocks in
geology fits into the wider geologic history of your local area and wider region.
your state and region. Section 5 You explored rock units by investigating
In the Mini-Challenge, you considered the large areas of similar rock types on maps and
formation of igneous, sedimentary, and cross sections of Georgia and Alabama.
metamorphic rocks as part of your local Section 6 You observed models of folds and
geology. You started identifying rock units and faults in rock layers. You then compared these
the variation in their sizes and shapes in your models to what you could see in geologic maps
region and their formation over geologic time. In and cross sections.
designing your exhibit, you began thinking about
how to communicate your information. You Section 7 You used models and cross sections to
researched methods that museums use to educate study the ages of rock layers.
visitors. You selected a method that you think Section 8 You explored what two different maps
best informs the public about the geologic history could tell you about the geologic history of the
of your region, delivers content, and is attractive United States.
to a teenage audience. Review the Goal as a
class to make sure that you are familiar with all
the criteria and constraints.
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Now you must apply your new knowledge and region is so stable. Think about the oldest rocks
skills to consider how your local geology fits in your area and use words, pictures, or videos
into the geology of the United States. You should in your exhibit to describe any deformation they
interpret the geologic history of your area using might have undergone.
the relationship between rock units and structural Think about how you could model the way
features, such as folds, faults, and unconformities, forces on rocks cause the rocks to bend, fold, or
while applying the basic principles of relative fracture. Help the museum visitors understand
geologic time. Finally, you should relate the that changes within Earth’s crust can cause folds
geologic history of your region to motion in and fractures, an important part of the geologic
Earth’s crust. history of your community. In the last part of your
exhibit, use the past and the present to make a
Process reasonable prediction for the future so that your
In the Process phase, you need exhibit can portray the next chapter in the geologic
to decide what information development of your region. Make sure that every
you have that you will use to member of your group is included in the process
meet the Goal and complete the and knows how he or she will be contributing to
design for your museum exhibit. You will want to the development of the exhibit.
include information about what makes the geologic
history of your region unique. You will need to Outputs
demonstrate how the geology and geologic history
Presenting your exhibit to
of your region fits into the larger geology and
the class is your design-cycle
geologic history of the United States. You may
Output. Try to create an exhibit
want to use maps to show visitors how your
that is engaging and interesting
local geology is similar to and different from
as well as informative. Make sure that your facts
other parts of the country. You might also want
are correct and reexamine the concepts listed in
to use an audiotape to explain these similarities
Earth/Space Science You Learned at the end of
and differences and give reasons for them. In
the chapter to be sure that you have addressed
this way, you can highlight the role of tectonic
all the principles related to minerals, rocks,
forces in forming your region and other places
structures, and the geologic history of your
in the United States.
community.
You may want to use the techniques that you
have learned to prepare a chronological list
(oldest to youngest) of geologic events that have Feedback
occurred in your local area and state. Be sure to Your classmates will give you
include the order in which rocks formed, as well Feedback on the accuracy
as when events like folding or faulting may have and overall appeal of your
occurred. Think about how you could display exhibit based on the criteria
this graphically in your exhibit so that it catches of the design challenge and the Goal set at the
visitors’ eyes and makes them want to know more. beginning of the chapter. This Feedback could
Help visitors to interpret the geologic history be useful for additional design revisions. No
of your local area and state in terms of motion design is perfect because there is always room
in Earth’s crust. Use your knowledge of how for optimization or improvement, no matter
crustal movements result in faults and folds. how slight. From your experience with the
If your area has not undergone a great deal of Mini-Challenge you should see how you could
deformation, try to explain why you think your continuously refine almost any idea.
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Earth/Space Science
Systems Thinking
Revisit the Big Ideas in Minerals, Rocks, and Structures
Minerals, rocks, and structures offer good practice for systems thinking. In the last chapter,
you explored the tectonic system. This is a very large part of the geosphere. In this chapter, you
examined the geosphere at various scales. You looked at it from the smaller-scale systems of rocks
and minerals. You also examined larger systems of rock bodies, rock-forming environments, and
continental-scale geology.
If you look at the tectonic system, at a large scale, you can see systems such as the crust. At a
much smaller scale there are atoms, the building block of the minerals that form rocks. At a very
small scale, you see that atoms are also systems with well-defined structure and organization.
Microscopic rock grains and mountains represent two different scales of the tectonic system.
Igneous rocks are the by-products of tectonic and mantle processes. The physical environment
plays a role in the change of matter in the igneous rock-forming system. There are many tectonic
settings. Thus, there are many igneous rock-forming environments. As a result, there are different
igneous rocks. These differences provide clues about how other parts of the Earth system are
connected. Igneous rocks can form in air, beneath the ground, and in water.
Sedimentary rocks form in many different surface environments. Fragments of pre-existing rocks
are deposited by rivers, glaciers, waves, winds, and mass movements. These fragments can be
transported through many different systems before being deposited. Deposition usually occurs
when there is a drop in energy. The formation of sedimentary rocks provides many different
examples for the transformation of matter in the rock cycle.
Metamorphic rocks form as a result of changes to existing igneous and sedimentary rocks as well
as other metamorphic rocks. A good way to identify processes in systems is to look for things that
change. Rock material is altered as a result of added pressure and temperature. However, there is
never enough heat for melting to occur. It takes a lot of energy to transform solid rocks.
Forces in Earth’s crust can also change the geometry of bodies of rock. When layers of rock are
compressed, they can buckle to form folds or fracture to form faults. This system is governed by
rock mechanics.
Geoscientists often examine various spatial scales to understand how rock units fit into the
broader geologic setting. For example, they might choose to examine the deformation of
mineral grains in the roots of mountains. At a larger scale, the structures of folds containing
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deformed rocks become important. Finally, the regional stress field in relation to the movement of
lithospheric plates might be considered. As the spatial scale becomes larger, the number of parts
and processes in the system becomes greater.
Earth’s geologic history is recorded in the geologic record composed of rocks and fossils.
Geoscientists examine the record across varying time scales. A single layer of rock might reveal the
flood stage of a river. More layers could indicate cyclical flooding within a drainage basin. Over
even longer time scales, a cap of mudstone might reveal that an area was impounded by a lake.
Changes in rock units are driven by changes in rock-forming environments. These are controlled by
major processes in the Earth system. Very large-scale changes are often recorded by the differences
in the biosphere.

1. What are the major parts of minerals, rocks, and structures? Describe each part and
its location.
Thinking about the parts of minerals, rocks, and structures will help you to think about
the structure of the system(s) you are examining. Describe the nature of the parts.
2. What are the major processes involved in the formation of minerals, rocks,
and structures?
Asking questions such as, “How do minerals form?” or “What happens to rocks in
subduction zones?” helps you to figure out the operation of the system(s) you are
studying. The same method can be applied to larger or smaller systems. You might also
want to think about how one part of the system affects another. This will help you to
better understand interactions within the system.
a) Describe major ways that matter changes through the formation of minerals,
rocks, and structures.
Matter lies at the heart of systems. It often moves from one place to another. It also
changes sometimes between states of matter or in other physical ways.
b) Describe the role of energy in the formation of minerals, rocks, and structures.
Energy drives systems. All systems require a source of energy to operate. As systems
do work, energy from the source is transformed to different kinds of energy.
3. Over which spatial scales does the formation of minerals, rocks, and structures operate?
Scientists also like to look at different scales in the same system to seek patterns about
how things work. Rock-forming systems often contain many smaller systems. What
factors govern the largest scale systems that form minerals, rocks, and structures?
Bigger systems cover larger regions, typically have more parts, and process more
matter. They require a large and continuous source of energy.
4. Across what time scales does the formation of minerals, rocks, and structures operate?
Asking questions such as, “How long does it take to for gneiss to form?” or “At what
rate does sediment build up at coastal and deep marine environments?” helps you
think more closely about the rates at which systems operate.
5. How does the formation of minerals, rocks, and structures affect your community?
Humans live on the surface of the continents. The geology of your local area fits into a
broader geologic pattern for your region. Geologic structures and rock type affect the
operation of surface processes and the provision of natural resources. Think about how
the natural environment has affected the location of where you live.
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Earth/Space Science
Minerals Chemistry Limestone, chalk, and dolomite are
chemical sedimentary rocks and Earth’s greatest
Biology Weathered rock particles supply
store of carbon. Calcareous sediments form
minerals to soils. Layered sheet silicate
mostly as sediments or in shells and skeletal
minerals, commonly referred to as clays, are
material formed from carbon dioxide dissolved
important soil components for the supply of
in seawater.
nutrients to plants.
Physics Sediments that are buried deep in
Chemistry Minerals have characteristic
the crust are compressed by overlying rocks
chemical compositions and highly ordered
and sediments. As a result of the overburden
atomic structures. Minerals range from
pressure, particles are pressed together and
simple elements to very complex chemical
water is squeezed out of pore cavities.
compositions. The chemical properties of
minerals allow them to be used for many Structural Geology
different purposes. Biology Fossils in sedimentary rocks are used to
Read more about the structure of the atom in determine the relative ages of rock layers. Under
Extending the Connection normal conditions, older fossils appear lower in
a rock sequence than younger ones.
Physics Rocks become metamorphosed as a
result of changes in pressure and temperature. Chemistry The bending and breaking of rocks
The behaviors of minerals are well known by forces within the crust creates openings
and can be used to indicate the environment through which fluids can flow. Magma is 3–8
in which they formed. Distinctive pressure- percent water by weight and supplies hot fluids
and temperature-sensitive minerals give some that are rich in dissolved minerals. Hot water
rocks their color. and dissolved minerals rise toward the surface
through fractures.
Igneous Rocks Physics Rocks deform when stress is applied to
Biology Soils that develop on volcanic rocks them. Deformation results in elastic recoverable
are responsible for supporting 10 percent strain, ductile or plastic nonrecoverable strain,
of the world’s population. The physical and brittle failure.
breakdown and chemical weathering of Geology of the United States
volcanic rocks have formed some of the most
fertile soils on Earth. Biology The effect of elevation upon climate plays
Chemistry The mineralogy of igneous rocks an important role in the ecology of mountain
depends on the chemistry of the magma from environments. Flora and fauna in the lower
which they grow. For example, dark magmas, valleys of mountainous regions are adapted to
rich in iron and magnesium minerals, are warmer conditions, while those in the upper parts
characteristic of mantle settings where the of mountains are adapted to colder conditions.
rocks of the ocean floor are derived. Chemistry North America’s rich geologic history
Physics Earth’s mantle is composed of dense has led to a great diversity of rocks within
igneous rocks. In recent years, geologists the continent. Some rocks contain minerals
have explored the mantle using seismic of industrial and economic importance. It is
tomography. This technology works in a estimated that each American uses more than
similar way as CAT scans and X-rays. 18,100 kg of new minerals every year.
Sedimentary Rocks Physics The continental ice sheets that covered
North America some 20,000 years ago warped
Biology Sedimentary rock-forming processes the crust downward. The melting of this ice has
record evidence of the evolution and “unloaded” the crust, causing it to rise slowly
history of the biosphere, from the faintest above the mantle. This process continues until
impressions of soft-bodied organisms there is equilibrium.
from the Precambrian explosion to the
replacement of gigantic sauropod bones by
mineral-rich fluids.
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STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

To understand the structure of minerals, you must understand the structure of the
atom. You read that some minerals are elements. An element is any material that
cannot be broken down into simpler materials. All matter is made up of elements.
There are only a little more than 100 different kinds of chemical elements. This is an
amazing discovery in chemistry. Everything you observe in the world is made up of
different combinations of 100 elements. Gold (Au) and iron (Fe) are just two examples
of minerals that are elements.
An atom is the smallest representative part of an element. The model of the atom has
changed over the years, as scientists from different parts of the world worked on the
development of the atomic theory. The idea of an atom first was proposed by the
ancient Greek, Democritus. He believed that matter was made up of tiny particles that
could not be broken down further. He called the particles atoms, from the Greek word
atomos, meaning indivisible.
In the late 1800s, J. J. Thomson, an English physicist, found evidence for the existence
of negatively charged particles that could be removed from atoms. He called these
subatomic particles with negative charges electrons. Using this new information,
Thomson then proposed a model of an atom. This model was a positive sphere, with
electrons evenly distributed and embedded in it. Using the same evidence, H. Nagaoka,
a Japanese scientist, modeled the atom as a large, positively charged sphere surrounded
by a ring of negative electrons. These models show that scientists agreed that atoms
contain electrons. They also agreed that atoms were electrically neutral. To maintain
this electric neutrality, an atom must contain an equal number of positive and
negative charges.
Although the Thomson and Nagaoka model of the atom

appear different, they agreed that the atom was neutral
and therefore must contain an equal number of positive
and negative charges.
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For several years there was no evidence to contradict either

Thomson’s or Nagaoka’s atomic models. However, in the early
1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born scientist, designed
experiments to test the current model of an atom. From his
experiment, he discovered that there must be tiny places in atoms
containing lots of charge and mass. He concluded that almost all
The Rutherford
the mass and all of the positive charge of the atom is concentrated
model of the atom. in an extremely small part at the center. He called this center part
the nucleus. He used the term proton to name the smallest unit of
positive charge in the nucleus.
Although scientists knew that electrons were “very, very tiny,” it took the work of the
American physicist, Robert Millikan to actually measure the mass of an electron.
Although the proton and electron have the same amount of charge, he found the electron
to be only 1/2000 of the mass of a proton.
Niels Bohr was a brilliant Danish
physicist. He proposed a “planetary”
model of the atom. He theorized that
electrons travel in nearly circular paths,
called orbits, around the nucleus. Each
electron orbit has a definite amount of
energy. The farther away the electron is
from the nucleus, the greater its energy.
Bohr suggested the revolutionary idea that When an atom absorbs or gives off energy (as
electrons “jump” between energy levels in light or heat), the electron jumps to higher or
(orbits) in a quantum fashion. This means lower orbits.
that they can never exist in an in-between
state. Electrons are the most stable when
they are at lower energy levels closer to the nucleus.
Bohr was aware that his theory of electron jumps had incredible success but also raised
some problems. His theory could only account for the observations for hydrogen. It could
not account for any other element. His theory could not explain why only certain orbits
were allowed. It could also not explain how the electron could jump from one orbit to
another. Other scientists improved on Bohr’s model as they discovered more about the atom
and quantum mechanics. You will learn more about these improved models in other science
courses, or you may wish to continue your investigation on the Internet.
Although early models of the nucleus included the proton, the proton alone could not
account for certain observations about the mass of different elements. Rutherford (after
discovering that atoms had a nucleus) addressed this problem. He suggested that another
particle was present in the nucleus with about the same mass as the proton but no electric
charge. He named this particle the neutron.
The English scientist J. Chadwick confirmed the presence of this particle in 1932. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for his discovery. This discovery added a great
deal to the understanding of the nucleus of the atom. Scientists today refer to protons and
neutrons as nucleons. They both reside in the nucleus and are almost identical in mass.
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Earth/Space Science
At Work
and to Minerals, Rocks, and Structures?
ATMOSPHERE: Timber BIOSPHERE: Carpenter

Industry A carpenter is a skilled craftsperson
The timber industry is concerned who works with wood to build
with the quality and quantity structures on various kinds of
of wood that can responsibly be landscape. People like to build their
harvested. The type of soil as well homes in many different places. The
as acid rain can have a significant carpenter who frames the house
impact on the growth of a forest. must rely on a firm foundation on
Trees in high mountain regions are which to erect the structure.
often subject to greater amounts of
acid rain which dissolves nutrients
and minerals in the soil that are
important for tree growth and the
quality of wood.
CRYOSPHERE: Polar
Helicopter Pilot
Helicopter pilots who fly research
expeditions to remote polar
regions rarely have the luxury of
permanent landing pads. Landing
sites are often determined by where
the pilot thinks they can safely
set the helicopter down. This
involves being able to “read” the
topography and structures in river
systems that are covered with ice
and glacial sediments.
GEOSPHERE: Geographic HYDROSPHERE: Travel Agent

Information Systems Over five million people a year visit
Technician the Grand Canyon National Park
A GIS technician maintains data in Arizona. A variety of igneous,
sets of bedrock geology. Part of metamorphic, and sedimentary
the technician’s job is to convert rocks can be found there and when
information on maps and surveys sunlight illuminates the red rocks
into data sources and information for which the canyon is especially
systems that may be accessed by known, the view is stunning. Travel
many people for a large variety of agents know that the Grand Canyon
purposes. A GIS technician must is unmatched in the spectacular
also read topographical maps and views it offers to visitors.
interpret data from geological
surveys, satellite images, and even
infrared photographs.
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Earth/Space Science
Practice Test
Content Review
1. Several lunar missions have collected rocks 6. While exploring you find a piece of soft
from the Moon. When scientists analyze black rock that contains an imprint of a
Moon rocks, which of the following is not leaf. To which group of rocks does it most
necessarily true about the minerals they likely belong?
contain? a) clastic sedimentary rocks
a) They are solid. b) organic sedimentary rocks
b) They have a definite chemical c) chemical sedimentary rocks
composition. d) intrusive igneous rocks
c) They are naturally occurring.
d) They are made of two or more elements. 7. What does the presence of limestone in the
central United States suggest about the past
2. What holds a mineral together as a solid? environment of this region?
a) attractions between ions a) The region once had an arid climate.
b) cement that builds up between elements b) The region was once covered by fast-
c) compaction of elements into a regular flowing streams.
three-dimensional pattern c) The region was once covered by a
d) a lattice of connecting rods shallow sea.
between elements d) The region was once a vast desert.
3. To determine the hardness of a mineral, 8. Your friend claims that she is holding a
you should metamorphic rock that formed deep in the
a) crush it in a vise using steadily crust when mountains were thrust upwards.
applied pressure. You agree with her. Which of the following
b) break it with a hammer and count the reasons would a scientist give for agreeing
number of pieces that break off. with you?
c) scratch it against other minerals and I. The rock exhibits foliation.
objects of known hardness. II. The rock contains only one kind
d) divide its mass by its volume to calculate of mineral.
how compact it is. III. Mineral grains in the rock are elongated.
a) I only
4. What do the coarse grains of a piece of
b) I, II, and III
granite suggest about how the rock formed?
c) II only
a) It cooled slowly below the ground. d) I and III only
b) It cooled rapidly at Earth’s surface.
c) It was formed through the deposition of 9. Metamorphic rocks are formed in the solid
sediment in a high-energy environment, state (that is, without melting). If some of
such as a fast-flowing stream. the rock were to melt under the conditions
d) It was formed through the deposition of of metamorphism, what type of rock would
sediment in a low-energy environment, form from the liquid?
such as a lagoon. a) chemical sedimentary rock
b) organic sedimentary rock
5. What type of igneous rock is associated with
c) extrusive igneous rock
mid-ocean ridges?
d) intrusive igneous rock
a) granite
b) basalt
c) rhyolite
d) pumice
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10. The Sierra Nevada Batholith is a massive 13. The oldest rocks in the United States
intrusive structure. Using your knowledge are located where the Canadian Shield
of how intrusive igneous rocks form, this extends to Nebraska and Oklahoma.
structure be seen exposed today because Which of the following is the best analogy
a) it is large. for why rocks 3.6 billion years old (early
b) it formed when lava cooled at Precambrian) are found there?
Earth’s surface. a) They are like the carriages in a
c) it was deposited at Earth’s surface. train wreck.
d) it has undergone uplift and erosion. b) They are like diamonds
resisting abrasion.
For Questions 11 and 12, refer to the c) They are like oil that floats on water.
diagram below. d) They are like clay that deforms
by squeezing.
14. Which of the following is NOT an

important characteristic of an index
fossil species?
a) a large population
b) a wide distribution
c) a long age range
d) easy to identify
15. Which rock type is suited for the

11. In the geologic cross section shown in the
preservation of index fossils?
diagram, what rock types would you expect
are represented? I. sometimes metamorphic rocks
II. only sedimentary rocks
a) metamorphic rocks
III. mostly igneous rocks
b) intrusive igneous rocks
a) II only
c) sedimentary or extrusive igneous rocks
b) I and II only
d) metamorphic or sedimentary rocks
c) II and III only
d) I, II, and III
12. In the geologic cross section shown in the
diagram, which basic geologic principle
would you apply to make inferences about
the relative ages of the rocks?
a) Principle of Lateral Continuity
b) Principle of Original Horizontality
c) Principle of Superposition
d) Principle of Crosscutting Relationships
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Critical Thinking
16. You are given a mineral that you have 20. You are lost on a volcanic island
not seen before. Using your knowledge somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. A single
of mineral identification tests, answer the volcanic peak rises in the center of the
following questions: island. The western slopes of the volcano
a) What characteristics would help you form the catchment for the streams that
determine if the mineral was metallic? flow westward into the ocean. The island
b) Why is observing the shape of minerals is surrounded by beaches, and the shallow
in a specimen sometimes easy and warm water contains an abundance of
sometimes difficult? coral reefs.
c) Explain why it is usually better to a) Sketch a map of the island that shows
perform multiple tests on a mineral. what the rock units may look like.
b) How might the map change if the
17. You are given a specimen of rhyolite and a volcano erupted? Include three different
specimen of fine-grained red sandstone. igneous units.
a) How are the specimens similar?
b) How might you distinguish the igneous 21. The illustration below shows a fault.
rock from the sedimentary rock?
c) What test would make comparing the
two rocks easier?
18. A scientist in a radiometric dating

laboratory dates three parts of the same a) What type of forces produced the fault?
rock sample to determine its age. He gets b) What kind of fault is shown in
dates of 2.5 billion years, 5 million years, the illustration?
and 1 million years. He is certain that c) What type of plate boundary is usually
each date is the accurate age of when the associated with this kind of fault?
minerals crystallized.
a) His colleague points out that he is 22. The cross section below shows several
dating a sedimentary rock. Can you rock units in an area that has had a long
explain this? and varied geologic history. Arrange the
b) A second sample from the same area rock units marked with letters in order of
is bought in from the field. This occurrence from earliest to latest.
sample was embedded in a dike of
igneous rock. It appears to have been
almost completely melted and then
recrystallized. How do you think the
age of this sample would compare to
the first sample.
19. Suppose you found gneiss and/or schist in

a region that currently has no mountains.
How would you use this evidence to
describe to a friend that mountains were
once present in that region?
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Chapter Challenge
4 Surface Processes
Getting Started
Over geologic time, the surface of the land, or landscape, is constantly
being broken down or built up. If you could watch a time-lapse film
of the landscape near you, you would see changes that you might
not notice from day to day. Some changes, such as hills wearing
down, happen very slowly. Other changes are so fast that they are
often catastrophic. These include mudslides, volcanic eruptions,
and earthquakes.
Think about how landforms are shaped in your community.
• How long does it take the surface where you live to change
by natural processes?
• How large or small are these changes?
• How do these changes affect what is happening to the land now
and in the future?
• In what ways do humans build up the landscape?
• In what ways do humans break down the landscape?
What do you think? Write down your ideas as clearly and with as
much detail as possible. Sketch diagrams to illustrate your ideas.
Be sure to look at the diagram of the Earth systems at the front of
this book. Be prepared to discuss your responses with your small
Scenario
The United States Olympic Committee is looking for a site in the
United States to bid for the Summer Olympic Games within the next
ten years. Bidding for this costs hundreds of thousands of dollars.
Cities have to be fairly confident that they can win even before the
process starts. The bidding city must make a very strong case that it
has the most suitable site. This year, high school Earth-science students
have been asked to help. The committee is considering bids from two
states—Florida (FL) and Alaska (AK). These two states have very
different surface and bedrock geology. They want you to use your
scientific knowledge to help find a site that is geologically suitable
to host the events.
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Chapter Challenge
The Olympic Games are centered on a particular city. Therefore, each team will choose a
site in each state to evaluate. For example, a team might choose Miami, FL and Anchorage,
AK. Some events can be held outside of the cities as well. Your team’s job will be to
collect information about the geology of your two cities and the area around them. You
need enough information to make a report on the suitability of each city. You will need
to consider that new roads, bridges, and buildings may be necessary. The city that is most
suitable to host the Games must be able to build the following.
• A stadium
• An equestrian center for horse riding events
• A rowing center
• A volleyball center
• An aquatic center
• A tennis center
• Roads for cycling and mountain biking courses
• An artificial river for kayaking
• An athletes’ village (a place for the Olympic athletes
to stay during the games)
• New roads
• Parking lots
Your team will need to consider all of the following items in the evaluation of
your two cities.
• Bedrock geology • Landforms and surface mobility
• Relief and slopes • Soils and soil-related hazards
• Drainage basin geometry • Other important geomorphic factors
• Rivers, flow conditions, and potential • Other factors that might make
for flooding building risky
• Mass movements
The United States Olympic Committee wants a poster presentation and a written report
from each team. Your poster should include the following.
• Maps of each state and city with descriptions, diagrams, and data showing the suitability
of the land surface for development.
• Notes on the maps showing surface landforms and the processes that form them.
• Risk assessment for development (shown on the maps).
• A layout on the maps showing where you would place the various Olympic facilities.
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Chapter Challenge
Your report should include the following.

• An introduction to the maps for each city (1–2 pages)
• Your appraisal of how stable the surface is for each city
• A list of advantages and disadvantages for hosting the games in each city
• A conclusion as to whether the Summer Olympic Games would be best held
in the Florida city or the Alaska city
laska Miami,
rage, A Florida
A n cho
Assessment Criteria

Your Chapter Challenge is to compare the suitability
of two sites to host the Summer Olympic Games.
Then you will need to prepare a poster presentation
and a written report. Determining the best locations
in each city to develop the Olympic facilities
will be a large part of the report. You will use a
simplified Engineering Design Cycle to help your
group develop these presentations. Establishing a
clear Goal is the first step in the process. With your
group, define the project you need to create. Then,
identify the Assessment Criteria. Think through some
of the constraints that you will face. Discuss possible
ways to present your information.
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As you experience each of the chapter sections, you will gain information. This is a part
of the Inputs you will use in the Engineering Design Cycle. These Inputs will include
vocabulary and concepts about Earth’s surface processes. Remember, it is important to
convince the committee that the
site you choose is suitable to
host the games. This includes Earth/Space Science Corner
building the necessary facilities.
After the first five sections of Surface Processes
the chapter, you will work on
part of the project and receive • Coastal processes • River-channel processes
Feedback. Your classmates and and sediments
• Drainage basins
teacher will advise you as to • River systems and
which parts of your project are • Glaciers and glacial morphology
processes
good. They may also suggest • Slopes and mass movements
which parts need to be refined. • Groundwater and aquifers
• Soils
This Mini-Challenge will be the • High- and low-gradient
streams • Streamflow and discharge
first Output of the Engineering
Design Cycle. You will evaluate • Hydrologic cycle • Topography and maps
the surface geology of each of • Landforms, erosion, • Unconsolidated and
your selected regions. It should and deposition lithified sediments
include information about • Meltwater processes • Wind erosion
surface processes, geologic
conditions, and landforms in
each city. You need to provide
suitable areas for development.
Also, you need to identify
dangerous conditions that might
make one city unsuitable. You
will then revisit the Engineering
Design Cycle after the second
half of the chapter. At that
time you will have gained the
other Inputs to complete your
final presentation.
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Chapter 4 Surface Processes
Section 1 The Water Cycle

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Imagine you are watching the news on television and the
• Calculate the time required meteorologist says, “We received one inch of rain yesterday.”
to melt ice.
• How much water was that?
• Graph data to determine
a heating curve for ice. • Where is all that water today?
• Identify and analyze the • How might that water be changing Earth’s surface?
various sources and distribution
of salt water and fresh water Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
on Earth. prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
• Generate a graphic model the class.
of the transport of water
between reservoirs within
the water cycle.
Investigate
• Understand that hydrogen In this Investigate, you will examine some of the unique
bonds can be used to explain properties of water by calculating the time required to melt ice.
some of the unique properties You will then identify the various places where salt water and
of water.
fresh water are stored on Earth. You will analyze how water is
distributed among these sources. Finally, you will look at the
various ways and rates in which water moves from place to
place within the Earth system.
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Part A: Calculating the Time Required a) Record the temperatures in a

to Melt Ice data table.
1. Read all of the steps of this investigation. b) Make a graph with temperature on
Before you do the experiment, write the vertical axis and time on the
down your hypothesis about how the horizontal axis. Choose the scales on
temperature of the container will the axes so that the curve you plot is
change over time. not too steep or too gentle.
a) How long will it take for the material 5. Compare your results to your hypothesis.
to reach 30°C (86°F)?
a) How do you explain any differences?
b) How will the temperature change 6. From the graph, answer the following
over time? In your log, sketch a questions in your Geo log:
graph of temperature over time.
a) At what time do you think the ice in
the container began to melt?
Goggles must be worn throughout this activity.
Wash your hands when finished. b) At what time do you think that all of
the ice in the container had melted?
c) Different slopes of the curve you
2. From a freezer or cooler of ice, obtain obtained reflect different rates of
a small metal container packed full of increase in temperature with time.
crushed ice. Place it on a hot plate. How can you explain the differing
3. Cover the container with a piece of rates of increase in temperature?
styrene foam and insert a thermometer d) In most experiments, the
into the container. The bulb of the measurement data points deviate at
thermometer should be about 2.5 cm least slightly from a perfectly smooth
from the bottom. curve. That effect is called “scatter
in the data.” How might you explain
the scatter in your data?
Part B: Water in the Hydrosphere
1. Fill five 4-L milk jugs with water. These
five jugs of water represent all the water
on Earth.
a) Calculate how many milliliters are in
the 20 L (five milk jugs). Record this
value. Note: The actual amount of
water may not be exactly 20 L, but
for the purpose of this model it will
be satisfactory.
2. Ice (mostly in the form of glaciers)
4. Take the initial temperature reading holds 1.81 percent of all the water on
and then turn the hot plate on low. Earth (see Table 1 on the next page).
Continue to read the temperature every a) If 20 L represents all the water
two minutes until the temperature on Earth, calculate the number of
reaches about 30°C. milliliters that represents the water
found in glaciers.
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3. Remove this amount from the milk jugs

Clean up any spills. Dispose of the water.
and pour it into a separate container
labeled “glaciers.”
5. Develop your own model. The model
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for the water should show the percentages of each
found in groundwater, saltwater and category of fresh water (ice and liquid)
freshwater lakes and streams, and and liquid fresh water. Use the values in
the atmosphere. Table 1. Use something other than water
a) Record your calculations. as the physical material for your model.
b) Calculate the number of milliliters a) From your work with the models,
of water in the oceans, but leave the write down several observations or
water in the milk jugs. discoveries that you found most
surprising or striking. Explain
c) Find the sum of the six values. your observations.
How do you account for the
“missing” water? Have your teacher check the plan for your model.
Table 1: Distribution of Water in the Hydrosphere

Percentage of Percentage of
Percentage of
Reservoir Fresh Water Fresh Water
Total Water
(Ice and Liquid) (Liquid Only)
Oceans 97.54 — —
Ice (mostly glaciers) 1.81 73.9 —
Groundwater 0.63 25.7 98.4
Saltwater lakes
0.007 — —
and streams
Freshwater lakes
0.009 0.36 1.4
and streams
Atmosphere 0.001 0.04 0.2
These figures account for 99.9 percent of all water. They do not add up to 100 percent, because
some water is tied up in the biosphere and as soil moisture.
Part C: Modeling the Water Cycle parts: reservoirs (places where water is
1. The total volume of water near Earth’s stored) and processes (ways that water
surface is almost constant. This water is moved from place to place).
is in constant motion. The water cycle a) Using blank sheets of paper, draw a
describes how Earth’s water moves from rectangular box for each reservoir
place to place in an endless cycle. Study item. Try to keep the dimensions of
the diagram on the next page that shows the boxes less than about 2.5 cm.
a simplified version of the water cycle. Write the name of each reservoir in a
2. On the following page is a more box. You will have to write small.
complete list of the components of the b) Draw a circle for each process item.
water cycle. There are also definitions Make the diameter of each circle less
of some terms with which you may not than about 2.5 cm. Write the name
be familiar. The list is divided into two of each process in a circle.
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Reservoirs: Definitions:
• oceans • groundwater Calving: Some glaciers end in the ocean.
• atmosphere • lakes As the glacial ice moves forward into
• clouds • rivers the ocean water, it breaks away from the
glacier in huge masses, to float away as
• glaciers • vegetation
icebergs, which gradually melt.
• soil moisture
Groundwater: Some of the liquid water at
Processes: Earth’s surface moves downward through
• evaporation from the ocean surface porous Earth materials until it reaches a
• precipitation onto the ocean surface zone where the material is saturated with
water. This water flows slowly beneath
• evaporation from the land surface
Earth’s surface until it reaches rivers, lakes,
• precipitation onto the land surface or the ocean.
• precipitation onto glaciers
Infiltration: Some of the rain that falls on
• condensation to form clouds Earth’s surface sinks directly into the soil.
• melting of glaciers Soil Moisture: Water, in the form of liquid,
• calving of glaciers vapor, and/or ice, resides in Earth’s soil
• surface runoff into rivers layer. It is the water that remains in the soil
• surface runoff into lakes after rainfall moves downward toward the
groundwater zone. Soil moisture is available
• infiltration of surface water
for plants. What is not used by plants
• groundwater flow gradually moves back up to the soil surface,
• river flow where it evaporates into the atmosphere.
• transpiration from plants
• uptake of water by plant roots
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Surface Runoff: Some of the rain that falls 5. Once everyone in your small group
on Earth’s surface flows across the land has agreed upon the best version of the
surface, eventually reaching a stream, water cycle, compare your results with
a river, a lake, or the ocean. those of the other groups. Answer the
Transpiration: Water taken up by the roots following questions:
of plants is delivered to the leaves. Some of a) Is there net movement of water vapor
this water is used to make new plant tissue, from the oceans to the continents, or
and some is emitted from the leaves in the from the continents to the oceans?
form of water vapor, by a process called Explain your answer.
transpiration.
b) Is there net movement of liquid water
3. Cut out all of the boxes and circles with from the oceans to the continents, or
a pair of scissors. from the continents to the oceans?
4. On a poster board, draw a horizontal
line lengthwise across the middle of the c) How does the nature of the water
poster board. This represents Earth’s cycle vary with the seasons?
surface in a vertical cross-section view.
Part D: The Movement and Balance
a) On the left half of the poster board, of Water in the Water Cycle
draw some mountains to represent
1. Study the diagram on the next page that
a continent.
shows the rates at which water moves
b) On the right half of the poster board, from one reservoir to another within
draw a small island or a sailboat to the water cycle. Use the diagram to
represent a large ocean. answer the following:
c) Using the simplified water-cycle a) Rank the quantities of water within
diagram as a model, place the the reservoirs shown from highest
boxes and circles that you have to lowest.
created where you think they belong. b) Rank the rates at which water moves
Tape them to the poster board with among the various reservoirs from
small pieces of removable tape. Using highest to lowest.
removable tape allows you to adjust
the positions of the boxes and circles c) What is the difference between the
as needed. rates of evaporation and precipitation
over the oceans?
d) With colored pencils, draw arrows
d) What is the difference between the
between the various boxes and circles
rates of evaporation and precipitation
to show the movement or transport
over land?
of water from place to place on or
near Earth’s surface. Remember that e) How do the differences that you
a circle (process) will be located in calculated in Steps 1.c) and 1.d)
the middle of an arrow between compare to the rate at which water is
two different boxes (storage places). entering the oceans from the flow of
Think about whether the movement runoff and groundwater?
or transport is in the form of liquid
water, water vapor, or ice (or two or
three of these at the same time). Use
blue for liquid water, red for water
vapor, and green for ice.
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Digging Deeper
EARTH’S WATER
The Unusual Properties of Water
Did it surprise you that water is a very unusual
substance? Its unusual properties are explained
by the atomic structure of the water molecule.
This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms
bonded to an oxygen atom. (See Figure 1.)
Because of the structure of the orbits of
electrons around the three atomic nuclei, the
three atoms are not in a straight line. Instead,
they form an angle of 108°. Also, the orbiting
electrons are more strongly attracted by the
oxygen atom than by the hydrogen atoms.
(Recall that electrons have a negative charge.)
Figure 1 A water molecule
These two facts mean that the oxygen “side”
is a polar molecule.
of the molecule is negatively charged and the
hydrogen “side” of the molecule is positively Geo Words
charged. (See Figure 1.) Molecules like this are called polar molecules. polar molecule: a
A polar molecule has a negative charge on one side and a positive molecule with a
negative charge
charge on the other. on one side and a
positive charge on
the other.
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Objects with the same electric charge repel one another. Objects with
different electric charges attract one another. The negative end of a water
molecule repels the negative end of another water molecule. However,
Geo Words it attracts the positive end. Attraction between opposing charges in a
hydrogen bond: a molecule creates a bond. This type of bond is called a hydrogen bond.
weak chemical bond Hydrogen bonds can explain some of the odd physical characteristics
between a hydrogen
atom in one polar
of water.
molecule and an The temperature of any material is a measure of the average thermal
electronegative
atom in a second
vibration of its atoms and molecules. As heat is added to the material, the
polar molecule. thermal vibrations increase. As a result, the temperature increases. As heat
is added to ice, the water molecules vibrate more and more. Eventually,
the vibrations break the hydrogen bonds that hold the structure together.
The ice then melts to liquid water. Would you have guessed that it takes
so much explanation to account for such a seemingly simple thing as the
melting of ice?
When liquid water freezes to form ice, the water molecules become
arranged in a specific way. The negatively charged hydrogen sides of the
molecules are bonded to the positively charged oxygen sides of neighboring
molecules. The water molecules are all bonded together with hydrogen
bonds. When the ice melts, the water molecules are free to pack themselves
more closely together. Because they are packed closely, the water molecules
occupy less space. This results in a higher density. In other words, liquid
water has a higher density than ice. That is why ice floats in water. (See
Figure 2.) Out of the millions of substances known to science, only a handful
has the property that the solid form can float in the liquid form.
Figure 2 Ice floats in water—an unusual but very important property of water.
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As thermal energy is added to liquid water, the temperature rises. The

thermal vibration of the water molecules becomes stronger. Yet, as you
saw in the Investigate, it takes a lot more heat to raise the temperature of
water than ice. The reason is that only some of the hydrogen bonds are
broken when ice melts. At any given time, a percentage of the molecules
in liquid water are bonded to each other. As heat is added to water, a
smaller and smaller percentage of the water molecules are hydrogen-
bonded. Heat added to water increases the thermal vibration. This breaks
more of the hydrogen bonds as well. The amount of heat needed to raise Geo Words
the temperature of a substance is called its heat capacity. Because of the heat capacity: the
heat needed to break hydrogen bonds, the heat capacity of water is far quantity of heat
higher than any other common substance. energy required
to increase the
If you add the same amount of heat to equal masses of liquid water and temperature of a
dry soil, the temperature of the soil rises much faster. That is why lakes material or system;
typically referenced
can be chilly even on sunny, warm days. Because water can absorb so as the amount of heat
much heat, the oceans are the principal heat reservoir on Earth’s surface. energy required to
For ordinary substances, higher pressure causes the melting temperature generate a 1°C rise in
to be higher. The high pressure tends to keep the solid from expanding the temperature of 1 g
of a given material.
to form the liquid. For water, however, it is the opposite. Ice shrinks
when it melts. Higher pressure helps with the shrinkage. It causes the
melting temperature to be slightly lower.
About 71 percent of Earth’s surface
is covered by water. The unusual
properties of water make it an
important substance to the whole
Earth system. The hydrogen bonds
between water molecules allow for
water to exist as a liquid over a wide
range of temperatures. It has a high
boiling point, 100ºC. It also has a
low freezing point, 0ºC. As a result,
water remains a liquid in most of
the environments on Earth. Liquid
water can store a large amount
of heat. This property protects
organisms that live in water. It is also
responsible for the ability of water
to regulate Earth’s climate. Liquid Figure 3 Nearly two percent of Earth’s
water exists as ice.
water can also dissolve a wide variety
of compounds. This ability enables
water to remove and carry materials from one part of the Earth system
to another. Liquid water has a higher density than frozen water. This
means that ice floats on top of water. If water did not have this property
then ponds, lakes, and streams would freeze from the bottom up. This
would have damaging effects on aquatic life. Finally, the expansion of
water as it freezes fractures rocks, causing rocks to break apart.
It has an important role in shaping Earth’s surface.
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The Water Cycle

Water is the only common substance that exists at Earth’s surface as
a solid, a liquid, and a gas. Water is present at or near the surface
everywhere on Earth. In many places, the presence of water is obvious.
You see it in the form of lakes, rivers, glaciers, and the ocean. You will
read more about glaciers in a later section. Even in the driest of deserts,
however, it rains now and then. Although the humidity there is usually
very low, there is at least some water vapor in the air.
Water is in a continuous state of change. It can be found in the form of
liquid, solid, or vapor. It is also found in many different places. Water is
continuously moving from one place to another. It takes many different
Geo Words pathways in its movement. The combination of all of these different
water cycle (or movements is called the water cycle. It is also referred to as the hydrologic
hydrologic cycle): the cycle. The water cycle is an essential subsystem or component of the Earth
constant circulation
system. Wherever water moves, it brings with it the capacity to physically
of water from the
sea, through the and chemically change Earth’s surface.
atmosphere, to
the land, and its The water cycle is called a cycle because Earth’s surface water forms a
eventual return to the closed system. In a closed system, material moves from place to place
atmosphere by way within the system. However, it is not gained or lost from the system.
of transpiration and Earth’s surface water is actually not exactly a closed system. Relatively
evaporation from the
land and evaporation small amounts are gained or lost from the system. Some water is buried
from the sea. with sediments. It becomes locked away deep in Earth for geologically
closed system: a long times. Volcanoes release water vapor contained in the molten rock.
system in which Nonetheless, these gains and losses are very small compared to the
material moves from volume of water in Earth’s surface water cycle.
place to place but is
not gained or lost Evaporation and precipitation are the major processes in the water cycle.
from the system. The balance between these processes varies from place to place and
evaporation: the time to time. As you saw in the Investigate, there is more evaporation
change of state of
than precipitation over Earth’s oceans. On the other hand, there is more
matter from a liquid
to a gas. Heat is precipitation than evaporation over Earth’s continents. This is important
absorbed. for two reasons. There is a net movement of water vapor from the oceans
precipitation: water to the continents. There is also a net movement of liquid (and solid) water
that falls to the from the continents to the oceans as well.
surface from the
atmosphere as rain, The oceans cover about three quarters of Earth. Ocean water is constantly
snow, hail, or sleet. evaporating into the atmosphere. If enough water vapor is present in the
air, and if the air is cooled sufficiently, the water vapor condenses to form
tiny droplets of liquid water. If these droplets are close to the ground,
they form fog. (See Figure 4.) If they form at higher altitudes, by rising
air currents, they form clouds. Sometimes, water vapor in clouds reacts
chemically with compounds in the air, forming acids. These acids mix with
raindrops and fall as acid rain. Acid rain creates holes or soft spots in
rocks, causing rocks to break apart more easily.
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Figure 4 What part of the water cycle does the fog over the San Francisco Bay illustrate?
All of the solid or liquid water that falls to Earth from clouds is called
precipitation. Snow, sleet, and hail are solid forms of precipitation. Rain
and drizzle are liquid forms of precipitation. When rain falls on Earth’s
surface, or snow melts, several things can happen to the water. Some
evaporates back into the atmosphere. Some water flows downhill on
the surface, under the pull of gravity, and collects in streams and rivers. Geo Words
This flowing water is called surface runoff. Most rivers empty their water surface runoff: the
into the oceans. Some rivers, however, end in closed basins on land. part of the water
Death Valley and the Great Salt Lake are examples of such closed basins. that travels over
the ground surface
Running water creates many landforms. Moving water is the major agent without passing
that shapes Earth’s land surface. As water moves over the land, it carries beneath the surface.
particles of rock and soil with it. Eventually, these particles are deposited
in other places where the moving water slows down.
Figure 5 Some of the water that falls to Earth’s surface collects in streams.
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Some precipitation soaks into the ground rather than evaporating or

running off. Under the pull of gravity, the water moves slowly downward.
It percolates through the open pore spaces of porous soil and rock
Geo Words material. Eventually, the water reaches a zone where all of the pore spaces
groundwater: are filled with water. This water is called groundwater. Some water, called
the part of the soil moisture, remains behind in the surface layer of soil. (See Figure 6.)
subsurface water
that is in the zone of
saturation, including
underground streams.
porosity: a measure
of the percentage of
pores (open spaces) in
a material.
permeability: a
measure of how easy
it is to force water
to flow through a
porous material.
saturated zone: the
zone, beneath the
water table where all
of the pores are filled
with water.
water table: the
surface between the
saturated zone and
the unsaturated zone
(zone of aeration). Figure 6 Schematic diagram of groundwater flow.
Several factors affect how groundwater moves through rock and

sediment. Porosity is one factor. It is a measure of the percentage of
pores (open spaces) in a material. Permeability is another factor. It is
a measure of how easy it is for water to flow through a material. In
general, permeability increases with grain size. Large-grained materials
have larger pore spaces. Also, the pore spaces are well connected. Water
passes most easily through these types of materials. Sand and gravel
are examples of permeable materials. Water passes very slowly through
finer materials. They have few and poorly connected pore spaces. These
materials are called impermeable. Clay and granite are examples of
impermeable materials.
Down to a certain depth below the surface, the pores in the sediment and
rock are mostly filled with air. The exception is when water is percolating
downward after a heavy rain. (Percolate is a term used to describe the
passing of water through a porous material.) This is called the unsaturated
zone. Eventually the downward-moving water reaches a zone called the
saturated zone. In this zone, all of the pores are filled with water. The top
of the saturated zone is called the water table. These zones are illustrated
in Figure 7. The water table can be located at the surface in places next to
rivers and lakes, and also in wetlands. In some areas it can be many tens
of meters below the surface.
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Figure 7 The main two

zones of the groundwater
system—saturated and
unsaturated. The water
table marks the upper
surface of the saturated
zone.
Because groundwater must move through small pores, it flows very
slowly. Groundwater speeds of one meter per day are considered high.
Speeds as low as one meter per year are common. The smaller the
pore spaces between the grains, the slower the groundwater flows.
Groundwater moves from areas where the water table is relatively high
to areas where it is relative low. Figure 8 shows the flow of groundwater
in a typical landscape.
Figure 8 The water table (WT) is shown as a dashed line. The arrows show
the direction of groundwater flow.
Precipitation that falls to Earth’s surface is important in surface processes.

Geo Words
The water breaks solid bedrock into smaller and smaller pieces. Many
organisms begin to live in these materials. Over time, the organisms die, transpiration: the
process by which
decay, and add nutrients to the materials to form soil. The roots of plants water absorbed
absorb some of the water that soaks into the soil. This water travels by plants, usually
upward through the stem and branches of the plant into the leaves and is through the roots,
released into the atmosphere as a vapor in a process called transpiration. is emitted into the
atmosphere from the
plant surface in the
form of water vapor.
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Geo Words
reservoir: a place in
the Earth system that
holds water.
flux: the rate of
movement of water
from one reservoir to
another.
Figure 9 Plants such as these broad-leaf trees play an important part in the
Checking Up water cycle.

describe the atomic Each year, about 37,000 km3 of water flows from the surface of the
structure of the continents into the oceans. That is how much more precipitation there
water molecule. is than evaporation on the continents. This water carries sediment
You may wish to
particles into the ocean. The particles come to rest on the ocean floor.
use a diagram in
your description.
It also carries dissolved minerals into the ocean. When seawater
evaporates, the dissolved materials are left behind. Over time, this
2. Why does ice float
in water?
process has made the oceans as salty as they are now.
3. Does ice melt more In Earth systems science, the water cycle is viewed as a flow of matter
or less easily under and energy. Each place that holds water is called a reservoir. The rate
pressure? Explain
at which water flows from one reservoir to another in a given time is
your answer.
called a flux. Energy is required to make water flow from one reservoir
to another. On average, the total amount of water in all reservoirs
describe the water
cycle.
combined is nearly constant. Although the data table in the Investigate
suggests that reservoirs have a constant amount of water in them, this
5. Explain why the
water cycle can be
is not the case. The amount of water stored in any one of them varies
viewed as a closed over time. For example, in many areas there may be more water in the
system. form of groundwater during the spring. During this time precipitation
6. Describe three is high, and water use and evaporation is low. There may be less in the
“paths” of the summer. That is when precipitation is low, and evaporation and water
water cycle that use are high.
precipitation can
follow once it
reaches the surface
of Earth.
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At the beginning of this section, you imagined you were watching the news on television
and heard the meteorologist say, “We received one inch of rain yesterday.” You were then
asked the following:
• How much water was that?
• Where is all that water today?
• How might that water be changing Earth’s surface?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to the ways in which water is stored
and cycled through the Earth system.

You read about several unusual properties of water. It takes a large amount of heat to
melt ice. It takes even more heat to raise the temperature of water. Unlike almost all other
substances, water is less dense in the solid form than in the liquid form. The melting
temperature of ice is slightly lower at high pressure than at low pressure. Understanding
these properties helped you understand the nature of the water cycle. You saw that water
is transported between reservoirs within the Earth system by different processes. You also
determined that the rate at which water flows from one reservoir to another in a given time
varies. This information will be important as you look at the role of water in breaking
down and building up Earth’s surface.
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1. Which do you think responds more slowly to seasonal changes in climate: an ice
sheet or a wide ocean? Explain your answer using what you learned about the
properties of water.
2. What would happen to Earth’s oceans if ice sank instead of floated in water?
3. Prepare a table of the important physical properties of ice.
4. Describe the different conditions on Earth under which water is a solid, a liquid,
or a gas.
5. If 37,000 km3 of water flow from the surface of Earth into the oceans each year,
how many cubic kilometers of water evaporate from the oceans each year?
6. The data table in the Investigate defines the hydrosphere somewhat differently than
the image shown in the front of the book. Explain any differences you note between
the data table and the image.
Write a few paragraphs explaining how the properties of water influence the
movement and storage of water within the Earth system. As you continue through this
chapter, you will be applying these ideas in your evaluation of the suitability of the
landscape of each city for Olympic facilities.
Inquiring Further
1. Calculating the change in volume when water freezes
With the approval of a responsible adult, try the following investigation at home.
• Take a plastic milk jug—one with a screw-top cap and dimples on the side (small
depressions in the plastic). Fill it completely full of water. Pour the water into a
large measuring cup and measure the volume of water.
a) Record the volume, then pour the water back into the jug.
• Cap the jug and put it in a freezer until it is frozen solid.
b) What happens to the shape of the jug?
• Remove the frozen jug from the freezer. Set the jug aside (perhaps until the next
day) until all the ice has melted. Keep the cap on the jug to prevent evaporation.
c) How does the water level in the jug compare with the level when you put the jug
in the freezer?
• Fill a measuring cup with water.
d) Record the volume of water in the cup.
• Using the measuring cup, pour water into the jug until it is brim-full. Be as
careful as possible not to disturb the shape of the jug as you handle it.
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e) Calculate and record the volume of water that you needed to add to fill the jug
to the top. To do this you will need to subtract the final volume of water in the
measuring cup from the initial volume you recorded in Step d).
f) Calculate the percentage change in volume of the jug using this equation:
percent change = additional volume of water added ⫻100%

original volume of water in jug
g) What do you think is the purpose of the dimples in the milk jug?
h) Is your result likely to be an overestimate or an underestimate? Explain your answer.
i) What do you think might happen to soil or rock when water that is trapped inside
of it freezes?
2. Volcanic eruptions and the water cycle

Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of water vapor. After you have done some
research, construct a water-cycle diagram that shows the reservoirs and flow of water
and water vapor in a volcanic region.
3. Dating water
Investigate how chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released from aerosols and tritium
(hydrogen 3) released during global nuclear testing in the 1950s and early 1960s
are used to determine the age of groundwater.
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Section 2 Rivers and Drainage Basins

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Look at the system of veins on a leaf. Pick a spot on a small vein
• Interpret topographic maps to near the edge of the leaf. Trace the vein until it joins the stem.
identify large and small streams Repeat this for another spot on the other side of the leaf.
within your community.
• Explore the nature of a
• How is the system of veins on a leaf similar to and different
drainage basin. from the system of streams and rivers that carry water into a
• Analyze maps to identify the
larger river, like the Mississippi?
drainage basin in which your Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include
community is located.
• Evaluate important interactions small group and the class.
between communities and river
systems.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will explore the factors that affect
stream drainage.
Part A: Local Stream Drainage
1. Use a topographic map of your community for the following
exercises. (See the example on the next page.) If you do not
have a river or stream in your community, use a topographic
map from a nearby community. Find a stream on the map that
flows into or joins another stream.
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a) What do you notice about its b) Count the number of streams of

size relative to the stream that each size. Make a data table for
it flows into? your results.
b) In which compass direction does c) Describe one or two relationships
it flow? between smaller streams and
larger streams.
c) Describe how the relative sizes of
streams can be used to determine the d) Write a paragraph describing the
direction in which a stream flows. pattern that is formed by the rivers
and streams in your community.
d) Contour lines on a topographic
map show elevation above sea level. e) Exchange your drawing and
What is the highest elevation along explanation with another group. In
the course of the stream you chose? your log, explain any similarities and
What is the lowest elevation? Record differences that you notice.
these values in your log.
Part B: Regional Stream Drainage
e) How can you use contour lines to 1. Depending upon the region where
determine the direction in which a you live, you will need some of the
stream flows? following materials: topographic maps
(community and/or state), road maps
or road atlases (your state and the
United States), and a satellite image of
the United States. A relief map of your
state or region might be helpful as well.
Be prepared to share these resources
with other groups. Look at the local
topographic map. Find your school or a
familiar landmark on the map. Imagine
a rainstorm at your school. Consider
the rainwater that does not evaporate,
soak into the soil, or get swallowed by
a thirsty animal.
2. Use a photocopy of the topographic

map (or a clear overlay) to show the
range of stream sizes located in your
community.
a) Trace the pattern of streams on a copy
of the map or on the clear overlay.
Devise a way to show small streams,
medium streams, and large streams.
Be prepared to explain your drawing.
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a) On a copy of the topographic map 3. Work with the local topographic

or on a clear overlay, trace the path map and maps that show elevation
of a drop of water that falls on your of larger regions.
school as it flows downhill from
a) Locate where the rainwater that
your school to the nearest stream.
fell on your school flowed out of
Keep in mind that water that falls
your community (or off the local
on the ground follows a path that is
topographic map). Follow the path
downhill and always perpendicular
of the water farther downstream.
to the contour lines. Where would
Name several cities that the
a drop of water that fell on your
rainwater passes.
school leave your community (or go
off the map)? b) What is the ultimate destination of
the rainwater that landed on your
2. Working with your group, figure out a
school? Explain how you know.
way to outline boundaries of the area
that drains into the stream you have c) From what you have explored so far,
chosen. Use either a photocopy of the explain why pollution that enters a
map, a sheet of tracing paper, or a clear stream near your school can affect a
overlay. The area you have drawn is community many miles away within
called a drainage basin. the same river system.
a) In your own words, summarize the
meaning of a drainage basin.
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Digging Deeper
RIVER SYSTEMS
Parts of a River System
In the Investigate, you explored the factors that affect the ways in which
river water flows through a drainage basin. A river system is a network
of streams. These streams drain the surface water off a continent or part
of a continent. River systems are an essential part of the hydrologic cycle.
They transfer billions of cubic liters of water from upland areas to the
ocean. A river system has three parts: a tributary system, a trunk stream,
and a distributary system. Geo Words
• A tributary system consists of many small streams. These streams flow tributary system: a
together into slightly larger streams, which flow into larger streams, group of streams that
contribute water to
and then into even larger streams. (See Figure 1.) Tributary systems are another stream.
commonly found in mountainous areas.
Figure 1 Map of a tributary system. How many tributary streams are shown in
this map?
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Geo Words
trunk stream: a • A trunk stream is a major river fed by a small number of fairly large
major river, fed by tributaries. (See Figure 2.) The word “trunk” is used because of the
a number of fairly
large tributaries; the
tree-like drainage pattern.
main stream in a river
system.
distributary system:
an outflowing branch
of a river, such as
what characteristically
occurs on a delta (a
landform that forms
at the mouth of a
river).
Figure 2 A trunk stream is fed by many smaller streams.
• A distributary system is found near the end of a main river. It consists

of a number of small channels that branch off from the main river.
Distributaries deposit undissolved materials in the ocean. They also
carry dissolved materials into the ocean. (See Figure 3.)
Figure 3 The Mississippi carries a large amount of sediment and dissolved material
into the Gulf of Mexico.
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All parts of all river systems have one thing in common. The water flows
downhill. Rain that falls in the United States flows down to the Atlantic
Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California (a part of the Pacific
Ocean), or the Pacific Ocean. There are two exceptions. In northern
Alaska, water flows into the Arctic Ocean, and in some areas of the
western United States, rivers flow into large depressions rather than into
oceans. Some of the depressions are below sea level. For example, Death
Valley is more than 60 m (200 ft) below sea level. Geo Words
A drainage basin is the area from which all of the rain that falls eventually drainage basin (or
flows to the same final destination. A drainage basin is also called a watershed): the area
from which all of
watershed. The final destination of all watersheds is usually the ocean.
the rain that falls
In the United States, there are drainage systems of different sizes. (See eventually flows
Figure 4.) In the Northeast, the largest drainage basins are the Hudson, to the same final
Connecticut, Delaware, and Potomac river systems. However, even destination, usually
these are relatively small. The southeastern part of the United States the ocean.
is dominated by rivers that flow to the east and south off the high
Appalachian Mountains. Some of these, such as the Savannah River, flow
into the Atlantic Ocean. Others, such as the Apalachicola River, flow into
the Gulf of Mexico.
Figure 4 Map of the United States showing the major river systems with the
Continental Divide.
The largest river system in the United States is the Mississippi River. It
enters the Gulf of Mexico downstream of New Orleans, Louisiana. It does
so after it collects water from a huge area of the midsection of North
America. One of its giant tributaries is the Ohio River. Tributaries of
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the Ohio include the Tennessee, the Allegheny, as well as many other
large rivers. Many other branches that flow into the Mississippi River
serve as tributaries as well.
Drainage Divides
Geo Words Hilltops and mountains serve as boundaries between drainage basins.
drainage divide: the These boundaries are called drainage divides. Water falling on one side of
boundary between a divide flows into one river system. Water falling on the other side of the
adjacent drainage divide flows into a different river system. In this way, raindrops that fall
basins.
within inches of each other on a mountaintop can end up thousands of
miles away from each other. There are divides between streams of all sizes
within a river system. Any hilltop or ridge causes some rainfall to flow in
one direction and some to flow in another direction. However, in some
cases, the rainfall might flow into two different tributaries that eventually
end up in the same larger stream. The Continental Divide stretches north
to south through the mountainous areas of the western United States.
It separates the United States into two major drainage systems. One
drainage system empties into the Pacific Ocean. The other empties into
the Gulf of Mexico. (See Figure 4 on the previous page.)
River Systems and Settlement Development
Why are river systems important? Humans use river systems in many ways.
Rivers provide a source of drinking water. They are used for domestic
and industrial purposes, and for irrigation of farmlands. They are also
used to wash away waste product. For example, chemicals from industrial
processes and treated sewage are dumped into rivers. Throughout history,
rivers have served as both giant water faucets and giant sewers. This is not
a good combination. As recently as the late 1960s, several major cities in
the United States allowed human waste to enter large rivers. This was part
of their waste-disposal system. From local to national scales, communities
have recognized the problems with this. They have worked to limit the use
of rivers as waste-disposal systems. However, accidental spills of industrial
and human waste continue to happen every year.
Figure 5 A barge transporting materials down a river.
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People use river systems for transportation. River transportation is

relatively cheap. Barges that carry materials, such as gravel and coal,
move up and down the river systems of the United States. This is the
case in the eastern and midwestern parts of the United States. In
the northern United States, the St. Lawrence River flows from Lake
Ontario into the Atlantic Ocean. A system of canals connects the Great
Lakes to the St. Lawrence River. This makes it possible for goods to be
shipped from inland ports like Duluth, Minnesota, Chicago, Illinois, and
Detroit, Michigan, to the Atlantic Ocean. From there the goods can be
transported to ports worldwide.
Figure 6 This dam literally “stops up” the flow of the river water, generating
electricity in the process.
Rivers provide power. Since colonial times, Americans have used this
power. In the 1700s and 1800s, Americans used the energy of flowing
water to move waterwheels. The waterwheels powered mills for cutting
wood and grinding corn and wheat. In the twentieth century, dams
and hydroelectric power plants were built along rivers. A dam causes
an artificial lake to form. Some of the water runs through openings, or
conduits, in the dam. As the water moves down through the conduits,
it turns the blades of turbines. The mechanical energy of the falling
water is converted into electrical energy. Hydroelectric power plants are
common in the United States. The United States has made use of much
of its potential hydroelectric power.
Dams are also used to control water flow. This can reduce the impact
of flooding. To do this, the operators of the dam drop the level of the
water behind the dam during dry periods. This makes room for storage
of water during heavy rains. The water held by dams can supply water
to cities for domestic use. In agricultural areas the water can also be
used for irrigation. However, dams disrupt the natural flow of rivers. This
results in a disruption of the river’s natural ecosystems. It is important to
understand the negative as well as the positive aspects of dams.
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Figure 7 A by-product of dams is lake formation.
Rivers also provide recreation. People are awed by waterfalls. They

love the sound of rushing mountain streams, and they can go rafting,
canoeing, or kayaking in a swift-flowing river. They can also enjoy a boat
ride or a picnic on a riverbank. Millions of Americans swim, fish, and boat
in rivers and in the lakes created by dams along rivers.
Figure 8 Recreational uses of rivers include swimming, boating, and fishing.
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In addition to providing humans with water, waste disposal, power, and

fun, rivers change the surface of Earth. Water moving downhill toward Geo Words
the ocean erodes bits of soil and rock. It carries these bits downstream erode: to wear away
toward the coast. The process of picking up and transporting loose soil soil and rock by the
and rock lowers the level of mountains. It is one process that gives Earth’s action of streams,
glaciers, waves, wind,
surface its shape. In deserts, where water is scarce, streams that flow and underground
after infrequent rainstorms are important in shaping the landscape. water.
This is because there is little vegetation to hold the soil in place.
Checking Up
1. Describe the three
main parts of a
river system.
2. What is a drainage
divide?
3. Describe at least
one benefit and
one drawback to
Figure 9 This desert landscape shows how rivers shape the land.
building a dam on
a river.
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• How is the system of veins on a leaf similar to and different from the system of streams
and rivers that carry water into a larger river, like the Mississippi?
Record your ideas about this question now. Use your analyses of drainage patterns to help
with your explanation.

In this section, using different kinds of maps, you found streams of different sizes in
your community and traced the water flow from higher to lower elevations. Knowing the
geology over which the water in your community flows, and how it changes both its own
composition and the land features, can help you figure out the boundaries of river systems
and sources of streamflow. This information will help you determine how parts of Earth’s
surface are affected by upstream and downstream environments. Think about these
connections as you work on the Chapter Challenge.
1. Describe the drainage basin in which your community is located.

2. How is your local river system part of a larger drainage basin in the United States?
3. Sketch a diagram showing the aerial or map view of your concept of a river system
and how it changes from upstream to downstream. On the diagram, mark where your
community fits in.
4. Examine a copy of the
topographic map shown.
a) On a copy of the map
provided by your
teacher, draw arrows
along the streams to
show the direction of
flow. Explain the
reasons for the
direction you drew
the arrows.
b) Draw the drainage
divide shown on
the map.
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Think about the interconnections within a drainage system. Describe your regional
drainage in terms of the connections between smaller and larger streams. Brainstorm
with members of your group to make a concept map that shows the different parts
of your local drainage system. Start thinking about how river systems play a role in
landscape development. Consider how rivers might affect your Florida and Alaska
Olympic Games sites. Go to the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/
education/earthcomm2/ for resources to help you explore surface drainage in each
of these states. Compare the drainage patterns of the two states.
Inquiring Further
1. Water quality in your community river system
If water quality is a big issue in your community, do some in-depth research on the
causes of the water-quality problems, the effects on your community, and the solutions
that have been proposed to address the problems.
• What are some of the different strategies being suggested to improve water quality?
• What are the pros and cons of the different strategies? What course of action do
you recommend?
2. River pollution and ecosystems
How does water pollution affect ecosystems that depend on the river? Research a
particular ecosystem in your community that has been affected by water pollution.
Has anything been done to address the problem? What do you suggest?
3. Dams and river systems
Research the controversies surrounding one of the following dams, some of which have
been removed, some of which are scheduled to be removed, and some of which are still
being debated. Include reasons for and against removal of the dam.
• Edwards Dam, Kennebec River, Maine
• Quaker Neck Dam, Neuse River, North Carolina
• Kirkpatrick Dam (also known as Rodman Dam), St. Johns River, Florida
• Glen Canyon Dam, Colorado River, Arizona
• Lower Granite Dam, Snake River, Idaho
• Elwha Dam and Glines Canyon Dam, Elwha River, Washington
4. Local river systems and wastewater treatment
• Where does the sewage from your community go?
• Does sewage from your community enter the river system before or after treatment?
• Which communities downstream would this affect?
• What would happen to the drainage system and sewage system if it rained 10 cm or
more in one day?
• Are there any communities upstream of your community that might put sewage or
pollutants into your river system? If so, what are they?
Go to the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/

for assistance with Inquiring Further research.
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Section 3 Slopes and Landscapes

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Many people enjoy the climate and lifestyle of California.
• Calculate the angle of repose Unfortunately, life in California can come with risks. Landslides,
for different kinds of soils and earthquakes, and flows of debris are just a few. Landslides in
other granular materials.
California have resulted in numerous deaths and millions of dollars
• Determine if any areas in your in property damage. To help prevent such tragedies, geologists
community have slopes that are
study landslides and the slopes on which they occur. Changing the
too steep for safe development.
slope of the land or even the amount of vegetation on a slope can
• Recognize the importance
have very dangerous consequences.
of considering slopes in
land development. • How does the slope of land control surface processes?
• How might changing the slope of the land create potential
hazards for citizens (for example, cutting through the land to
build a road or housing project)?
and the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will experiment with the factors that
result in unstable slopes. These are the kinds of slopes that can
lead to landslides.
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Part A: The Slope of a Sand Pile

a) Record the measurement of the angle
Clean up spills immediately. Cover desk with
of the slope each time.
newspaper to make cleanup easier. Wear safety b) Does the angle of the slope change?
goggles when pouring sand or other particles.
If so, how much?
1. Slowly pour 500 mL of dry sand 6. Pour extra sand onto a pile of sand
through a funnel onto a flat surface, several times.
such as your lab table, so that it makes a) Record the measurement of the angle
a pile. of the slope each time.
a) Describe what happens to the sides b) Does the angle of the slope change?
of the pile as you pour the sand.
Part B: The Slope of Other Materials
2. Hold a protractor upright (with the
1. Obtain some or all of the following
bottom edge held against the flat
materials (make sure they are dry): fine
surface) and carefully begin to slide it
sand, coarse sand, gravel, soil, table
behind the pile as shown in the diagram.
salt, granulated sugar.
3. At the point where the curved upper a) Predict what would happen if you
edge of the protractor intersects the repeated the investigation in Part A
surface of the pile of sand, read the using these materials, which have
angle in degrees. This is the natural particles of different sizes and shapes.
angle of the side (slope) of the pile. It Record your prediction in your log.
is called the angle of repose. It is the
steepest slope that can be formed in the 2. For each of the available materials,
material without slumping or sliding of repeat the following procedures:
the material down the slope. • Place a handful of the materials in
a) Record this angle in your Geo log. a dry container, such as a can or
plastic beaker.
4. Repeat Steps 1, 2, and 3 several times.
• Cover the container with cardboard.
a) Record the measurement of the angle • Turn the container upside down onto
of the slope each time. a flat surface.
b) Do you get the same angle each time? • Lift the container very slowly. A cone-
Explain your answer. shaped pile should form.
c) Why is it important to take this • Measure the angle of the slope of
measurement several times? the pile.
• Take three measurements for
5. Repeat Steps 1, 2, and 3 using different each material.
amounts of sand.
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a) Record your measurements in a table centimeters) on the map equals 24,000

similar to the one below. units in the real world. There may also
be a scale bar on the map that indicates
b) In your log, write a summary
the relationship between map distance
paragraph discussing conclusions
and real distance (for example, one inch
you can draw from the data in your
on the map equals one kilometer in the
table. Your paragraph should address
real world). You will need to use a scale
how particle size relates to the
that makes it easy to measure distances
maximum slope angle the particles
on your map.
will maintain.
4. Convert your horizontal scale to the
Wash your hands when you are done. same units that are used for the contour
interval (probably feet or meters).
5. Choose a slope on your map and record
the following data in a table of your
own design.
a) Measure a specific horizontal
distance perpendicular to the
slope. Record the actual (not map)
horizontal distance.
b) Use contour lines to measure the
change in elevation over that specific
horizontal distance.
c) Divide the change in elevation by
the horizontal distance (make sure
they are in the same units), and then
multiply by 100. This gives you the
percent grade of the slope.
Part C: Characteristics of Slopes in 6. Repeat Step 5 for several slopes on

Your Community your map.
1. Obtain a topographic map of an area in a) Record all of the data in your table.
or around your community that shows 7. Make a second table that lists
a variety of different slopes. If your the location, percent grade, and
community is relatively flat, use a map characteristics for each slope. Some
of another area that shows both slopes characteristics you could list include:
and areas of development. kind(s) and density of vegetation, kind(s)
2. Determine the contour interval on of developments above, below, and on
your map, either from the legend or the slope, population density above,
by identifying the spacing between below, and on the slope, underlying
contour lines. geology, and surface deposits. Add any
other characteristics that you think will
3. Determine the scale of your map. This be important when evaluating land use
may be expressed as a ratio, such as on and around slopes.
1:24,000, which means one unit (of any
measure of distance, such as inches or a) Include this table in your log.
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Digging Deeper
SLOPES AND MASS MOVEMENT
Angle of Repose
In the Investigate, you explored what makes slopes unstable and stable.
You looked at the role of gravity and different types of materials. You Geo Words
also explored slopes in your local area. Sediments are unconsolidated sediment: the solid
materials. They have not gone through the conversion into rocks. (The fragments or particles
that are transported
process by which sediments compact to solid rock is called lithification.) and deposited by
A pile of sand is unconsolidated sediment. However, sandstone is a wind, water, or ice.
rock. Mud is unconsolidated sediment. Shale is a rock. Unconsolidated unconsolidated
materials cover solid rock (bedrock) in many places. This includes places material: the
where glaciers have been (glaciated areas), layers of soil (horizons), sediment that is
loosely arranged, or
deserts, beaches, lakes, rivers, and sand dunes. that has particles that
Unconsolidated materials are far less stable than rock. Solid bedrock is are not cemented
together, either at
stable at almost any slope angle. Unconsolidated sediments, however, the surface or at a
are stable only up to a maximum slope angle. This is shown in Figure 1. depth.
You studied this angle in both Parts A and B of the Investigate. This lithification: the
maximum angle is called the angle of repose. If you add more sand to a conversion of
unconsolidated
pile of sand with sides already at the angle of repose, the extra sand just sediment into a
slides down the sides. The angle cannot become any steeper without the coherent, solid rock.
sides collapsing. In general, the angle of repose for dry, unconsolidated bedrock: the solid
sediments ranges from 30° to 35°. The angle of repose does not vary rock that is connected
much with sediment size. However, more angular (jagged) particles continuously down
into Earth’s crust,
can maintain steeper slopes than more rounded particles. rather than existing
as separate pieces or
masses surrounded
by loose materials.
angle of repose: the
maximum slope or
angle at which loose
material remains
stable, commonly
ranging between
30° and 35° on
natural slopes.
Figure 1 Developers must take care not to build on slopes that exceed the
angle of repose.
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Mass Movement
An important factor to consider for your Chapter Challenge is the natural
slope of the land. You must also consider the materials on and under
these slopes as well. Sediments that were deposited by rivers or glaciers
lie beneath many areas. Some of these deposits are sloping. In that case,
you need to consider how stable the slope is before deciding to develop
the area. The stability of a slope depends on a number of factors. The
kind and amount of vegetation is an important factor. The sediment
composition, texture, and moisture content are also important. The
underlying geology needs to be considered as well.
Under certain conditions, slopes can be modified to allow for
development. Figure 2 shows one modification. Notice how the slopes
have been terraced. Retaining walls can also be used to make a slope
more stable. Drainage channels at the top of slopes are also useful. They
are placed so as to reduce areas where the particles that make up the
surfaces of the slopes can be moved away or eroded.
Figure 2 This slope has been terraced to increase its stability.
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Buildings, roads, and other

structures built on slopes
of any angle can be
damaged or destroyed Geo Words
when mass movement mass movement: the
occurs. (See Figure 3.) downslope movement
Examples of mass of soil, sediment, or
rock at Earth’s surface
movement include by the pull of gravity.
rockfalls, landslides, debris
flows, debris avalanches,
and creep. (Creep refers
to the gradual movement
of rock and debris
movement.) The basic
cause of these types of
movement is the
downward pull of gravity.
Part of the pull of gravity
acts parallel to the sloping
surface. (See Figure 4.)
If that does not make
sense to you at first, think
about what happens to
you when you stand on Figure 3 A small seaside community north of Santa
Barbara, California felt the effects of mass movement.
a slippery slope. Gravity The slide of an unstable hill slope destroyed several
pulls you straight down homes and resulted in an evacuation of the area.
the slope.
This same downslope pull acts on the
materials that lie under a sloping land
surface as well. Under certain conditions,
the downslope pull of gravity overcomes
the strength of the material. The
material moves downslope. This
movement varies enormously in speed.
It can be so slow you cannot see it
happening. It can be as fast as tens
of meters per second. The movement
also varies in volume of material. The
amount of material can range from
single-sediment particles to cubic Figure 4 Gravity acts to pull an
kilometers of material. Adding water object toward the center of Earth.
This force can be shown using a
to the soil or sediment increases its
parallel part and a normal part.
weight. Also, water reduces the friction The greater the slope angle, the
between the grains. This allows the larger the force pulling the object
grains to slide past one another more parallel to the slope.
easily. Both of these factors increase
the chance of mass movement.
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In cold regions, cycles of freezing and thawing can cause mass movements.
As the water in soil or sediment freezes, it expands. The grains are lifted
parallel to the slope. When the ice melts, the grains settle parallel to the
slope. Then they slide downhill because of the pull of gravity. Often, the
water helps to reduce the friction.
In areas where the ground freezes in the winter to a depth of several feet,
the top layers of soil are loosened during spring thaw. At the same time,
Geo Words the bottom layers remain frozen and solid. The water-saturated upper
freeze-thaw cycles: layers then slide downhill. In areas where freeze-thaw cycles are frequent,
frequent temperature building foundations and pipes carrying gas, water, or sewage must be
fluctuations around
0°C that cause the placed below the freezing zone. (That is about a meter [3–4 ft] deep in
expansion and northern states.) This helps to prevent damage from surface slides.
contraction of water
within soil pores Vegetation can help to stabilize slopes. Trees, shrubs, bushes, and grasses
or cracks in rocks can help to keep soil layers intact, depending on the depth of the roots.
resulting in an overall Most vegetated areas, however, are still subject to landslides if they
loss of strength.
become saturated with water.
relief: the general
difference in You can tell how steep slopes are by using topographic maps. The maps
elevation of the land use contour lines to show the elevation of the land. The standard to which
from place to place in
some region.
all elevations are compared is average sea level. A contour line represents
equal elevations, or heights, above sea level. Therefore, a 10-ft contour
percent grade: the
ratio of the vertical line connects all the points in a region that are 10 ft above sea level. There
and horizontal is a basic rule for drawing contour lines. Contour lines can never cross,
distance covered because two elevations cannot exist at the same location. The spacing
by a given slope,
of the contour lines is a measure of the steepness of the land. The closer
multiplied by 100.
together the contour lines are, the steeper the slope they represent. A
region showing great variation in elevation is referred to as having high
Checking Up relief. A region showing relatively little variation is referred to as having
low relief.
1. What is the
relationship When you work with a slope on a topographic map, use the contour
between particle lines to measure the steepness of the slope. The steepness is how much
size and the
angle of repose?
the land rises over a particular horizontal distance. Use the scale on the
Between the map to figure out the horizontal distance from one point on the slope
jaggedness of to another point, measured perpendicular to the contour lines. Convert
particles and the so that both the vertical change (the change in elevation) and the
angle of repose? horizontal distance are expressed in the same units. The units are usually
2. Describe two ways in feet or miles, or in meters or kilometers. Divide the vertical change by
in which slopes can the horizontal distance. Then multiply by 100, to get what is called the
be stabilized.
percent grade.
3. Describe three
human activities
that may make
slopes unstable.
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• How does the slope of land control surface processes?
• How might changing the slope of the land create potential hazards for citizens (for
example, cutting through the land to build a road or housing project)?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Apply what you learned from your slope
models to help you revisit these questions.

In this section, you explored how gravity and particle size affect how stable a slope is.
You read that materials of a certain grain size will pile up to a maximum slope angle. You
also read that you can calculate slope and percent grade from a topographic map. You
can classify slopes on the basis of the physical characteristics you see on maps. Slopes are
important landforms for the movement of sediments toward rivers and eventually to lower
elevations. Studying slopes in lowland and upland regions will be important as you work
on your Chapter Challenge.
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1. Compare the slopes of mountainous regions with those of lowland drainage basins.
2. Which rock types are most prone to forming unstable slopes?
3. The development of roads and buildings typically involves moving and shaping the
land. What basic guidelines should be followed when cutting a slope or piling loose
material and creating a slope?
4. Why would a developer be motivated to build on a potentially unstable slope? In your
opinion, what advantages would outweigh the dangers?
5. Specifically describe how slopes might have influenced your community’s growth over
the last:
a) 5 years b) 20 years c) 50 years
6. Consider other communities you have visited or researched where slope influences
development.
a) Describe a community where slopes have limited development.
b) Describe a community where slopes have been helpful for development.
Write a short paragraph answering each of the following questions:
a) What are the characteristics of slopes that shed the most materials?
b) Where are these slopes found?
c) Which slopes in your community cannot be safely developed? What evidence
supports your answer?
d) Which developments in your community might be at risk from mass movements?
What would have to happen for these risks to be minimized?
Apply these ideas to the assessment of slopes in your Florida and Alaska Olympic
Games sites.
Inquiring Further
1. Effect of water on mass movement
Repeat Part B of the Investigate using materials that have water added to them and see
if your results change.
• What do your results lead you to believe regarding slopes without vegetation during
times of heavy rain?
• What practices during times of heavy construction in a community does the
information support?
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2. Slope-risk map of your community

Compile slope information onto a risk map for your community using the traffic light
colors of green = safe, yellow = proceed with caution, red = stop; do not proceed.
Include a key that classifies what type of development may be of concern in each area.
3. Underlying materials in your community
Determine what kinds of materials underlie different parts of your community by
consulting geologic maps, local developers, and/or town officials.
• Does your community lie on unconsolidated sediment or relatively solid bedrock?
• If you found areas of unconsolidated sediment, are the sediments naturally occurring
or were they deposited by human activity?
• Is building on bedrock always safer than building on sediment? Explain your answer.
• In your own words, describe how the distribution of underlying materials has shaped
your community’s building patterns.
4. Famous catastrophic mass movements
Go to the EarthComm Web
site at http://www.agiweb
.org/education/earthcomm2/
to investigate famous
examples of catastrophic
mass movements that have
affected communities.
Conduct research on these
mass movements. Answer the
following questions.
• What happened?
• How did the mass
movement affect the
community?
• What factors led to the
mass movement?
• How might the event have
been avoided?
• What lessons were learned
from the event?
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Section 4 High-Gradient Streams

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Look at the two different streams shown in the illustrations above.
• Use models and real-time
• How are the two streams different?
streamflow data to understand
the characteristics of high- • Could both streams be located in the same geographic area?
gradient streams.
• Identify characteristics of prepared to discuss your responses with your small group
high-gradient streams.
and the class.
• Calculate stream slope
or gradient.
Investigate
• Identify areas likely to have
high-gradient streams. In this Investigate, you will run a model that examines the
• Assess possible hazards and effect that a high gradient has on the way a stream flows.
benefits of a high-gradient
Part A: Investigating High-Gradient Streams Using
stream on a community.
a Stream Table
Before you begin, it would be a good idea to cover tables with

newspaper or other material to make cleanup easier. Keep paper
towels nearby for cleanup.
1. To model a high-gradient stream, set up a stream table as

follows. Use the photograph on the next page to help you
with your setup.
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• Cover the bottom of a stream table a before and after video or photo to
with a layer of sand about 2.5 cm record your observations of the
thick. stream table.
• Using additional sand, make high Be ready to turn off the flow of water at any
mountains separated by narrow river moment. Mass wasting (sand slide) is possible.
valleys at the upper end of the stream
table. a) Which parts of the landscape are
• Using pieces of toothpicks or small most prone to erosion—the steeply
blocks, set up communities of sloping or gently sloping parts?
“buildings” in the stream valleys
and on the hillsides and hilltops. b) Where is sediment deposited?
• Prop up the stream table about 30 cm c) Where does water flow fastest and
to create a steep slope. You may need where does it flow slowest?
to support the lower end to prevent it
d) Where is the largest volume of water
from sliding.
flowing in the stream and where is
• Be prepared to drain, bail, or recycle the smallest?
the water that accumulates at the
lower end of the stream table. 3. Turn off the water and rebuild your
2. Turn on a water source with a low rate landscape and “community.”
of flow or use a beaker full of water to
control the rate of flow. Observe and If toothpicks were used, be sure to retrieve them
record the changes in the stream valleys from the sand. Wash your hands after handling
and hillsides. You may wish to take the sand.
Stream table setup for a high-gradient stream.
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Part B: Stream Gradients

1. Streams and rivers always flow 3. Use the two values you obtained to
downhill. The gradient, or slope, of calculate the stream slope, or gradient,
a stream or river expresses the loss in in feet per mile or in meters per
elevation of the stream or river with kilometer. To do this, divide the change
distance downstream. Obtain one or in elevation by the horizontal distance
more topographic maps that cover your between the two points. For example,
community and nearby areas. Identify if the river drops two meters over a
the stream or river nearest to your horizontal distance of four kilometers,
school. Find two adjacent contour lines the gradient of the river is one-half
that cross the river. Note the contour meter per kilometer. The gradient can
interval. It may be 5, 10, 20, or 40 ft, also be expressed as just a number, by
or it might be in meters instead. using the same units of measurement
for both the vertical drop and the
a) Record the contour interval as
horizontal distance. In the example
change in elevation.
above, the gradient would be 2 m
2. Use a piece of string to measure the divided by 4000 m, or 0.0005.
distance between the two points along
a) Record the gradient of the stream.
the river where the contour lines cross
the river. Use the scale on the map to 4. Study the data for the Mississippi River
convert this distance on the map to System in the table on the next page.
miles or kilometers on the ground.
a) Record this value.
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Data on the Mississippi River System

for Various Locations on the Mississippi River and its Tributaries,
August 2009
Contributing
Discharge Floodplain Distance to Elevation
Location Drainage Area
(ft3/s) Width (mi) Sea (mi) (ft)
(mi2)
North Fork Shoshone River,
699 628 0.04 2300 5580
Wapiti, Wyoming
Shoshone River, Cody,
1603 1190 0.2 2270 4900
Wyoming
Missouri River, Culbertson,
91,557 6960 1.4 1800 1880
Montana
Missouri River, Hermann,
522,500 81,800 2.5 780 480
Missouri
Mississippi River, Chester,
708,600 181,000 6.0 625 340
Illinois
Mississippi River, Vicksburg,
1,144,500 495,000 30 205 50
Mississippi
a) Search for patterns in the data that b) Use the data to make a graph
would allow you to characterize how showing one of the patterns that
a river changes over its course. For you have just described.
example, using the data, complete c) Calculate the stream gradients (in
the following sentence: “As the feet per mile) between the following
distance from the sea decreases, segments of the Mississippi:
floodplain width…” (A floodplain is
the area of a river valley next to the i) Between Hermann, Missouri and
channel, which is built of deposited Vicksburg, Mississippi.
sediments and is covered with water ii) Between the Shoshone River at
when the river overflows its banks at Wapiti and Cody, Wyoming.
flood stage.) Write down two more d) Describe the relationship between
sentences that describe patterns or stream gradient, elevation, and
relationships in the data. stream discharge.
The Missouri River near Culbertson, Montana.
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The Mississippi River near Natchez, Mississippi.
5. Obtain a copy of the data table shown determine where the gradient of your
on the next page to include in your Geo river is greatest. Note this location in
log. Use a topographic map of your area your Geo log.
to fill in rows (a) to (j) in the table for
a) Fill in rows (a) to (o) in the column
your local stream.
labeled “High-Gradient Stream” in
6. Go to the EarthComm Web site at http:// the table for this location, as you did
www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/ for your local river.
to find the USGS Web site that gives
8. Use your completed data table to do
data on the discharge of rivers in the
the following:
United States.
a) Compare the width of the floodplain
a) Use the data on the Web site to record
in your local area and in the high-
the discharge (or flow), in ft3/s, the
gradient area.
drainage basin area (ft2), and stream
velocity (calculate using discharge b) Compare the stream velocity in the
and drainage area) of your local river. two areas.
Use the data from the location that is c) Compare the current discharge of
closest to your school. If your river your local stream to the maximum
is not listed, use data for the next- and minimum discharges. How
closest river. Complete rows (k) to (o) do you account for the differences
for your local stream. between the numbers?
7. Look at the state or regional (Note: You will record the data for a low-
topographic or shaded relief maps to gradient stream in the next section.)
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Comparison of Characteristics of Local and High- and Low-Gradient Streams
Characteristic Local Stream High-Gradient Stream Low-Gradient Stream
(a) Difference in elevation (ft)

between highest and lowest
points in study area
(b) Stream gradient (ft/mi)
(c) Steepness of valley walls

(steep, moderate, gentle)
(d) Channel shape (straight,

curved, meandering)
(e) Channel width (mi)
(f) Floodplain width (mi)
(g) Area of land available for

farming in valley
(h) Number of tributaries within

four miles
(i) Rapids or waterfalls present
(j) Could a large boat travel

upstream here?
(k) Drainage basin area (ft2)
(l) Current discharge (ft3/s)
(m) Current stream velocity (ft/s)
(n) Minimum discharge (ft3/s)
(o) Maximum discharge (ft3/s)
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Digging Deeper
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH-GRADIENT STREAMS
In the Investigate, you ran a model that examined the effect that
Geo Words a stream’s high gradient has on its streamflow. You may have been
stream: a small or uncertain about the difference between a stream and a river. Geologists
large flow of water in use both words to describe a flow of water in a natural channel on Earth’s
natural channels.
surface. The word “river” is usually used for a flow in a relatively large
river: a relatively channel. The word “stream” is usually used for a flow in a relatively small
large flow of water in
a natural channel. channel. Often, however, the word “stream” is used in a general way for
all flows in natural channels, large and small. Very small streams are often
brook: a term used
for a small stream. called brooks or creeks.
creek: a term used for The gradient is the slope of a stream or river. It is expressed as the loss in
a small stream. elevation with distance downstream. High-gradient streams are usually
gradient: the slope located in the headwater areas of river systems. The headwaters are the
of a stream or river areas of the river system that are farthest away from the mouth of the
expressed as a loss
in elevation of the river. The headwaters are at the highest elevations in the river system.
stream or river with Slopes of the land surface are generally much steeper at the headwaters
distance downstream. than in the lower parts of the river system. (See Figure 1.)
headwater: the area
of the river system
The velocities of flow in high-gradient streams are high. They are
that is farthest away sometimes greater than 3 m/s (10 ft/s). However, because such streams are
from the mouth of usually in the headwaters of the river system, they have not collected much
the river. water from upstream. They also are relatively small and shallow. Streams
downcutting: erosion with high velocities and shallow depths exert very strong forces on the
of a valley by a stream bottom. The reasons for that are complicated and have to do with
stream.
the dynamics of flowing water. High-gradient streams can move very large
floodplain: the area particles on the streambed. During floods, the particles can be the size of
of a river valley
next to the channel, large boulders. In some high-gradient streams during floods, you can stand
which is built of on the bank of the stream and hear a thunderous roar. This is caused by
deposited sediments boulders colliding with one another as they are moved by the stream.
and is covered with
water when the river High-gradient streams can exert large forces on the streambed. As a result,
overflows its banks they tend to erode their valleys rapidly. Erosion of a valley by a stream is
at flood stage. called downcutting. Sometimes streams cut
straight down to form canyons with vertical
walls. However, usually the valley is in the
form of a “V” with steeply sloping sides.
Weathering produces loose material on the
valley slopes. That material then slides down
or is washed down by rainfall to the stream.
The stream carries the material downstream.
High-gradient streams cut their valleys
vertically downward very rapidly. It is too
rapid for the valleys to widen out to form
floodplains. In most high-gradient streams,
the sloping sides of the valley come down
very near the stream channel. (See Figure 2.)
Figure 1 The slope of the land at There is only a limited area of flat land
the headwaters of a river is
generally very steep.
available for farming in the valleys.
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Figure 2 Illustration of high-gradient streams in the highlands and a

low-gradient stream forming a broad valley below.
In the Investigate, you compared different points along the Mississippi

River. You noticed that high-gradient streams tend to have a relatively Geo Words
high velocity. However, they have a low stream discharge. Stream stream discharge:
discharge is the volume of water passing a point along the river in a unit the volume of water
of time. It is calculated by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the river passing a point along
the river in a unit of
channel by the velocity of the water. It is not easy to measure the cross- time.
sectional area of the river channel. Imagine finding the depths all across
the river from a bridge. Then imagine plotting these depths on a graph
to show the cross section, and then measuring the area of the cross
section. The discharge is measured in cubic feet per second (often called
“cusecs”) or in cubic meters per second (often called “cumecs”).
Stream velocity and stream discharge vary a lot over time. This can
be seen in a sample plot of stream discharge from the USGS real-time
water data Web site. (See Figure 3 on the next page.) For this stream in
the Appalachian Mountains of Maryland, the average daily discharge is
higher during the winter than the summer months. On average, greater
amounts of precipitation fell during winter. Periods of high rainfall fill
cavities in the soil. Additional rainfall on saturated slopes causes steep
rises in the graph. The peak in March was caused by the melting of large
volumes of winter snow from the upper slopes in the drainage area.
This is common over much of the colder and temperate areas of the
United States. During the summer months, several peaks coincide with
periods of thunderstorms, the greatest of which occurred after several
days of intense storms. However, unlike winter flows, the summer
base level can fall dramatically during periods of low rainfall and high
summer temperatures.
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Checking Up
1. Why can high-
gradient streams
move large
sediment particles?
2. What is stream
discharge?
3. How does stream
discharge change
from high-gradient
to low-gradient
streams?
4. Why do high-
gradient streams
cause downcutting
Figure 3 Plot of stream discharge versus time for the Little
of their valleys?
Patuxent River in Savage, Maryland.
5. What causes
stream discharge to
change over time?

At the beginning of this section, you looked at two illustrations of streams and
were asked the following:
• How are the two streams different?
• Could both streams be located in the same geographic area?
Record your ideas about these questions now. In your answers, draw on your
understanding of stream systems.

In this section, you used a stream table to explore how particles of sediment
were moved and deposited (erosion and deposition) along rivers that had steep
gradients. You used a topographic map to calculate the gradient (the change
in elevation with horizontal distance) of a stream near your school. You also
searched for patterns and relationships between variables used to characterize
a river along its course. Finally, you examined real-time data of streamflow
in a river that flows near your community. These explorations will help you
characterize the relationship between geology and surface change. You will
need to include this information in your Chapter Challenge.
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1. Describe three characteristics of a high-gradient stream.
2. Is the major stream in your community a high-gradient stream? How do you know?
3. How does the elevation of your community compare to the elevation of areas around
high-gradient streams?
4. What events would cause the velocity of your river to increase? To decrease?
5. Is there a time of year when a high-gradient stream is likely to pose a hazard to
communities? Explain your answer.
Write a short paper in which you describe the relationships between upland regions,
slopes, and the strength of erosional processes. Also, discuss some of the potential
dangers of high-gradient streams to development. Apply these ideas to the evaluation
of your Florida and Alaska Olympic Games sites.
Inquiring Further
1. Interaction between humans and rivers
Many stories and novels have been written that focus on rivers, or on the interactions
between humans and rivers, including The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark
Twain, Siddhartha, by Herman Hesse, and A River Runs Through It, by Norman
Maclean. Write a story or essay that involves a river and members of your community.
What you write does not have to be centered on the river, but it should involve some
interaction between community residents and the river or stream.
2. Big Thompson, Colorado flood
Find information on the Big Thompson, Colorado flood of July 1976 and describe how
it is related to high-gradient streams and land use. What factors caused this flood to be
so catastrophic?
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Section 5 Low-Gradient Streams

What Do You See?

In this section, you will During the Mississippi River flood of 1993, stream gauges at
• Use models and real-time 42 stations along the river recorded their highest water levels on
streamflow data to understand record. The effects of the flood were catastrophic. Seventy-five
the characteristics of low-
towns were completely covered by water, 54,000 people had to
gradient streams.
be evacuated, and 47 people lost their lives.
• Explore how models can help
scientists interpret the natural • What happens during a flood?
world. Record your ideas about this question in your Geo log. Include a
• Identify areas likely to have sketch of the water line (the line where the water surface meets the
low-gradient streams.
riverbank) during normal flow in the river and during a flood. Be
• Describe hazards of low- prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
gradient streams.
the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will use a stream table to model how a
low-gradient stream flows and what effects this can have on the
areas surrounding the stream.
Part A: Investigating Low-Gradient Streams Using a
Stream Table
1. To model a low-gradient stream, set up a stream table as
follows. Use the photograph on the next page to help you
with your setup.
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• Make a batch of river sediment by 3. Turn on a water source or use a beaker

mixing a small portion of silt with filled with water to create a gently
a large portion of fine sand. flowing river. Observe and record the
• Cover three-fourths of the stream changes to your stream table model.
table with a layer of the river sediment a) Which parts of the landscape are most
at least 2.5 cm thick. prone to erosion? To deposition?
• With your finger, trace a winding
b) What shape does the river
river between 0.6 cm and 1.3 cm deep
channel take?
in the sediment. Make several bends.
• Using pieces of toothpicks or small c) Describe all the areas where silt is
blocks, set up communities of being deposited. Describe all the
“buildings” along both the inside areas where sand is being deposited.
and outside of river bends. d) Observe and sketch the distributary
• Prop up the stream table about system that develops where the river
2.5 cm to create a very gentle slope. enters the “ocean.”
• Be prepared to drain, bail, or recycle e) Increase the velocity of the river
the water that accumulates at the slightly. What happens?
lower end of the stream table.
f) Increase the velocity again.
Before you begin, review all safety precautions What happens?
provided in the Investigate in Section 4
regarding the stream table setup.
g) What events might cause the velocity
of your river to increase?
2. Using additional sediment, make h) Would you expect the discharge to
landforms that you think are typical of increase when the velocity of the
areas with low-gradient streams. Refer river increases?
to a topographic map for ideas.
i) In general, which have larger
discharges: high-gradient streams
or low-gradient streams?
The stream table setup of a low-gradient stream. Pieces representing

buildings and houses are placed in the sand on the inside and outside
bends of the river.
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Part B: Characteristics of
Low-Gradient Streams
1. Complete the data table you began in d) Why is this part of the river called a
Part B of the Investigate in Section 4. low-gradient stream?
a) Look at a state, regional, or United e) Compare the width of the floodplain
States map to determine where the in the low-gradient area with the
stream gradient for your river would width of the floodplain in the high-
be the gentlest. Note the location in gradient area of the previous section.
your Geo log.
f) Compare the stream velocity in the
b) Use the map to fill in rows (a) to (j) low-gradient area and the high-
in the column labeled “Low- gradient area.
Gradient Stream.”
g) Compare the area of land available
c) Use the USGS Web site (which you for farming in the low-gradient area
can find at the EarthComm Web site) and the high-gradient area. If there is
to get data on the discharge of rivers a difference, why does it exist?
in the United States to fill in rows (k)
to (o) for the low-gradient stream.
Digging Deeper
LOW-GRADIENT STREAMS
Meandering Streams
In the Investigate, you used a stream table to simulate how a low-
gradient stream flows and what can happen when that stream overflows
its banks. As you saw from where you poured the water into your stream
table “river” and where the water flowed out, there are big differences
between high-gradient and low-gradient streams. High-gradient streams
can result in downward erosion, or downcutting. This makes steep,
straight valleys with little or no floodplains. On the other hand, low-
gradient streams wear land away
both sideways and downward. This
makes wider and wider valleys. (See
the photograph in Figure 1.)
Typically, streams in the lower
areas of a river system have lower
gradients than those in higher areas.
They also have wider channels and
wider floodplains. The width of
the valleys increases as discharge
increases. This fact shows that rivers
erode the valleys that they occupy.
Figure 1 How does this stream differ

from the one shown in Figure 1 of the
previous section?
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Low-gradient streams cut wide valleys because their channels tend to

shift sideways. Most low-gradient streams do this by meandering. A Geo Words
meandering stream is a stream with a channel that curves or loops back meandering stream: a
and forth on a wide floodplain. This is shown in Figure 2. Each curve is stream with a channel
that curves or loops
called a meander bend or meander loop. The velocity of the water is back and forth on a
greatest on the outside of the meander bend. This is where erosion tends wide floodplain.
to occur. In contrast, the velocity is lower on the inside of the bend. This meander bend: one of
is where sediment is deposited. Over time, erosion on the outside of a series of curves or
the meander bend combined with the deposition on the inside of the loops in the course of
a low-gradient, slow-
meander bend causes the river to meander farther and farther sideways. flowing river.
As a result, a wider and wider valley is cut. The flat, low-lying valley
meander scars: low
bottom surrounding the channel is called the floodplain. That is where ridges on the part of
water spreads when the river overflows its banks during floods. The the floodplain inside
floodplain is built of the sediments that the river has deposited during the meander bend
meandering, as well as sediments deposited during floods. caused by deposition
of sediment during a
flood.
Figure 2 Illustration of a meandering stream. Notice that erosion

occurs on the outside of the meander bend while deposition occurs
on the inside.
As each flood deposits some sediment on the inside of the meander

bend, a low ridge, usually no more than a meter or so high, is formed.
The area of the floodplain on the inside of the meander bend shows
a large number of these ridges, called meander scars. They reveal the
earlier positions of the meander bend.
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As a meander bend grows wider, its neck usually becomes narrower as

well. Eventually, the meander bend is cut off during a flood as the water
begins to flow across the narrow neck to follow a more direct route
downstream. The more direct route is shorter and steeper than the longer
route all the way around the meander. The river abandons the former
meander bend. Soon afterward, the ends of the abandoned bend are
Geo Words plugged with river sediment. The bend becomes a curved lake, called an
oxbow lake: a oxbow lake. Later floods deposit sediment in the oxbow lake. Eventually
crescent-shaped it is filled in completely with sediment. Oxbow lakes, including those
body of standing partly or completely filled with sediment, are common features on the
water situated in the
abandoned channel
floodplains of low-gradient streams. If you are ever in an airplane flying
(oxbow) of a meander over a big meandering river (like the Mississippi or the Missouri), look out
after the stream the window and you will see the patterns of meander bends and oxbow
formed a neck cutoff lakes. (See Figure 3.) You also might be able to see meander scars, and
and the ends of the
original bend were
even the faint outlines of former oxbow lakes, now filled with sediment.
plugged up by fine
sediment.
Figure 3 Meander bends and oxbow lakes are characteristics of low-gradient

streams. Continued plugging of the channel with fine sediment will
eventually turn this meander into an oxbow lake.
Streams and the Hydrologic Cycle

The main factor that influences stream discharge is precipitation in
the drainage area of a stream. Other factors can also be important as
well. Water can be removed from a stream by loss of the water that
lies beneath Earth’s surface (groundwater). It can evaporate into the
atmosphere. Water may also be diverted from a stream for municipal
water supply or crop irrigation. Water can enter the stream from the
groundwater system. This can be from the melting of snow or glaciers,
or the release of water from reservoirs.
The flow of water in streams is closely connected to the groundwater
system. Have you ever thought about why most rivers flow throughout
the year, even during long periods when no rain falls to feed the
river? Some of the rain that falls on the land runs off directly into
streams. However, some soaks into the soil and becomes groundwater.
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Geo Words
Groundwater flows slowly through aquifers. When the aquifer intersects aquifer: a body
the ground surface an outflow of water results. Outflow from aquifers of porous rock
or sediment that
is a major source of water for many rivers, especially during periods of is sufficiently
drought. Refer to the plot of the streamflow in Section 4. It did not rain permeable to conduct
everyday in the drainage basin of the river shown in the plot, yet water groundwater and to
continued to flow in the stream. This is mainly the result of groundwater provide an adequate
supply of water.
charging, or adding to, the stream. Groundwater that leaves an aquifer
and flows into the bed of a stream is referred to as base flow. Water base flow:
groundwater that
generally flows much more slowly through rock and sediment than it leaves an aquifer and
does over Earth’s surface. As a result, base flow can charge a stream flows into the bed of
even long after precipitation has stopped. a stream.
stage: the height of
the water surface in a
river channel, relative
to sea level, at a given
place along the river.
flood stage: the river
stage (water level)
at which a river rises
above its banks and
begins to cause a
flood.
Figure 4 Groundwater flows through the aquifer to the stream. This

prevents the stream from becoming dry during long periods of drought.
Hazards: Floods on Low-Gradient Streams

Flooding on low-gradient
streams occurs when the stream
channel cannot contain the
discharge of water that is passing
through it. The height of the
water surface in a river channel,
relative to sea level, at a given
place along the river is called
the stage of the river. During
periods of normal flow in a river,
water is confined to the channel
of the river. When the stage of
the river reaches what is called
flood stage, water overtops
the banks of the channel. The
area of a river valley that is
covered by water during a flood
is the floodplain. (See Figure 5.)
When water flows out onto the Figure 5 Deposition of fertile sediment
floodplain, it spreads out as a on floodplains provides ideal
wide and shallow flow. farming conditions.
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The flow of water across a floodplain is shallower than in the channel. As

a result, the friction between the flow and the ground plays a greater role
than in the channel. The flow across the floodplain is slower than in the
river channel. The slower flow across the floodplain cannot carry as much
sediment in suspension as it did in the channel. Therefore, the floodwaters
deposit much of its sediment load (mainly sand and silt) across the
floodplain. In many areas, floodplain sediments create fertile land that
is good for farming. In areas that are not agricultural, cleaning up the
sediment left by a flood is an expensive, labor-intensive job. (See Figure 6.)
Figure 6 The flooding of the Red River of the North in Grand Forks, ND
April, 1997, caused almost two billion dollars in property damage.
It is common for the discharge in low-gradient streams to change with the

seasons. This is a result of seasonal changes in precipitation. For example,
flooding is not common in Maine during the winter. During the winter,
most precipitation is in the form of snow. The snow remains on the
ground surface. However, in the spring, warm weather causes the snow
to melt rapidly. Much of the snowmelt flows directly into streams or into
groundwater systems. These systems then feed the streams. All of the
snowmelt in the upstream parts of the drainage basin eventually drains
into the low-gradient streams in the downstream parts of the drainage
basin. This results in flooding. In such areas, the danger of flooding is
especially great during heavy rains in warm spring weather after a very
snowy winter. In contrast, during the hot summer months, precipitation
is less abundant, and more water is lost to evaporation and growing
vegetation. This reduces the risk of flooding.
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Flooding is a natural process. It occurs as a river system develops and

evolves. Humans often try to control this process. However, efforts along
one section of a river can increase the effects of flooding along other
sections downstream. Sound land-use planning allows for the natural
development of floodplains. It helps limit property damage that could
be caused by flooding.
In many large rivers, the land area through which the river flows is
gradually subsiding relative to sea level. This causes the river to deposit
some of the sediment it carries. This helps to maintain the same elevation
of land relative to sea level. Most of this new deposition takes place in
the channel itself, and also along its banks. As sediment is deposited Geo Words
along the banks, ridges called natural levees are formed. These natural levee: a natural
levees stretch continuously along both sides of the river. With time, the or human-made
embankment built
river gets higher and higher above its floodplain. Eventually, during a along the bank of a
large flood, the river breaks out of its levees. It finds an entirely new and river to confine the
lower course across the floodplain. This is called avulsion. This results river to its channel
in a catastrophic flood on the floodplain. Also, the river may no longer and/or to protect land
from flooding.
flow through a city that was once located somewhere downstream of the
avulsion: a major
point of avulsion. change in the course
Currently, some of the lower Mississippi River flows out to the Gulf of of a river when the
river breaks out of its
Mexico along the Atchafalaya River. This is west of the main Mississippi. levees during a flood.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has built an enormous structure, called
headworks: an
a headworks. It was built at the point along the Mississippi where the engineering structure
Atchafalaya branches off. Its purpose is to control how much water is built to control the
diverted from the Mississippi. flow of river water
out of a river channel
during a flood.
Checking Up
1. How does
meandering
change the pattern
of a stream
channel in a low-
gradient stream?
2. Why do low-
gradient streams
have a broad
floodplain?
3. What types of
Figure 7 Without a headworks, probably most of the Mississippi would by now be
sediment are
flowing down the Atchafalaya, leaving the city of New Orleans as a backwater city.
carried and
deposited by low-
gradient streams?
4. What causes low-
gradient streams
to flood?
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• What happens during a flood?
Record your ideas about this question now. Apply your new knowledge of flow patterns
in your answer.

This section helped you to realize that streams with lower gradients and larger discharges
tend to have wider floodplains than streams with higher gradients and smaller discharges.
Large, low-gradient rivers carry large amounts of sediment into lakes and oceans as they
change the landscape and transport large volumes of water as part of Earth’s hydrosphere.
By comparing the river system in your community with both high-gradient and low-
gradient streams, you will be able to better understand the characteristics of rivers that
might affect the sites you are considering for development in Florida and Alaska.
1. The stream gradient you measured in the investigation of high-gradient streams is

really the gradient of the valley in which the river flows. If a stream meanders on its
floodplain, is the gradient of the stream channel itself equal to, greater than, or less
than the overall gradient of the valley? How might you measure the gradient of the
stream channel, rather than the stream valley, using a topographic map?
2. Are the streams in your community generally high-gradient streams, low-gradient
streams, or somewhere in between? Explain your interpretation.
3. Because they are physical barriers to travel, streams have been used as political
boundaries throughout history. This includes boundaries between cities, counties,
states, and countries.
a) Do rivers serve as boundaries in your community? In your state?
b) On a map of the United States, identify rivers that form the boundaries between
states, between the United States and Mexico, and between the United States
and Canada.
c) How could meandering of a stream channel on its floodplain affect boundaries?
d) How would communities react to the changing of boundaries because of the
meandering of rivers?
4. Is a high-gradient stream or a low-gradient stream more likely to have a large
population center near it? Explain your answer.
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5. Low-gradient streams have wide, flat floodplains.

a) List some advantages to locating a community on a floodplain of a river.
b) List some disadvantages to locating a community on a floodplain of a river.
c) Do you think the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, or the other way around?
6. Compare the hazards posed by low-gradient streams with the hazards posed by high-
gradient streams.
7. Is there a time of year when a low-gradient stream poses a particular hazard to
communities? Explain your answer.
How does the capacity for erosion and deposition compare for a low-gradient stream
and a high-gradient stream? Write a short paper in which you address this question.
Consider the risks and opportunities for development by low-gradient streams in
both Florida and Alaska. How do these parts of drainage systems differ between the
two states? Find out about simple engineering practices used to reduce the risks of
developing on the floodplains of major rivers.
Inquiring Further
1. The floods of 1993, 1997, and 2001
Research the Mississippi and Missouri River floods of the summer of 1993, the Upper
Mississippi River flood in spring 2001, or the Red River flood in Grand Forks, North
Dakota and East Grand Forks, Minnesota in the spring of 1997. What happened in
cities on the floodplains? Pick a city that was affected by one of the floods and describe
the impact of the flood. Was the city prepared for floods? What did the city do once it
became clear that the river would flood? Was the city damaged? What has the city done
to prepare for future floods?
Sandbags provide added protection against rising waters during a flood.
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Your challenge is to find a site suitable to host the Summer

Olympic Games. You need to collect information about two
cities. One is in the state of Alaska, and one is in the
state of Florida. You will need to create a poster and
report about the suitability of each site. At this point, you
should be able to describe the surface geology of both
cities. Your Mini-Challenge is to evaluate the
suitability of the landscape of each city for Olympic
facilities. Here are some Inputs you have read about.
These should be included in your Mini-Challenge:
• What is the gradient of the land? Is the land stable
or prone to landslides?
• Are the rivers likely to flood or is the flow reliable
and stable?
• What risks are there in disturbing the ground where
the Olympic facilities will be built?
• What materials are under the site (for example, limestone,
loose sediment, river gravels, or granite)? Will these
materials support the building of the facilities and what
hazards do they present to development?
In your group, discuss the format of your evaluation and come up with a plan. Present your evaluation
to your teacher and the class for Feedback. The Mini-Challenge will help you organize your Chapter
Challenge. You will not be able to address all of the requirements at this time, but you should do your
best to fully address the topics that you have already studied.
Look back at the Goal you wrote at the beginning of the chapter. Rewrite your Goal so that you are clear
on what you will prepare for the Mini-Challenge. Review the Goal as a class to make sure you have all of
the criteria and the necessary constraints.
You have completed five sections of this chapter and read about some aspects of Earth’s
surface processes. These will be part of the Inputs phase of the Engineering Design Cycle.
Review what you have studied below to help develop your evaluation.
Section 1: You examined the unique properties of water. You found out why water is so important to
life on Earth. You also looked at the distribution of water on Earth. Then you learned about the water
cycle and saw how water moves from place to place within the Earth system.
Section 2: You explored the nature of drainage systems, interpreted topographic maps, and evaluated
important interactions between river systems, land features, and communities.
Section 3: You considered whether the slopes of land features were suitable for development and
determined how the slope of the land controls surface processes. You discovered how different Earth
materials are prone to forming unstable slopes.
Sections 4 and 5: You used streamflow data to learn about the characteristics of high- and low-
gradient streams. You calculated the gradient of streams using a topographic map, assessed possible
hazards and benefits, identified areas where these streams occur, and compared the relationship between
these streams, surface change, land use, and development.
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In addition to these concepts, you may want to look for information on how flooding is controlled. You
should investigate flood control in both high- and low-gradient drainage systems. You may also want to
find out what engineering practices can be used to reduce the risks of building on floodplains of large
rivers or near high-gradient streams. You may wish to examine which Olympic water sport requires a
low-gradient system and which one requires a high-gradient one. Do these conditions exist in the sites
you selected?
The Process phase of the Engineering Design Cycle is when you decide what information
you have that will help meet the criteria of the Goal. At this point you need to evaluate the
information you have explored. This about what you will use to create the poster and report.
Perform a Resource Analysis. Create a list of what you have studied in the first five sections of this
chapter. For each item on your list, decide the following.
• How it will convince your audience that each site is suitable for building the Olympic facilities.
• How it will help reduce the fear of geologic hazards to the facilities during the events and afterward.
• How the landforms and the processes that form them that are present support the Olympic events.
Categorize the information you have explored. This will help you focus your energy on addressing the
parts of the challenge that you are prepared to answer at this point.
Your Resource Analysis has revealed which topics in the first five sections will be helpful for developing
your presentation. Your group might assign individuals or teams of two to work on specific parts of the
report. Then you can put all the parts together at a later time. Each person or team will now know which
chapter section or sections they can use to help him/her address their part of the presentation.
During your Resource Analysis, you can also make a list of what you still need learn to complete all parts
of the evaluation. This list will help you complete the final parts of the Chapter Challenge.
The Output of your Engineering Design Cycle for the Mini-Challenge is the evaluation of the
surface geology of both cities. Remember, everyone is working on the same Challenge. You only
need to do a good job of meeting the Goal requirements to do well.
You will present your evaluation of the site to the class. You should address the surface geology of each
city. Explain how the information you have gathered supports or does not support the development of
Olympic sport facilities. This is your design-cycle Output.
Finally, you will receive Feedback from your classmates. They will tell you what you have
done well according to the criteria from the Goal. They might also tell you some things you
can improve. To give good Feedback, it is important to consider all the criteria and
constraints. Think about how well each point addresses them. Your statements should say which parts
were satisfied and which, if any, were not. This is an objective process. It should focus on the products,
not the student scientists who produced them.
The Feedback will become an Input for your final product. You will have enough time to make
corrections and improvements. Therefore, pay attention to the valuable information your classmates
provide. Remember to correct any parts of your report that you received critical feedback on. You may
have also learned something from watching other presentations. You may want to add to your group’s
final presentation. It will be easier and faster to improve your evaluation now rather than waiting until
the chapter is finished. Remember to record all your information in a safe place. Then it will be ready to
use in the Chapter Challenge. As you complete the remaining sections, look for additional information
that will help you improve your poster and presentation.
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Section 6 Sediments in Streams

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Moving water can have amazing force. For example, rocks the
• Describe and classify sediments size of automobiles can be carried in streams during floods.
according to particle size and
shape. • What can you learn about a stream by looking at the materials
• Describe what happens to
in the streambed?
sediments composed of • How do streams change the material they carry?
different rock types as they
are transported in streams. Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
• Identify the relationship prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
between stream velocity the class.
and particle size.
• Identify the relationship Investigate
between transport distance
and particle size. In this Investigate, you will examine a model that shows how
sediments are formed from larger rocks. You will also explore
the differences between sediments of various sizes.
Part A: Modeling the Breakdown of Sediment
1. Obtain three or four small pieces of gypsum and three or four
small pieces of shale. Determine the total mass of the gypsum
and the total mass of the shale.
a) Record these masses.
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2. You will need to be able to record a) Measure and record the longest axis.
the following measurements for each This is the a-axis.
piece of gypsum and shale: roundness,
b) Measure and record the horizontal
length (a-axis), width (b-axis), thickness
axis that is perpendicular to the
(c-axis), the ratio b/a, the ratio c/b,
a-axis. This is the b-axis.
and shape.
a) Make a table in your Geo log in c) Now measure and record the vertical
which you will display this data. axis that is perpendicular to the first
two axes. This is the c-axis.
3. Determine the roundness of each
piece according to the Roundness d) Compute and record the ratios b/a
table shown below. and c/b.
a) Record the data in your table. e) Using these ratios, plot the location
of each piece on a particle shape
4. Determine the shape of each piece,
graph with the ratio b/a on the
recording all of the data in your table.
vertical axis and the ratio c/b on the
Place each piece on a flat surface so
horizontal axis. Use the graph on the
that the longest axis is approximately
next page as a guide.
horizontal. (Refer to the following
Particle Shape Graph on the next page.)
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5. Place the 6 to 8 samples in a 950-mL 7. Put the pieces back into the container,
plastic bottle that is filled halfway with add water as before, cap the bottle and
water. Cap the bottle and shake it for shake the mixture for 5 more minutes.
5 minutes.
8. Repeat Step 6.
Dry the outside of the bottle before shaking so
it is not slippery. 9. Describe what you saw each time
you emptied the container and
6. Carefully strain the water through a analyzed the pieces. Consider the
screen. Avoid spills. Place the material following questions:
that remains on the screen on a paper a) How did the mass, roundness, and
towel. Dry the rock samples and find shape change?
the total mass of the gypsum and the
shale as you did before. b) What differences did you notice
between the changes in gypsum
a) Record the mass. versus the changes in shale?
b) Determine the roundness of the c) What type of material did you collect
particles. Record this in your table. when you sieved the water?
c) Measure the a-, b-, and c-axes again.
Record each measurement. Wash your hands after each part of the
investigation.
d) Compute and record the ratios b/a
and c/b. Use these ratios to plot the
location of each piece on a new piece
of particle shape graph paper.
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Part B: Analyzing Stream Sediments 4. You have grouped the sediments by

1. Obtain 5–10 pieces of coarse sediment particle size. Use your data to determine
(at least a few centimeters in diameter) the percentages of each group of
collected from a local river by sediment size. Look at the largest and
your teacher. smallest particle sizes with a hand lens.
a) Describe the characteristics of a) Can you see any differences in

the pieces. Identify the rock roundness and sphericity? Write
types, if possible. a short paragraph explaining
your findings.
2. Make a table in your Geo log in which
you will display the following data for Part D: Using a Stream Table to
each piece: roundness, length (a-axis), Observe the Beginning of Sediment
width (b-axis), thickness (c-axis), the Movement in Streams
ratio b/a, the ratio c/b, and shape. 1. Obtain two thick wooden boards as
3. Determine the roundness of each piece long as the stream table and about
using the Roundness table. 5 cm wide. Place the boards on their
edge along the center of the stream
a) Record the data in your table. table, leaving a space about 5 cm wide
4. Determine the shape of each piece, between them, to form a channel. Place
recording all of the data in your table. a wooden block 5 cm wide, 8 cm long,
Place each piece on a flat surface so and 2 cm thick between the wooden
the longest axis is approximately boards near the upstream end of the
horizontal. stream table. Refer to the photograph
to see how to arrange the board and
a) Measure and record the a-, b-, the block in the stream table.
and c-axes.
b) Compute and record the ratios b/a
and c/b.
c) Using these ratios, plot the location
of each piece on particle shape
graph paper.
Part C: Measuring Sediment Sizes
1. Obtain sediment samples from either a
local stream or your teacher. Measure
the mass of the sample.
a) Record the mass.
2. Sieve the sediment sample using a set
of sieves, or, if these are not available,
a piece of plastic window screen from a
hardware store. You have now separated
your sample into at least two groups.
3. Dry the sediment. Find the mass of the
groups and classify them by particle size
(sand, silt, and so on).
a) Record all of your data in a table.
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2. Place a layer of fine sand 2 cm thick a) Record the flow velocity in your log.
between the boards. Level the bed of
5. Increase the water supply slightly, and
sand so that it is nearly flat and at the
observe the sand bed closely for any
same level as the wooden block between
sand movement. Measure the velocity
the boards.
of the flow again.
3. From a water source, run a small
a) Record the flow velocity in your log.
stream of water onto the stream table
just upstream of the wooden block. The 6. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until you notice
water will flow across the surface of that many of the sand grains are being
the block and down the sand bed in the moved by the flow.
channel. Maintain a constant flow that
is low enough to not disturb the sand. a) Record the flow velocity for which
the sand is first moved. This is
4. Measure the velocity of the water flow called the threshold velocity for
in the channel. Do this by floating sand movement.
a tiny piece of cork on the water
surface and timing how long it takes 7. Repeat the experiment using coarse
to move down the channel. Divide sand instead of fine sand in the channel.
the downstream travel distance a) Record all your data.
(in centimeters) by the travel time
(in seconds) to obtain the velocity in Clean up all spills immediately. Wash your hands
centimeters per second. Check the sand after the investigation.
bed to make sure that no sand is being
moved by the water flow.
Digging Deeper
SEDIMENTS IN STREAMS
Size Range of Sediments
In the Investigate, you explored how sediments are formed from larger
rocks. You also looked at the sizes of different sediments. Sediments come
in a very wide range of sizes. Geologists have officially named several
ranges of sediment size. This helps them talk about sediments. (See the
table of sediment sizes below.) To geologists, the words clay, silt, sand,
and gravel mean something very definite. It is easy to measure the sizes
of sand and gravel particles. However, it is very difficult to measure the
sizes of silt particles, and especially clay particles.
Particle Size Classification of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment Particle Size
Boulder > 256 mm Coarse
Gravel Cobble 64–256 mm
Pebble 2–64 mm
Sand 0.062–2 mm
Silt 0.0039–0.062 mm
Mud
Clay < 0.0039 mm Fine
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Sediment particles also vary greatly in their composition. Most gravel

particles are pieces of rock. In most streams and rivers, particles of sand
and silt consist mainly of the mineral quartz. Quartz is abundant at
Earth’s surface. It is very resistant to wearing away. However, depending
on the source of the sand, several other minerals may also be common
in sand sizes. Most clay-sized particles consist of minerals, called clay
minerals. These exist in the form of tiny plates or flakes.
Transportation of Sediment by Streams
Sediment can be carried by streams in several ways. This is shown in
Figure 1. Sediment can be dissolved in water and carried along invisibly
in a stream. Fine sediment particles the size of clay and silt travel mostly
while they are suspended in the water. They “ride” along with the Geo Words
stream. This material is called suspended load. The suspended sediment suspended load:
is held up above the streambed by the irregular motions of the water, material that travels
called turbulence. To get a good idea of what turbulence in a stream in a stream suspended
in the water.
looks like, watch steam or smoke coming out of a smokestack. You will
turbulence: the
be able to see the swirling masses of turbulent fluid, called eddies. irregular motion
On the other hand, very coarse, gravel-sized sediment particles travel of water.
mostly along the streambed. They move forward by sliding, rolling, and eddy: a swirling mass
bouncing. This material is called bed load. Sand is moved mostly as bed of turbulent fluid.
load when the streamflow is moderate. However, when the streamflow bed load: sediment
is very strong, sand moves as both bed load and suspended load. particles that travel
Whether a stream carries most of its sediment in suspension or as bed along the streambed,
by sliding, rolling, and
load depends both on the size of the sediment in the stream and on the bouncing.
velocity of flow in the stream.
Figure 1 Sediment transport by a stream.
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The flowing water in a stream exerts forces on sediment particles resting

on the streambed. This happens in much the same way as a stream exerts
forces on you when you are standing or sitting in a shallow stream.
The sediment particles rest in little “pockets” between the particles
underneath. Therefore, a certain force is needed to move a given particle
Geo Words from its position on the streambed. For each sediment size, a certain
threshold velocity: the velocity of flow, called the threshold velocity, is needed to move some of
velocity of flow that the particles on the streambed. As you saw in Part D of the Investigate,
is needed to move
certain particles along
stronger flows are needed to move coarse sediment than are needed to
the bed of a stream. move fine sediment. This is shown in the graph in Figure 2. Below the
threshold curve, no sediment is moved. Above the threshold curve, the
flow can move at least some of the sediment. In Part D of the Investigate,
you identified two points like this on a graph. Another way of looking at
the graph is that there is a maximum size of sediment particle that can be
moved by a given velocity of flow.
Figure 2 Graph showing the relationship between stream velocity and

maximum particle size transported.
How Streams Reduce the Sizes of Sediment Particles

Sediment particles in streams can become rounded as they bounce along
the bottom of the stream and collide with other particles. The collisions chip
the edges of the particles and grind them down. In general, the higher the
flow velocity, the harder and more frequent the collisions that break down
the sediment. Smaller particles, such as sand and silt, are commonly picked
up and carried in suspension. These sediments can “sandblast” the larger
sediment particles they come in contact with. In this way, large particles
that are not in constant motion can still be worn down and rounded. Also,
powerful collisions between pieces of gravel during floods can break or split
the gravel into small pieces.
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Sediment particles composed of different types of rocks or minerals

become rounded at different rates. Particles composed of softer minerals
become rounded more rapidly than those composed of harder minerals.
Limestone is composed of relatively soft calcite. It becomes rounded
more quickly than quartzite. Quartzite is composed of relatively hard
quartz. Rocks that have layering or other planes of weakness also break
down more quickly than rocks that are uniformly strong. Gneiss is a
layered rock. It may break down more rapidly than a nonlayered rock,
such as granite.
Rock and mineral particles can also be reduced in size by dissolving.
However, most of the common rocks and minerals in sediments dissolve
very slowly, if at all. Calcite is the only very common sedimentary mineral
that dissolves fairly quickly in streams.
Downstream Fining
Ordinarily, sediment particles in the upstream areas of a river system are
much coarser than the particles in the downstream areas. This is known Geo Words
as downstream fining. It can have various causes. All of the sediment downstream fining:
particles could be slowly reduced in size by abrasion and/or dissolving the decrease in
sediment size
as they travel downstream. However, most geologists think that this is
downstream in a
not the most important reason. Breakage of larger particles into smaller stream or river.
particles is probably much more important. In some streams, the coarser
sediment tends to be dropped by the stream and stored in the stream
valley. The finer particles move on downstream. This would also cause
downstream fining. In any given stream, it is usually difficult to tell
which effect is more important in causing downstream fining.
Figure 3 As you proceed downstream, you will find that the sediments carried by
the stream become finer and finer.
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Stream Deposition
Sediments transported by rivers and streams are eventually deposited.
You read about the deposition of sediment on the inside bend of a
Geo Words meandering stream. You also read about deposition on floodplains. This
occurs when rivers flood. There are two other important sedimentary
alluvial fan: a wide,
sloping deposit of deposits formed by streams and rivers. They are alluvial fans and deltas.
sediment formed
An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit. It forms where a stream leaves a
where a stream leaves
a mountain range. mountain range. (See Figure 4.) It occurs when the stream flows out of a
delta: a landform steep, narrow mountain valley and onto a broad, flat valley floor. When
made of sediment the stream emerges onto the valley floor, it experiences a sudden decrease
that is deposited in gradient. As a result, the velocity of the stream decreases. Therefore,
where a river flows its ability to carry sediment is also reduced. The stream deposits a large
into a body of water.
part of its load, starting with the coarsest sediments, mostly sand and
gravel, as an alluvial
fan. Drainage
continues in an
irregular radial
pattern from the
top of the fan. Finer
sediments remain
within the flow and
are carried toward
the edges. During
periods of high flows,
coarser sediments
deposited higher
on the fan may be
picked up again and
moved toward the
margin of the fan.
Figure 4 This image shows alluvial fan deposits in the

Zagros Mountains of Iran. This image was taken by the
Terra satellite as part of NASA’s Earth Observing System.
A delta is a sedimentary deposit that forms where a river flows into a

large body of water such as a lake, an ocean, or an inland sea. Deltas can
have a variety of shapes. They often have complex patterns of drainage.
(See Figure 5.) Most are triangle-shaped. When a river joins a larger body
of water, it is no longer flowing downhill. It quickly loses velocity. At this
point, the river also loses its ability to carry sediment. The heaviest particles
drop to the bottom first, forming a steeply sloping layer. Most of the fine
suspended load is carried farther out into the body of water. It eventually
settles out to form a gently sloping front. This is especially the case when
less-dense fresh water flows on the surface of denser salty water.
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Deltaic deposits usually consist of silt and clay particles. As long as the
volume of sediment deposited by the river is greater than that removed
by wave erosion and currents, the delta grows outward. This allows
surface drainage to extend farther to the edge of the delta and to
continue to deposit sediment. Most of Earth’s great rivers, including
the Nile, Amazon, and Mississippi, have built massive deltas.
Checking Up
1. Compare physical
breakdown with
dissolving of
materials.
2. What would
baseball-sized
particles in
a streambed
indicate about the
maximum velocity
of the streamflow?
describe what
might happen
to a large piece
of granite as it
is transported
farther and farther
downstream. What
are the processes
that would be
acting on the
granite?
Figure 5 This image shows the Ganges River Delta in Bangladesh—
the largest delta on Earth. 4. What is the
difference between
an alluvial fan and
a delta?

• What can you learn about a stream by looking at the materials in
the streambed?
• How do streams change the material they carry?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Include what you have
learned about streamflow and sediment erosion in your answers.
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In this section, you discovered that particles are changed in size and shape as they are
moved about in water. You also found that particles made out of different materials
change at different rates. You saw that a stronger flow of water is needed to move coarse
particles than is needed to move fine particles. Now you know what processes occur
in rivers. Being able to apply these concepts to the sediments you find in rivers beyond
your community will help you understand the types of flow that have helped shape the
landscape. You will need this information to complete your Chapter Challenge.
1. From your data, what can you say about the relationship between the velocity
of a river and the size of the sediment it carries?
2. What was the likely velocity of the river from which the following sediments
were taken:
a) Silt and clay? b) Fine sand? c) Large, rounded boulders?
3. One of the political leaders in your community has suggested making a “swimming
hole” along a stream in your community. The politician proposes to dredge gravel
from some part of the stream channel to make it deep enough, then add sand to the
banks and bottom. This politician maintains that this will be a low-budget, “natural”
swimming hole. As the expert on sedimentation in your community’s streams, do you
agree with the politician? Explain your answer.
With your group, think about the questions below.
• What geologic evidence do you need to determine if a stream has periods of
high-velocity flow?
• Could the streamflow in your Florida and Alaska cities potentially affect the
streambed and banks?
• Will the high-velocity flow affect downstream areas?
Inquiring Further
1. Cleaning up sediment
Has a stream in your community ever flooded and deposited sediments on a road,
athletic field, or parking lot? How did your community handle the cleanup? How
much did it cost? What was done with the sediment?
2. Sediment and living things
In what ways could the types of sediment in a streambed indicate the various plants
and animals that could live there? Do plants and animals that live in streams use
specific types of sediments? Would you find a different set of plants and animals
in a mud-bed stream as opposed to a gravel-bed stream?
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Section 7 Soil and Land Use

What Do You See?
Soils that contain many rocks

and large boulders may be
expensive to dig out for
development.

In this section, you will During the 1930s, severe dust storms called “black blizzards”
• Collect, study, and describe affected the midwestern United States. This period in American
local soils and develop a history has been referred to as the Dust Bowl era.
classification system for them.
• Explore how soils form, what
• In what ways is soil part of the Earth systems (geosphere,
a soil profile is, and the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere)?
importance of soil as a • Are all soils the same?
natural resource.
• Identify the relationship • How is soil important in your life?
between the physical Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
characteristics of a soil and
how the soil formed.
and the class.
• Establish that soil characteristics
may vary over time, and that
these variations can greatly Investigate
impact a community.
In this Investigate, you will explore the structure of soil and
• Map the location of different
how different types of soil are suited for various uses.
soils in your community.
Wear safety goggles when working with sand,

soil, or other particles. Avoid contact with eyes.
Wash hands when done.
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Part A: Classifying Soil Samples

b) If possible, draw boundaries between
1. Obtain a soil sample from your different soil types.
backyard, a farm, or a relative’s house
in the country. Bring the soil to school Part B: Determining Specific
in a covered plastic container or sealed Characteristics of Soil
plastic bag. Label the container with 1. Characteristics of different soils make
your name, where the soil came from, them appropriate for different uses. You
and the kind of place where the sample can test soil for desired qualities, such as
was taken (for example, a field, hilltop, • how well it drains
riverbank, forest, and so on). Each • how well it absorbs and holds water
group will obtain a sample of each
soil available. • how well it promotes plant growth
• stability during earthquakes
2. Work in your small group to study the • strength (for example, ability to
soil samples available. support heavy structures).
a) Decide on and record a set of a) Design a test your group can perform
descriptive terms that your group on each soil sample that will identify
will use to classify all of the samples. a quality of your choosing. In your
b) Make a table in your log that lists log, describe how you will perform
the different soil samples down rows the test. Submit this description to
and your set of descriptive terms your teacher for approval.
across columns. Fill in the table, b) Predict the results you will get when
describing each sample with the you test each soil sample.
set of terms you listed.
2. After your teacher has approved
c) Develop a classification system your design, perform the test on
for your soil samples. Write the each soil sample.
name and definition for each type
of soil that you identified in your a) Display the results of your test in
classification system. tables or graphs, and present the
results to the class.
3. On a map of your community, show
the locations where each soil sample b) Take notes on the results of the other
came from. groups’ tests.
a) Label each point with the soil name c) As a class, discuss various test
your group came up with. designs and results. In your log,
summarize the results of all the tests.
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Digging Deeper
SOIL
Classifying Soils
As you discovered in the Investigate, soil types can vary significantly.
Ways of classifying soil vary as well. One way to classify soils is by texture.
Texture refers to the distribution of the sizes of the particles. Most
soils are a mixture of gravel, sand, silt, and clay sizes, as well as organic
materials. Texture controls many properties of soil. It determines how fast
water will drain through it, how much water it can hold, or how much it
compacts under heavy loads. Geo Words
Soil that contains about equal parts of sand, silt, and clay is called loam. loam: in general, a
The soil texture triangle is illustrated in Figure 1. It shows how soils are fertile, permeable soil
composed of roughly
classified and named on the basis of the various percentages of grain equal portions of clay,
sizes contained. Loam is a permeable soil. Water can readily penetrate silt, and sand, and
loam. It is excellent for growing plants because it does not drain water usually containing
too rapidly or slowly and contains organic materials. organic matter.
Figure 1 Soil texture triangle. Plotting the relative percentages of clay, silt, and
sand in a soil sample allows for classification of the soil by texture.
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Soil Formation
In general, soil is a thin layer of rock, mineral fragments, and decaying
organic material. It covers most of Earth’s land surface. Soil is formed by
weathering of rocks and minerals. There are two types of weathering.
They are physical and chemical. In physical weathering, rock breaks down
but its makeup stays the same. Wind, rain, running water, changes in
temperature, and sunlight are responsible for physically breaking down
rock. In chemical weathering, the actual composition of the rock changes.
The minerals in the rock react with water and dissolved oxygen and acids
and are converted into other minerals.
Biological processes are also important in forming soil. Some of the chemicals
produced by chemical weathering are important nutrients for plants. Plants
grow in the broken-down rock. They attract animals. The plants and animals
die. Their bodies decay. They undergo decomposition by bacteria and other
microorganisms. This process adds organic matter to the soil.
Figure 2 Well-rounded rocks found at a beach or in a streambed are evidence

of physical weathering.
It can take anywhere from a few hundred to several hundred thousand

years for a soil to form. The time needed to form a soil depends on
climate, bedrock type, amount of vegetation, and topography. Warm,
humid climates tend to produce soil the fastest. This is because both
chemical and physical weathering processes are very active. Different
kinds of bedrock weather at different rates, contributing soil particles at
different rates. Plants help make soil formation possible. Therefore, the
more vegetation, the faster soil tends to develop. Typically, there is little
or no soil on steep mountain slopes. This is because gravity and water
transport the sediment to lower elevations as fast as it is produced.
Valleys usually contain thick soil deposits, as do broad, flat areas.
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Geo Words
soil horizon: a
layer of soil that is
distinguishable from
adjacent layers by
characteristic physical
properties, such
as structure, color,
Figure 3 Ice and snow can act to break down rocks to produce soil. What other texture, or chemical
weathering processes are at work in the photograph above? composition.
Soil Horizons
If you looked at a vertical cross section of
sediment from the surface down to a depth of
several feet, you would see various layers of
the soil. These layers of soil are what scientists
call soil horizons. (See Figure 4.) The top layer,
called the A horizon, contains more organic
matter than the other layers. This layer
provides nutrients to plants and contains
enormous numbers of insects, microbes, and
earthworms. The next layer down, called
the B horizon (or subsoil), is a transition
layer between the layers above and below.
It contains less organic material than the A
horizon. In the lowest layer, the C horizon,
partially broken-up bedrock is easily identified.
Organic material and organisms are scarce or
absent there. The thickness of the layers varies
greatly from location to location. However, Figure 4 Notice the three soil
these three layers are present in most soils. horizons in the diagram.
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Soil as a Natural Resource

Soil is a vital natural resource because it allows humans to grow food
crops. Because soil takes so long to form, it should be considered a
nonrenewable resource. Unfortunately, in many places around the world,
including the United States, soil is being eroded away by wind and
running water much faster than it is being formed. Soil is lost when rain
or wind carries soil particles away from fields or construction sites that
Geo Words are left bare, without a cover of vegetation. Windbreaks (walls or rows
contour plowing: the of trees or other plants) can protect soil from wind. Contour plowing and
practice of plowing terracing can also help to reduce soil erosion. In contour plowing, soil is
soil across a slope
following contour plowed across the slope following contour lines. The rows formed help to
lines to reduce soil slow the runoff of water. In terracing, sections of the slope are leveled off,
erosion. giving the hill a step-like appearance. Another strategy is to always grow
terracing: the practice plants in unused fields. This helps to hold the soil in place. It also adds
of leveling off valuable nutrients to the soil when the plants die and decompose.
sections of a slope,
giving the hill a
stepped appearance,
to reduce soil erosion.
Checking Up
Figure 5 The Dust Bowl provides a clear example of what can happen when soil is
1. Describe three not considered in planning a community.
processes that are
involved in physical Some soils may be less suited for development than others. For example,
weathering.
soils that contain many rocks and large boulders may be expensive to
2. Draw and label dig out for development. Soils that drain poorly may require expensive
a diagram that
drainage systems to protect buildings and property from flooding.
explains the major
features of the
During earthquakes, some water-saturated sandy or muddy soils undergo
three main soil liquefaction. That is, they temporarily behave like a liquid. They therefore
horizons. cannot support structures. You may have modeled this at the beach by
3. Describe two jiggling wet sand. For a short time it flows like a liquid before becoming
methods of firm again. This happened in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in
preventing soil California. Much of the damage during that earthquake was caused by
erosion. liquefaction. Many buildings that were built over old, water-saturated
4. Why are some landfill deposits collapsed. This happened because shaking caused the
soils less suited for soil below them to liquefy and flow.
development?
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• In what ways is soil part of the Earth systems (geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere, and cryosphere)?
• Are all soils the same?
• How is soil important in your life?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Refer to your work on the classification
of soils and soil-forming factors in your answers.

In this section, you read that there are different kinds of soils, and that soil can be
classified and mapped on the basis of its physical properties and where it is found. You also
read that you can test soil for various properties that might be desirable for specific uses.
Soils can develop on weathered bedrock or on sediments deposited by rivers, glaciers, and
wind. Think about how your plans for development in both Florida and Alaska will affect
local soils. This will help you complete your Chapter Challenge.
1. What are the different soil types in and around your community? For each different
type, describe the following characteristics. Organize your data in a table.
a) appearance
b) texture
c) content (kind and amount) of organic matter
d) other physical characteristics
e) location(s) where it is found
f) location(s) where it is being removed naturally or by human activity
2. Are there certain soils in your community that may be good or bad for agriculture
or for development? Use data to support your answer.
3. Have you ever noticed changes in soils as you traveled? For example, you might
notice the appearance of sandy soils as you get closer to the seashore, or the absence
of soils as you enter a region with steep topography. From a trip you have taken, or
in photographs you have seen of different regions, list some differences you may have
noticed in soils.
4. Consider one soil type you have seen on a trip or in photographs. Describe how the
characteristics of that soil can tell you something about the climate and geology of the
region where it is found.
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Find out how upland soils and lowland soils differ. What are the processes that
control their development? Apply what you have learned about slopes. What is the
relationship between soils and slopes? How does the gradient of the surface and
the rock type affect the flow of water above and through the soil and rocks? What
measures will your development include to protect against soil erosion or any other
disturbance of the soil? Be sure to examine the topography and soils for your potential
sites in Florida and Alaska.
Inquiring Further
1. Soils in your community
a) Contact a state or local soil conservation agency, the cooperative extension service
at your state university, or your state geological survey, to obtain a map of the soils
in and around your community. Describe any correlation between soil type and
current land use in your community.
b) Analyze the physical characteristics of a particular soil type or sediment type found
in your community. Questions you might answer include:
• Why is the soil a certain color in your area but a different color in an adjacent area?
• Why do deposits of sand and gravel tend to be found only at lower elevations?
• Why will some sediments or soils liquefy during an earthquake?
c) Describe a soil profile. To do this, you will need to find an area where you can
observe 1 m (about 3–4 ft) of fresh, vertically layered soil (such as a riverbank).
In your log, draw what you see in detail. Include measurements of the various soil
layers. Describe each layer as completely as you can, including observations such as
color, texture, composition, grain size, and grain shape.
d) Investigate soil erosion in your community. Write a report in which you describe
the cause(s) of the problem and state what is being done to minimize damage. Offer
your own suggestions for dealing with the problem. Include interviews with town
officials, and/or local newspaper articles, if possible.
Consult the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/
for help with your research.
You can see the damage due to erosion before the Building a wall made of limestone blocks restored the
problem was corrected. area and prevented any further erosion.
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Section 8 Glaciers and the Landscape

What Do You See?

development.

In this section, you will Glaciers are huge masses of ice that move very slowly across the
• Make a mathematical model land, changing the land’s shape as they move along. In Alaska,
of an imaginary glacier.
the largest glacier is the Tazlina Glacier. It is approximately
• Calculate how the glacier
40 km long. Scientists who study glaciers think about questions
would respond to hypothetical
changes in climate. like the following:
• Understand the uses and • What other materials might be in a glacier besides ice?
limitations of models in Earth
and space science. • How might the materials get into the glacier?
• Understand the mechanics of
how glaciers form and move.
• How do glaciers change the landscape?
• Discover that glaciers modify Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
the landscape by erosion and prepared to discuss your responses with your small group
deposition.
and the class.
• Model the action of glacial
meltwater as it drains out of
a glacier. Investigate
• Establish that the movement
of glaciers can change stream In this Investigate, you will calculate the movement of a
drainage patterns. hypothetical glacier. This will help you to gain an understanding
• Model the effects of a glacier of the factors that affect the shape and movement of a glacier. You
infringing on a stream. will also examine models that show the action of glaciers as they
• Apply what you have observed move over land. Your teacher may run some or all parts of this
to determine whether glaciers
have affected your community Investigate as a demonstration for the class.
in the past.
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Part A: Modeling the Behavior profiles and note that the X has moved
of a Glacier forward the same distance as was lost
1. In this part of the Investigate, as a to the head of the glacier).
glacial geologist, you are monitoring a a) How much ice is melting each year
glacier in Alaska. Assume the following from this glacier? (If the glacier
about your glacier: is at equilibrium, the volume of
• It is 100 km long, 5 km wide, and ice melted equals the distance of
200 m thick. glacier movement per year, times
• It moves at a rate of 100 m/yr. (Note: the thickness of the glacier, times
This does not mean that the glacier the width of the glacier.)
gets longer by 100 m each year, but 3. To be at equilibrium, the glacier must
rather that any one point in the glacier receive as much new ice each year as
moves forward 100 m in a year, as it loses by melting. A lot of snow that
shown in the sample profiles below.) falls on a glacier simply melts and runs
• It is at equilibrium. (Note: This means off without contributing anything to the
that it is receiving just enough snow glacier, especially in the warmer areas
to balance what it loses through near the foot of the glacier. Assume that
melting. At equilibrium, the length new ice is added only in the upper half
and thickness of the glacier remain (50 km) of the glacier.
about the same.)
a) What volume of ice is needed to
balance losses by melting?
b) What thickness (depth) of ice has
to be added each year to balance
the melting? (Remember that the
volume of ice is equal to flow
per year × depth × width.)
4. On average, 1 m of snow packs down
into about 10 cm of ice.
a) How much snow would have to fall
on the glacier each year to create
the thickness of new ice that you
calculated above?
b) Data show that there is 7.2 m of
a) How long would it take a rock that snowfall in the region in which the
falls into the ice at the head of the glacier is located. Is the amount of
glacier to reach the foot? (Remember snowfall required to keep the glacier
that the flow rate of the glacier is in balance realistic?
100 m/yr and that the rock must
travel the entire length of the glacier.) 5. Imagine that the climate in the region
of the glacier changes in such a way
2. The glacier moves at a speed of
that the winter snowfall is greater by a
100 m/yr. If no ice were melting from
factor of two (that is, it doubles) and
the glacier, it would be 100 m longer
the melting rate is less by a factor of
after one year. However, it was assumed
two (that is, it is cut in half).
that the glacier maintains a constant
size. Therefore, a volume of ice must a) How much larger will the total volume
be melting each year (see the sample of the glacier be after 100 years?
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b) What will be the percentage increase a) Describe the characteristics of

in the size of the glacier? (To compute the glacier.
this, subtract the original volume b) What processes might supply
of the glacier from the new volume, sediment to the surface of the glacier?
divide by the length of the time
interval in years, and multiply by c) Describe the characteristics of the
100 to convert to a percentage.) valley-floor materials.
6. Imagine that the climate in the region of d) What processes might affect the
the glacier changes in such a way that development of the valley floor?
the winter snowfall is less by a factor of 2. Think about how constructive and
two and the melting rate increases by a destructive surface processes affect the
factor of two. landscape. Predict the following:
a) How many years would it take for a) What will happen if the glacier
the glacier to disappear (that is, to advances by growing larger?
melt completely)?
b) What will happen if the glacier
Part B: Glacial Processes retreats by melting?
1. Glacial ice can grow thousands of c) Make a table with two columns
meters thick and extend tens to and two rows. Label the columns
hundreds of kilometers. Due to their “erosion” and “deposition.” Label the
size, glaciers can have a great impact rows “processes” and “landforms.”
on the landscape. You will run a model
3. You will model the movement of a
that examines the destructive and
valley glacier. Run the model by pressing
constructive effects of a valley glacier, a
the ice down into the sediments and
glacier that is confined to a valley and
slowly slide the ice forward so that it
flows from a higher elevation to a lower
advances along the valley floor.
elevation. Valley glaciers are found in
mountain landscapes. Work with your a) Record your observations under the
group to set up your model according appropriate heading in your table.
to the following diagram. Look for changes all around the
glacier, including underneath.
b) Compare your predictions to your
results. Explain any differences.
4. You will now observe what happens
when the glacier retreats by melting.
a) Make another table for recording
your observations.
b) Predict what you will observe as the
glacier retreats.
5. Run the model by letting the ice melt
and record your observations.
a) Compare your predictions to your
b) Discuss with your class how glaciers
change the landscape.
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Part C: Modeling the Action of 6. Put the pan on a surface where water
Glacial Meltwater can drain from the pan without causing
any damage. Prop up the end of the pan
Wear goggles and a lab apron throughout this
investigation. Use the hammer with care. Clean opposite the opening with a thin strip
up spills. Wash your hands when you are done. of wood about 3 cm thick, or a
chalkboard eraser.
1. Put an even layer of cedar bedding
about 1 to 2 cm thick in the bottom of
a baking pan. Put a second pan inside
the pan with cedar bedding. Spread
an even layer of fine sand about 0.6
cm thick on the bottom of the second
baking pan. Fill the baking pan until it
is almost full of water. Put the assembly
into a freezer, and wait overnight until
the water is a solid block of ice.
Note: It will take a long time for the
water to freeze all the way to the
bottom because of the insulation of
the cedar bedding.
2. Turn the pan upside down under warm
running water until the ice block comes
loose. Set the ice block aside, and cut
down along two edges of the pan so
that one of the narrow sides of the pan
can be bent down flat, level with the
bottom of the pan.
3. Replace the ice block in the pan, and
wait until the block is at its melting
temperature. You will know when
the block has reached its melting
temperature when its surface shines
with a thin film of water.
4. Put the pan on the floor, place a
wooden block on the ice surface,
7. Spray cold water on the upper end of
and hit the board with blows from a
the ice sheet. Use just enough water so
hammer. Start very gently, and increase
that some of the water runs down the
the force of the blows until the block
surface of the ice sheet. Observe how
shows several long cracks but has not
the patterns of water flow and drainage
been completely shattered.
change with time, as some of the ice is
5. Roll three long “snakes” of modeling melted, and how the sediment at the
clay in your hands, and mold them base of the ice sheet is moved by the
along the sides of the ice sheet. flowing water.
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a) Record your observations in your log. Pack down the glacier gently (without
disturbing the stream channel) to prevent
b) Using your knowledge of the water from seeping under the ice.
properties of ice and water, account
for the behavior you observed. 5. Turn the water back on. Let it run long
enough to carve a new channel along
c) On a real glacier, what do you think the margins of the ice. Some water
happens to surface water (meltwater might seep under the ice along the old
plus rainwater)? channel. This is acceptable because, as
Part D: Using a Stream Table to you saw in Part C of the Investigate,
Model Ways that Glaciers Modify water does flow under and within
the Landscape glaciers. As long as the flow under
the ice does not completely prevent
1. To model the ways in which glaciers formation of a new channel, seepage is
modify the landscape, fill a stream table acceptable and even desirable.
with damp sand and prop up one end a) Sketch the changes that are occurring
with a think strip of wood about 3 cm on the stream table.
thick.
6. Allow the ice to melt naturally. Observe
2. Run water down the stream table long
and record the results. Complete
enough to form a well-defined channel
melting will take several hours, possibly
at least 1 cm deep. Before you run the
overnight.
model make a small channel with your
finger to guide the flow. Then, turn off a) Once the ice has completely melted,
the water in the stream table. sketch what you see in the stream
table again.
a) Sketch the river channel in your log.
b) Describe any changes in the surface
3. Make a model glacier as in Part B of the texture of the sand (besides the
Investigate by freezing a small pan of channel diversions).
water with some aquarium gravel in the
bottom. The aquarium gravel represents c) Describe any erosional features that
the sediments carried by a glacier. are formed by the meltwater from
the ice.
4. Block the channel with the model glacier,
except for a space around one side d) Where did the aquarium gravel
of the ice for a new channel to form. end up? Describe and sketch these
changes.
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Geo Words Digging Deeper

glacier: a large mass
of ice on Earth’s GLACIERS
surface that flows by
deforming under its How Glaciers Form and Move
own weight.
deform: to change A glacier is a large mass of ice on Earth’s surface that flows by deforming
shape. under its own weight. To deform is to change shape. A glacier is only
regelation: a two-fold partly a large-scale version of an ice cube sliding down a sloping tabletop.
process involving the It is also like a deep puddle of honey or molasses flowing down the
melting of ice under tabletop. Many materials act like solids on short time scales but like liquids
excess pressure and
the refreezing of the on long time scales. Glass is a good everyday example. If you hit it with a
derived meltwater hammer, it shatters. If you support a long, thin glass rod horizontally by
upon the release of its two ends in a warm room and wait patiently for weeks and months,
pressure. you would find that the rod would have sagged down slightly. Similarly,
ice sheet: a large ice shatters when you hit it with a hammer. However, under high pressure,
glacier that forms on
a broad land area at deep within a glacier, it flows by deforming slowly as a plastic solid.
high latitudes where A glacier forms wherever more snow falls in winter than melts in summer,
summers are cool
enough so that not for a long period of years. As the old snow is buried by new snow, it is
all of the previous compressed by the weight of overlying snow. The crystals grow together
winter’s snow is by regelation. In this process, the greater pressure put upon lower layers
melted. causes melting. The meltwater refreezes upon the release of pressure. The
valley glacier: a air in the spaces between the crystals is gradually forced out and upward.
smaller glacier that
forms in mountainous Eventually, after several tens of meters of burial, the snow has been
areas and flows converted to solid glacial ice. After some further burial it begins to flow
down valleys to lower downslope as a glacier.
elevations.
The largest glaciers form
on broad land areas at high
latitudes where summers are
cool enough that not all of
the previous winter’s snow is
melted. Large glaciers like this,
called ice sheets, now cover
most of Greenland and
Antarctica. (See Figure 1.)
Smaller glaciers, called valley
glaciers, typically form in
mountainous areas and
move down valley to lower
elevations. (See Figure 2.)
Large valley glaciers are
common at high elevations in
Earth’s major mountain belts.
Their growth and survival
depends upon the balance
between the accumulation of
snow in winter and the melting
Figure 1 The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest
on Earth today. of ice in summer.
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Every glacier has an area in its

upper part, called the zone of
accumulation. This is the area
where there is a net addition of
new glacial ice year after year.
Every glacier also has an area in
its lower part, called the zone of
ablation. This is the area where
there is a net removal of glacial
ice year after year. The boundary
between the two zones is called
the snow line. (See Figure 3.)
Below the snow line, all of the
previous winter’s snow is melted
by the end of the summer and
old glacial ice is exposed to
melting. Above the snow line,
some of the previous winter’s
snow remains until the next
winter. The newly formed glacial
ice flows continuously downslope
from the zone of accumulation to
the zone of ablation. Ablation
occurs mostly by melting. Figure 2 Valley glaciers operate on much
However, where the glacier ends smaller scales than broad ice sheets.
in the ocean, large masses of ice
break away from the glacier and Geo Words
float away as icebergs. This process zone of accumulation:
the area in the upper
is called calving. part of a glacier
where there is a
net addition of new
glacial ice year
after year.
zone of ablation: the
area in the lower part
of a glacier where
there is a net removal
of glacial ice year
after year.
snow line: the
boundary between
the zone of
accumulation and the
zone of ablation.
calving: the breaking
away of a mass of ice
from a glacier.
Figure 3 Diagram of a typical glacier.
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Glaciologists are scientists

who study glaciers. They try
to do “bookkeeping” of
glaciers. When accumulation
is greater than ablation for a
period of years, the volume
of the glacier increases, and
Geo Words the glacier lengthens. The
terminus: the terminus of the glacier (its
downstream end downvalley end) gradually
of a glacier.
advances downslope. When
stillstand (in a accumulation is less than
glacier): the balance
in accumulation and ablation for a period of
ablation when the years, the volume of the
volume of a glacier glacier decreases. The
is constant and the terminus retreats. Keep in
terminus stays in the
same place. mind, however, that even
internal deformation:
though the terminus is
the part of movement retreating, glacial ice is
of a glacier that is being delivered to the
caused by change terminus all the time,
of shape within Figure 4 Glaciologists at work.
the glacier.
where it finally melts. If
accumulation and ablation
basal slip: the part
of movement of are in balance, the volume of the glacier stays the same. The terminus
a glacier that is then stays in the same place. That is called a stillstand.
caused by sliding of
the glacier over the It is not too difficult to measure the speed of movement of a valley glacier.
material beneath During the summer melting season, you can plant a row of metal stakes
it, aided by a thin across the glacier. Then, set up a surveying station on the mountainside
lubricating layer next to the glacier, and survey in the locations of the stakes. A year later,
of water.
come back to resurvey the stakes. The downglacier curvature of the
new position of the row of stakes shows that the middle of the glacier
flows faster than the edges. That is the internal deformation part of the
movement. In internal deformation, the speed of the glacier at its edges
is zero, but with basal slip, the speed at the edges is greater than zero.
A glacier that is below the melting temperature at its base is frozen solid
to its bedrock base. Glaciers like that have no basal slip. (See diagram A
in Figure 5.) They are called cold-based glaciers. A glacier that is at its
melting temperature at its base has a very thin film of water, usually no
thicker than a millimeter or two. That is formed by a slow flow of heat
from the interior of Earth. The lubricating film of water allows the glacier
to slide on its bed. (See diagram B in Figure 5.) Glaciers like that are called
warm-based glaciers. (Does it strike you as strange that ice can be “warm”
as well as “cold”?) Warm-based glaciers are responsible for many geologic
processes. They can erode, transport, and deposit mineral and rock
material as they slide over their beds.
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Geo Words
tools: rock and
mineral particles that
are carried at the
base of the glacier
and that grind the
bedrock.
striations: scratches
on bed rock inscribed
by debris at the base
Figure 5 Two types of movement along the base of a glacier. of a moving glacier.
Glacial Erosion
In the Investigate, you used two models
to explore what happens when glaciers
move over land. When a glacier forms
on the surface of the geosphere, it
incorporates loose soil and sediment
into its base and moves it away. Glaciers
act like gigantic bulldozers. They scour
the surface and push rock and soil in
front of themselves as they advance.
The rock and mineral particles that are
carried at the base of the glacier are
called tools. As the glacier advances,
this material is ground together as
the ice moves. This material becomes
as fine as flour and consists mostly of
harder minerals, such as quartz and
feldspar. Clean ice is not hard enough
to affect bedrock, but the movement
of ice with rock flour acts to polish
bedrock. Sometimes, rocks in transit in
the bottom of the ice can gouge long
grooves and gashes in the bedrock called
striations. Erosion of bedrock by debris
in a glacier is called abrasion. The base
of the glacier gains new tools by taking
away blocks of the bedrock that are Figure 6 The basal load
already cut by fractures. of a glacier exposed by
a meltwater stream.
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Geo Words
plucking: a type
of glacial erosion Figure 7 Striated bedrock near Mount Rainier with grooves going from top to bottom.
by meltwater The striations were cut by moving ice and water at the base of a glacier.
penetrating, freezing,
and breaking off Meltwater at the base of a glacier sometimes penetrates fractured
pieces of bedrock
which are then
bedrock and freezes. When this occurs, bedrock can be broken apart
incorporated into the rapidly by freezing and thawing. This process is called plucking. The rock
base of the glacier. debris is then added to the load at the base and is used to polish and
cirque: a bowl-like abrade the bedrock as the glacier moves. Running water at the base of
depression formed by some glaciers also causes erosion. Water and sediment can carve channels
a glacier on the side in the ice and bedrock. Such channels can be observed flowing around
of a mountain.
obstacles on the bed of the channel.
Your model focused on the action
of glaciers on lower slopes. But,
on higher slopes, such as those in
mountainous regions, other features
develop. At higher elevation the
temperatures are cooler and there is
little or no melting of glacial ice. As a
result, glacial erosion tends to be the
dominant process.
The erosion of small round glaciers
produces interesting landforms
called cirques. These are semicircular
hollows shaped like a shallow bowl.
Cirque glaciers slide and rotate at
Figure 8 A valley glacier surrounded by the same time. This scours their bed
glacial landforms formed by erosion and and deepens the cirque. Usually, the
deposition.
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ice pulls away from its back wall, forming a large fracture or crevasse Geo Words
called a bergschrund. Here, the exposed rock suffers intense frost action bergshrund: a wide
and becomes steepened by erosion. Where cirques develop near to one and deep crevasse
where a glacier
another, distinctive mountainous landforms develop. When cirques form pulls away from
on both sides of a drainage divide, knife-edge ridges, called arêtes, its backwall.
develop. Where multiple back-to-back cirques form on mountain slopes, arête: a sharp-edged
they form mountains with many steep faces, called horns. mountainous ridge
carved by glaciers.
horn: a sharp peak
with multiple faces.
fjord: a deep
U-shaped valley
carved by a glacier
and drowned by
the sea.
Figure 9 Glacial landforms in mountain environments.
Glaciers in valleys can form extensive networks of ice. Here, large glaciers
converge with smaller tributary glaciers. Such glaciers cause extensive
erosion through abrasion and plucking. This results in the formation of
trough-shaped valleys with wide U-shaped profiles. (Remember that the
profile of a river valley is usually V-shaped.)
In lowland regions, with relatively
easy-to-erode bedrock, ice sheets can
erode out wide and deep depressions
in the bedrock. After the ice sheet
retreats, such depressions are usually
occupied by lakes. The Great Lakes,
the Finger Lakes in central New York
State (shown in Figure 10), and Lake
Champlain, are examples of large lakes
that formed in this way. Some glaciers
reach the coast, and their trough may
become submerged by the sea as the
ice retreats. This produces landforms Figure 10 The Finger Lakes were
called fjords. carved out by glaciers.
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Glacial Deposition
Geo Words Loose rock and mineral material that is carried by the glacier is called the
load (of a glacier): load of the glacier. Much of the load is frozen into the base of the glacier.
loose rock and When the glacier cannot transport part of its load, it deposits part of it by
mineral material
that is carried by plastering it onto the bedrock beneath the glacier. Sediment deposited in
the glacier. this way is called glacial till. (See Figure 11.) Till is a poorly sorted mixture
glacial till: poorly of boulders and clay-sized sediments. Sheets of till cover large areas of
sorted, unlayered North America once occupied by the Pleistocene ice sheets.
sediment carried
or deposited by
a glacier, usually
consisting of a
mixture of clay, silt,
sand, gravel, and
boulders ranging
widely in size and
shape.
moraine: a mound
or ridge of mainly
glacial till deposited
by the direct action
of glacial ice.
terminal moraine: the
outermost moraine
that marks the
farthest position of
a glacier.
push moraine: an
arc-shaped ridge of
rocky debris that is
shoved forward by an
advancing glacier.
dead ice moraine:
a broad, irregular Figure 11 Moraines of boulders and fine sediments at the terminus of the Columbia
deposit formed from Glacier, Alaska. A subglacial stream carries away the meltwater.
sediments that are
dumped when a
glacier melts. Scientists use the term moraines for landforms composed of till. When an
ice sheet is in equilibrium for a long period of time, so that its terminus
stays in the same place, high ridges of sediment, called terminal moraines,
are deposited. Terminal moraines show geologists where the farthest
advance of the ice sheet was located. Various other kinds of moraines
are formed by glaciers as well. If the terminus advances, then material
in front of the ice is bulldozed into a ridge at the front of a glacier.
This ridge is called a push moraine. If the rate of melting is greater than
the rate advance, then the glacier melts and the ice becomes thinner.
Eventually, this thin ice melts away and dumps all of it debris from its
surface to its base to form a broad, irregular deposit called a dead ice
moraine. This type of moraine often contains large chunks of ice that
are frozen into the sediments.
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Deposition also occurs along the sides of glaciers. Debris forms long ridges Geo Words
that extend along the edge of the ice. These are called lateral moraines. lateral moraine: a low
Most of the debris is deposited as material slides and falls down the side ridge of rocky debris
deposited at the side
of the glacier. As the glacier ice melts away from the lateral moraine, the
of a mountain glacier.
ridge stands alone and marks where the sides of the glacier once were.
medial moraine: a
Because lateral moraines are formed by dumping of material, their long strip of rocky
sediments are different from moraines that form at the terminus. Lateral debris formed where
moraines contain little material that has arrived from beneath the glacier. the sides of two
They also lack the fine-grained sediment formed by abrasion. Lateral glaciers converge.
moraines can grow much larger than terminal moraines because material
is constantly added to them. On the other hand, terminal moraines are
overrun and
destroyed by
advancing ice. When
two glaciers come
together, their inside
lateral moraines join
together and form a
medial moraine.
These occur as thick
bands of debris along
the center of the
new, larger glacier.
This debris protects
the ice from melting,
so medial moraines
often stand much
higher than the
surrounding ice. Figure 12 Moraines are composed mainly of glacial till.
Glacial Meltwater and its Deposits

Melting of the lower areas of glaciers in summer produces enormous
volumes of water. This water, together with rainwater from summer
storms, flows across the glacier. The water then finds its way to the base
of the glacier through fissures and holes in the ice, because water is
denser than the ice. It flows at high speeds through large tunnels at the
base of the ice and emerges at the terminus of the glacier. The meltwater
streams that flow out from the glacier carry enormous quantities of
sediment of all sizes, from clay to boulders.
As the terminus of an ice sheet retreats, much of the sand and gravel
carried by meltwater streams is deposited right at the glacier terminus.
It is often deposited in between large melting ice masses. After all of
the ice melts from the area, these deposits are left as irregular hills and
ridges. Their sizes and shapes vary greatly. In the northern parts of the
United States, these deposits are prime sources of sand and gravel for
concrete. Think about how different your life would be if there were
no sand and gravel for such an ordinary but essential building material
like concrete.
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How Glaciers Alter River Systems

The Pleistocene ice sheet rearranged the courses of many rivers in North
America. (See Figure 13.) Before the Pleistocene, the river drainage system
of North America looked very different from today. The Great Lakes had
not yet formed. The Mississippi River was a smaller river with a much
smaller drainage basin. There was no Ohio River. Instead, a river system
extended across the middle of Indiana and Illinois. This system joined the
ancient Mississippi in the middle of Illinois.
There was no Missouri River. Rivers in the Northern Plains states flowed
northeast into Canada. (These rivers are now tributaries to the Missouri
River.) The headwaters of the Missouri, the Yellowstone, and other rivers
of the Northern Plains states still flow northeast. This is a remnant of this
ancient river system. By blocking rivers that were flowing northward, the
glaciers created the present Ohio and Missouri River Systems.
When glaciers blocked rivers, there were many different possible
outcomes. In some cases, small segments of existing river systems flooded
their valleys. They flowed over drainage divides and cut new valleys.
Eventually, segments of former river systems connected into a new river.
The Ohio River formed in this way. In other cases, water flowed along the
margins of the glaciers, cutting a new channel that captured all the rivers
it crossed. Meanwhile, as the ice melted, it dropped debris in the former
river channels, blocking them and often closing them up completely. This
is how the present Missouri River formed.
The glaciers retreated across the area now occupied by the Great Lakes.
As they did, they alternately blocked and exposed outlets of the lakes.
At different times, one or more of the lakes drained south through the
Mississippi. Some drained southwest across Ohio and Indiana. Others
drained across Ontario in a number of places, and down the Mohawk
Checking Up and Hudson Rivers to the Atlantic.
1. What factors
would cause a
glacier to advance
(grow)?
2. What factors
would cause a
glacier to retreat
(get smaller)?
3. How do glaciers
erode bedrock?
4. How do glaciers
deposit sediment?
5. How did the Ohio
River form?
6. How did the
Missouri River
form? Figure 13 Drainage patterns in North America before (left) and after
7. How did the Great (right) the Pleistocene ice age.
Lakes form?
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• What other materials might be in a glacier besides ice?
• How might the materials get into the glacier?
• How do glaciers change the landscape?
Record your ideas about these questions now. In your answers, include descriptions of how
glaciers erode bedrock and move sediment.

In this section, you learned how glaciers form and move. Whether the front edge of a
glacier advances, retreats, or remains in the same position depends on the balance between
snowfall and melting. You also simulated the effects of a valley glacier, glacial meltwater,
and a glacier blocking a stream. When glaciers move across streams, they can change
where and how rivers flow. Glaciers erode enormous volumes of bedrock. They deposit the
material beneath the glacier, at the glacier terminus, and in streams and rivers beyond the
terminus. Many communities in the United States are on rivers that were changed by the
Pleistocene ice sheets. Think about the advantages and disadvantages of glaciers for your
task in the Chapter Challenge.
1. In Part A of the Investigate, you modeled a hypothetical glacier.

a) What assumptions did you make about the glacier?
b) In what ways would real glaciers be more complicated?
c) Are the assumptions you made realistic enough that you can draw useful conclusions
from them, or are they so simplistic that they do not reflect real glaciers?
2. How would you recognize whether a deposit of sediment on the land surface was
produced by a glacier rather than by a river? In your log, make a list of possible
criteria you would use.
3. When a glacier blocks a river, there are many things that can happen.
a) Which of the following did you observe in Part D of the Investigate? Use a sketch
to illustrate each event you observed.
• The stream is diverted permanently from its old course.
• The stream is temporarily diverted but goes back to its old channel once
the ice melts.
• The stream changes course more than once as the ice melts.
• Meltwater streams make channels that may or may not capture part
of the drainage.
b) Describe any other outcomes that you observed that are not listed.
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4. Did the glacier in Part D of the Investigate leave behind a moraine? If so, describe it.
5. Find a community that is located along a river that was diverted by glaciers in
the past. How would the history of this town be different if the river had not
been diverted?
6. Pick the largest river nearest to your community, and predict what would happen
if the river becomes blocked by a glacier at various locations.
a) Would the community be flooded?
b) Would the river be diverted away from the town?
c) What would you advise your community leaders to do about it?
When glaciers advance and retreat, they interfere with stream patterns and sometimes
change the paths of rivers. Glaciers also leave behind characteristic landforms, such
as moraines. Write a paragraph in which you describe the seasonal relationship
between glaciers and rivers. Apply these ideas to the evaluation of your Olympic
Games sites.
Inquiring Further
Research J. Harlan Bretz, the geologist who first proposed catastrophic flooding as
a cause of the Channeled Scablands. Describe his theory and the evidence behind it.
Why did other geologists originally discount his theory? Why did other geologists
finally embrace his theory? Use the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/
education/earthcomm2/ to help you with your research.
2. Glacial landforms
There are many other glacial landforms besides the ones mentioned in this section.
Research how the following glacial features form. Be sure to include your sources
and describe how you assessed their reliability.
• kames • eskers • drumlins • kettles
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Section 9 Wind and the Landscape

What Do You See?

development.

In this section, you will Weathering breaks down surface rocks into smaller pieces that
• Model wind erosion, transport, are removed by processes of erosion. In some places, wind is very
and deposition. effective in moving sediment particles.
• Identify the locations of Earth’s
wind-dominated landscapes.
• How do particles move in flowing air?
• Explain how wind erosion • How does wind affect the landscape?
involves the interaction of
• Where on Earth do you think wind affects the landscape most?
Earth’s different spheres.
the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will form a hypothesis and design your
own experiment that examines the effects of wind on loose
sediment. You will then look at the relationship between wind
speed and particle size. Next, you will examine the effects of
windblown sand on rock. Finally, you will consider how
sediment that has been carried by wind is deposited.
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Part A: How Wind Moves Particles 3. After your teacher approves your
1. Following is a list of factors that affect outline, do a preliminary test of
the motion of windblown sand. With your experiment to explore its likely
your group, choose one factor to outcomes. This will help you refine
investigate. You will be investigating your plan. During this stage, develop
how that factor affects the erosion of the hypothesis you will be making.
a patch of sediment by wind. a) Record your findings.
• wind velocity 4. Draw a diagram that shows the setup
• sediment size of your experiment.
• shape of sediment patch a) Write a list of steps that you
• impacts by falling particles of will follow.
different sizes
5. After your teacher approves your steps,
• vegetation run the experiment.
• dry versus damp sediment
a) Record your observations.
a) Record the factor you chose.
6. Revisit your hypothesis.
2. Design an experiment to investigate
the affect of that factor. Consider the a) Describe how your observations
following when designing and running compare to your predictions.
your experiment: b) Explain your results.
• Look over the list of materials c) Compare your findings to other
available to you. Select the materials groups. Describe how they are
you will need. similar or how they are different.
• Develop a hypothesis and a prediction.
7. Go to the EarthComm Web site at
• Cover your workspace with a large http://www.agiweb.org/education/
sheet of white paper, to avoid earthcomm2/. Find the link that
sample loss. shows a video of sand erosion in a
• Select the best position of the fan so wind tunnel.
that it provides good airflow.
a) Describe how sand grains move in
• Identify the best position to observe the experiment.
sediments, both moving and
stationary sediments. b) Having made these new observations
of moving sand, is there anything
• Put the sediments through a sieve to
you would change about your
separate out different sized grains.
experiment? If so, what?
• Weigh sediments to determine how
much has been eroded or deposited. c) State your conclusions about
windblown sand.
• Select the number of tests you will run.
• Identify the number of factors that
are variable.
• Draw conclusions from the results of
your experiment.
a) Outline the steps of your experiment.
Wear goggles at all times for safety.
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Part B: Wind Velocity and

a) Predict what will occur when you
Moving Sediment
shake the container.
1. The size of grains moved by wind
b) Decide upon the length of the test and
depends on wind velocity. Table 1
any other refinements you need to
shows the relationship between wind
make. Record these in your Geo log.
velocity and particle size.
c) State your hypothesis.
Table 1: Relationship Between 3. Take turns vigorously shaking
Wind Velocity and Particle Size
the container.
Maximum Size of
Wind Velocity (km/h) 4. Open the container and examine
Moving Grains (mm)
0.25 16–24
the pebbles.
0.5 24–30 a) In your log, record any changes
0.75 30–35 you observe.
1.0 35–40 b) Compare your predictions to your
1.5 40–45 results. Explain any differences.
c) State your conclusions.
a) Graph the data.
Part D: Deposition by Wind
b) Describe the relationship shown
by the data. 1. In Part A, the movement of windblown
particles showed you how air moves
Part C: Abrasion by Windblown Sand across the surface. In particular, you
1. You explored how wind can pick up saw that irregular surfaces do not erode
and transport sediment. Now you will evenly, and that slopes facing the wind
examine the effects of particles carried are eroded more than slopes that are
by wind on rocky material. Your group sheltered. You are now going to look at
is going to run a model that examines how obstacles can affect wind flow and
the effects of windblown sand on rock. the movement of sand grains.
Examine a sample of small sandstone a) In nature, what might obstruct wind
or limestone pebbles. flow? Discuss your ideas with your
a) In a table, record the characteristics small group and class.
of the pebbles. Sketch them or use a 2. Lay a large sheet of paper flat on a
camera to take a few close-up photos surface. Place a fan so that its air
of the edges and faces of the pebbles. flows over the paper. Draw arrows
2. Put the pebbles and 50 g of sand in a on the paper that show the direction
small plastic container. Seal the lid and strength of the airflow you
with tape. would expect.
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3. Arrange five plastic cups on the paper windblown sand. To do this, you will
to create a pattern of obstacles to the add sand directly to the flow of air
airflow over the paper. Using a different from the fan.
colored pencil, draw arrows on the sheet
a) Predict what will happen to the sand.
that show the direction and strength of
the airflow you would now expect. 9. Mark areas on the sheet where you
would expect deposition and erosion
a) Compare the two patterns of arrows.
to occur. Include any patterns of
4. Use tape to attach each cup to the paper. deposition you expect.
Attach 3-cm-long pieces of yarn to the
10. Turn on the fan.
tops of 10 toothpicks. Use modeling clay
to attach each toothpick to the sheet. 11. Supply a constant stream of sand to the
Space the skewers equally over the sheet. airflow in front of the fan. Observe how
the sand moves.
a) Make a sketch of your experiment.
12. Once all of the sand has been added
5. Turn on the fan.
and the movement of particles has
a) Record your observations. stopped, mark the observed pattern
of deposition on your sheet.
6. Turn off the fan.
13. Compare your predictions to
7. Compare your predictions to
your results.
your results.
a) Explain any differences.
a) Explain any differences.
b) Briefly describe the relationship
8. You are now going to determine how
between airflow, obstacles, and the
the pattern of airflow around obstacles
deposition of windblown sand.
affects the erosion and deposition of
Digging Deeper
WIND EROSION
Movement of Sediment by Wind
Geo Words
suspension: the
In the Investigate, you found that wind moves sediment in three different
transport of particles ways. You observed that the finest particles are lifted from the surface
within the wind and travel in moving air. This type of transport is called suspension. Some
caused by turbulence. suspended particles fall back to the surface. Depending on the amount of
saltation: the energy, these particles often bounce off the surface, or off other particles,
downstream
movement of
and back into the air. This kind of transport is called saltation. Coarse
sediment particles grains are often too heavy to move by suspension or saltation. Instead,
in a series of hops, they move forward gradually as a result of the impact of grains bouncing
jumps, and bounces against them. The impact of a high-velocity sand grain can move a particle
from the surface.
6 times its size and 200 times its own weight. This slow type of movement
surface creep: the is called surface creep. (See Figure 1 on the next page.)
slow movement of
larger grains caused
by the impact of
saltating grains.
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Figure 1 The three main ways that wind transports sediment:

suspension, saltation, and surface creep.
The way particles are captured by wind is quite complex. As wind velocity
becomes strong enough to move a particle, it begins to rock back and
forth. The wind may overcome the forces holding the particle to the
surface. At that point, the particle is suddenly lifted into the air. This
occurs because the wind creates a strong upward force under the edge
of the particle. As a result, it rises into the airflow at a steep angle. If the
wind turbulence is not strong enough to keep the particle in suspension,
it crashes to the surface. When a falling particle strikes another particle
on the surface, it transfers energy to that particle. This transfer of energy
allows the resting particle to lift off. The lift off occurs at a lower wind
velocity than would normally be needed. The falling particles bounce
back into the air. They stay in the air until they strike the surface and
other particles again. These particles may then rise into the airflow.
In this way, the velocity of airflow and the movement of particles are
important to the capture of new particles from the surface.
Factors Affecting Wind Erosion

Many factors affect wind erosion. First, as wind velocity (kinetic energy)
increases, the size of the grain that the wind can move also increases.
The graph from your experiment demonstrated this relationship. Also,
you may have observed that a patch of clay-sized grains was less likely to
move than a similar-sized patch of sand-sized grains. This may not make
sense to you. The clay is finer than sand and has less mass. However,
because the surfaces of clay particles are relatively smooth, they do not
stick up into moving air as much as those of sand. As a result, it takes a
greater velocity to move clay-sized grains than it does sand-sized grains.
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Damp sediments behave in a similar way. They are usually much harder
to erode than dry sediments. Water filling the spaces between the loose
grains binds them together. Because of this cohesion, it takes a much
greater wind velocity to move damp grains than it does for dry grains
of the same size.
Another factor that affects wind erosion
is plant growth. Plants increases surface
roughness. This causes a reduction in wind
velocity. The decrease in wind velocity
causes sediment to become trapped.
Removal of vegetation has the opposite
effect. It greatly increases the chance of
wind erosion.
The shape of a sediment patch also has
an effect on erosion. Sediments packed in
ridges undergo erosion by grains blowing
from the slope that faces into the wind
and from the ridge crest. Grains that are
deposited behind the ridge and away from
Figure 2 The wind is deflected by its shelter are quickly removed. Sediments
patches of vegetation and affects that are flat and thinly spread tend to be
deposition on the downwind eroded from the downwind side. That is
side (White Sands National because there is nothing supporting them
Monument). from behind.
Wind Erosion and Abrasion

In glaciers and streams, erosion only takes place in channels. In contrast,
wind erosion can work over the entire land surface. However, there are
very few surface features that are formed just by the action of wind. The
Geo Words simplest form of erosion is the blowing away of loose material (rocks and
deflation hollow: a sediments) by wind. Sometimes this forms a depression called a deflation
surface depression hollow. In arid regions where there is little soil and vegetation to protect
formed by the
removal of fine-
the surface, finer material is removed. Bedrock and coarser material
grained sediments are left behind. These can form a surface of tightly packed angular and
by wind erosion. rounded grains called a desert pavement. (See Figure 3.)
desert pavement:
a hardened and
polished surface
of interlocking
sediments formed
by the wind.
Figure 3 The wind-polished surface of a desert pavement in Nevada. Winds and

periodic rains remove any loose sediments from the surface.
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Moving air that carries sediments has a sandblasting effect. This process is Geo Words
called abrasion. Over longer periods, abrasion can produce various small- abrasion: the wearing
scale features. These include polishing, pitting, and grooving of rocks. away of rock particles
due to their collision.
The type of feature that forms by abrasion depends on several factors.
The rock type and the direction of the wind are important factors. The
hardness, size, and shape of the transported material also affect the type
of features that are formed. In the Investigate, you observed how larger
particles in an airflow change shape. The collision of particles transported
by wind wears away sharp edges and projections. This causes particles to
become rounder in shape.
Figure 4 Notches on the Great Sphinx in Egypt are the result of

windblown sand blasting the sphinx over time.
Scientists observe the effects of

windblown sand. They place rods
made of various types of rocks in
windy environments. One study was
conducted in the Mojave Desert of
North America. In this location,
scientists recorded how the surfaces
of the rods of rock changed over a
period of 10 years. They found that
90 percent of windblown particles
travel within 65 cm of the ground
surface. They also observed the
removal of 1 mm of rock from a Figure 5 This mage from NASA’s Mars
granite boulder in just 15 years. rover shows windblown particles
in a martian desert. The amount of
This might not seem like much, roundness and angularity depends
but imagine the effects over on how far they have been
millions of years. transported.
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Deposition of Moving Particles

In the Investigate, you observed how obstacles affect deposition.
Deposition of sediment occurs behind obstacles. The airflow behind
the obstacle is reduced. Therefore, the ability of air to carry sediment is
also reduced. This has been observed in the laboratory. It is also seen in
natural, windy regions.
In the Investigate, you saw that the rough and irregular surface of a patch
of sand is very good at trapping saltating particles. As the patch grows and
Geo Words becomes a mound, it starts to influence the way air and sand moves over
sand dune: a desert it. Sand dunes are hills or ridges of windblown sand. (See Figure 6.) They
or coastal landform grow because the kinetic energy of impacting grains is absorbed by loose
shaped by the wind
sand. A simple sand dune looks like a ramp that is steeper on one side than
and composed of
loose sand. the other. Sand grains saltate up the shallower side, which faces into the
wind. They then fall down the steeper face at the rear of the dune.
Figure 6 A dune field in Namibia.
Particles remain longer on the slope of the dune that is sheltered by

the wind. The rear slope gets steeper and steeper until it becomes
unstable. It then avalanches downward. In this way, the crest of the
dune moves forward and the dune advances downwind. Over time,
the rear face of the dune is buried over and over again. If you were to
cut through a dune, you would see layers where one crest after another
had avalanched down, burying the side of the dune that is shielded
from the wind.
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Figure 7 Layers at different angles reflect the buildup and avalanching of sediment.
Sand deposits have many different shapes. Ripples form when there
is an irregularity in the sand surface. Various kinds of long, narrow
dunes extend for many kilometers. They are usually oriented across
the prevailing wind direction. Some dunes are crescent-shaped, with a
horn at either end. The horns extend in the downwind direction and
taper toward their points. These dunes occur where winds blow in one
direction and the supply of sand is limited. Where winds blow in many
directions, the shapes of sand dunes reflect this condition. Star-shaped
dunes have a central peak and arms that radiate out from them.
Figure 8 Shade highlights the leeside of a dune. Figure 9 Wind ripples

on the surface of much
larger dunes.
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Environments Where Wind Erosion is Dominant

Wind affects landscapes that have a steady supply of sediment and a lack
of plant cover. Such conditions are common in arid (very dry) environments.
They can also be found around the cold margins of glaciers and along
Geo Words coasts. The location of Earth’s arid environments is controlled by climate.
evapotranspiration: Deserts are common in regions where evapotranspiration exceeds
loss of water from precipitation. They often lack soil or have little soil moisture. Here, rocks
a land area through
transpiration of plants break down mostly by physical weathering. Also, the surface is usually
and evaporation from covered in loose stones, sand, and silt-sized materials. Arid environments
the soil and surface cover about 20 percent of the land surface. They include hot deserts and
water. cold deserts of middle and polar latitudes.
Figure 10 Map showing the location of arid and semiarid regions on Earth.
Figure 11 Wind-dominated environments are found along coasts and in dry, cold
environments.
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Earth’s Desert Regions

Earth’s most active wind-formed
landscapes are typically in areas
that receive less than 150 mm
of rainfall per year. Such areas
are found in the rain-starved
interiors of continents. They can
also be found in the shadow of
mountains. Here, intense wind
erosion and deposition takes
place. Erosion removes all but the
coarsest rocks and leaves bedrock
exposed. It may surprise you to
learn that only about 30 percent
of most desert areas are covered
by sand. Sand is concentrated Figure 12 A massive dust storm blows
mostly in lowland areas in great sediment over the ocean from the desert Geo Words
of Northwest Africa.
sand seas called ergs. erg: a gigantic sea
Most of Earth’s of sand with shifting
dunes.
windblown sand fields
are greater than 125 km2
in area. The largest active
sand sea on Earth is the
Rub’al Khali or Empty
Quarter (560,000 km2),
in the southern Arabian
Peninsula. Loose sands,
up to several hundred
meters thick, cover
most of the solid rock
in this region.
Where does the
sediment for Earth’s
dune fields come from?
Scientists believe that
the sediments found in
deserts originally came
from upland areas. The Figure 13 This image shows about 2500 km2 of coastal
desert in Namibia. High winds generate dunes
rock was weathered away reaching 300 m high. Checking Up
in these areas. It was 1. How do particles
carried downhill. Then it move in wind?
was deposited in alluvial 2. What is a desert
fans in lowland areas. In some tropical deserts, the source of the sand is pavement?
bedrock made up of desert sands. These sands were deposited during 3. What affect does
older geologic periods in desert environments. vegetation have
on airflow?
4. Where are Earth’s
deserts?
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• How do particles move in flowing air?
• How does wind affect the landscape?
• Where on Earth do you think wind affects the landscape most? Explain your answer.
Record your ideas about these questions now. Include in your answers the different ways
wind erodes and deposits sediment.

In this section, your experiments showed how particles are transported by wind.
Understanding the patterns of erosion and deposition in windy regions is important for
understanding how the landscape changes. You have learned that in deserts and along
coastal regions, wind plays a major role. This also holds true for mountain regions with
a lot of fine-grained sediments scoured by glaciers. Think about these connections as you
work on the Chapter Challenge.
1. Why is rainfall and moisture a factor that controls

Earth’s wind-dominated environments?
2. Explain the relationship between particle size
and wind velocity.
3. Suppose you discovered layers of rocks that
contained ancient sand dunes. What does
this evidence suggest?
4. Would more abrasion or less abrasion
occur at a higher wind velocity? What kind
of abrasion would occur at a lower wind
velocity? Explain your answer.
5. Compare wind erosion to related processes
in rivers and glaciers.
6. How do large sand dunes migrate?
Think about how wind-driven processes
interact with other processes within a
drainage system. Start thinking about the
sources of sediment that supply particles
for wind transport, erosion, and deposition.
Consider how wind-driven processes might
affect the sites you have chosen for the
Olympic Games.
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Inquiring Further
1. Features of wind-dominated environments
There are many other landforms besides the ones mentioned in this section. Research
how the following features form. Be sure to include your sources and describe how you
assessed their reliability.
• barchan dunes
• longitudinal dunes
• yardangs
• ventifacts
2. Loess deposits
Loess is wind-deposited sediment of silt-sized grains that originate in glacial
environments. Major loess deposits are found in China, Europe, and the Midwest
of North America. Find out why these deposits are important to understanding how
landforms change, and their connection to past climates.
3. Wind erosion and deposition in your community
Explore your local area for evidence of processes driven by the wind. To find evidence
of erosion you will have to look for natural and human-made features that have been
affected by the sediment load of the wind. Think broadly about where you will find
evidence of deposition. Make a map to show the location of your field sites and take
photographs or make sketches of your findings. Use a field notebook to record your
observations and ideas.
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Section 10 Coastal Processes

What Do You See?

In this section, you will Coasts are the narrow zones where Earth’s vast oceans meet
• Model how the surfaces of the the edges of continents. Coastal regions extend for hundreds
oceans interact with winds. of thousands of kilometers. They are dynamic places where the
• Model ocean waves and their hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere interact.
interaction with coasts.
• Are all coasts the same? If not, how are they different?
• Apply ideas about balance in
systems to coastal areas. • What kinds of processes shape coastal regions?
• How can you tell which processes are doing the most work
in a coastal region?
the class.
Investigate
In this Investigate, you will explore some of the basic properties
of ocean waves. You will do this by generating waves in water
and studying their behavior. After this, you will run a model
that explores what happens to ocean waves when they meet a
shoreline. You will then explore what happens to waves as they
approach an irregular coastline with headlands and bays. Finally,
you will run a model that explores deposition along a straight
section of coast.
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Part A: Waves
a) For each of the three methods
1. Imagine the ocean on a calm day. (penny, blowing, and swasher),
a) Draw a profile of the ocean that predict what you think will happen
shows how its water moves, under to the marble and the cork.
these calm conditions, from the 8. Model waves using all three methods.
surface downward.
a) Record your observations in a table.
2. Imagine wind blowing across the ocean
surface and forming waves. 9. Compare your predictions to
your results.
a) Draw a second profile that shows
how ocean water moves under these a) Explain any differences.
windy conditions. 10. Share your findings with other groups.
3. With your group, you are going to use a) What is the main difference between
a model of ocean waves to test your the waves generated by blowing and
ideas. Begin by placing a stream table those generated by the swasher?
securely on a desk. Add 4 L of water.
Part B: Waves at the Shore
4. You are going to create waves that
move from one end of the stream table 1. You will run a model that looks at the
to the other by: effects of a shallow beach on advancing
waves. Work with your group to set up
• dropping a penny from 5 cm. your model according to the diagram.
• blowing on the surface.
• gently waving a ruler attached to
a transparency (referred to as a
“swasher”) back and forth at
the surface.
5. Practice each of these wave-
generating methods in the stream
table. Observe their outcomes closely.
Carefully observe what happens
when the waves hit the walls of
the stream table.
2. Place a stream table on a flat surface.
6. Earlier in EarthComm, you explored
Measure a distance of 20 cm from one
the behavior of seismic waves.
end of the tray. Use sand to build a
a) What connections can you make slope from this point and extending
between what you learned and about 10 cm toward the other end
your wave model? of the tray. Build a shore from the
7. To help you detect motion below the 20 cm point and extending to the
surface, place a marble on the floor of other end of the tray. Build the shore
the stream table, as close to the center with a thickness of 2.5 cm.
as possible. Place a float at the surface 3. Gradually add water to the sediment-
above the marble to help you detect free end of the tray until it covers the
motion at the surface. You can use sediments by about 1 cm. Use a ruler
a piece of cork as a float. to smooth out the profile.
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colors will help you to distinguish

a) Predict what will happen as a wave
between different parts of the model.
moves from the open ocean to the
shore. Show your prediction by • Use a spoon to shape the headland
drawing the shape of the wave and bays.
from above and from the side. 2. Gradually add water to the tray until it
fills to a depth of around 3 cm. Make
4. Generate waves by moving a swasher sure that the water level is about 1 cm
through the sediment-free end of the lower than the top of the cliffs. Wait
tray. Hold the swasher at about 70° to a few minutes to allow water to seep
the base of the tray and move it slowly into the sand and then top up the water
through the water to make a single to its original height. If your sea is too
wave. Make waves one at a time and high, remove excess water with a cup
allow the water to come to rest between and keep adjusting it until the height
each wave. Do not be too vigorous. is correct.
a) In a table, record your observations 3. Assign the roles of wave maker, wave
for each wave. Once you think that counter, sketcher, and recorder to
have made enough observations, stop members of your group. The wave
making waves. maker will generate a single wave while
b) Copy the diagram of the model into the counter calls its number. The group
your log. On the diagram, draw what observes the wave and its effects.
happens to a wave as it travels from a) As you observe each wave and its
deeper water to shallower water at effects, describe what you are seeing.
the shore. The sketcher will draw how the
Part C: The Interactions of Waves With model coastline changes while the
Irregular Coasts recorder writes a description in
a table.
1. You will run a model that
explores what happens to
waves as they approach a
coastline with headlands and
bays. Work with your group to
set up your model according
to the diagram. Be sure you
complete the following:
• Fill one end of a stream
table with damp sand and
make an irregular coastline
consisting of a headland and
two bays.
• The coastline consists of
cliffs made of only one kind
of rock. Use one color of
sand to represent these cliffs.
• Build a beach in front of
the cliffs using sand of a
different color. The two
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4. Apply what you have previously

learned about waves to predict
the outcome of the model. Think
specifically about what happens
to the speed of a wave as it travels from
deeper water to shallower water. Think
about what happens to seismic waves as
they pass between different materials
inside Earth.
a) Apply this understanding to your
prediction. Draw diagrams that show
your predictions. Show what happens
to both the waves and the sediments
along the shore.
5. Run your model. Generate 20 to
30 waves. Make sure the waves
are consistent with each other.
a) Record your observations.
b) Compare your predictions to your
6. Share your findings with other groups.
a) What generalizations can you make
about the erosion of irregular coasts? 2. Gradually add water to the tray until
it fills to a depth of about 2 cm. Make
Part D: The Interactions of Waves With
sure that the water level is about 2 cm
Regular Coasts
below the top of the beach so that a
1. You will now run a model that explores strip of beach remains above the water.
deposition along a straight section Wait a few minutes to allow water to
of coast when the dominant wave seep into the sand and then top up the
direction is at an angle to the shore. water to its original height. If your sea
Work with your group to set up your is too high, remove excess water with
model according to the diagram. Be a cup and keep adjusting it until the
sure to complete the following: height is correct.
• Build a sandy shoreline along one side 3. Reassign the roles of wave maker,
of the stream table with damp sand. wave counter, sketcher, and recorder
• Use a ruler to make a profile that to different members of the group.
slopes downward into the ocean.
4. Apply what you have previously learned
• Use different colored sand to make about waves to predict the outcome
a patch that is perpendicular to the of the model.
shore and about 3–5 mm thick. This
will help you to detect movement in a) Draw diagrams that show your
this part of the model. predictions. Show what happens to
both the waves and the sediments
along the shore.
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5. Run your model. Make sure you c) Compare your predictions to your
generate waves at an angle to the shore. results. Explain any differences.
a) Record this angle. 6. Share your findings with other groups.
b) Record your observations. a) What generalizations can you make
about the erosion of regular coasts?
Digging Deeper
COASTAL EROSION AND DEPOSITION
Ocean Waves
In the Investigate, you generated waves and explored how they do work
on coastlines. At any time, the oceans have a crisscross pattern of waves
traveling on their surfaces. Ocean waves result from the friction between
winds and the ocean surface. On a windless day, the ocean surface
can appear glassy and still. However, even water has enough surface
roughness to generate friction against a moving airflow. The fact that
water is a very mobile fluid can be seen by the way the ocean surface
undulates in response to turbulent winds that pass over them.
Figure 1 This picture, taken from space, easily shows patterns of

waves traveling toward Baja, Mexico.
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At first you might think that waves travel at all depths throughout the
oceans. However, they are mostly a shallow feature and occur close to
the surface. As you saw in the Investigate, the windblown waves moved
the cork floating at the surface but not the marble on the bottom. In
contrast, the swasher generated deeper motion because it transferred
energy deeper into the water, moving both objects.
At a glance, it might appear that waves travel and migrate across the
surface of the oceans. Your Investigate models revealed something
different. Water within a wave is not really migrating. Instead, it is
transferring the motion of the wave form. This means that the water
remains in place after making its oscillation and there is little net
forward motion.
Figure 2 Sketches of deep and shallow water waves.
You saw how surface waves caused a smaller floating object to move
back and forth as it slowly traveled toward then away from the center
of the tub. What is happening is that small particles of water move in
a circular pattern. The diameter of each of these circular paths decreases
with depth. (See Figure 2.)
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Changes in Waves at the Shore

When a wave that forms in the deep ocean reaches the shallower parts
of the shore, it changes shape. Its circular pattern becomes flatter and
elongated. Friction between the wave and the seafloor causes the lower
part of the movement to slow down. Near the surface, where the friction
is less, the wave continues forward and its peak rises. The increase in wave
height makes the wave unstable, and it topples forward up the beach
as a wall of surf called a breaker. As the breaker collapses, a sheet of
turbulent water continues forward and flows up the beach. This is known
as the swash. The surging swash has enough energy to move particles up
the beach. As the swash loses energy, the backwash retreats and flows
downslope to return to the ocean. Some of the backwash seeps into the
permeable beach material.
Figure 3 Waves change in shape and speed as they approach the shore.
Wave Action on Headlands

As a wave approaches the coast, the depth of the ocean usually
decreases. This causes the speed of the wave to decrease. When the
speed of a wave decreases, the direction it travels also changes. As a
result, the wave appears to refract, or bend. In the Investigate, you
Geo Words saw how waves bend due to the topography of the shore.
headland: a Irregular coastlines have protruding parts called headlands. They often
projection of the extend into the ocean from rounded bays called coves. Headlands are
coast into the sea.
composed of more resistant rock than bays. The topography of bays is
cove: an embayment usually deeper than that in front of headlands. As a result, waves often
on a coastline.
bend around headlands due to refraction. As the waves break in bays and
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Figure 4 Bays and headlands along the Pacific coast of California.
coves, energy is used for erosion and dissipated along the shore. This
means that coastal erosion is not uniform along the coast. Wave energy
is concentrated on headlands as the wave directions converge. In bays
diverging wave directions reduce wave energy. As a result, erosion is less
in bays. Because there is less energy, sediments are deposited in the bays.
The net effect of greater erosion on the headlands and deposition in the
bays is a straightening of coastlines because of wave refraction.
Figure 5 Wave energy is concentrated on headlands because waves bend as they

change speed in shallower waters near the shore.
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Waves and Sediments

There are several factors that can affect the erosion of a coast. One
factor is the supply of sediments. Another is the ability of currents
and waves to cause erosion. Both of these are important factors in the
evolution of coasts. Rivers flow from the coastal mountain ranges of
North America to the coasts. They transport 600 m3 of sediment every
day to the coasts. Powerful currents flow along the Pacific coast of
California. They are strong enough to move boulders 0.6 m in diameter.
These currents are like a super highway for sediment transport along
coasts. When sediments are moved into shallower waters, the activity
of waves becomes increasingly important.
Longshore Drift
As waves enter shallower waters at the shore, they slow down. As a result,
they are refracted and bend toward the shore. The breaking waves move
material up and across the beach. As waves retreat, material is then moved
back toward incoming waves. In your model, you saw how waves interact
with the slope of a beach to move material along the beach. Did you
notice that the material is pushed up the beach at one angle but returns
straight down the beach at a different angle? Material moving down the
beach profile behaves like all slope deposits and moves down the slope
and perpendicular to the coast. Material that is returned to the surf zone
then moves up the beach once more only to return back in the same way
as before. Sand moves down the beach in a zigzag pattern. Over time, this
Geo Words process is effective in moving large amounts of sediments from one end of
longshore drift: the beach to another. This process is called longshore drift.
process in which
sediments move
along the coast in a
zigzag pattern caused
by the swash and
backwash of waves
that move obliquely
to the shore.
Figure 6
Bending waves
and gravity are
two key factors
in generating
longshore drift
on straight
beaches.
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Coastal Erosion
The shapes of coastlines give evidence for the processes that form them.
Coasts that are dominated by erosion tend to be rugged and have steep
cliffs. This type of coast is common at the edge of a continental plate,
such as the Pacific coast of North America. Sea cliffs are sheer faces of
rock that meet the sea. Waves erode the bases of cliffs, and over time,
cut notches into them. When sea level falls, these notches become
stranded. These landforms indicate the former height of the sea.
Figure 7 The horizontal surface extending from the cliff in this

photograph is a wave-cut platform. It was created as waves cut
notches into the cliff and the progressive collapse of the cliff,
causing it to retreat inland.
Erosion of headlands can lead to the development of caves. When waves

break against cliffs, the impact of the water generates high pressures
that through time can weaken rocks. The roofs of enlarged caves often Geo Words
fail, resulting in the isolation of sea stacks separated from the coast. The sea stack: a small rock
evolution of coastal landforms that result from erosion are shown in the pillar island that has
been cut off from
following figures. The rate at which coasts erode is controlled by the the coast by wave
geology and oceans. Scientists have calculated that almost 90 percent erosion.
of California’s coast is retreating at an average rate of between 15 and
75 cm per year. Specific sections of the coast, such as Monterrey Bay, are
being eroded at up to 3 m per year.
Figure 8 The power of the sea is

concentrated between the high-
tide level and the low-tide level.
The overhanging notch cut at the
bottom of the cliff in this
photograph indicates the
level of high tide.
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Figure 9 Coastal erosion on either side of a headland has produced an arch from
what was once a cave.
Figure 10 The collapse of an arch leaves an isolated sea stack.
Coastal Deposition
Beaches are the most common type of deposit along coasts. Beaches are
places where sediments are continuously being moved by the action of
waves and currents. Sediments on beaches are heavily abraded. They are
mostly dominated by sand-sized grains of quartz or carbonate minerals. In
some volcanic areas, such as Iceland and Hawaii, beaches are formed from
the darker minerals of igneous rocks and consist of black sands. Some
beaches consist of pebbles, or even boulders of resistant rocks. Many
coastlines have no beach at all. Rocks cover the near-shore area. Beaches
act as barriers that protect the coast. They absorb the energy of waves
hitting the shore. The beach zone varies from about 5 m above high tide
to 10 m below low tide, depending on the shoreline. Some beaches are
stable and remain year-round, while others are seasonal.
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Figure 11 Iceland sits on top of the mid-Atlantic Ridge. Its black sandy beaches are
made of particles worn from basalt and other dark igneous rocks.
Deposition at the coast typically produces gentle relief where materials

are moved by waves onto the shoreline. In quieter tectonic settings, such
as the southeastern coast of North America, which trails the northwest-
moving plate, deposition is evident. Along the coast you can see barrier
spits that are deposited out from the coast by longshore drift. When a Geo Words
spit grows across a bay it is called a barrier island. It cuts off the interior barrier island: an
from the ocean. Where this happens, the inland side is called a lagoon. elongate island or
chain of islands that
A lagoon can slowly fill with sediments from inland streams. extend parallel to
the coast formed by
coastal deposition.
lagoon: a long
and narrow body
of shallow water
enclosed between
the mainland and a
barrier off the shore.
Figure 12 Taken from the space shuttle, this image shows the development
of a long barrier spit off the coast of Texas.
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Figure 13 Steep rocky cliffs on the Pacific coast as shown here contrast the low and
sandy barrier islands on most of the Atlantic coast. Both landforms tell us something
about how coastal systems work.
Emerging and Submerging Coastlines

Coastlines reflect a balance between processes in the geosphere and in
the hydrosphere. Over time, the action of the sea gradually straightens
coastlines by filling bays with sediments and eroding headlands. Features
Geo Words such as wave-cut platforms (similar to staircases) and sea cliffs are
emergent coastline: a indicators of emergent coastlines. The shape of emergent coastlines
coast that is gradually depends on the gradient of the coastal slopes. Steep slopes often produce
rising relative to the cliffs which are attacked to form headlands and bays. More gently angled
sea due to either a
fall in the sea level or coastlines are submerged to form wide and straight coastal plains.
a rise in the land.
Figure 14 The rocky shore of Acadia National Park in Maine rises from the ocean.
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One reason that emergent coastlines develop is because the land rises.
In some settings, the land rises because of tectonic processes that push
the crust upwards. In other places, land rises because of melting glaciers.
When glaciers cover the land, they depress the crust. Upon melting, the
crust rebounds upward.
Emergent coastlines also develop because sea level falls. Sea level can fall
because of changes in the volume of ice stored in glaciers. During glacial
periods on Earth, sea level has fallen by as much as 140 m (relative to
today). This happens as water is locked up as ice on the continents and
prevented from flowing to the oceans. Geo Words
Coastlines that are being drowned by the sea are called submergent submergent coastline:
coastlines. They also reflect the balance between the level of the sea and a coast that is slowly
being drowned by
coast. Most are formed where sea level rises as a result of the melting sea due to the land
of large glaciers that cover the continents, as happens at the end of sinking or sea level
glacial periods. Subsidence of the crust, for example due to sediment rising.
loading, will also cause the relative height of the sea to rise. Submergent
coastlines are often indicated by growth in estuaries and encroachment
of salt water upstream into parts of lowland drainage. As coasts are
submerged, remnants of former headlands become increasingly isolated
as sea stacks. Most of the eastern United States has submergent
coastlines. The Chesapeake Bay is one example.
Checking Up
1. What generates
ocean waves?
2. What pattern do
particles moving
by longshore drift
make?
3. How do emergent
and submergent
Figure 15 The ancestral Hudson River drainage system in New York coastlines differ?
has been drowned by the rising sea. 4. What are sea
stacks?
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• Are all coasts the same? If not, how are they different?
• What kinds of processes shape coastal regions?
• How can you tell which processes are doing the most work in a coastal region?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Apply what you learned about how
coastlines are eroded and how sediment is deposited along coastlines.

In this section, you learned how coasts are dynamic environments. The oceans and winds
interact with the rocks and sediments of the geosphere. Coastlines are affected by the
supply of sediments from the continents. They are also affected by their shape and the
directions of waves. There are several factors you need to consider when planning new
development in coastal areas. First, you need to assess the balance between sea-level
change and uplift or subsidence. Erosion and deposition must also be taken into account.
An evaluation of the geology of coastal environments will be important as you work on
your Chapter Challenge.
1. How do waves in the ocean form and break?

2. Why is wave energy concentrated on headlands and dispersed in bays?
3. What factors control whether beaches are dominated by erosion or deposition?
4. Why does longshore drift occur? Why is longshore drift important?
5. Describe the coastal geology in the following photographs.
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6. How are coastal processes connected to:

a) The rock cycle
b) The movement of lithospheric plates
c) River systems
d) Mountainous areas
As you read in this section, waves do a lot of work on coastlines. Write a paragraph
in which you describe the features of coastlines dominated by erosion and those of
coastlines dominated by deposition. Explain how these features are formed. Also
describe the difference between an emergent and a submergent coastline. Apply these
ideas to your evaluation of your Olympic Games sites.
Inquiring Further
1. Plate tectonics and the coasts
Compare the coastal settings of the east and west coasts of North America. How do
their tectonic positions after their characteristics? What other factors have affected
each coast?
2. Changing sea level and the coasts
Almost all coasts have been affected by changes in sea level over time. Have you ever
wondered what the baseline for sea level is or how sea level is measured? Find out more
by visiting the EarthComm Web site at http://www.agiweb.org/education/earthcomm2/.
3. Coastal processes
Use an Earth imaging program on the Internet to find coasts where each of the
following processes is dominant. For each location copy the image and provide
annotations along with the name, longitude, and latitude.
• stream erosion
• stream deposition
• marine erosion
• marine deposition
• glacial erosion
• reef growth
4. Coastal hazards
On coasts where erosion works at a faster rate than deposition, engineering geologists
often intervene to stabilize coasts. Find out about coastal hazards and engineering
practices to change coastal erosion or coastal sediment transport, such as building
breakwaters and concrete barriers.
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Earth/Space Science
You Learned
The Water Cycle
Water, in the form of liquid, solid, or vapor, moves through the Earth system and transforms during
its journey. Water resides in many different kinds of places, and takes many different kinds of paths.
The combination of all of these different movements is called the water cycle or the hydrologic cycle.
Each place in the Earth system where water is stored is a reservoir. The rate at which water flows
from one reservoir to another in a given time is called a flux. There is net movement of water vapor
from the oceans to the continents, and net movement of liquid (and solid) water from the continents
to the oceans.
Drainage Basins
Topographic maps provide important information about the geometry of drainage basins and river
systems. Contours can be used to determine stream gradient.
A drainage basin is the area from which all of the rain that falls eventually flows to the same final
destination, usually the ocean.
River systems consist of interconnected channels. Tributary systems consist of many smaller streams
that converge and flow into major channels known as trunk streams. A distributary system consists
of a number of small channels that branch off from the main river, often close to a delta or large
depositional feature.
Slopes
Many of Earth’s landforms are made up of slopes. Solid bedrock is stable at almost any slope angle
unless slopes are weakened. Unconsolidated materials are stable only up to a maximum slope angle,
called the angle of repose.
The process in which gravity moves material downward on a slope is called mass movement
(rockfalls, landslides, debris flows, debris avalanches, and creep).
High- and Low-Gradient Streams

High-gradient streams are usually located in the headwater areas of river systems. Their velocities
are typically high though their channels are relatively small and shallow.
High-gradient streams tend to cut downward and erode their valleys rapidly.
Streams in the lower parts of a river system typically have lower gradients, wider channels, and
wider floodplains than streams in the higher parts of river systems.
Low-gradient streams cut wide valleys because their channels tend to shift sideways. They do this by
meandering back and forth across a wide floodplain.
The flat, low-lying valley floor surrounding a river channel is called the floodplain. It is built from
sediments deposited by meandering streams and during floods.
Sediments are classified according to their diameter as clay, silt, sand, gravel, or pebbles. For a
given sediment size, a certain velocity of flow, called the threshold velocity, is needed to initiate the
movement of a particle.
Part of a stream’s load can be carried along invisibly in solution by a stream. Fine sediment particles,
of clay and silt size, travel mostly as a suspended load. The bed load consists of coarse sediment
particles that travel by sliding, rolling, and bouncing.
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Soil
Soil is a relatively thin layer of rock, mineral fragments, and decaying organic material that covers
most of Earth’s land surface. Soil forms when weathering and biological processes break down
bedrock and organic material, such as dead plants.
Soils can be classified by texture, which refers to the distribution of the sizes of the particles. Most
soils are a mixture of gravel, sand, silt, and clay sizes, as well as organic materials. Soils often
contain layers called horizons, each with varying properties.
Glaciers
A glacier is a large mass of ice on the Earth’s surface that moves by internal deformation and by
slipping at its base. Ice sheets are the largest glaciers. They form on broad land areas at high latitudes
where summers are cool enough so that not all of the previous winter’s snow is melted. Valley
glaciers form in mountain regions both at high latitudes and at high elevations.
Glaciers scour soil and sediments from their bases to create wide U-shaped valleys. Meltwater at the
base of a glacier sometimes penetrates fractured bedrock and freezes, then later thaws. This action
can break bedrock apart rapidly. Small mountain glaciers produce semicircular hollows shaped like
a shallow bowl, called a cirque.
Till is a mixture of boulders and clay. It can be deposited on top of, within, beneath, on the side, or
in front of a glacier’s terminus. Terminal moraines are high curved ridges of sediment that mark the
maximum extent of a glacier.
Meltwater streams flow out from tunnels in glaciers. They are typically seasonal in nature and can
carry enormous quantities of sediment of all sizes.
Wind
Wind moves particles by suspension, saltation, and surface creep. Particle movement is controlled by
wind velocity, particle size, vegetation, surface cohesion, and surface roughness.
Landforms and human-made objects are eroded by the scouring action of rock particles carried by
the wind. The surfaces of rocks and monuments become pitted and etched.
Sand dunes grow because the kinetic energy of impacting grains is absorbed by loose sand. Sand
grains typically saltate up shallower slopes that face into the predominant wind direction and
avalanche down the steeper leeward slope.
Earth’s arid environments are controlled by climate. Deserts are common in regions where
evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, and may be hot or cold.
Coastal Erosion and Deposition
Ocean waves result from the friction between winds and the ocean surface. Water within a wave
remains in place after making its oscillation and there is little net forward motion of water. Instead,
it is the wave form that moves rather than the water.
Erosion is not uniform along coasts. Contrasts in the depth between bays and headlands causes
waves to bend around headlands and preferentially break against them.
Features of coastal erosion include caves, arches, sea stacks, solution notches, and wave-cut platforms.
Beaches are the most common type of deposit along coasts. Wave action moves sand down the beach
in a zigzag pattern, a process called longshore drift.
Emergent coastlines are rising relative to the sea and often exhibit wave-cut platforms. Submergent
coastlines are slowly drowned and are indicated by the growth of estuaries.
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Earth/Space Science
Chapter Challenge
You will now be completing a second cycle of you need to complete your challenge. This is
the Engineering Design Cycle as you prepare part of the Inputs phase of the Engineering
for the Chapter Challenge. The goals and Design Cycle. Your group needs to apply
criteria remain unchanged. However, your these concepts to develop your presentation.
list of Inputs has grown. You also have additional Inputs from the
Feedback you received following your Mini-
Challenge presentation.
Section 1 You examined the unique properties
of water. You found out why water is so
important to life on Earth. You also looked at
the distribution of water on Earth. Then you
learned about the water cycle and saw how
water moves from place to place within the
Earth system.
Section 2 You explored the nature of drainage
systems, interpreted topographic maps, and
evaluated important interactions between
river systems, land features, and communities.
Section 3 You considered whether the slopes
of land features were suitable for development
and determined how the slope of the land
controls surface processes. You discovered
how different Earth materials are prone to
forming unstable slopes.
Goal Sections 4 and 5 You used streamflow data
Your Challenge is to present to learn about the characteristics of high-
a poster and a report to and low-gradient streams. You calculated
compare the suitability of two sites to host the gradient of streams using a topographic
the Summer Olympic Games. One site is map, assessed possible hazards and benefits,
in Alaska and one is in Florida. You are to identified areas where these streams occur,
consider the landforms and surface processes and compared the relationship between
of each region. You should indicate any these streams, surface change, land use,
hazards that might influence the committee’s and development.
decision to select the city. Review the Goal Section 6 You explored how sediments are
as a class to make sure that you are familiar formed. You also looked at how sediments
with all the criteria and constraints. are transported by streams. You found that
the size of sediment a stream could transport
is related to the velocity of the stream. You
read about how sediments, streamflow,
and flooding affect developments along the
Inputs streambeds and banks.
You now have additional Section 7 You explored various soil types.
information to help you You learned how they are formed. Then you
address the topics you will include in your looked at the types of soil in your region,
report. You have completed all the sections their location, and the impact soil has on
of this chapter and learned about the content the community.
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Section 8 You discovered how glaciers have • What is the relationship between soils and
affected the topography. You also explored the gradient of the land? Where did the soil
how glaciers have affected the stream drainage come from? Can it be replaced if lost due to
systems in the Unites States. the development?
Section 9 You designed an experiment to • What is the current correlation between
look at the effects of wind on loose sediment. soil types and development at your sites?
You then examined the relationship between Will that change with the building of
wind speed and particle size and the effects of these facilities?
windblown sand on rock. You also explored
how sediment that has been carried by wind • How will the plans to develop Olympic
is deposited. facilities affect the local soils?
Section 10 You explored the properties Be creative as you design and then develop
of ocean waves. You then simulated what your poster and report. This will help your
happens when ocean waves meet a shoreline. presentation be memorable. Just make sure
that every member of your group is included
and knows how he or she will be contributing
to the presentation.
Process
In the Process phase, you need
to decide what information
you have that you will use to meet the Goal. Outputs
Your goal is to decide which of the two
Presenting your poster and
regions in Alaska or Florida is most suitable
report to the class is your
for the Summer Olympic Games. Discuss
design-cycle Output. Try to create a
with your team which topics you want to
presentation that is engaging and interesting
cover in your poster and presentation to
as well as informative. Creativity is important.
convince your audience. Decide on the format
Your audience will remember presentations that
you will use. In addition to your poster,
are different from the others. Make sure that
perhaps you will show charts, graphs, and
your facts are correct and that the information
pictures to make your point. You might
you present addresses the Earth/Space Science
choose to have a panel discussion between
You Learned at the end of the chapter.
geologists, community members, politicians,
and the Olympic committee to present your
information. Another idea might be to create
a map showing a proposed layout of each Feedback
Olympic facility. The map could indicate the
Your classmates will give you
suitability of each building or development.
Feedback on the accuracy and
Your team may also decide to do a slideshow
overall appeal of your presentation based on
presentation. No matter what you choose to
the criteria of the design challenge. This
do, keep the following questions in mind.
Feedback will likely become part of your grade
• What geologic formations are required for but could also be useful for additional design
the games? Do your sites have them? revisions. No design is perfect because there is
• What are the risks of building on the land always room for optimization or improvement,
in each of your sites? Will that land be no matter how slight. From your experience
lost to other purposes, such as agriculture with the Mini-Challenge you should see how
or wildlife? you could continuously refine almost any idea.
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Earth/Space Science
Systems Thinking
Revisit the Big Ideas in Surface Processes
In this chapter, you examined surface processes. Through erosion and deposition, these processes
shape and transform the bedrock of continents. The agents of these processes include streams,
wind, glaciers, slopes, and waves. Gravity plays a major role in each. In any region, some
processes are more dominant than others. Systems thinking helps you to explore the
interrelationships that cause the surface of the landscape to change.
At any given time, the landscape reflects
the balance between erosion and
deposition. Some parts of the landscape
undergo constructive, or building up,
processes. Other parts undergo
destructive, or tearing down, processes.
If the rate of erosion is greater than the
rate of deposition, there is a net lowering
of the surface. Some processes, such as
glaciers or the wind, can strip sediments
and soil from the surface to expose bare
rock. When older deposits are eroded
and buried beneath younger deposits,
unconformities are sometimes exposed Where temperatures are cold and there is an abundance
in the local geologic record. of snow, glacial erosion plays an important part in
Major surface processes are part of a shaping the surface.
particular environment. For example,
erosion and deposition by ice and meltwater take place in glacial environments. On slopes,
the mass movement of soil and rock occurs. For river (fluvial) environments, the channel, the
bed, and banks affect the surface processes that take place. Winds tend to affect the surface
everywhere. However, wind erosion is greatest on exposed surfaces. There, sediments are not
protected by vegetation. Wind-dominated environments are common in hot and cold deserts.
They also are found in coastal areas along beaches. Each environment is a system that has many
parts and processes. Each is organized in a specific way.
Looking across the surface
of Earth, you can see where
one environment ends,
another often begins. Clearly,
interconnected systems will
share some parts and processes.
For example, in very high
mountains, mass movements
transfer debris from rock walls
onto glaciers. Moving glaciers
scour the underlying bedrock.
They build up moraines of
poorly sorted sediments. In
spring, meltwater flows from
the warming ice in high-
gradient streams and transports
glacial sediments to lower parts
of the drainage basin. Sediment from high mountains are eventually deposited in the ocean.
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Energy drives the destruction of continental rocks by erosion and their transport to the ocean. If the
energy of moving wind, water, ice, or slopes decreases, its capacity to do work also decreases. Scientists
are able to determine when there were high-energy conditions for a particular erosion process.
Surface processes are strongly affected by other major parts of the Earth system. Tectonic processes
can cause the crust to thicken and rise in some places and thin and sag in others. Erosion is
typically greater on mountain slopes. Deposition is greater in lowland basins. Climate is another
factor that controls surface processes. Colder climates favor erosion by ice. Wetter climates favor
the development of stream networks. In dry climates, the wind has a greater ability to affect how
landforms develop. Over time, regional climates undergo shifts. These can be observed by the
replacement of one process by another.

1. What are the major parts involved in surface processes and landforms? Describe each
part and its location.
Thinking about the parts involved in the operation of surface processes will help you
to think about the structure of the system(s) you are examining. Describe the nature
of the parts. You might want to think about where the different parts are as well.
This will help you to understand a system’s structure even more clearly.
2. What are the major processes involved in surface processes and landforms?
Asking questions such as, “How do sediments move in streams?” or “How do
glaciers erode their beds?” helps you to figure out the operation of the system(s)
you are studying. The same method can be applied to larger or smaller systems.
You might also want to think about how one part of the system affects another.
This will help you to better understand interactions within the system.
a) Describe major ways in which matter changes through surface processes and
landforms.
Matter lies at the heart of systems. It often moves from one place to another.
It also changes sometimes between states of matter or in other physical ways.
b) Describe the role of energy in surface processes and landforms.
Energy drives systems. All systems require a source of energy for them to operate.
As systems do work, energy from the source is transformed into different kinds
of energy.
3. Over which spatial scales do surface processes and landforms operate?
Scientists like to look at different scales in the same system to seek patterns about
how things work. Think about the distribution of surface processes across a particular
region. What causes the concentration of processes to change? At a continental scale,
why are many processes interconnected? Bigger systems cover larger regions, typically
have more parts, and process more matter. They require a large and continuous source
of energy.
4. Across what time scales do surface processes operate?
Asking questions such as, “How long does it take for a meander to form?” or “What
is the lifespan of a mountain?” helps you think more closely about the rates at which
systems affect change.
5. How do surface processes affect your community?
You live on the ever-changing surface of the continents. Despite efforts to stabilize
the surface, it is mobile over long time scales. Settlements typically favor stable
landscapes, but this is not always the case. Think about the environment in which
you live and how surface processes play a role.
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Earth/Space Science
Slopes Physics Glaciers flow because of internal stresses
Biology Vegetation can stabilize slopes in a that develop in response to gravity. The grains
number of ways. The roots of plants help to within the ice slip past one another. Glaciers
bind the upper horizons of the soil together, also move by slipping and deforming the
which increases the slope’s strength. sediments at their bases.
Chemistry Abundant water often saturates Wind Erosion
soil cavities and reduces the amount of Biology Wind is highly effective at carrying
oxygen available for weathering compared pollen grains. Scientists have measured as
to upper slopes. Iron-bearing minerals have many as 1 million pollen grains per cubic
a reddish color in oxidizing conditions meter, close to the ground in summer. Scientists
and a green or blue color under reducing are particularly interested in the dispersal of
conditions. genetically modified pollen species because of
Physics The basic cause of mass movement the risk of cross-pollination with natural species.
is the downward pull of gravity. Gravity Chemistry Quartz sand is not the only kind
is one of four fundamental forces that act of particle transported by winds. Windblown
throughout the universe. dust containing iron is an important nutrient to
Read more about the four fundamental the surface waters of the Antarctic Ocean. Iron
forces in stimulates the growth of algae which converts
Extending the Connection atmospheric carbon dioxide into organic carbon
in the oceans, influencing the concentration of
River Discharge atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Biology In the Mekong Delta, the giant Physics Scientists have developed a Sand Particle
Mekong catfish feeds on the plentiful plants Counter that detects saltating particles when
and algae that grow on the silts deposited in they pass through a laser beam. Every time the
this high-discharge environment. beam is broken a signal is produced. This is very
Chemistry Scientists who study river systems useful for studying sandstorms.
sometimes add dyes, salts, and stable Coastal Processes
isotopes to rivers to monitor
stream behavior. Biology Marine biologists recognize distinctive
coastal zones based on the relative heights of the
Physics As water flows, it is unable to resist tides. The zone exposed only at the lowest tides
stresses and, as a result, deforms. The bed typically has the largest populations because
and banks of a stream create frictional of longer submersion times. Here, abundant
resistance to flowing water. As a result, a plants and algae are the primary producers that
stream has its greatest velocity at about support urchins, limpets, and snails. However,
7/10 of its depth. species can only tolerate direct sunlight for very
Glaciers short periods.
Biology In 1991, a 5200-year-old Chemistry Solubility plays an important
mummified male human was found role in the development of coastal landforms,
preserved in the Alps between Austria and enabling rocks like limestone to decompose and
Italy. A tiny bulge in his large intestine collapse. The development of wave-cut notches
contained einkorn wheat, meat, and in relatively insoluble granitic rocks reveals the
pollen grains from the hop hornbeam tree. importance of abrasion and hydrologic action
This provided important evidence about as well.
agricultural practices in the Neolithic period. Physics Coastal engineering practices are
Chemistry To learn about climate, scientists dependent on the application of physics. These
look at the ratios of the oxygen isotopes range from understanding the kinetics of
18
O and 16O in glacial ice. Glacial ice with shoreline sediment transport, the refraction
a relatively lower 18O content represents a of waves, to the forces acting on natural and
colder climate. human-made coastal structures.
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THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

In this chapter, you investigated the role of the force of gravity as a major factor
responsible for reshaping the surface of Earth. A force is defined as a push or pull.
It is an interaction between two objects that can result in an acceleration of either
or both objects.
Scientists recognize four fundamental forces that act throughout the universe: gravity,
electromagnetic force, the strong force, and the weak force. One of science’s greatest
challenges has been to try to discover relationships among the forces. Many scientists
think that all four forces may actually be different aspects of a single force. The theory
that would explain how all forces are related is called the grand unification theory.
Gravity
The force everyone is probably familiar with is the force of gravity. Gravity is the force
of attraction (the pull) between any two objects with mass. The greater the mass, the
greater the force of attraction. You saw this force acting when you investigated the angle
of repose of materials on a slope. You observed materials sliding down a slope because
the large mass of Earth makes the force of attraction between the particles of material
and Earth very evident. Gravity is also the force that holds the Sun, moons, planets,
stars, and galaxies in their orbits. It works across tremendous distances and has an
infinite range.
Gravity is the force responsible for mass movement.
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EarthComm

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the first to describe the law of universal gravitation. The law
of universal gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts every other object
with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. Recall that the gravitational force can be
described mathematically as
FG = Gm1m2
d2
where F G is the force between the objects,
G is the gravitational constant,
m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, and
d is the distance between their centers.
Electromagnetic Force
Another fundamental force with which you may
be familiar is the electromagnetic force. You may
have observed a magnetic force act when you
placed a magnet on a refrigerator. You probably
have also experienced an electrical force when
you felt an “electric shock” when you touched
Electrical force can be a real nuisance if you
something metallic after walking across a carpet. get an unexpected “shock” when you touch a
doorknob after walking across a room.
Strong and Weak Force
The other two fundamental forces are difficult to visualize but play critical roles in the
nucleus of every atom. The electromagnetic force holds electrons in orbit around the
nucleus. But this force cannot account for what holds the particles of the nucleus together.
The strong nuclear force is the attraction between nucleons (protons and neutrons) and
holds the nucleus together, because it is a very strong force at very close range. It is
estimated to be about 100 times as strong as the electromagnetic force. However, it is a
very short-range force—at distances greater than the size of a nucleus, the force is too
small to measure.
The fourth force is called the weak force. It plays a role in the radioactive decay of unstable
atoms, particularly in the transition of a neutron to a proton. During the latter half of the
twentieth century, physicists were able to show that the electromagnetic force and the weak
force were two aspects of the same force, described as the electroweak force. The weak
force has a range of about 1/1000 of the strong force.
The following table summarizes the relative strengths and the ranges of the four
fundamental forces.
Type of Force Relative Strength Range Nature of Force
gravitational force 10–39 infinite attraction
electromagnetic force 0.0073 infinite attraction/repulsion
nuclear (strong) force 1 10–15 m attraction
–6 –18
weak force 10 10 m neither
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Earth/Space Science
Earth/Space Science
At W
At Work
ork
and to Surface Processes?
ATMOSPHERE: BIOSPHERE: Environmental

Red Cross Worker Protection Agency (EPA)
Those who provide help and relief Ecologists
to communities during floods must EPA ecologists monitor and ensure
carefully follow the analysis of safe development of land. One of
weather data so that they are aware their goals is to make sure that
of imminent danger. They want the development of land does not
to be prepared to act immediately interfere with the preservation of
when disaster strikes. During the environment. By conducting
and after a flood, the Red Cross research on the relationship
helps organize evacuation efforts, between the landscape and
offers support to those who have ecological processes, ecologists can
lost homes, and helps to rebuild assess how land development would
communities that were damaged by affect water flow, energy, and
the effects of flooding. CRYOSPHERE: Hydroelectric nutrients in the environment.
Engineer/Planner
Glacierized drainage basins
contain vast amounts of water.
Meltwater from glaciers in
mountainous regions can be
stored behind dams and used to
generate hydroelectric power. These
projects are especially important
in poor rural regions throughout
the great mountain ranges like the
Himalayas. However, the upstream
environment is often prone to
GEOSPHERE: Captain of a rapid changes due to steep slopes
Cargo Ship and extensive weathering and HYDROSPHERE: Film Maker
erosion. Planners work closely with
Economies of scale result in the scientists to ensure that projects Many levels of government
manufacture of larger container are not impacted by unstable slopes organize efforts to work toward
ships that can carry more cargo. and catastrophic flooding. preserving balanced and
The largest ships can only navigate sustainable ecosystems in areas
in very deep channels where there such as the Everglades in South
is enough clearance for their keel. Florida. Educating the public
To accommodate these ships, many through videos and films is an
ports must dredge their channels to important part of these efforts. One
provide enough clearance. Sediments documentary about the Everglades’
are removed from the near-shore ecosystem explores how it has
environment by dredging. This can be been severely damaged due to land
done mechanically by a conveyor of development and what will need to
moving buckets or hydraulically using be done in order to restore it.
a pipeline and a giant vacuum pump.
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EarthComm

Earth/Space Science
Practice Test
Content Review
1. When compared to the lower parts of 5. What evidence can tell you that a stream
drainage basins, we can generalize that in was once subjected to periods of very high-
the upper parts of drainage basins the velocity flow?
I. contour lines are typically spaced a) clay and silt deposits in the streambed
more closely. b) sand deposits in the streambed
II. streams have higher gradients. c) gravel deposits in the streambed
d) large, rounded boulders in
III. streams have higher discharges.
the streambed
a) I only
b) II only
6. Predict where future erosion will be
c) I and II only
greatest in a meandering stream.
d) I, II, and III
a) Erosion is greatest on the inside of the
meander bend.
2. Why would a slope of jagged particles
b) Erosion is greatest on the outside of the
achieve a steeper slope than one composed
meander bend.
of smooth, rounded particles?
c) Erosion is greatest on the bottom of
a) Jagged particles are denser. the streambed.
b) Greater friction exists between d) Very little erosion is associated with
rounded particles. meandering streams.
c) Greater friction exists between
jagged particles.
7. What was the likely velocity of the river
d) Jagged particles roll shorter distances.
from which a sample of silt and clay were
taken from the streambed?
3. Why does wave erosion focus on
a) slow
headlands and not in bays?
b) medium
a) Waves typically bend toward the c) fast
weakest parts of coasts. d) extremely fast
b) Waves typically bend toward shallower
water in bays.
8. How does the mass, roundness, and shape
c) Waves typically bend toward deeper
of a sediment particle change as it is
water in bays.
transported over a long distance?
d) Waves typically bend toward shallower
water near headlands. a) The particle will become larger, rounder,
and more spherical with more transport.
b) The particle will become smaller, more
4. Which of the following cannot be true
angular, and rod-shaped with
about an emergent coastline?
more transport.
a) Cliffs are rising relative to sea level. c) The particle will become smaller,
b) The ocean is falling relative to rounder, and more spherical with
the land. more transport.
c) Estuaries and salt water are d) The particle will not change.
encroaching inland.
d) Wave-cut platforms occur above
the highest tides.
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EarthComm

9. How does the maximum particle size 13. Which glacial process has the least effect
that a stream can transport vary with on river systems?
flow velocity? a) addition of glacial meltwater to river
a) There is no correlation between the two. systems in spring
b) As the flow velocity increases, the b) erosion of slopes to form
size of the particles that can be drainage basins
transported decreases. c) scouring the bedrocks at the base
c) As the flow velocity increases, the of glaciers
size of the particles that can be d) blocking and diverting existing
transported increases. drainage networks
10. During a long period of heavy 14. Why is a patch of clay-sized particles less
thunderstorms in the upland part of a prone to wind erosion than a patch of
drainage basin, what might happen to sand-sized particles?
soils that are rich in clay? a) The minerals in sand-sized particles
I. They promote surface runoff. have less mass.
II. They become saturated and b) Clay-sized particles do not project far
waterlogged. into the airflow.
c) Clay-sized particles have greater
III. They are more prone to slide
moisture between their grains than
downslope.
sands.
a) I only d) Sand-sized particles do not project far
b) I and II only into the airflow.
c) I and III only
d) I, II, and III
15. How do sand dunes move?
a) upwind by sediment avalanching down
11. Soil development demonstrates the
the windward slope
complex interactions between the
b) upwind by sediment avalanching down
geosphere and
the leeward slope
I. the hydrosphere. c) downwind by sediment avalanching
II. the biosphere. down the windward slope
III. the atmosphere. d) downwind by sediment avalanching
IV. time. down the leeward slope
a) I only
b) I and II only
c) I, II, and III only
d) I, II, III, and IV
12. What might happen if the load of a

glacier increases?
a) The glacier system might fail.
b) The ice in a glacier will appear
very clean.
c) Abrasion by loose soil, rock, and
mineral particles will increase.
d) More incoming solar radiation will
be reflected.
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EarthComm


Critical Thinking
16. “Looking at drainage basins helps us to 21. High-gradient streams have special
think about systems at different scales.” properties that enable them to cut
a) Explain what this statement means. vertically downward and not widen their
b) In what ways is your own drainage floodplains. In very high mountainous
basin an example of systems operating environments why might we see wide
at different scales? valleys that contain mountain streams
with straight narrow channels?
17. There are many different kinds of mass
movement processes. These include rock 22. Imagine a hillside that is covered by soil
avalanches, rock slides, slumps, debris and grass in a temperate region. Describe
flows, mudflows, and creep. Devise three two ways in which soil characteristics
criteria that you could use to classify might vary between the top and the
different kinds of mass movements. bottom of the slope.
18. During a period of desert expansion, the 23. Glaciers generally deposit poorly sorted
wind blows sand over a vegetated surface. sediments in their outwash areas.
The patch of vegetation becomes slowly a) Explain why this occurs.
buried by more and more sand and grows b) Why is this property useful to scientists
larger. Eventually a sand dune forms, who try to reconstruct past climates?
grows, and migrates.
a) Illustrate the concept of positive 24. A continuous coastline can have both
feedback from this scenario. You may emergent and submergent sections
expand on the physical processes. of coast.
b) Illustrate the concept of negative
a) By thinking only about the sea,
feedback from this scenario. You may
explain how this idea might
expand on the physical processes.
seem counterintuitive.
b) By thinking about both the land
19. Which is most likely to contain pollution, and the sea, explain how this idea
a high- or a low-gradient stream? Explain is acceptable.
your answer
20. Reflect on what you know about the

transport of sediments in streams.
a) Explain why streams often deposit
well-sorted sediments.
b) Describe the circumstances that might
lead to poorly sorted sediments.
506
EarthComm

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Printed and bound in the United States of America.

This project was supported, in part, by the

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Mark Carpenter is an Education Specialist at the American Geological Institute. After

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Ann Benbow P. Patrick Leahy

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Chapter Challenge 132

Section 4 Orbits and Effects 43 Section 6 The Changing Geography of

Section 8 The Sun and its Effects 95 Section 10 Earthquakes 223

Earth/Space Science You Learned 118 Section 12 Earthquake Magnitude 245

Earth/Space Science You Learned 256

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Section 4 Metamorphic Rocks and the Section 5 Low-Gradient Streams 418

Section 6 Structural Geology and

Earth/Space Science At Work 361 Earth/Space Science At Work 503

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Chapter Mini-Challenge 570 Chapter Mini-Challenge 680

Section 6 The Surface Circulation Section 5 How Do Glaciers Affect

Section 7 The Deep Circulation Section 6 How Do Rising and Falling

Earth/Space Science At Work 631 Earth/Space Science At Work 717

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Chapter Challenge 722 Chapter Challenge 860

Earth/Space Science Systems Thinking 850

Extending the Connection 853 Glosario R19

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1 Getting Started 2 Scenario

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Checking Up — These questions are great

10 Digging Deeper 11 Think About It Again

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Preparing for the Chapter

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20 Extending the Connection

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Section Summaries Topics

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Section Summaries Topics

Section 2 Earth’s Moving Lithospheric Plates types of crust, techniques for

Section 4 Plate Motions and Plate Interactions divergent plate boundaries,

Section 5 Plate Boundary Environments continental rift boundaries,

Section 6 The Changing Geography of Your Community paleogeography,

Section 12 Earthquake Magnitude earthquake intensity,

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Section Summaries Topics

Section 8 Geology of the United States geology of the United States,

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Section Summaries Topics

Section 3 Slopes and Landscapes slopes and mass movements,

Section 4 High-Gradient Streams characteristics of high-gradient