CHAPTER 19-29 Ross Jpns - Warswa-Pack

CHAPTER NINENTEEN
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 1904-1905
The Russo-Japanese war was fought between Russia and Japan in Korea and Manchuria between 1904 and 1905. It ended
in the defeat of Russia and the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth
CAUSES OF THE WAR
The success of the Japanese in a war against China in 1895 laid ground for the Russo-Japanese war. In 1895,
Japan waged a successful war against China and gained control of Korea and the strategic naval base of Port Arthur.
However, Russia formed an alliance with France and Germany and forced Japan to give up control of Port Arthur. Later
in 1898, Russia leased the port from China. This created antagonism between the two countries that eventually led to the
outbreak of Russo- Japanese war. The defeat of China encouraged Japan to expand hence clashed with Russian
expansionism in the Korea and Manchuria thus causing the war.
The building up of a powerful Japanese navy and army enabled it to revenge against Russia. The Japanese military
had been reorganized by the French and German military officers and its navy by British experts.
The alliance between Britain and Japan in 1902 (Anglo-Japanese naval treaty) encouraged Japan to act against
Russia. This treaty made Britain neutral in the Russo-Japanese war and encouraged -Japan to fight Russia to check her
expansionism in the Far East
The increased Russian activities in Manchuria and Korea led to the war between Japan and Russia. The
increased Russian trade and arms in the region threatened the Japanese strategic and commercial interests. Japan demanded
that Russia should abandon these interests and Russia refused thus leading to the war between the two countries.
The failure of Russia to break up the Turkish Empire and make head way in the Balkans made it to expand in
the Far East. This was demonstrated by the defeat of Russia in the Crimean war, cancelation of San Stefano Treaty in 1878
etc. This made it to clash with Japan which also had strategic and commercial interests in Manchuria and Korea thus
causing the Russo-Japanese war in 1904.
The desire by Tsar Nicholas II to restore his tarnished image and that of his government by defeating Japan led to the
outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war in 1904.
The Russian aggressive militarists that surrounded Tsar Nicholas II influenced the outbreak of the war. These
militarists advised the king to refuse all concessions to Japan especially with regards to Korea. This made Japan to attack the
Russian fleet at Port Arthur thus causing the Russo-Japanese war.
The massive Russian railway expansion in Asia contributed to the outbreak of the war. The building of the great
Trans-Siberian railway, the Chinese eastern railway across Manchuria increased Russian military activities in Manchuria,
Port Arthur and attracted the hostility of Japan whose interests in China, Korea were threatened hence causing the
Russo-Japanese war
The press propaganda contributed to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war. The Japan newspapers created
intense anti-Russian sentiments in Japan to drive Russia out of Manchuria and Korea so that Japan could promote its
interests there. This influenced the Japanese government wage war on Russia,
The economic conflicts between Russia and Japan caused the war . Both countries desire to gain the control of
Manchuria's mineral wealth especially coal and precious metals to fuel their industrialization. The two powers rivaled
over the control of Manchuria's agricultural products timber. The clash resulted in the outbreak of the Russo-
Japanese war in 1904.
The difficult economic conditions in Russia for example high food prices, massive unemployment, starvation of
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the peasants encouraged Tsar Nicholas II into fighting Japan to distract the masses. The Russian Tsar thought he
would divert the attention of the masses by a short victorious war against Japan.
The desire by Russia to extend her influence into Korea threatened the security interests of Japan. By 1904,
there were increased Russian commercial and military activities especially in North Korea. Japan considered the
independence of Korea essential for its security.
Russia's refusal to accept Japan's demand to withdraw its troops and influence from Manchuria and
Korea led to the outbreak of the war.
The Japanese surprise naval attack on Port Arthur in February 1904.
Russian imperialism brought her into conflict with Japan.
THE EFFECTS OF RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

The war destroyed the Russian military power in the Pacific. The Russian Far eastern fleet was destroyed by the
Japanese. This removed Russia as a major player in Europe's naval arms race-leaving only Germany to compete
with Britain.
It led to massive loss of lives. The war was fought both on land and sea and thus registered high casualties. At
the battle of Mukden, the capital of Manchuria each side lost thousands of soldiers . Russia lost Port Arthur, Korea
whose control was gained by Japan. Russia lost southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan and was also compelled to
move its forces from Manchuria. This was formalized by the Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by USA President
Roosevelt.
The war increased discontent throughout Russia due to the Russian defeat and loss of territories. This led to political
assassinations by social revolutionaries e.g. Minister of Interior Plehve in 1904, in 1906, Tsar's Uncle Grand Duke
Sergius.
It led to increased demand for reforms for example rights of free speech, association, fair trial and end to the
ruthless practices of the secret police, parliamentary reforms. This led to the establishment of the Russian Duma in
May 1906 as the first properly constituted Russian parliament.
It made Tsar Nicholas II and his government very unpopular in Russia. This led to massive strikes and demonstrations
against the Tsar in big cities championed by social revolutionaries, liberals, workers thus culminating in the Red
Sunday incident in 1905
It worsened the economic hardships in Russia due to increased food and fuel shortages, high food prices,
unemployment especially among the peasants and workers. This provided a fertile ground for the spread of
socialism.
The defeat of Russia exposed the weaknesses and inefficiency of the Tsardom. This encouraged anti-Tsarist
movements among the Russian people that led to the Russian revolution of 1905 and communist revolution of
1917.
After the loss to Japan, Russian foreign activities returned to the Ottoman Empire and Eastern Europe. The Russian
ambitions of having a warm-water port in the Far East were shattered completely. Russia thus began to concentrate
more and more in the near East and Middle East. This laid ground for the Balkan wars as Russia encouraged the
Christian Balkan states to fight the Ottoman Empire.
The defeat of Russia by a non-white country encouraged the rise of Asian and African nationalism that eventually
led to the breakup of European colonial empires. The defeat of Russia marked the first time that an eastern power
had ever defeated a western power in war.

The war shook China from its slumber. She felt humiliated that two foreign powers made her territory as their
battleground. The patriots started advocating for major revolutionary changes which culminated in the
outbreak of 1947 communist revolution.
Russia recognized the Japanese influence as predominant in Korea after one of the most humiliating naval defeats in
history.
Japan won new territory and emerged as a world power. It became the first non-European and non-
American power imperialist modern state.
Roosevelt was awarded a Nobel peace prize in 1906 for mediating to end the war.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
 Discuss the effects of Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) on the internal affairs of Russia.
 Account for the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war in 1904.
 Examine the origins and consequences of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904.
 To what extent was the Russo-Japanese war responsible for the outbreak of the Russian
revolutions of 1917?
THE RUSSIAN / BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTIONS OF 1917

The Russian revolutions of 1917 occurred in two phases. The first revolution which was largely spearheaded by the
Mensheviks occurred in March 1917 and overthrew Tsar Nicholas II and ended the three-century Czarist rule of the
Romanovs dynasty (Tsardom). The leaders of the Duma established a provisional government or temporary
government led by Alexander Kerensky. The second revolution led by the Bolsheviks occurred in November
1917 and overthrew the Provisional Government and set up a communist government led by Vladimir Lenin. Both
revolutions are historically referred to as the Russian revolutions
CAUSES OF RUSSIAN/BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTIONS

The weaknesses of the Russian parliament (DUMA) led to the outbreak of the-Russian revolution . The
parliament supported the bad policies of Tsar Nicholas II and failed to bring about the desired reforms. The powers
of Duma were limited by Tsar Nicholas II, excluded middle-class liberals. This created a revolutionary spirit among
the masses hence causing the Russian revolutions.
The revolt of the Cossacks Regiment led to the outbreak of the Russian revolutions. The Royal troops and other
regiments in Petrogrod revolted against the government and joined the demonstrators and revolutionaries instead
of suppressing of them and this marked the beginning of the Russian revolutions.
The effects of the bloody Sunday caused the 1917 Russian revolutions. The bloody Sunday occurred in 1905 when
the Royal troops killed about 500 people and wounded several people who were peacefully demonstrating for
political reforms and better working conditions in St. Petersburg. This act of brutality increased strikes throughout
Russia, led to mutinies in the army and navy and made Tsar Nicholas II and his government very unpopular which
later resulted in the 1917 revolutions.
The effects of industrialization contributed to the outbreak of the Russian revolution. Industrialization led to
social and economic problems for example wor kers worked under miserable working conditions, received
very low wages and worked for 12-14 hours a day, development of slums with no running water especially in St.
Petersburg, Moscow, child labour which the government failed to address. This led to discontent, strikes, labour riots
that culminated in the Russian revolutions.
The rise of socialism and communism in Russia led to the outbreak of the Russian revolutions of 1917. The
socialists and communists wanted to destroy Tsardom, establish a democratic and communist state, nationalize means
of production. They thus decampaigned the Russian government and created a revolutionary spirit that led to the

revolutions in 1917
The half-hearted reforms of Tsar Alexander II led to the outbreak of the Russian revolutions in 1917.
He ended serfdom in 1861, introduced equality of all Russians before the law, relaxed censorship of
the press etc. These reforms gave the Russians a slight taste of freedom and made them demand for
more reforms like abolition of despotism hence causing the Russian revolutions. The limited nature of
the reforms showed that Tsardom was incapable of meeting the needs of ordinary Russians, and it
therefore caused more revolutionary activity against the state.
The personal weaknesses of Tsar Nicholas II, king of Russia from 1894-1917 led to the outbreak of
the Russian revolutions. He was physically weak and unable to effectively govern the huge Russian
empire, believed in divine powers of kings, despotism and failed to handle the social economic
problems in the country which made him unpopular hence leading to the revolutions.
The role of the middle class and elites led to the outbreak of the 1917 revolutions. The middle class,
elites, professionals hated the repression of the Russian government and advocated for political,
social and economic reforms. They also financed the revolutionary political parties and spearheaded
the revolutions hence making the 1917 revolutions inevitable.
The influence of Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin caused the revolutions of 1917. They ill-advised Tsar
Nicholas II to ignore the demands of the masses like freedom of speech, worship. Rasputin replaced
many ministers with his own family members and friends. Empress Alexandra was unpopular among
the Russian masses because of her German origin and rumors circulated that she was a spy for
Germany. This increased the unpopularity of the government hence causing the revolution of 1917.
The Russificafion policy led to the 1917 revolutions. This policy involved making the foreign nationalities
within the Russian empire adopt the Russian cultures and customs. The people in Finland, Poland
and the Jew were forced to use the Russian languages, religion. This created a lot of discontent
against the government which caused the revolution.
The effects of Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 led to the outbreak of the Russian revolutions. Russia
was defeated by Japan in 1905 and lost about 136,000 people, lost the control of Port Arthur, Korea.
Having lost the war with Japan and fearing the overthrow of established order, the Tsar's government
agreed to a constitution and a Duma parliament. However, in the years between 1906 and 1914
the Tsar's government did not implement the promised political reforms, dissolved two Dumas and
limited the extent of democracy in Russia. The conduct of the war exposed the inefficiency and
corruption of the Tzarist system of government. The increased opposition against Tsar Nicholas II, led
to more demands for political and economic reforms leading to the Russian revolutions.
The effects of World War I set the ball of the revolution rolling in Russia. Russia lost millions of soldiers and civilians
which made Tsar Nicholas II and the Provisional Government very unpopular. The heavy losses during the war strengthened
the thought that Tsar Nicholas II was unfit to govern Russia. It also affected industrial and agricultural production leading
to food shortages, inflation, unemployment especially in Petrograd and Moscow that resulted in the outbreak of the
Russian revolutions. In the countryside, peasants became increasingly angry about the conscription of all young men
who seldom returned from the Front. The heavy losses in battles undermined the morale of soldiers who deserted the
front and joined the peasants, factory workers and sailors in the demonstrations that culminated in the revolutions of
1917.
The role of press e.g. the revolutionary newspaper "Iskra" (The Spark), the Bolshevik newspaper (Pravda) led to the
outbreak of the revolutions. The press exposed the poor performance of the army and massive loss of lives in World
War I. sensitized the masses about the need for democracy, and exposed the dictatorship of the Russian government,
spread Bolshevik propagandc and news. This created a revolutionary spirit among the masses leading to the
revolutions in 1917
The presence of strong revolutionary leaders like Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky led to the outbreak of the Bolshevik

revolution. Under their brilliant leadership, the Bolsheviks criticized and exposed the shortcoming; of
Provisional government, helped in mobilizing the masses, forming reformist political parties, undermining the
government of Tsar Nicholas II and the Provisional government hence leading to the revolutions
The natural calamities like bad weather, poor harvests, and epidemic diseases led to the outbreak of the
Russian revolutions in 1917. These disasters led to food shortages and severe suffering which the government failed
to address thus the revolutions in 1917.
The influence of the western European ideas of democracy, liberalism, nationalism, and constitutionalism led to
the outbreak of the 1917 revolutions in Russia. These ideas influenced by the French revolution inspired the Russians
to rise up against their autocratic governments thus causing the revolutions.
The weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolution . The
government delayed elections for the Constituent Assembly which was to draw up a constitution for Russia and
this made it unpopular among the masses. The government failed to address inflation and food shortages, implement
the land reforms, improve the working conditions, and withdraw Russian from its participation in World War I etc.
hence leading to the outbreak of the second revolution in November 1917. The Provisional government also freed
political prisoners, relaxed censorship on the press which enabled Lenin and other Bolsheviks to carry out
revolutionary activities that resulted into the second revolution of November 1917.
The land problem/feudalism led to the 1917 revolutions in Russia . Land in the country was in the
hands of the nobles and clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church white millions of peasants were
landless. The poor peasants became poorer as they had to pay high rent to their landlords to use
the land. This created discontent against regime of Tsar Nicholas II and the Provisional government
for failing to implement land reforms thus leading to the outbreak of the revolutions .
The rise of radical groups like the Nihilists contributed to the outbreak of the revolutions. The anarchist
political philosophy of these radical groups preached revolutionary violence and destruction to
overthrow Tsardom and create a new society. The nihilists called for a total rejection of existing
institutions and moral values, in favour of unrestricted individual freedom which contributed to the
outbreak of the Russian revolutions.
The rise of reformist parties such as Bolshevik Party, Liberal Party led to the outbreak of the revolution
in 1917. These parties mobilized the masses to stage strikes and demonstrations, exposed the eve of the Russian
governments and created a revolutionary spirit among the masses thus causing in revolutions.
The murder of Peter Stolypin in 1911 who was in favor of land reforms in Russia led to the outbreak of the
revolutions in 1917. He was Russia's prime minister between 1906 and 1911 and introduced a number of measures
to improve the conditions of the peasants. His death was a set back the progressive land reforms he had initiated.
However, he was notorious for persecuting the Jews which increased the unpopularity of Tzardom.
THE EFFECTS OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917
The first Russian revolution of March 1917 led to collapse of Tsardom that had ruled Russia for over 300 years.
Tsar Nicholas II was forced to resign on March 15th 1917 and that marked the end of Tsardom. He was later executed
by the Communist government in 1918. In its place, a republic was established.
The revolutions temporarily checked Russian imperialism in Europe. The Bolsheviks gave independence to non-Russian
nationalities so that they would carry out their own socialist revolutions. Finland that had been under Russia since 1815
was given independence in early 1918. In 1920, the Bolsheviks recognized the independence and sovereignty of Baltic
States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
It laid the foundation for modern Russia and transformed poverty-stricken Czarist Russia into a super power.
The communist leaders like Lenin, Stalin and others implemented reforms in education, agriculture, military which

enabled Russia to become a super power alongside USA. This tilted the balance of power in Europe in favor of Russia.
The revolution led to cold war politics in Europe, The communist revolution challenged the values, fundamental
principles of trade and industry, social, political and economic institutions of western culture. This caused an ideological
struggle between the capitalist powers and communist countries which manifested clearly after 1945 with the elimination
of Nazism and fascism in Europe. The world was divided into the communist bloc led by Soviet Union and the anti-
communist bloc led by USA leading to cold war.
It led to the collapse of feudalism in Russia. The land which formerly belonged to the nobles, Russian Orthodox Church,
royal family and other major landowners was confiscated by the communists and distributed to the landless peasants for
collective farming and ownership.
The revolutions led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property in Russia. During the revolutions, there were
severe clashes between the Bolsheviks and the supporters of Tsardom and the provisional government leading to loss of
property and life.
The Bolshevik revolution led to the policy of war communism in Russia between 1918 and 1921. Under the policy of
war communism, the Communist government acquired full control of foreign trade, banking corporations, heavy
industries, grain trade, railways, banned profiteering associated with private wealth and trade to alleviate acute
economic problems.
It led to adoption of New Economic Policy (NEP) by Lenin in 1921. This policy involved combining state socialism,
state capitalism and private enterprise. The Bolsheviks allowed peasants to sell surplus grain for profit, small factories
in towns were handed back into private ownership and private trading of small goods was allowed.
Russian revolutions contributed to the rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe. Fascism and Nazism became very
popular among the wealthy businessmen, capitalists, and middle class because of being anti-communism. As a
result Hitler and Mussolini's anti-communist propaganda and their determination to destroy bolshevism contributed
to their rise to power in Germany and Italy respectively.
The Russian revolution led to the granting of a new constitution in 1918. The constitution established the dictatorship
of proletariat, the church was separated from the state and many members of the old Tsarist dynasty were denied the
right to vote. The establishment of the United Socialist Soviet republics (USSR) in 1922 led to a new constitution in 1924
that lasted up 1936.
The revolutions led to the rise of commoners to power in Russia for the first time . The revolutions abolished
discriminative social classes which enabled men of humble origins to rise to power for example Joseph Stalin who was
the son of a cobbler became the president of Russia in 1924.
It led to the withdrawal of Russia from World War I in 1917. The communists led by Lenin ended the involvement of
Russia in the war by signing the Brest-Litovsk treaty with Germany in 1917. However, this affected her relations with
other allied powers of Britain, France, USA because it allowed the Germans to win the war on the eastern front.
Russian revolutions led to signing of peace treaties between Russia and the Baltic states. In 1917, Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania proclaimed their independence from Russia and the Bolshevik government -recognized their
independence by signing separate peace treaties with them in 19: Soviet Union later signed non-aggression treaties with
these Baltic States.
It led to the spread of communism to other countries of Europe especially after World War I . The Russian
Bolsheviks supported the establishment of communist regimes in Hungary, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. Countries
like Albania, Bulgaria, and Poland established proletarian dictatorships following the Russian example.
It led to the signing of trade treaties with western powers because Russia wanted to acquire foreign
goods, industrial technology and address widespread economic hardships and scarcities resulting
from the revolution. Russia signed trade treaties with Britain, Turkey, and Germany in the 1920s.
The revolution led to the outbreak of civil wars in Russia from 1918-1921 between the communist government
(Red army) and the counter revolutionary forces (white army). The enemies of the Bolsheviks especially the old
nobility, reactionary monarchists, former members of provisional government and Tsarist regime collectively known
as "whites" begun attacking the Bolsheviks to remove them from power. These wars led to massive loss of lives and
destruction of property.

Russian revolutions led to the establishment of the first Communist government in Russia and the world led by
Lenin and Trotsky. These leaders were inspired by the works of Karl Marx. However, the Bolshevik Revolution resulted
in the rise of ruthless communist dictatorship in Russia. Thousands of people were either killed or exiled to Siberia in
order to suppress opposition to the communist regime, especially under Stalin.
The revolution ended the persecution and oppression of foreign nationalities in Russia as the communist
government granted equal rights to all nationalities and ended the Russification policy.
It led to the formation of military camps in Europe e.g. Warsaw pact by Russia and its communist allies, NATO by
USA and its allies to check communist threats.
It led to the formation of economic camps e.g. the countries of western Europe due to fear of communism
decided to form an economic cooperation as well as the countries of Eastern Europe.
The Bolshevik evolutions undermined the League of Nations due to the exclusion of Russia because of its communist
ideology. As a result, the League of Nations lacked influence and power to undertake its activities
The Russian revolutions led to economic decline in Russia. The strikes and demonstrations paralyzed agriculture, trade and
industries. This eventually resulted in famine that killed, many people
The Russian revolutions undermined European imperialism in Africa and Asia. The communists in Russia
condemned imperialism and colonialism as the highest stage of exploitation and advocate for decolonization which
inspired the colonized people to rise up for their independence
THE REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE RUSSIAN/BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA
The support of the Russian army led to the success of the revolutions. The majority of soldiers in Moscow and
Petrograd supported the revolutionaries instead of suppressing them and defending the government of Tsar Nicholas II
hence leading to the success of the Bolshevik revolution.
The personal weaknesses of Tsar Nicholas II led to the success of the revolution. He failed to control or suppress the
growing agitation among the workers thus giving momentum to the revolutionaries. He abdicated the throne in 1917
leading to the establishment of the Provisional government and the success of the revolution.
Able leadership of the revolutionaries led to the success of the Russian revolution of 1917. The revolutionary
leaders like Stalin, Trotsky, Lenin, Kerensky, and Molotov effectively mobilized the workers, peasants and soldiers
through their fantastic speeches e.g. Lenin promised peace, bread and land'. Thus majority Russians zealously
supported the revolution leading to its success.
The disastrous effects of World War I on Russia led to the success of the revolution . The war led to socio-
economic problems of unemployment, inflation, shortages of food, and worse still, Russia failed to defeat the
Germans. This discredited the Tsar's government and the Provisional Government and attracted masses to support
the Bolsheviks who promised to withdraw Russia from the war.
The Russian revolution was supported by majority Russians . It was supported by the professional workers, the
middle class, sailors, soldiers, peasants and workers in Russia. They participated in strikes, demonstrations which
climaxed into a revolution making it successful.
The anti-revolutionaries attempt to suppress the revolution using foreign troops favored the success of the
revolution. The allied military intervention against the Bolsheviks enabled the Bolsheviks to appeal to Russian
patriotic sentiments against foreign invasion. This attracted more Russians to support the revolution leading to
its success.
The unity amongst the Russians led to the success of the revolution . The Russians were united under the
Bolshevik Part/ with firm belief in the establishment of a socialist government. The confidence they had in
socialism made them determined to sacrifice their lives and property to uproot the Tsarist government and set up a
socialist government
The genuine grievances or problems of the revolutionaries also led to the success of the revolution . By 1917,
Russia was affected with all kinds of problems like inflation, unemployment, nepotism, famine, natural calamities,
weak army etc. The inability of Tsar's government and Provisional government to address these problems made the

Russians to give overwhelming support to the revolution hence leading to its success
The political amnesty offered to the political dissidents/protestors by the Provisional government enabled
the revolutionaries like Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky to return from exile in Switzerland, USA and Germany back to Russia.
They were therefore able to mobilize the masses, organize strikes and demonstrations, and provide strong
leadership to the revolutionary struggle in Russia thus leading to the success of the revolution.
The support of some foreign powers like Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland led to the success of the
revolutions. Some foreign countries gave direct assistance to the revolution for example Germany supported the
revolution to cause chaos in Russia so that it withdraws from world war I. Germany allowed Lenin and other
Bolsheviks who were exiled in Switzerland to travel across Germany by a closed train to Russia.
The appealing Bolshevik manifesto led to the success of the Russian revolution . Lenin promised land to the
peasants, free democratic society, good working conditions, reduction in hours of work and improved wages and
these attracted massive support for the Bolsheviks thus leading to the success of the Russian revolution.
The unpopular war policy of the Provisional Government led to the success of the re volution. The
provisional government continued its participation in world war one which was opposed by the peace-minded
Russians. The communists under Lenin and Trotsky had a plan of withdrawing from the war and this gave them
internal and external support which made the revolution a success Provisional government's failure to control the
freedoms of speech, association and press which was exploited by the Bolsheviks to mobilize the workers, peasants,
organize strikes and demonstrations hence leading to the success of the Bolshevik revolution.
The existence of well-organized political parties such as Socialist Party, Communist Party, Social
evolutionary Party and various trade unions led to the success of the Russian revolution. These parties and trade
unions effectively mobilized the masses and foreign support, organized strikes, demonstrations that contributed
to the success of the revolution.
The use of force and establishment of the Cheka (secret Police force) to eliminate communist
opposition led to the success of the Bolshevik revolution. The secret police helped to eliminate the remnants of
Tsarist regime, weaken the opposing political groups like social revolutionaries and Bolshevik groups, maintain
discipline and subdue opposition.
The abdication from the throne of Tsar Nicholas II on March 15, 1917 and refusal of his brother Grand Duke
Michael to take over the throne led to the success of the first revolution. This resulted into the establishment of a
Provisional government (Liberal government) under the Prince Lvov.
The strength of the Bolshevik fighters led to the success of the Bolshevik revolution . The fighters defeated
the troops loyal to the Provisional Government and gained control of Moscow hence the success of the revolution.
The withdrawal of the Mensheviks from the congress gave the Bolsheviks a majority vote and the success of
the Russian Revolutions.
CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS FACED BY THE BOLSHEVIK GOVERNMENT UP TO 1924
The disagreements within the Communist party was a big challenge to the Bolshevik government. The leading
communist leaders disagreed over policies for example Josef Stalin wished to build socialism in Russia first
before attempting a world revolution while Trotsky regarded the world communist revolution as a matter of
immediate urgency.
The Bolshevik government lacked majority support within Russia. The peasants refused to cooperate to hand
over surplus grain to the state to be able to feed the workers and soldiers, the sailors of Kronstadt naval base
joined by some of the Red army refused to obey their officers and called for a new revolution. The problem for the
Bolsheviks therefore was how to keep themselves in power and yet allow free elections.
The next pressing problem was how to withdraw Russia from World War I. The Bolshevik government had a
task of persuading Germany to moderate the terms of Brest-Litovsk treaty which was very harsh to Russia. By that
treaty, Russia lost Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland.
The Bolshevik government was faced with severe food shortages especially in Moscow, Petrograd and other

cities caused by the civil wars and loss Ukraine, an important source of wheat. It was estimated that in 1922 about
21 million Russians were starving thus the soviet government had the task of addressing the food problem.
The civil wars and uprisings against the Bolshevik government was another problem faced by the communist
leaders. The civil wars started in 1918 up to 1921 between the communist government (Red army) and the counter
revolutionary forces (white army). The government thus had the task of ending armed opposition.
The foreign intervention against the communist government by Finland, Britain, USA, France Poland and
Japan e.g. the British and French navies were active against communist Russia in the Bo lands, Siberia. It faced
opposition from strong nationalist movements in some parts of the for Russian empire like Ukraine, Georgia
The Bolshevik government faced the problem of international isolation . The Bolsheviks were invited to
participate in the Paris peace conference in 1919, was excluded from members of League of Nations because
of its communist ideology. The government thus had a challenge of gaining international recognition and
acceptability.
The power struggles among the communist leaders was another challenge. Lenin's poor health impending
death sparked off a serious power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky. This threatened the self-destruction of the
revolution.
The acute economic and social hardships confronted the Bolshevik government led by Lenin. Russia had
remained economically and socially backward under hundreds of years of Tsarist rule thus the new government had
to improve the standards of living in Russia, modernize agriculture, industries infrastructure, and education, raise
the wages for the workers, and check inflation.
Lenin's government faced opposition from various political parties in Russia with differing interests and ideologies
e.g. Mensheviks, the social revolutionaries organized peasants to rise up against Lenin for signing a humiliating
peace treaty with Germany. There was opposition from reactionary monarchists, disaffected liberal supporters of
the monarchy, old nobility.
The communist government faced the problem of high foreign debt to France and other countries that had
been incurred by the Tsarist government. The new government refused to pay the debts which led to the
confiscation of Russia's foreign investments and decline in external trade.
It faced the challenge of organizing the Red army to quell the civil wars and defend the communist revolution
from the hostile capitalist states that surrounded Russia especially Germany.
It faced the problem of defending the national sovereignty of Russia e.g. Poland attempted to gain the control of
southern Russia including the city of Kiev when its army entered it in 1921
Challenge of strengthening and spreading communism to the rest of Europe and the world. Some Russians
were opposed to the establishment of a single party dictatorship by communists in order to establish a communist
society.
There was challenge of reigning in the fanatical communists who wished to force the peasants to give up
their private holdings at once and enter collective farms. They wanted to eliminate private ownership and
capitalism at once and this was bound to create resistance against the new government
The Bolshevik government faced the problem of inexperienced communist nominees who were appointed to
manage the mines, factories and railways which led to the decline in production.
;HOW THE BOLSHEVIKS CONSOLIDATED THEIR POSITION IN RUSSIA BETWEEN 1917 AND 1924?
The Bolshevik government banned any opposition or dissension within the Communist party in March 1921. This
resulted in over 100,000 expulsions from the party and this reduced the disagreements and enabled the new
government to pursue common policies.
The Bolsheviks appealed to Russian nationalist sentiments to consolidate their position in Russia. Lenin claimed
that the anti-revolutionaries (whites) were trying to assist foreign powers in invading Russia. This made many
Russians to join the Bolsheviks in resisting this purported foreign imperialism and gained the communist
government popular support.

The Bolshevik party was enlarged and restructured. The Communist party changed from being an elite party to
a mass party and by 1921 it had million members. The party took additional powers in the army, in factories and
in local government where party members voiced the views of the party and also took the action to put them into
practice.
Lenin adopted the New Economic Policy (NEP) which increased the support base of the Bolsheviks. The
Bolsheviks allowed peasants to sell surplus grain for profit, introduced agricultural tax which led to production of
enough food to feed themselves and the workers in the cities. In the towns, small factories were handed back into
private ownership and private trading of small goods was allowed.
The Bolshevik government banned all opposition political parties such as Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries. This
drove political opposition underground and enabled the Communist party to consolidate its position in Russia
The new government of Lenin used red terror to eliminate anti-communist opposition staring in July 1918.
The secret police (Cheka) whose powers were unlimited killed many anti-communists and other suspected regime
opponents in Petrograd, Moscow especially landlords, aristocrats, members of middle classes and peasants who
opposed the Bolshevik policies. The Cheka enforced a high level of supervision and political repression.
The execution of ex-Tsar Nicholas II and his family in July 1918 demoralized the anti-revolutionaries in Russia and
enabled the Bolshevik government to consolidate itself.
The Bolshevik government gained the friendship/recognition of western powers thus ending its international
isolation e.g. Great Britain, Italy, France recognized the communist government in 1924. The soviet policy postponed
the great international revolution.
The new government introduced the soviet constitution in 1918 which it used to entrench itself in Russia e.g.
it granted factory workers more generous representation than country dwellers. The non-laboring bourgeois classes
including the clergy were disenfranchised, abolished secret ballot in elections.
The Communist government adopted economic measures to alleviate acute economic problems e.g.
nationalization of the banks, nationalization of vital heavy industries in 1918, state monopoly of grain trade, large scale
electrification was carried-out, banned profiteering associated with private wealth and trade (war communism).
The communist government signed treaties with its hostile neighbors to safeguard Russian sovereignty e.g. in March
1921 it signed the Treaty of Riga with Poland defining the Russo-Polish frontier, signed Treaty of Rapallo with Germany in
1922 in which the two countries agreed to cancel all territorial claims against each other.
The Bolshevik government of Lenin nationalized war-related industries and hence was able to provide arms
and military equipment, acquired western military technology from Germany which boosted the war effort end led to
the defeat of anti-revolutionaries in the civil war by the Red army in 1922.
The Bolshevik government organized the Red army under Trotsky as Commissar of war. It was converted
into a regular army with strict discipline, some former officers of the Tsarist army were brought in to provide expertise
and leadership. The Red army defeated the anti-revolutionaries and nationalist uprisings by 1921.
The Bolshevik government used authoritarian means to strengthen its position in Russia. The commissars took power to
send workers whenever they were needed whether in the army or industries in order to keep up the war effort, passed a
decree of 1919 ordering the peasants to hand over their surplus grain to the state for the government to be able to feed
the workers and soldiers.
The government acquired industrial expertise from western powers especially Britain, Germany which facilitated
rapid industrialization and technological developments in soviet Russia.
The Bolshevik government refused to pay the huge debts of Tsarist Russia to western powers like France, Britain.
The Bolshevik leaders saw nationalism as a threat to unity and party loyalty. To keep nationalism in check, Lenin
organized Russia into several self-governing republics under the central governing republics under the central
government. In 1922, the country was named the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1 Account for the downfall of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917.
Points to consider

1. His weak character e.g. accepted the advice of his wife
2. Practiced despotism/autocracy
3. Denied pec pie freedom of worship
4. The influence of Tsarina
5. Influence of Rasputin
6. Continued with the policy of Russification and persecution of Jews
7. Dissolved several Dumas (parliaments)
8. His failure to steer the Dumas to bring about the desired reforms
9. Harshly reacted to the demonstrations leading to Red Sunday
10. His failure to listen to the demands of middle class, elites and merchants
11. The rise of socialism, communism which increased his unpopularity
12. Loss of support from the army i.e. mutiny of Cossacks
13. Impact of World War I on Russia
14. Impact of industrialization on Russia
15. Rise of personalities like Lenin, Stalin, and Trotsky
16. Influence of western revolutionary ideologies
17. Effect of Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05
18. Natural calamities
19. Influence of foreign powers
20. Outbreak of Russian revolution which resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas
2. Account for the collapse of Tsardom in Russia in 1917.
Expected points
1. Dictatorship and repression of the government
2. Character of Tsar Nicholas II
3. Effects of industrialization
4. Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05
5. Inadequacies of Tsar Alexander ll's reforms
6. Administrative inefficiency
7. Influence of Tsarina and Rasputin
8. Failure of Duma as a parliamentary institution to bring about desired reforms
9. Impact of red Sunday
10. Effects of trade unions and workers' organizations
11. Rise of socialism and communism
12. Role of strong personalities such as Trotsky
13. Natural calamities such as bad weather
14. Role of middle class, elites and merchants who advocated for reforms
15. The revolt of Cossacks
16. Influence of western revolutions, ideologies and tendencies
17. Impact of World War I
18. Russification policy
19. Rise of nihilism in Russia
3 The weaknesses of Provisional Government were primarily responsible for the outbreak of November 1917
revolution in Russia" Discuss
Expected points
Weaknesses of Provisional Government
1. It was set up in Russia after the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II in March 1917. Its policies made the Bolsheviks
to stage a second revolution in November 1917
2. The Provisional government continued Russia's participation in World War I to gain recognition of western
allies which was a very unpopular decision among the Russians. In June the government launched an all-out
offensive on Germany. The offensive (called June offensive) ended in disaster and the government was deeply
discredited. As a result, the Bolsheviks and other political parties get increased support.
3. It failed to implement land reforms e.g. redistribute land from big landlords to the peasants

4. The government constantly postponed the election of the Constituent Assembly which was to draw new
constitution for Russia arguing that it was not possible when several million troops were away fighting which
mode it unpopular among the masses
5. It granted political amnesty to political exiles e.g. Lenin was able to return from exile in Switzerland and mobilize
the Bolsheviks and masses to oppose the Provisional government
6. It failed to handle the increasing economic chaos with inflation, rising bread prices, falling wages, shortage of
raw materials and fuel, food shortages
7. The Provisional government used the army (Cossacks) to suppress the peasants who were taking Lenin's advice
to grab land from their landlords
8. Its weaknesses increased Bolshevik propaganda advocating peace and distribution of land to the peasantry,
food at cheaper prices, separate peace with Germany to get Russia out of the war
9. The government failed to improve the working conditions leading to a huge demonstration of workers, soldiers and
sailors where about 400 people were killed during the violence (July days incident)
10. Relaxed censorship on the press which enabled Lenin and other Bolsheviks to carry out revolutionary activities that
resulted in the second revolution of November 1917
11. Divisions in the government helped the Bolsheviks to power. There were divisions between socialists and liberals
who often blocked each other’s decisions. This internal weakness of the government crippled their ability to
enforce control over the country.
12. The Provisional Government had only power over government affairs, real power lay in the hands of the Soviets
(workers' unions). Soviets had all the practical power in Petrograd such as the control over factories and railways.
13. In August 1917, General Kornilov took his army and marched to Petrograd to overthrow the Provisional
Government. He was discontent with the way the government handled politics and WW I. Alexander Kerensky
used the forces still loyal to the government and armed the Bolsheviks to resist the attacks. The government
reputation was shattered and the Bolsheviks got more support because they were perceived as the defenders of
Petrograd, and they were also armed now compared to other political parties.
14. The government dismantled the secret police hence the Bolsheviks found it easier to rebel and it also could not
stop the uprisings
Other factors
Conclusion
4. To what extent was Tsar Nicholas II responsible for the outbreak of the 1917 Russian revolutions? Expected
points
Nicholas II was a Czar of Russia from 1894 to 1917. Russia was a multi-racial empire i.e. Latvians, Ukrainians, Mongols.
Role of Tsar Nicholas II
1. Nicholas II was an absolute ruler and believed in autocratic principles. He believed in the divine rights to rule
hence he refused the progressive reforms advocated for by the masses to alleviate their suffering
2. Promoted Russification policy vigorously i.e. one state, one church, one Russia. Russian language was
imposed on the Poles, Lithuanians, Finns, Estonians, Latvians
3. Nicholas II's anti-Semitism policy e.g. during his reign, the persecutions of the Jews became more frequent
4. Nicholas II's association with Rasputin; the evil monk and Tsarina Alexandra. Tsar Nicholas II appointed
and dismissed officials on the careless advice of Rasputin which caused discontent among the masses.
Empress Alexandra greatly influenced state affairs and was hated because of her German origins
5. Nicholas II's imperial participation and failure in the Russo-Japanese war of 1905 made him unpopular. Russia
was defeated by Japan and the war was ended with the treaty of Portsmouth by which Russia lost Port
Arthur, island of Sakhalin, Korea to Japan. This made Tsar Nicholas II unpopular and this increased
opposition against Tsarist regime
6. Tsar Nicholas II disregarded reforms during industrialization especially social-economic reforms. This
led to poor working conditions, long working hours, opposition from wealthy landlords and
strengthened the cause of the workers and liberals
7. Nicholas ll's Interference in the functioning of the Dumas made him unpopular i.e. 1 st Duma 1906, 2nd

of 1907, 3rd and 4th Dumas of 1912 to 1917. He dismissed the first two Dumas because they proved
uncooperative. This fuelled revolutionary ideas and opposition against the monarchy. He spent most of
his time fighting to undermine or strip the Duma of its powers so as to maintain the autocracy of the
monarchy
8. Nicholas II's extensive secret police was brutally effective against opponents. Political opponents of
Tsar Nicholas II were arrested, killed, imprisoned or exiled to Siberia without trial
9. Nicholas II's war policy e.g. he made fatal mistakes like appointing himself the supreme commander
of Russian forces in World War I in August 1915, tactical blunders caused Russia heavy losses. He took
personal command of the army and hence was blamed for the military defeats, heavy losses of lives
which undermined the Romanov monarchy
10. Nicholas II failed to curb corruption and incompetence in his regime which led to administrative weakness
that caused the revolution
11. Lacked legal or constitutional restraints on choice of ministers, exercise of political power or
formations of national policy
12. Banned politico! parties while radical critics of his regime were either imprisoned or exiled
13. Censorship o-: the press and public meetings banned
14. Banning of trade unions
15. Failure to reform army leading to the Cossacks revolts
16. Nicholas II's role in the bloody Sunday in 1905
17. Nicholas II's failures in land reforms
18. Granted amnesty to exiles who turned against his regime
Other factors
5. To what extent did the external factors influence the downfall of Czar Nicholas II in 1917?
Nicholas II was the last Czar of Russia who came to power in 1894 after succeeding Tsar Alexander III
External factors
1. Effects of world war I on Russia like loss and destruction of wheat growing area of Ukraine by German
forces
2. Impact of Russo-Japanese war of 1 904-05 on Russia e.g. loss of Port Arthur in the Treaty of Portsmouth after the
defeat of Russia
3. Influence of western liberal/revolutionary ideas of liberalism, constitutionalism, liberty, equality, liberalism
4. Opposition from the Baltic provinces of Estonia, Latvia, Poland against Tsar's policy of Russification
5. The German influence and propaganda which increased the Russian revolutionalism e.g. Germany aided the
return of Lenin
6. The rise of socialism and communism, republicanism in Russia influenced by France, Switzerland
7. Blockade of Baltic sea which isolated Russia from the rest of the world and suffocated Russia economically
8. Propaganda from abroad spread by revolutionary newspapers that operated from abroad like England e.g.
The Spark headed by its editor Lenin
Other factors

1. Discuss the causes and effects of the Russian revolutions of 1917.
2. "The Russian revolutions of 1917 were inevitable" Discuss.
3. Analyze the long-term and short-term causes of the 1917 Russian revolutions.
4. To what extent were the weaknesses of Tsar Nicholas II responsible for the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolution
of 1917?
5. Assess the role played by Vladimir Lenin in the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolutions of 1917.
6. Examine the causes of the first Russian revolution of February 1917.
7. Discuss the main causes of the Russian revolution of November 1917.
8. Discuss the factors that were responsible for the success of the Russian revolution of 1917.
9. Account for the success of the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
10. Assess the consequences of the Russian revolutions of 1917.
11. How did the Russian revolution of 1917 affect Russia and Europe?
12. Assess the impact of the Russian revolutions of 1917 in Europe.
13. Examine the significance of the Bolshevik revolution of 1 91 7 in Europe.
14. In what way; was the communist state set up in Russia between 1918 and 1924?
15. Discuss the problems faced by the Bolsheviks after seizing power in 1917
16. Examine the challenges faced by the Bolshevik Government between 1917 and 1924
17. Examine the problems of the communist regime of Russia (1917-1924) and show how they solved.
18. How did Lenin deal with domestic opposition in Russia between 1917 and 1924?
19. Examine the measures used by the Bolshevik Government to strengthen its position in 1924.
20. How did the Solsheviks "consolidate their rule in Russia between 1917 1924?
21. Account for the survival of the Bolsheviks in Russia after 1917.
22. Discuss the causes of the 1905 Russian revolution.
CHAPTER TWENTY
BENITO MUSSOLINI AND FASCISM IN ITALY FROM 1922-1943
Benito Mussolini was Prime Minister/dictator of Italy between 1922 and 1943. In 1922- he was appointed Prime
minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III to replace Prime Minister Orlando. His reign was built on the principles
of fascism that centered on extreme nationalism and dictatorship. Fascism was an Italian political movement
developed by Mussolini after 1919 that believed in extreme Italian nationalism, totalitarian system of government,
one-party state, economic self-sufficiency, military strength, destruction of communism. It became the only
authorized party in Italy after the March on Rome in 1922. (28th October 1922).
It derived its name from the word "fasces" meaning a "bundle of sticks bound to an axe" which represented
the symbol of state power ancient Rome. The fascist group under Mussolini in Italy therefore presented itself as a
symbol of authority to destroy communism, liberalism, democracy, feminism and after 1938 Semitism and revive
Italian glory and prestige by force.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF FASCISM/MUSSOLINI TO POWER IN ITALY
The rise of extreme nationalism in Italy led to the rise of fascism under Mussolini . Fascism promised to revive
the greatness and prestige of Italy which had been frustrated by the imperialistic failures in Ethiopia in 1896 and
Tunisia in 1881. He inspired the Italians with dreams of returning Italy to the days of the glorious Roman Empire.
This made many Italians to support the fascist movement led by Mussolini to power.
Hegel's philosophy that the state was the supreme manifestation of God on earth led to the rise of fascism
under Mussolini. Mussolini was greatly influenced by these philosophies thus established fascism with the aim of
setting up a powerful state. This background and the experiences that he gained from them later became useful
in his rise to power.
The disappointment of Italy's gains from the Versailles settlement led to the rise of Mussolini. There was a belief that
the Italians got nothing from the Versailles treaty of 1919 e.g. Italy was denied a share of former German and
Turkish colonies in form of mandates, did not receive territories promised by allies like Flume, Trieste, Dalmafia,
Albania became independent leaving Italy frustrated. Mussolini denounced the Versailles settlement and promised

to acquire territories for Italy and this made him popular hence contributing to his rise to power.
The disastrous effects of world war one on Italy led to the rise of Mussolini to power in 1923. The war led to
socio-economic problems of widespread unemployment e.g. about 2.5 million ex -service men had difficulty
finding jobs, caused heavy debts especially to USA, inflation, poor standards of living, currency devaluation from
5 Lira for a dollar in 9M to 28 Lira for a dollar in 1921 which led to increased cost of living by at least 5 times, claimed
about 600.000 lives which made the government unpopular, left north-east Italy devastated. Mussolini promised to
revive the Italian economy thus winning the support of the masses.
The serious economic hardships in Italy contributed to the rise of Mussolini. The high levels of
unemployment resulting from the rapid demobilisation of millions of troops, general poverty, high inflation
which badly hit the middle classes, poor standards of living led to rise of Mussolini to power. The successive
governments since unification in 1870 had done little to address the poverty for the peasants living in the southern
Italy and industrial workers in the cities. The government of King Victor Emmanuel III lost popularity and the
people's hope was now in Benito Mussolini who promised to such problems hence leading to the rise of Mussolini
and fascism in 1923.
The failure of the liberal parliamentary system in Italy led to the rise of Mussolini and fascism in Italy. There were
many political parties in parliament e.g. after 1921 elections, there were at least nine parties represented including
liberals, nationalists, communists, socialists, fascists, Catholic Party which created lack of consistency in policy, extreme
confusion, intrigue in the Italian parliament and created unstable coalition governments. This led to growing contempt
for parliamentary system which the fascists exploited to rise to power.
The insecurity in Italy characterized by wave of strikes (civil unrest) in 1919-1920, riots, looting of shops,
occupation of factories by workers led to the rise of fascism in Italy. The government failed to protect the property of
the wealthy i.e. church, landlords, industrialists who in turn supported the fascists as a guarantee of law and order.
The fear of Bolshevism/communism from Russia led to the rise of fascism to power in Italy. Between 1918 and
1920, there were strikes, bread riots, and violent socialist activists due to radicalizing effects of the Russian Revolution on
the Italian working classes. In 1920, workers occupied the engineering factories of the northern Italian cities of Milan, Turin
and Genoa. Mussolini organized the Milan fascists in 1919 that attacked socialist and communist meetings. He came out
as the defender of private enterprise and property thus attracting much needed financial support from the wealthy
business interests, wealthy landlords who feared a communist revolution in Italy hence leading to his rise to power in
1923.
The effective organization of the Fascist Party under Mussolini led to the rise of fascism to power. The party had a
representative in almost every town in Italy. It adopted black-shirt uniform and Roman salute as its emblem which
symbolized power, strength and authority and this made Mussolini very popular hence his rise to power.
The role played by the press led to the rise of fascism to power in Italy. The Italian press heavily favored fascism
from its initial stages e.g. The Milan newspaper de-campaigned the government's failure to check violence, insecurity,
economic problems and called for its overthrow. The Italia portrayed Mussolini as the defender of private property and
this made fascism popular in Italy.
The role of the Black shirts and their violence led to the rise of fascism and Mussolini to power . Mussolini
used the black shirts to kill prominent opposition leaders, disrupt socialist and communist meetings and this left fascism
unchallenged. This violence discredited the liberal government of Victor Emmanuel III and attracted the masses to fascist
propaganda like security, restoration of law and order in Italy.
The role of Pope Kings XI and the Roman Catholic Church led to the rise of fascism to power. Mussolini made various
conciliatory speeches about the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius XI swung the church into line behind Mussolini,
seeing him as a good anti-communist weapon. The pope incited the public against the monarchy and hated its annexation
of Papal States in 1871 by the Italian monarchy. Mussolini exploited this to rise to power by promising to revive the papal
power in Italy.
The weaknesses of King Victor Emmanuel III e.g. failed to suppress the Black Shirts, his government was characterized
by corruption and embezzlement, lacked confidence in the army, invitation of Mussolini to form the government, solve
the socio-economic problems, insecurity and violence in the country end control the political affairs of the time led to the
rise of Mussolini. Mussolini promised to create peace and security, provide employment hence gaining popularity
among which made him to succeed in the 1923 elections that drove him to power.

The lack of effective opposition against fascism led to its rise to power . The anti-fascists failed to cooperate with
each other and made no determined efforts to keep the fascists out of parliament. The communists refused to cooperate
with the socialists which Mussolini exploited to rise to Power.
The success of the Fascist Match to Rome in 1922 contributed to the rise of Mussolini to Power Mussolini ordered
the mobilization of the Black Shirts and other fascist supporters from all over Italy to converge on the city on Rome in 1922.
The event threatened King Victor Emmanuel III who was forced to appoint Mussolini as Prime minister thus leading to
the rise of fascism in Italy.
Mussolini's personal ability and qualities enabled him to rise to power in Italy in 1923. Mussolini was brave, had
great oratory skills, good propaganda skills and his strong moving speeches attracted many Italians. It was the strong
character and personality of Mussolini that enabled him to exploit the events in Italy to enable fascism to rise to power.
The support of the army led to the rise of Mussolini e.g. in May 1921, the army and police did not stop Mussolini's
soldiers and supporters who were interfering in the elections and intimidating the opponents, the army did not suppress
the "Match on Rome" organized by Mussolini in 1922. These events contributed to the rise of Mussolini to power.
The support of some special interest groups especially the church , the monarchists and the capitalists
led to the rise of fascism. Mussolini promised to preserve the rights and property of the Catholic Church, his
determination to destroy communism made him win support of the capitalists and he also won the support of the
monarchists because he promised to uphold and maintain the monarchy. Therefore the support of these powerful groups
enabled fascism under Mussolini to rise to power in 1923.
The question of land distribution also led to the rise of fascism in Italy in 1923. The liberal government of Victor
Emmanuel III Promised Land reforms after World War I. However after the war, the promise was not fulfilled and this
greatly annoyed many people in Italy. When Mussolini promised the same thing, he got mass support for the fascist party
hence leading to the rise of fascism in 1923.
The weaknesses of the League of Nations contributed to the rise of Mussolini to power. If did not have an army to
offer adequate protection to the democratic government of Victor Emmanuel III and this enabled Mussolini and his
fascists to intimidate and threaten it which culminated in Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister hence his rise to
power.
CONSOLIDATION AND RETAINING POWER BY MUSSOLINI IN ITALY BETWEEN 1922 AND 1943.
(Measures used by Mussolini to retain power up to 1943)
Mussolini's reign from 1922 to 1945 was built on the principles of fascism that centered on extreme nationalism and
dictatorship. In 1922, he seized power with the help of nationalists, land owners, industrialists and clericals. He
retained and consolidated his power in Italy using the following measures
Mussolini established a dictatorial government by abolishing all opposition political parties in Italy except the
Fascist party. The Acerbo law of 1923 removed opposition in the parliament hence Mussolini was able to create a
perfect fascist government and consolidate his power in Italy
Mussolini established corporate state and abolished the old trade unions. The government tried to promote
cooperation between employers and workers and to end class warfare. Fascist-controlled unions had the; sole right
to negotiate for the workers and both workers and employers were organized into corporations. Strikes by workers,
lockouts by employers were not allowed. This left his government free from socialist or capitalist threats.
In 1925, Mussolini created a Fascist state by setting up the Fascist Grand Council composed of fascist hardliners. It
became the supreme political body only answerable to Mussolini and with powers to pass laws governing the country.
This made the parliament powerless and enabled Mussolini to transform Italy into perfect fascism.
Mussolini consolidated his power by reconciling the state and the Catholic Church by signing the laferan Pact
in 1929 with the Pope. Mussolini recognized Catholicism as a state religion and "^dependence of the Vatican state.
In return the pope recognized the Italian kingdom and the fascist government and this greatly consolidated Mussolini's
power in Italy He made changes in local government to strengthen the fascist rule. Elected town councils and
mayors were abolished and towns were run by officials appointed from Rome. The local fascist bosses often
had as much power as government officials.

Mussolini manipulated public opinion through fascist propaganda and persuasion to consolidate its
power in Italy. The propaganda statements like "Mussolini is always right", "Youth should learn to
believe, obey and fight" made him famous. The fascists boasted that they had revived Italy's international
respect, admiration and glory.
Mussolini’s anti-communist policies and opposition to Russian Bolshevism won him the support and
respect especially in USA and Britain and this reduced international opposition against his fascist rule. He
imprisoned many communists which earned him support from the clergy thus enabling him to consolidate his
power.
Mussolini consolidated his power using strong economic reforms . He implemented economic
reforms in industrialization, agricultural development, massive public works projects which provided
employment opportunities, boosted standards of living, self-sufficiency. This attracted massive support for
Mussolini's government thus consolidating power.
Mussolini promoted anti-Semitism (hatred for the Jews) which enabled Mussolini to consolidate his power.
The Italian Jews were dismissed from their jobs, deprived of property, excluded from public schools; all these
moves were supported by majority Italians thus enabling Mussolini to consolidate his position.
Mussolini extended the Italian glory and prestige abroad by securing colonies e.g. he invaded and
conquered Ethiopia in 1935 TO avenge the Adowa incident of 1896; in 1939 he occupied Albania. He also
represented Italy in a number of international conferences. All these won him the support of majority Italians.
Mussolini also consolidated his power by creating strong, well equipped army. He strengthened the army
which he later used to restore law and order, terrorize his opponents at home and undertake his foreign
military adventures in Ethiopia, Spain, and Albania.
The fascist government introduced an education system based on fascist principles and understate
control. Teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify fascist system, university
professors were forced to swear an oath of allegiance to the fascist government, the pupils and students were
taught to be aggressive, carry toy guns and hate democracy, spy on their teachers. Through these educational
measures Mussolini was able to consolidate his power.
Mussolini used constitutional changes to consolidate his position for example Mussolini was responsible only
to the king not to parliament, reduced the electorate from about 10 million to 3 million, he restricted the
powers of the Italian monarchy, ruled by decrees, introduced referendums to decide on contentious issues. This
helped him to establish fascist dictatorship and consolidate his power in Italy.
Mussolini consolidated his power by allying with other dictators and creating foreign allies. He with
Hitler of Germany, Hirohito of Japan, and General Franco of Spain and became a member axis alliance. All
these strong foreign allies strengthened Mussolini's power in Italy by winning support from the Italian nationalists.
Mussolini introduced strict censorship of the press from 1925 purposely to control public opinion under
fascist government interests Anti-fascist newspapers, magazines, and other publications were banned or
their editors-were replaced by fascist supporters. Also radios, films, theatres were also strictly controlled and
this silenced political opposition.
Mussolini incorporated all opposition party leaders into his government. He did this as a strategy to
bring their under easy fascist control so that in future, he could easily use the fascist terrorists to eliminate
them and create a perfect fascist government. This kept him free from immediate opposition.
Mussolini introduced the careless use of violence to terrorize his opponents throughout Italy. Persistent opponents of
the fascist regime were either exiled in Lipari Island in Mediterranean Sea or murdered for example socialists Giacomo
Matteoti and Giovanni Amendola were killed by fascist thugs.

Children and young people were forced to join the government youth organizations which tried to
indoctrinate them with glories of war, total obedience to authority and brilliance of Mussolini
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF BEN1TO MUSSOLINI
Mussolini established law and order in Italy and ended the lawlessness associated with the previous democratic
governments by suppressing strikes and socialist movements. Through a new constitution, new laws were passed that
re-established order in the country and this promoted development.
Mussolini ended conflicts between the state and the Catholic Church . He signed a concordat with the
Pope in 1929 through which Rome was recognized as the capital city of Italy and Vatican became totally
Independent (Laferan pact). This healed the wounds caused by the unification of Italy. The catholic religion
became the recognized state religion of Italy.
Mussolini strengthened Italian army by implementing military reforms . He created a large army through
compulsory military training, strengthening the navy, increasing the number of soldiers, acquiring modern
military facilities. This again brought Italy on the world map and used it to protect the national interests of Italy.
Benito Mussolini promoted Italian foreign glory and national pride which had been hurt by past
imperialistic failures and Versailles settlement. He annexed Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Albania, secured a huge
compensation for Italy from Greece after the Corfu incident, consolidated Italian powers over Libya.
Mussolini encouraged industrialization programs through government subsidies hence by 1930, the
production of iron and steel had more than doubled, artificial silk production increased tenfold, by 1937
production hydro-electric power had doubled. The old industries were rehabilitated and new ones set up like oil
refineries, chemical industries.
Mussolini encouraged infrastructural development e.g. the building of motorways, bridges, blocks of flats,
railway stations, sports stadiums, schools and new towns on reclaimed land, electrifying main railway lines,
rehabilitated the old monuments, two mighty ocean liners were also built to promote international shipping. These
programs provided employment opportunities to the masses.
Mussolini promoted agriculture development through privatization, teaching farmers better farming methods,
encouraging farmers to use better seeds, manures, fertilizers and financial support and this increased production
of wheat and grain. By 1935, wheat imports had been cut by 75% hence increasing self-sufficiency.
Mussolini promoted education in Italy through allocating huge resources to building and renovating schools,
libraries, technical institutions and universities. This greatly increased literacy in Italy.
Mussolini managed environmental challenges for example he promoted afforestation especially in
mountainous areas, land reclamation e.g. reclaimed Pontine Marshes near Rome, irrigated the dry lands.
Mussolini promoted trade through cooperative trade unions. Mussolini established corporate state and
abolished the old trade unions. This eliminated workers' strikes and lock-outs by employers Mussolini promoted
European diplomacy with France, Austria and Germany e.g.
Mussolini helped to check the spread of communism and socialism to Italy and Western Europe in general
by using suppressive measures against communist activities in the country.
Mussolini improved the relationship between the workers and the employers in Italy . He established a system
of corporations with which workers and employers met to handle the interests of the workers. Both parties were
represented.
Mussolini stabilized national administration and balanced the annual budget of Italy. He did this by eliminating
corruption, administrative inefficiency, reducing wasteful government expenditure.
Mussolini promoted nationalism and feelings of patriotism especially through the educational institutions.
Mussolini promoted sports in Italy e.g. built various sports stadiums and funded sports activities. Sportsmen did well
under fascism like Italian soccer team won the world cup twice in 1 934 and 1 938.

FAILURES OF MUSSOLINI
Mussolini failed to monitor the economy and allowed the fascist leaders to exercise excessive corruption
and misuse of government funds which consequently crippled the Italian economy e.g. huge
sums of money meant for land reclamation disappeared into the pockets of corrupt officials. The
economy was also hampered by the sanctions placed on Italy by the LONs after the invasion of
Ethiopia in 1935
Mussolini failed to stabilize the exchange rates and this ruined the economy e.g. Mussolini revalued the
Lira far too high at 90 to the pound sterling instead of 150 (1926) which made Italian exports more
expensive on the world market and led to reduced orders especially in the cotton industry.
Mussolini failed in the provision of social services e.g. he never invested in rural development; for all
social services were limited to urban centers hence failed to establish a welfare state. There was no
official government health insurance until 1943.
Mussolini limited his achievements to a few Italians for example he promoted under development
in southern Italy where the people did not support his fascist government and its policies. North Italy
was industrial and comparatively prosperous, while the south was largely agriculture backward
and poverty-stricken.
Mussolini failed to solve the problem of shortage of basic raw materials e.g. coal and oil. As an iron
and steel producer, Italy could not even match a small state like Belgium.
Mussolini encouraged anti-Semitism/segregation against the Jews. In 1938 the fascist government issued
anti-Semitic laws. The Italian Jews were dismissed from their jobs, deprived of property, excluded from public schools.
This created classism and hatred towards his fascist party.
Mussolini suffocated other political parties in Italy and dealt with opposition ruthlessly. The opposition leaders
were tortured arrested and others exiled at Lipari Island in the Mediterranean Sea. In June
1924 for example, the fascists killed the socialist leader Matteotti; the leader of the socialists in the
parliament.
Mussolini revived aggressive foreign policies and revived alliance system i.e. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo and led to hostility
with other powers like Britain, France, Albania thus leading to World War II.
Mussolini promoted authoritarianism in Italy for example he established a fascist dictatorship and ruled by decrees,
undermined democracy by removing elections and introducing a system of referendum which favored him. He
introduced referendums to decide on contentious issues.
Mussolini carried out strict censorship of the press. Newspapers, magazines, and other publications which were anti-
fascism were censored. Also radios, films, theatres were also controlled and the editors were replaced by fascist
supporters.
Mussolini undermined industrialization by promoting protectionism in Italy. He banned commodities and raw
materials from Britain, Belgium, France which led to falling industrial production, decline, high levels of inflation and
unemployment in Italy.
Mussolini failed to plan and control higher birth rates in Italy leading to high population densities and
shortage of land. He encouraged high birth rates by introducing high taxes for the bachelors and prizes were
given to mothers who produced many children.
MUSSOLINI'S FOREIGN POLICIES
Mussolini invaded Corfu (Greek island) in 1923 in response to the murder of 4 Italians by Greek bandits on Greek
territory. Mussolini only withdrew Italian troops after securing a huge compensation from Greek government. This
demonstrated Italian greatness.
The fascist government led by Mussolini signed the Treaty of Lausanne in Switzerland in 1923 in which Italy
recovered the Dodecanese islands from Greece.
In 1924, Mussolini signed the Pact of Rome with Yugoslavia by which Italy received the long disputed town of

Fiurre. This enhanced the reputation of Italy.
In 1926 and 1927, Mussolini signed two treaties with Albania which firmly established Italian influence in Albania.
Italy provided loans, signed military agreements and arrangements with Albania in exchange for Albanian oil.
This increased Italian influence in the Balkans.
Mussolini signed the Rome Protocols with Austria and Hungary in 1934 which countered the French-backed
Little Entente. The protocols arranged for increased trade links and a common foreign policy between Italy,
Austria and Hungary.
Mussolini defended Austria against Germany's plans to annex it in 1934. He sent Italian troops to the border
with Austria after the murder of Austrian chancellor by the Nazis which threatened Hitler not to intervene in
Austria. This delayed the union of Germany and Austria and guaranteed European peace.
Mussolini cultivated friendship with Bulgaria which reached a peak in 1929 when the daughter of
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy married King Boris of Bulgaria hence creating a marriage alliance between the
two countries.
In 1925, Mussolini signed the Locarno treaties which guaranteed the Franco-German frontiers and Belgo-
German frontiers
In 1928, Mussolini signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact which all improved relations with Britain
Mussolini concluded an agreement with Britain over the frontier between Libya and Egypt, and discussions
were held on the possibility of British aid for railway building in east Africa.
During the 1920s, Italy remained a member of the League of Nations and acted as a good citizen of Europe.
In 1920s, Mussolini supported the disarmament efforts of the League of Nations. However, he weakened the League of
Nations when Mussolini withdrew its membership in 1936.
In 1933, Mussolini proposed a Four Power Pact of Italy, Germany, France and Britain to keep peace in Europe,
However, it was signed only by Germany and Italy because it undermined the League of Nations.
In 1935, Mussolini attended the Stresa conference, called by France to consider what action to take over
German rearmament and to guarantee the independence of Austria. This portrayed Italy as a great power alongside
Britain and France. The powers met at Stresa in Italy.
In 1936 Mussolini intervened in the Spanish civil war. Mussolini provided General Franco and the Nationalists
with men and equipment which led to the success of Nationalists over the Republicans and prevented the spread
of communism, established a fascist government in Spain. However, 'his increased tension with Britain because
the Italian submarines sunk the British cargo ships in the Mediterranean.
In September 1938, Mussolini initiated the Munich conference which brought together leaders of Europe to
settle the Czech crisis without resort to war. This was a triumph of Mussolini's diplomacy in Europe and averted a likely
war between Germany and western allies.
In April 1939, Mussolini annexed Albania which had been an Italian protectorate since 1926. He declared King
Victor Emmanuel as king of Albania.
Mussolini signed a military alliance with Hitler of Germany (Pact of Steel) which committed Italy to join Germany
in any war, be it aggressive or defensive. This prompted Italy to Join Germany in 1940 against western allies during World
War II.
In 1941, Mussolini participated in the invasion of Soviet Union and declaration of war on USA. This led to the allied
invasion of Italy (Sicily) in 1943.
FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF MUSSOLINI AND FASCISM IN ITALY
The entry of Italy into World War II was a disastrous mistake. Majority of Italians were opposed to it and this increased
the unpopularity of Mussolini.
Mussolini's involvement in the Spanish civil war made him unpopular, Italy registered heavy casualties of Italian
soldiers, spent huge financial and military resources supporting General Franco's forces. This was widely criticized in Italy
which made Mussolini a hated figure hence leading to his downfall.

Mussolini's persecution of the Jews in Italy contributed to his downfall. Many Italians opposed
Mussolini when he began to sack Jews from important jobs in 1938.
Many Italians opposed and overthrew Mussolini because they felt he was making Italy a German
satellite. He sacrificed many of Italy's interests for the sake of his relationship with Germany.
Italy's declaration of war on USA in December 1941 increased opposition against Mussolini even from his
supporters like industrialists and bankers who resented closer economic controls which wartime brought.
Economic hardships suffered by the Italians/general public made Mussolini unpopular e.g. taxes
were increased to pay for the war, there was food rationing, massive inflation and 30% fall in real
wages all contributed to Mussolini’s downfall.
Allied bombings/raids on Italian cities made Mussolini a hated figure in Italy e.g. after November
1942, there were British bombing raids on major cities. By March 1943, strikes against Mussolini started in Milan, Turin, and the
first since 1922.
The series of defeats suffered by Italians in World War II culminating in the surrender of all Italian
troops in North Africa in May 1943 undermined the prestige of Mussolini hence leading to his downfall.
Mussolini was overthrown because he seemed to have lost his touch and sense of direction. He
was suffering from a stomach ulcer and nervous strain. All he could think of was to sack some of the
ministers who had criticized him.
The allied capture of Sicily in July 1943 was the breaking point for Mussolini. This was a clear sign of Italy's defeat
and many of fascist leaders realized the lunacy of trying to continue the war, Mussolini refused to make peace. The
Fascist Grand Council turned against Mussolini and the dismissed him.
The corruption within the Fascist Party led to the downfall of Mussolini. Many fascist leaders exercise excessive
corruption and misused government funds e.g. huge sums of money meant for reclamation and other development
projects disappeared into the pockets of corrupt officials Mussolini's failure to curb this corruption made him
unpopular leading to his downfall.
Loss of the king's support led to his downfall. King Victor Emmanuel ill removed Mussolini from Power and had him
arrested

1. Why did the Liberal Italy fall to fascism in 1922?
2. Examine the circumstances that led to Mussolini's rise to power by 1922 .
3. Account for the rise of Fascism in Italy by 1922.
4. Examine the factors that led to the rise of Mussolini's Fascist Government in Italy.
5. Discuss the factors that led to the rise to power of Mussolini in Italy.
6. "The fear of communism was primarily responsible for the rise of Mussolini to power in 1922" Discuss .
7. Examine the circumstances that led to the rise of Fascist Dictatorship in Italy.
8. How did Mussolini rise and consolidate his power in Italy?
9. How did Mussolini gain and retain power in Italy?
10. Assess the achievements of Mussolini between 1922 and 1943.
11. Examine the domestic policies of Mussolini between 1922 and 1939.
12. How far had Mussolini achieved his aims in domestic policy by 1939?
13. How successful was the Fascist Regime in Italy?
14. How successful were Mussolini's domestic and foreign policies up to 1943?
15. How was Benito Mussolini able to retain power in Italy between 1922 and 1943?
16. Examine the measures used by the Fascists to consolidate themselves in power in Italy .
17. Account for the survival of the fascist regime in Italy up to 1945.
18. How did Mussolini consolidate power in Italy between 1922-1943?
19. Examine the elements of dictatorship in the Fascist Regime in Italy.
20. Examine the impact of the fascist regime between 1922 and 1943 on Europe.
21. Account for the downfall of Benito Mussolini by 1943.
22. Discuss the reasons for the collapse of Fascism in Italy.
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE
THE WORLD ECONOMIC DEPRESSION IN EUROPE OF 1929-1935

The great economic depression was the situation characterized by massive unemployment, low levels, low consumption
levels, low prices, low levels of production, poverty, economic stagnation low demand and generally a period of
inactive economic activities between 1929 and 1935. It started in the Canadian agricultural sector and by 1929 it had
spread all over Europe.
THE CAUSES OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-1935
The effects of World War I led to the economic depression. The war destroyed commercial ships e.g. 40 % of
Britain's merchant fleets were destroyed by German submarines in the war making it difficult to export its goods;
industries, agricultural farms, infrastructure in France, Britain, and Belgium were devastated. This reduced the economic
activities in the affected countries hence leading to economic depression.
The effects of gold standard system which many European economies operated led to economic depression.
The system determined the amount of money in circulation. The system economic rigidities by limiting money
supply and reducing purchasing power in countries that had little gold. This undermined economic activities which led
to economic depression.
The economic nationalism and protectionism caused world economic depression. USA protected her industries
by charging high import tariffs and foreign countries also refused to buy American goods. This discouraged
international trade and left Europe with surplus products thus leading to industrial breakdown, laying off workers,
low prices, and low economic activity hence economic depression.
The wide spread Income inequalities and poverty in Europe e.g. Italy, France, Germany, and Britain reduced the
purchasing power of individuals. The wages for industrial workers were very low while industrial profits were very high
and thus there was low purchasing power in the hands of the general public. This led low demand, low production of
commodities and falling prices thus leading to the depression.
The wide spread unemployment in most European countries due to demobilization process after World War

I and closure of industries led to economic depression. Unemployment was high e.g. in Britain, it stood at 1 million, 10
million in Germany which led to low purchasing power, low incomes This left the industrial and agricultural output unsold,
which led to laying off of workers, low production levels collapse of some industries thus economic depression.
The American loans scheme to European countries caused the economic depression . During and after the
world war one, European countries borrowed huge loans to finance the war and reconstruct their economies. The
repayment of the loans, created an economic situation huge amounts of money flowed from Europe to USA without
any exchange of goods and services. This affected economic activities thus leading to economic depression.
The Wall Street crash of 1929 in USA caused the economic depression. The collapse of the American stock marker
left the European countries like Austria, Germany that were heavily dependent where American loans and investors to
finance their industrial development hard-hit. Without the American loans, the European industries declined, worked
were laid off and unemployment increased thus causing the economic depression. Also many people lost money
which affected their purchasing power as they could no longer buy consumer products. The fall in share prices made
it difficult for entrepreneurs to raise the money to run their companies. This led to collapse of companies and
consequently many workers became unemployed. The American bankers and businessmen demanded the repayment
of the money they had lent to Germany, France, and Britain which caused economic collapse in Europe.
The speculation and rumors by politicians and the press about it in different countries caused the economic
depression. Such rumors affected investment plans and many investors were uncertain of engaging in economic activities.
There were widespread speculations in the press that an economic slump would hit Europe. This affected investment
plans especially among the rich industrialists and hence paralyzed economic activities in Europe.
The weaknesses and failure of League of Nations to implement economic policies necessary for free trade led to
economic depression. It failed to ensure free trade leading to protectionism that caused the depression. It also failed to
come up with a clearway of handling currency in circulation, which was determined by the gold reserves that created
economic rigidities that resulted into economic depression.
The Versailles settlement 1919 led to the outbreak of economic depression . The payment of war
reparations e.g. money, cattle, ships, minerals that were imposed on Germany and her allies to the victor powers led to
the decline in economic activities and affected international trade thus leading to the depression.
Over production due to improved technology and greed for profits caused the depression . Many industrialists
end farmers, encouraged by the high profits produced too many goods for the home market to absorb. As a result, later
in the 1920s, the manufacturers produced less and many workers were laid off leading to unemployment.
THE EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-1935
The economic depression had short term and long term political, economic and social consequences
Economic depression shattered international trade. Countries used higher tariffs to protect their domestic
industries and markets. This affected economic relations in terms of reduced trade and foreign investments among the
great powers. The level of imports and exports was reduced which brought international trade to almost a stand still.
It led to collapse of industries and other production sectors due to low prices, narrow domestic markets. There
was low purchasing power and poor industrial performance which led to low investment and low standards of living
for people. The banking institutions closed because they run out of money for example Austrian central bank in 1930,
central bank of Germany, stock markets.
It led to widespread unemployment in most European countries due to the collapse of industrial, agricultural
and other employment sectors e.g. in USA, 13 million people were unemployed by 1932, in Britain unemployment
went to over 1 million, over 3 million in France and over 10 million in Germany.
The depression led to break down of international relations amongst countries. Europe hated USA for her policy of
economic protectionism that escalated the depression. Anti- US feelings intensified in Europe as it demanded for
repayment of her debts. The relations worsened between Germany and victor powers over war reparations.
It led to political unrest and rise of dictators in Europe like Hitler in Germany, later General Franco in Spain in
1936. They took advantage of the socio-economic misery created by the depression to undermine the existing

governments and rulers.
The economic depression undermined the performance of League of Nations because political unrest and
declining economies made the active members like Britain and France to lose commitment as they concentrated
on recovering their economies. This paved way for the collapse of the League of Nations.
It facilitated spread of socialism and communism in Europe due to worsening economic conditions . The
sufferings caused by the depression made most Europeans to develop hatred against liberalism and capitalism that
were accused of causing the depression. As a result, socialism spread to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania
and Poland.
The depression laid foundation for the outbreak of World War II in 1939 . It led to the rise of dictators who
waged a series of aggressive wars as a way of getting raw materials and securing markets and territories which
culminated in the German invasion of Poland in 1939 that sparked off World War II.
The economic depression facilitated the downfall of unpopular regimes in Europe and the rise of
promising ones. In Germany, for example it led to the fall of Weimar republic in favor of Hitler's Nazi regime in
1934, the rise of General Franco in Spain in 1936. Strong authoritarian governments were favored because of
promising radical changes to address the economic depression e.g. in Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece .
The gold standard system was abandoned as European countries converted their gold reserves into foreign
exchange. This revived international trade since it opened way for countries without gold deposits to freely
participate in trade.
It led to adoption of new economic policies and reforms to fight the depression . It led to the
development of macroeconomic policies intended to temper economic downturns and upturns for example
British economist John Maynard Keynes developed the ideas in his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and
Money (1936). Keynes's theory suggested increases in government spending, tax cuts, and to counteract
depressions. There were also the New deal policies of Roosevelt in USA, economic reforms of Stresemann in
Germany.
It led to the closure and collapse of financial institutions . Millions of people withdrew their savings from banks
end this left many banks without money and thus many were closed down e.g. in USA about 4200 banks were closed,
the Austrian Central Bank closed in 1931, stock markets collapsed. The closure and collapse of financial institutions
made people to lose their savings.
The depression brought about closer economic relations among the European states as a measure to recover
their economies. This paved way for the formation of European economic cooperation
It led to severe poverty due to low incomes and purchasing power . Millions of people in Europe and USA could
not afford the basic necessities of life like food, shelter, medical care, and education. The working conditions worsened
for the workers leading to poverty, social unrest and the deterioration in the standards of living
MEASURES ADOPTED TO OVERCOME THE ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-35
Various countries of the world started to recover from the great economic depression at different time. In most
countries, recovery began in 1933. The following strategies/measures were employed to address the
depression.
The governments intervened in economic systems to protect free market systems from radical
revolutions e.g. in France, a wheat office was established to fix prices and regulate the district of grain, there was
government control of banks, the Doctors' mandate in Britain.
Countries started charging high tariffs on imports like in Britain a general tariff of 100 % on all imports was instituted
to protect nascent local industries, so the economic nationalism and protectionism were adopted and free trade
abandoned.
The government expenditure was reduced in order to address economic demands e.g. through salary cuts for
all government employees especially in the navy and army e.g. in Britain, France The expansion of public works like
construction of bridges, dams, high ways to provide employment, adoption of New Deal policy from Franklin Roosevelt.

There was change of regimes in favor of strong governments to deal with the situation for example Conservatives
took over power in Britain, Nazis in Germany, in France the Left parties became popular. There was also outright use
of force against rioters and other forms of social unrest.
There was abandonment of gold standard system by most European countries in the early 1930s. States no
longer pegged their currencies to price and amount of gold reserves. This increased the supply of money hence
increasing the purchasing power of individuals e.g. in Britain, Italy, Scandinavian countries.
Unemployment benefits were given to nationals in Europe like Britain, France and USA and they were encouraged to
invest in economic activities.
The European countries embarked on establishing trading blocks to promote free trade for example British
Commonwealth in 1932, the agricultural lands of Eastern Europe and Scandinavian countries formed Oslo Group. This
revived international trade and free trade.
There was adoption of social economic reforms in Europe to modernize agriculture, industry and social
services. Progressive taxes were introduced to redistribute wealth fairly and trade unions were given the right to bargain
and negotiate for better conditions of workers especially in USA, Britain There was cancellation of the peace agreements
of 1919.
Germany responded by violating the terms of the Versailles treaty as a means of addressing the slump for
example Nazi government refused to pay war indemnity to the allied powers. In 1931, USA offered a one-year
moratorium on all payments between countries. These included inter-allied debts and reparations from defeated
powers. This enabled countries to reinvest as much capital as possible in their failing economies.
There was adoption of the New deal policy started by Franklin Roosevelt in USA. The USA government provided
unemployment benefits, pension to the old, rural rehabilitation schemes, and aid to women and children, prohibition
of child labour.
European countries embarked on massive rearmament programs which stimulated their economies especially in
Germany, Britain, and France. These programs provided employment which reduced unemployment problems caused
by the slump
Some countries engaged in economic imperialism as some countries adopted aggressive policies of conquest to
acquire raw materials, markets and areas of investment to address the slump for example Japan invaded Manchuria
(China) in 1931 to access silk and cotton, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936.
New economists and policies emerged such as Keynes and his Keynesian theory of unemployment which provided
solutions to economic problems that Europe was facing.
Countries began borrowing to finance their recovery from the depression. USA embarked on giving out loans to
western European countries like Germany, Britain and France. This helped these countries to recover faster than the eastern
countries.
Adopted devaluation of national currencies to boost exports for example in Britain, USA which helped to revive
international trade and increase the purchasing power
The governments pursued policies of self-sufficiency to reduce unemployment for example agro-based
industries were promoted to boost production in Italy, Germany and France.
The outbreak of World War II in 1939 helped to end the economic depression. The mobilization of manpower
following the outbreak of war in 1939 finally ended unemployment.
1. "The outbreak of the 1929-35 Great economic depression was inevitable" Discuss
2. "The Wall Street crash was responsible for the occurrence of the 1929 economic depression" Discuss
3. Examine the causes and consequences of economic depression of 1929.
4. Discuss the major features of the economic depression in the period between 1929-39.
5. Discuss the reaction of European countries to the economic depression of 1929.
6. Account for the end of the economic depression by 1936
7. Examine the measures used by various governments to overcome the economic depression by 1936

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO
THE WEIMER REPUBLIC IN GERMANY 1919-1934
The Weimer Republic was a republican government established in Germany following the abdication Kaiser William
II and collapse of the German empire during World War I. It was democratically elected in 19)9 under Fredrick Ebert at
Weimer town with a new constitution (Weimer Constitution). The Weimer republic lasted up to 1 933 when Hitler
destroyed it.
FACTORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF WEIMER REPUBLIC IN GERMANY IN 1919
The need for a democratic government led to the establishment of the Weimar republic. The Weimar republic
emerged because the German masses wanted to change from a despotic government to a democratic one. Since 1871,
the Germans were governed under the dictatorship of the Kaisers and after the downfall of Kaiser William II they decided
to establish a democratic system where no individual could gain too much power.
The influence of the allied powers that defeated Germany in World War I led to the rise of Weimar Republic.
After the defeat of the Kaiser in the war, the western powers were not prepared to see another communist regime in
Germany like what had happened in Russia in 1917. Thus, Britain, France, USA supported the establishment of
democratic Weimer republic in Germany.
The growth of liberalism in Germany led to establishment of the Weimer republic. The need for political liberty
made many Germans to advocate for a democratically elected parliament and liberal constitution that guaranteed
freedom of speech, freedom of worship. They therefore supported the Weimer Republic which formed a democratic
constitution.
The effects of World War I on Germany led to the rise of the Weimer republic. The war destroyed the German
economy causing severe inflation, unemployment, starvation etc. This led to strikes and demonstrations against Kaiser
William II who was forced to abdicate and flee to exile thus leading to the formation of the democratic Weimer republic
to heal the political, military and economic scars.
The need to restore friendship between Germany and the rest of Europe led to the rise of the Weimar republic. The
German militarism and aggression since 1860s had made Germany an enemy of many European countries. Many Germans
supported the establishment of Weimar republic with hope that it would restore friendship between Germany and
Europe.
The abdication of Kaiser William II in November 1918 created a power vacuum which gave rise to the Weimer
republic. The opposition forces and new political figures such as Fredrick Ebert came to the political scene and later
formed the Democratic Weimar republic to fill the political vacuum.
The failure of the communist revolution in Germany led by Karl Liebknecht was an important event that led to the
rise of Weimer Republic. The socialists known as 'Spartacists' organized a communist revolution, took control of key
buildings in Berlin in January 1919 but their revolution was defeated. The failure of this attempted communist revolution
enabled the formation of the Weimer republic.
The example of the Russian revolution of 1917 led to the rise of the Weimer republic. The Germans were inspired
by the successful revolution of 1917 in Russia that ended the repressive Tsardom. The Germans also wished to end the
reign of Kaisers and have new government with a president and constitution. Due to the inspiration and example of
Russian revolution of 1917, the Weimar Republic Was set up in 1919.
The need to end the Prussian dictatorship and dominance in the German politics and affairs led to the rise of
the Weimer republic. Prussia dominated politics and the key positions in the army, navy, civil service, parliament at the
expense of other states. This made the Germans to set up a new government that represented all states and with a
national character hence rise of Weimar republic.
The influence and opposition of the German army against Kaiser led to the rise of Weimar government. In October
1918 a mutiny broke out in the German navy and army demanding the abdication of the Kaiser. This forced the
Kaiser to give up the throne leading to the establishment of Weimar republic under Ebert.
The political insecurity in Berlin characterized by bloodshed, clashes, riots and demonstrations led to the rise

of Weimer Republic. This insecurity made the assembly delegates to shift the National Assembly venue from Berlin to
the relatively peaceful town of Weimar which is why it became known as the Weimer Republic.
The economic hardships in Germany also contributed to the rise of the Weimer Republic . There was a sharp
decline in industrial and agricultural production because the resources were diverted to the war leading to
unemployment, inflation, low standards of living, and massive starvation. As result mass discontent built against the
Kaiser's government eventually leading to the rise of Weimar republic in order revive the German economy.
The need to establish a government that would cater for the workers led to the formation of the
Weimer Republic. The Germans wanted a government that would cater for the welfare of the
workers and hence a republican government with socialist leanings was formed in the name of
Weimer republic to improve on the welfare of the workers.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF WEIMER REPUBLIC

The Weimar republic ended the Prussian dominance and dictatorship in the German politics . It introduced
a constitution that established a Federal Germany on the basis of fair representation of all states, granted freedom of
speech, press, and worship.
The Weimar republic under the Socialist leader Fredrick Ebert signed the Versailles treaty of 1919 which saved
Germany from the allied invasion and ended World War I i.e. it signed a peace treaty with the Allied powers
It paid off part of the war indemnity imposed on Germany by the victor powers in the Versailles treaty. The
Weimar republic secured from the victor powers easier installments of reparations and increased period for repayment of
59 years in the Young Plan of 1929.
The republic implemented economic reforms especially under Stresemann. It rebuilt the industries and factories,
attracted foreign manufacturers, promoted export trade and acquired foreign loans that revived the economy of Germany.
During the late 1920s, German industry almost regained its pre-war levels of output.
The government promoted cultural revival especially in architecture, art, books, films and Benin became a
prosperous centre of arts as many writers and artists were attracted there, hence Germ culture boomed during the Weimar
period,
The Weimar government succeeded in securing foreign allies e.g. signed a treaty of Rapallo with Russia in 1922
by which both countries gave up all claims for war damages and promised s other special treatment in economic matters,
USA provided millions of dollars to Germany for its industrial sector, rearm secretly and expand welfare schemes.
The Weimar government pursued a careful policy towards the allies in order to avoid fresh humiliations. The republic
adopted the 'Policy of Fulfillment that is to fulfill the terms laid down by the treaty, it called for passive resistance
against the French occupation of Ruhr in 1923.
The Weimar republic tried to reconcile Germany with its former enemies like Britain, France e.g. in 1925, it signed
'Locarno treaties' in which Germany accepted her borders with Belgium and France, Germany also agreed to arbitration in
any future border disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia, in 1 929, Germany was one of the 60 countries to sign the
Kellogg pact, where signatories renounced the use of aggressive war as a means of solving disputes. This improved the
relations with France. Britain, Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia and others.
The Weimar government secured Germany's admission to League of Nations in 1926. Germany was given a
permanent place on the League's Council although-this was delayed by the opposition of Spain and Brazil. This increased
Germany's standing in European affairs.
Stresemann's diplomacy led to the withdrawal of the army of occupation from Germany by 1930 . The allied
Military Control Commission which handicapped the expansion of German military was withdrawn in 1927, Rhineland
occupation forces were reduced by 10,000 soldiers and in 1930 the Allies left the Rhineland.
It put in place measures to protect the farmers and industrialists by buying shares in the factories that were
severely affected by the economic depression, provided unemployment pay to make life better for the working classes.
The Weimar republic rebuilt the infrastructure that had been destroyed during World War I. It got loans mainly
from USA which it used to build roads, railways, bridges, 3 million new houses were built.

The Weimar republic stabilized the value of the German currency. It replaced the worthless German Mark with
the currency called Rentenmark and this controlled inflation. The people and other countries regained confidence in
the German currency
THE FAILURES OF WEIMER REPUBLIC
The Weimar republic accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty. The treaty disarmed Germany,
imposed a heavy war indemnity, and took away German territories, was forced to promise to respect Austrian
independence. The government was associated with defeat and dishonor. It failed to prevent political chaos and unrest
in Germany e.g. in 1919 there was a communist strike in Berlin, in 1920 it faced a revolt from Free Corps in Berlin, and in
1923 there was an attempted coup by Hitler as well as numerous political assassinations.
The Weimer republic degraded traditional German culture especially by American immigrants and Jewish artists
and musicians. The Weimer culture in cities was considered c moral decline/decadence in many German villages and country
towns
The Weimar government failed to defend Germany against foreign invasion and aggression e.g. in 1923, French
and Belgian forces invaded Ruhr region and looted industries and minerals.
The Weimar republic failed to solve economic problems prevailing in Germany. There was a lot of unemployment,
inflation, widespread income inequalities, high cost of living, industrial collapse which the republic failed to address
satisfactorily e.g. by 1932 6 million Germans were unemployed.
It failed to maintain law and order in the country i.e. there were frequent strikes and demonstrations, political
assassinations e.g. Walter Rathenau (German foreign Minister), Gustav Erzberger (leader of the armistice delegation) were
assassinated by extremists among the Free Corps.
The Weimar governments failed to check the growing influence of communism that was spreading from Russia.
This threatened the interests of the landowners, industrialists.
The republic was characterized by corruption and inefficiency. It had corrupt officials and government ministers who
embezzled public resources, carried out bribery.
The Weimar republic failed to restrain the actions of Hitler and the Nazi Party and instead appointed him as
chancellor, a position he used to establish a Nazi dictatorship in Germany in 1934.
It failed to control the multi-party system in the country i.e. the parliament was characterized by
chaos due to the many political parties. This led to coalition governments and no party was able to carry
out its programs.
The republic increased Jewish influences in Germany . It was dominated by Jewish politicians, the
Jews owned most of the large department stores and banks in Berlin and other big cities. The Jewish artists
and musicians flourished in Berlin.
The Weimar republic failed to provi de solutions to the economic crisis of 1929 to 1935 which
increased social and economic misery and led to financial bankruptcy e.g. many banks closed and many
thousands of Germans lost their savings, industries collapsed
The Weimar republic failed to restore/revive the military power and glory of Germany i.e. it accepted
the disarmament clause of the Versailles treaty that militarily disabled Germany .
The Weimar government failed to liberate the Germans from foreign rule in the neighboring countries
after World War I. Many Germans were persecuted in Poland, Czechoslovakia but the democratic
government did not take the necessary measures to liberate them
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY WEIMER REPUBLIC AND REASONS FOR ITS COLLAPSE BY 1933
The Weimar republic was unpopular right from the start except between 1 923-1929 under the control of the foreign
Minister Stresemann. The republic faced political, social and economic problems that led to its collapse by 1933.
The Weimar republic accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty. The treaty disarmed Germany,
imposed a heavy war indemnity, and took away German territories. The Weimar government was associated with
defeat and dishonor and the German nationalists could never forgive it for that. This increased opposition against the

Weimar republic eventually leading to its downfall in 1533.
The rise of Nazism under Adolf Hitler led to collapse of Weimar republic. Hitler and Nazis carried out a great
propaganda campaign blaming the Weimar government for all the problems of Germany and setting out Nazi solutions
to the problems. As result many Germans supported Hitler which later led to demise of Weimar republic by 1933.
Traditional lack of respect for democratic government among the Germans was another problem faced by Weimar
republic. Many, Germans within the army, big business, civil service, and judiciary admired the army and officer-class as the
rightful leaders of Germany and had little respect for democratic institutions. The democratic Weimar republic was
thus rejected in favor of a more authoritative Nazi government under Adolf Hitler in 1 933.
The weaknesses of the Weimar constitution led to the collapse of democracy in Germany. It was based on a
system of proportional representation for all political parties. Unfortunately, there were so many different groups that no
party could win an overall majority. In 1928, in the Reichstag. There were social democrats, Liberals, nationalists. Catholics,
Communists, Nazis. This led to coalition governments and no party was able to carry out its programs and later chaos in
the parliament and unstable governments which undermined the credibility of republic leading to its collapse 1933.
The Weimar democratic republic was the first of its kind and thus lacked experience on run ning a
democratic system of governance. The political parties had very little experience of operate a democratic
parliamentary' system. The parties had not learned the art of cornp 1 e.g. communists and nationalists refused to support
social democrats, disagreements among parties became so bitter which undermined the republic leading to its collapse.
The republic was faced with many uprisings and revolts in Germany. The republic was challenged by the communist uprising
in January 1919 which exposed the weakness of the government as it relied on anti-communist private forces to crush the
uprising. The two communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg did not receive a fair trial, they were simply
executed. Other uprisings included Free Corps revolt in Berlin in 1920, attempted coup by Hitler in 1923 etc. All these
weakened and undermined the republic leading to its eventual collapse.
The series of political assassinations undermined the Weimar republic and led to its collapse. Walter Rathenau
(German foreign Minister], Gustav Erzberger (leader of the armistice delegation) were assassinated by the Free corps
and nationalist, anti-Semitic youths. In all, between 1919 and 1922 there were 376 political murders. When the
government sought strong measures against such acts of terrorism, it received strong opposition from right-wing parties.
Opposition from professional groups undermined the Weimar republic . Throughout Germany, the legal and
teaching professions, civil service and German army tended to be anti-Weimar for example the courts of law gave light
penalties to right-wing offenders especially after political assassinations, some Bavarian authorities who supported Hitler
released him after only 9 months in prison instead of 5 years.
The outbreaks of violence and increased threat of civil war in Germany due to the expansion of private
armies attracted the masses to Nazi propaganda. There were regular street fights usually between Nazis and
communists. All parties had their meetings broken up by rival armies and the police seemed powerless to restore
and maintain law and order. This exposed the Weimar government as incapable of keeping law and order and the
masses began to favor a return to strong authoritarian government to maintain strict public order.
The effects of the economic depression of 1929-1935 , economic problems contributed to the collapse of
Weimer Republic. The worst affected were the middle classes and small capitalists who lost their savings and many began
to look towards the Nazis for improvement. There was a lot of unemployment, inflation, high cost of living which the
republic failed to address satisfactorily e.g. by 1923 a loaf of bread cost 100,000 million marks, by 1932 6 million Germans
were unemployed. This undermined the republic, increased its unpopularity leading to its collapse in 1933
Weimer republic lacked support of the German army . The army and the ex-soldiers hated the disarmament
clause imposed on Germany by Versailles settlement because they wanted to revive: Germany's strong military power.
Many of them like Ludendorff (German supreme commander of World War I) supported the Nazi party which promised
the revival of German military power. With the loss of army support, the republic would not survive any longer and hence
collapsed in 1933.
The French invasion of Ruhr region in 1923 discredited the Weimer Republic. France invaded the region and
confiscated raw materials, manufactured goods and industrial machinery before they withdrew in 1926. This
disappointed many Germans who blamed the republic for having failed to defend German territory against French
aggression which increased its unpopularity and eventually led to its collapse in 1933.

It faced a lot of opposition from the many political parties . In the German parliament, there were at least 8
political parties with different interests e.g. Social Democrats, Free Corps, Conservatives. Nazis. The Nationalists and Free
Corps e.g. wanted a revival of German military glory and restoration of Kaiser. All these parties worked to discredit the
government, undermined it and finally led to its collapse by 1933.
The friendship of the Weimar republic with the German enemies especially western powers, League of Nations through
the 'Policy of fulfillment' attracted the hostility of the German nationalists and made it unpopular leading to its
collapse.
Weimer republic had weak politicians and this contributed to its collapse . Apart from foreign Minister
Stresemann (1924-1929), the Weimer politicians lacked ability to handle the internal violence and uprisings, solve the
prevailing social and economic problems. The government was made up of corrupt officials and government ministers
who embezzled state funds.
In 1925 Hindenburg was elected President. He had been one of Germany's war leaders under the Kaiser and was
a prominent critic of the Weimar Republic. Before he took up the post of President, he actually asked the permission of
the ex-Kaiser William II. This undermined the republic and finally led to its collapse in 1933.
The death of outstanding personalities with skillful leadership e.g. Fredrick Ebert, its first leader died in 1925, Gustav
Stresemann who had done much to improve the German economy died in 1925, President Hindenburg died in 1934 and
his death gave chance to Hitler to establish Nazi dictatorship which marked the end of Weimar republic.
The Weimar government faced the problem of allied blockade which brought Germans to near starvation at
the time when the new government was trying to consolidate its administration
The death of President Hindenburg in 1934 marked the end of the Weimar republic. He left a political vacuum which
Hitler exploited to establish a Nazi dictatorship by combining the office of the president and chancellor which
terminated the Weimar republic.
1. Discuss the factors for the rise of Weimer Republic in Germany in 1919
2. Account for the rise and fall of Weimar Republic in Germany
3. Assess the achievements of the Weimar Republic in Germany between 1919 and 1933
4. Examine the successes and failures of the Weimer Republic
5. Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Weimar Germany between 1919 and 1932.
6. Account for the failure of Weimar republic by 1933.
7. Why was there so much opposition to the Weimar government in its early years?
8. Examine the problems faced by Weimer Republic in Germany between 1919-1933
9. Account for the collapse of the German Weimer Republic by 1933
10. It was the rise of Hitler that led to the collapse of the Weimar Republic in Germany" Discuss
11. What were the challenges that confronted Republicanism in Germany between 1918-1933
12. Why was the Weimer Republic in Germany short-lived?
13. "The collapse of the Weimer Republic was inevitable" Discuss
14. Account for the failure of democracy in Germany between 1919-1933.
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE
ADOLF HITLER AND NAZISM IN GERMANY 1933-1945
Adolf Hitler was the German leader from 1933 to 1945. He was born in Austria in 1869 and participated in World War I
in the German army. He later became the leader of National Socialists or Nazi party. In 1933, Hitler was appointed
Chancellor of Germany and after the' death of President Hindenburg in 1934, Hitler established Nazi dictatorship that ruled
Germany until 1945.
Nazism was a German political movement initiated in 1920 by the Nazi Party. Its aim was to make Germany a great
nation again and restore national pride, believed in totalitarian state, militarism, believed in the race theory where

the Germans were the master race destined to rule the world. It was against liberalism, democracy, Jews (anti-
Semitism), Slavs. The movement culminated in the establishment of the Third Reich led by Dictator Adolf Hitler from
1933 to 1945.
THE FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NAZISM/HITLER TO POWER

The weaknesses of the democratic Weimar republic led to the rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany. It was
based on democratic principles hated by most Germans, accepted the humiliating terms of the Versailles treaty, dull
and unable to maintain law and order. On the other hand Nazi party and Hitler promised strong, decisive government,
overthrow Versailles settlement and build Germany into a great power again thus many Germans supported Hitler
leading to his rise to power.
The economic depression of 1929-35 led to the rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany. It led to high levels of
unemployment, high inflation, decline in industrial production and widespread social misery. By 1931, 6 million Germans
v/ere unemployed. This gained Nazis mass support from teachers, small .scale farmers, civil servants, shopkeepers as he
promised to solve these socio-economic problems. By 1930, the Nazis had won 107 seats in the Reichstag from 12 seats in
1928.
Hitler's own character and personality led to his rise to power . Hitler had extra ordinary political abilities for
example he possessed tremendous energy and will power, remarkable gift for public speaking which enabled him to
articulate his Nazi ideas with great emotional force which inspired many Germans to support him. He used latest
communication techniques like mass rallies, parades, radio and film; he travelled all over Germany by air. He was an effective
recruiter and mobilizer who attracted ex-soldiers, middle class, industrialists, professionals to support him and Nazi party
hence leading to his rise TO power
Hitler's opposition to communism led to his rise to power in Germany. His anti-communist policies earned him
support from the wealthy industrialists, landowners, middle class who feared a communist revolution in Germany. They
financed Hitter and the Nazi party thus leading to his rise to power. The effects of World War I led to the rise of Nazism
under Hitler to power in Germany. The effects of the war on Germany e.g. inflation, massive unemployment, shortage
of goods etc. discredited the Weimer Republic. Hitler promised the Germans to do away with such problems hence
attracting massive support that led to his rise to power by 1933.
Adolf Hitler's attempted coup (Munich Putsch) of 1923 against the Weimer government in Bavaria in
November 1923 contributed to his rise to power. About 3000 Nazis, led by Hitler and General Ludendorff marched
on Munich and tried to overthrow the Bavarian state government but were defeated by the police and Hitler was
arrested and put to trial. Hitler used his trial to make long speeches criticising the Weimer government and setting out
his plans for the future of Germany. The Publicity he received turned him into a national figure and contributed to his
rise to power
Hitler's own writings and the Nazi 25-point program calling for German nationalism, elimination of the
Jews, territorial expansion, improving the conditions of the poor and lower middle class attracted mass
support to Nazis. Hitler's book "Mein Kampi" (My Struggle) that he wrote while in prison in 1923 dignified the
German race, outlined plans for the 3'° German Empire. The book became the 'Nazi Bible' and made Hitler
popular throughout Germany.
The death of President Hindenburg in 1934 led to the rise of Hitler to power in Germany. His death left
a political vacuum which enabled Hitler to become the president and commander of the armed forces thus
establishing a perfect Nazi dictatorship.
The traditions of the Germans towards dictatorial leadership helped Hitler and Nazism to rise to power
in Germany. Most Germans admired authoritarian governments led by powerful army officers and men like
Bismarck, and the Kaisers. Thus many Germans supported Hitler in the general elections believing that he
would give them security, military glory instead of mere political freedom and democracy thus leading to
his rise to power by 1933.
The use of violence/force and terrorist acts led to the rise of Hitler to power. The Nazi party used the
Storm troopers who suppressed the anti-Nazi elements such as Jews, socialists, communists and undermined the
Weimer Republic. This created fear among the Germans which forced them to vote Hitler in the general
election of 1933 thus paving way for the rise of Hitler.

The role of the Nazi storm troopers (Nazi private army) led to the rise of Hitler. This Nazi terrorist squad
caused a lot of violence which discredited the Weimar republic, intimidated the masses who ended up voting
for 107 Nazi representatives in the 1932 elections, threatened President Hindenburg into appointing Hitler as
chancellor in 1933 to avoid massive violence hence his rise to power.
The popularity of the Nazi party led to the rise of Hitler to power by 1933. The Nazi party was very
popular because its ideology blended many traditional German beliefs like German racial superiority, Prussian
militarism and due to its plans like violating the Versailles treaty of 1919, reviving the German economy, military
glory, improving standards of living of Germans, etc. This made the Nazi party to gain support from the rich
middle class, professionals, civil servants, army officials and soldiers thus paving the way for Hitler and Nazism
to rise to power in Germany
The effective organization of the Nazi party led to the rise of Nazism under Hitler to power in 1933. The
party had a representative in almost every town in Germany, adopted Swastika flag as its emblem which
symbolized peace, unity and development as well as uniform, salute and this appealed to many Germans
hence contributing to the rise of Hitler to power by 1933:
The support of the army led to Hitler's rise to power in Germany . Many of the army leaders e.g.
Ludendorff (German supreme commander of World War I) supported Hitler's demands for the full
rearmament of Germany and the abolition of the Versailles treaty. A small clique of rightwing politicians
with support from the German army such as von Papen, von Schleicher persuaded President Hindenburg
to appoint Hitler as chancellor. This support led to Hitler's rise to power
The burning of the Reichstag building in Berlin in February 1933 was falsely blamed on the Communist
Party. As a result many communists and their leaders were arrested which severely hampered the communists
in the March 1933 elections in which they lost many seats in the Reichstag. This gave the Nazis the largest share
of the votes and enabled Hitler to introduce Nazi policies in Germany.
The role of press that was used to publicize the writings of Hitler and the Nazi party , expose
inadequacies of the Weimar government and other political parties contributed to Hitler’s rise to power.
The Tack of effective opposition against Nazism led to its rise to power. Hitler was able to come to
power legally because all other political parties were preoccupied with the threat from communists that they
did not sufficiently recognize the danger from Nazis and so failed to unite in opposition against them which
Hitler exploited to rise to power
Hitler was able to gain some support in elections through the Nazis' effective propaganda machine headed
by Joseph Goebbels. He was able to exploit film, newspapers and radio broadcasts to tell the people what they
wanted to hear so that they would support the Nazis.
The political intrigue among the German politicians led to the rise of Hitler. In 1933 Hitler was appointed
Chancellor by Hindenburg. Hindenburg and his conservative allies like such as von Papen, von Schleicher
thought that they could control Hitler, but they were wrong.
CONSOLIDATION OF POWER BY HITLER IN GERMANY

(Measures used by Hitler to retain power in Germany)
Hitler banned all opposition political parties and Germany became a one-party state. Parties such as
communist party, Social Democratic party, Catholic Centre party. Conservatives and Monarchists were outlawed
leaving Nazi party as the only legal party in Germany by July 1933 thus enabling Hitler to consolidate power.
Hitler passed the Enabling Bill in 1934 which gave him absolute powers to pass any laws he wanted, make
any changes in the constitution without consulting the parliament, and ban all opposition political parties. The
act made the parliament powerless and Hitler passed several absolute orders that consolidated his power in
Germany.
Hitler used administrative reforms to strengthen his position. The state parliaments lost all power and most of
their Functions were taken over by a 'Nazi special commissioner' appointed in each state by the Nazi government in
Berlin. There were no more state, provincial or municipal elections. Germany lost its federal structure and this

extended Hitler's control over the entire state and population hence consolidating his power.
Hitler abolished trade unions and introduced the German Labor Front to which all workers had to belong.
The trade union funds were confiscated and their leaders arrested. The Nazi government dealt with all grievances
of the workers and strikes were not allowed. This silenced a likely source of resistance against Hitler
Hitler ensured strict state control of education . Children in schools were indoctrinated with Nazi opinions,
teachers, professors and lecturers were closely supervised to make sure they promoted Nazi philosophy, school
textbooks were rewritten to reflect Nazi ideologies e.g. biology and History books were dominated by Nazi race
theory which emphasized the greatness of the Germans as opposed to other nationalities.
Hitler appointed loyal Nazis in important posts in the civil service, judiciary, provincial governments, army
which strengthened his position in Germany e.g. Goebbels was appointed Minister of propaganda, Goering was
put in charge of Gestapo (secret police). Rudolf Hess became Hitler's Secretary. Nazis were appointed as
magistrates, judges.
Hitler controlled communication systems and the press in the interests of Nazism. By the end of 1934, about
4000 books were forbidden because they were 'un-German'. Communist plays, Jewish music were banned, by these
methods, public opinion was guided in line with Nazi interests and mass support assured. This reduced internal
opposition and enabled Hitler to consolidate his power.
Religion was strictly put under state control since churches were a possible source of opposition. In 1933,
Hitler signed an agreement with the pope in which he promised not to interfere with German Catholicism and in
return the Catholic Church dissolved the Catholic Centre party. This temporarily enabled him to strengthen his
position in the initial years of his reign. Later Hitler used suppressive means to check clerical opposition by arresting
and sending thousands of priests and nuns to concentration camps.
Hitler used suppressive measures to eliminate his real and potential enemies. Germany became a police state
where the police, helped by Gestapo tried to prevent all open opposition to the regime. He set up special prisons called
concentration camps where thousands of anti-Nazis were jailed such as communists, catholic priests, protestant pastors,
social democrats, Jews, homosexuals.
Hitler’s anti-Semitism policy enabled Hitler to consolidate his power. In 1933, he dismissed all Jews from any position
in the German administration, marriage between the Germans and Jews became illegal, in 1938 the Jewish synagogues were
burnt etc. All these moves were supported by majority Germans who believed Jews were to blame for the Versailles treaty,
economic depression, and communism.
Hitler used propaganda to attract massive support of the German masses. He promoted enthusiasm by military
parades, propaganda films, radio shows, torchlight processions and firework displays, huge rallies were held every year
in Nuremberg which all appealed to the masses and made Hitler popular.
Hitler used the support of German army to strengthen his power. Hitler set aside restrictions of Versailles treaty by
rearmament and expansion of the army. He armed Germany with strong warships, aircraft, and ammunition and increased
the size of the army. This made Hitler popular among the army and strong military kept internal order and prevented
foreign attacks thus enabling Hitler to consolidate his power.
Hitler's successful foreign policy made him popular among the masses e.g. remilitarization of Rhineland, union
with Austria, withdraw of Germany from the League of Nations, annexation of Czechoslovakia. This aroused German
nationalism and mass support for Hitler and his government.
Hitler improved the economy of Germany . He promoted industrial and agricultural development, improved
conditions of workers in industries and factories, introduced massive public works. These provided employment to the
Germans, increased the standards of living and by 1939 Germany was the richest country in Europe. All this made majority
of the Germans to support Hitler and Nazi party thus consolidating his power.
Hitler promoted the German race as a superior race and priotized German interests. This increased the support for
Hitler and his Nazi party and this enabled him to stay in power since he had massive support of the; Germans.
Hitler established a secret state police and spy network to suppress the opposition. The secret police called
GESTAPO and Hitler’s elite bodyguard called SS arrested, tortured, imprisoned and executed t anyone who challenged the
government and this limited internal opposition and consolidated Hitler's power in Germany.

Hitler consolidated his power by creating foreign allies and allying with dictators . This attracted many
nationalists to his side e.g. he formed the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis and therefore an attack on Germany meant offending
the whole alliance. In august 1939, Hitler signed a non-aggressive pact with Russia. All these strong foreign allies
strengthened Hitler's power in Germany.
Hitler exploited the weaknesses of the League of Nations to consolidate his power. The LON was weak as it
had no army to fight against dictators like Hitler. This enabled him to undertake rearmaments occupy the demilitarized
Rhineland, and invade Austria, Czechoslovakia. Hitler got economic military strength that enabled him to consolidate
his power.
Hitler used indoctrination of children through forming the youth group associations e.g. Hitler Youths for the
boys. League of German Girls for the girls where the boys and girls were brought up according to Nazi doctrines. The
girls were prepared for motherhood while boys were taught militarism. A young generation loyal to Hitler and Nazism
emerged with no threat to Hitler's power. The even encouraged to betray their anti-Nazi parents to Gestapo and many
did so.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF ADOLF HITLER IN GERMANY
Hitler strengthened the Germany army by denouncing the terms of the Versailles treaty , through
compulsory military training, strengthening the German navy and air forces, expansion of the German arm etc. By
1939, Germany was the strongest military power in Europe.
Hitler established law and order in Germany and ended the lawlessness associated with the Weimer democratic
government by banning trade unions, restoring traditional values and clamping down on rowdy communists.
Hitler encouraged infrastructure development e.g. built new roads, railways, bridges, and hospitals, built huge
stadiums near Nuremburg, housing projects, promoted banking sector, import and export trade. These programs provided
employment opportunities to the masses.
Adolf Hitler carried out land reforms to empower the peasant farmers who were declared the
hereditary owners of land.
Hitler promoted industrial development in Germany e.g. set up industries to manufacture arms,
ammunitions, steamships, aeroplanes, steel in Berlin, Frankfurt, Ruhr region etc.; Car industries like Mercedes and
Volkswagen, chemicals giant IG Farben prospered from Nazi policies. These provided employment to the masses
Hitler encouraged agricultural development in order to make the country self-sufficient in its food
requirements. Prices of agricultural produce were fixed so that farmers were assured of a reasonable profit. Farms were
declared to be hereditary estates and thus farmers could not be forced to sell or mortgage farms to pay off debts.
Hitler managed foreign exchange rates to avoid inflation. Price levels were stabilized through state control of prices
especially for food and rents.
Hitler improved conditions of workers in industries and factories e.g. he provided pension and insurance to German
workers in the event of sickness or disability, gave workers subsidized holidays in Germany and abroad, controlled rent
charges, provided cheap theatre and concert tickets. This increased the standards of living and by 1945 Germany was
the richest country in Europe.
Hitler reunited the Germans by liberating them from foreign rule e.g. he reunited Germany with Austria, liberated
the Germans in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania.
Hitler checked the spread of socialism and communism from Russia to western and central Europe and thus
protected the interests of the industrialists, land owners, middle class and business people.
Hitler promoted national unity and patriotism in Germany by abolishing separate provincial governments
and setting up a powerful central government under the Nazi party. He promoted the policy of-national community that
made many Germans to have a strong sense of national pride and believed that Germany was racially and culturally
superior to other nations.
Hitler registered a successful foreign policy between 1933 and 1938 that made many Germans to forget about
the humiliations of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles for example remilitarization of Rhineland, union of

Germany and Austria, annexation of Czechoslovakia.
Hitler encouraged high population growth rates in Germany e.g. racially pure Germans and healthy families were
encouraged to have more children and those who responded well were awarded with medals (the Cross of Honor of
the German mother). A mother of 8 children got a gold medal, 6 children a silver medal, 4 children a bronze medal. Family
planning centers were closed down and contraceptives banned in Germany.
Hitler promoted sports e.g. built sports facilities like stadiums with wonderful modern facilities, Germany successfully
hosted the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin which were attended by guests and competitors from 49 countries.
Hitler initiated a campaign telling people about the dangerous effects of smoking on their mental and physical
health. It was the first official anti-smoking campaign in the world.
THE FAILURES OF HITLER
Hitler carried out strict censorship of the press in Germany. Radio programs, films, theatrics, music, and other
publications were strictly supervised. By 1934 about 4000 different publications had been forbidden because they were
anti-Nazism. It was impossible to perform communist plays and listen to Jewish music. Writers, artists and scholars who
were anti-Nazism in their views were banned
Hitler abolished trade unions. The trade union funds were confiscated and their leaders arrested. The Nazi government
dealt with all grievances of the workers and strikes were not allowed
Hitler persecuted the Jews through his anti-Semitic policy e.g. he dismissed them from civil service, sent millions in
concentration camps and by 1939 Hitler had killed 6 million Jews. In 1935, he passed the Nuremberg laws in which all
Germans with at least two Jewish grandparents lost citizenship marriage between the Germans and Jews became illegal,
expelled Jews from Germany, in 193S the Jewish synagogues were burnt.
Hitler persecuted the Catholics in Germany through his policy of protestant domination. The catholic schools
were closed, the catholic Centre party was dissolved in 1933 and many protesting priests were arrested and sent to the
concentration camps
Hitler banned political parties except the Nazi party thus leading to Nazi dictatorship in Germany. By 1940s,
his endless wars caused economic hardships in Germany such as massive unemployment, poor standards of living, and high
inflation.
Hitler allied with the Italian dictator and 1he two leaders promoted fascism and Nazism ideologies in
Europe by destroying other political ideologies like communism. In an effort to protect their interests, they caused World
War II
FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF ADOLF HITLER
Hitler's dictatorship and oppressive policies i.e. ruled with absolute powers banned all opposition political parties.
He persecuted his opponents especially the Jews, Catholics, socialists anal this led to his unpopularity and loss of domestic
support hence leading to his downfall.
The huge size of the German empire contributed to Hitler's downfall . By 1939 German empire comprising of
Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia. It was too big for one leader to effectively control
The formation of counter alliances especially between Britain, France and later Russia increased their military strength
and determination to defeat the fascist ideologies in Europe which they achieved by 1945.
Heterogeneous nature of the German empire by 1939 increased resistances and opposition against Hitler and his
policies. The empire comprised of the Germans, Austrians, poles, Czechs.
The end of the appeasement policy of Britain and France in 1939 led to Hitler's downfall. The end of the policy

made western powers to militarily confront and challenge Hitler's policies hence leading to his downfall
The downfall of Benito Mussolini of Italy in 1943 left Hitler without strong political and military allies to continue
the war against the democratic powers. Mussolini's dismissal by the Italian king led to the breakdown of Axis alliance.
He thus committed suicide hence ending his regime
Lack of a clear political agenda and ideology led to his downfall. Hitler initially mobilized the basing on militarism,
extreme' nationalism. Overtime, the Germans realized that Nazi party lacked a comprehensive and clear political agenda
and thus lost confidence in Hitler leading to his downfall.
The economic hardships in Germany caused by the allied bombardments that destroyed industries, agricultural
farms and other economic sectors led to massive unemployment, inflation, starvation thus, the Germans rebelled
against Hitler leading to his downfall.
Hitler’s aggressive foreign policies characterized by annexation of states like Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
occupation of the demilitarized Rhineland region created many enemies for Hitler and isolated him in international
affairs, increased the determination of western powers to overthrow Hitler thus leading to his downfall.
Germany's invasion of Soviet Union was the biggest mistake that led to Hitler's downfall. This invasion made it
possible for Britain, USA to attack Hitler from the western front thus leading to his defeat and downfall.
Hitler's overestimation of the German army's abilities made Hitler over confident, attack Soviet Union and make
strategic errors thus leading to his downfall.
His over estimation of domestic support
The German invasion of Poland led to Hitler's downfall. This made Britain and other powers to attack Germany thus
leading to World War II that ended the political and military career of Hitler by 1945
Hitler's withdrawal of Germany from the League of Nations galvanized international opposition against Nazi
Germany thus leading to his downfall.
Hitler's persecution of the Jews (anti-Semitic policies) in Germany and other areas under his control like Austria,
Poland led to his downfall. He dismissed them from civil service, sent millions in concentration camps and by 1939 Hitler
had killed 6 million Jews, burnt Jewish synagogues etc. The whole world rallied against Hitler to save the Jews hence
leading to his downfall.
The defeat of Germany in World War II ended the era of Nazism and Adolph Hitler. His defeat made him to
commit suicide in 19-45 thus ending his political career.
1. Account for the rise of Nazism in Germany in 1933.
2. Examine the causes and consequences of Nazism in Germany between 1933 and 1945.
3. How far did the 1919 Versailles treaty contribute to the rise of dictatorship in Germany in 1933?
4. Discuss the origins of Nazism in Germany
5. How did Hitler gain and retain power in Germany
6. Assess the achievements and failures of Hitler in Germany
7. Account for the success of Nazism in Germany between 1933 and 1945
8. What steps did Adolf Hitler take to secure his position in Germany after 1933?
9. How was Adolph Hitler able to retain power in Germany between 1933 and 1945?
10. Examine the methods used by the Nazis to consolidate themselves in power in Germany.
11. Account for the downfall of Adolph Hitler of Germany in 1945.
12. Discuss the factors for the collapse of Nazism in Germany
13. Examine the impact of Nazism in Europe up to 1945.
14. To what extent were the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic responsible for the rise to power of Hitler in 1933?
Expected points
1. It was based on democratic principles hated by most Germans e.g. many Germans within the army, big business,
civil service, and judiciary admired the 'army and officer-class' and thus supported Hitler's rise to power

2. The Weimar republic accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty that disarmed Germany,
imposed a heavy war indemnity, and took away German territories.
3. Weimar constitution was based on a system of proportional representation for all political parties. This led to
chaos in the parliament and unstable governments as no party could win an overall majority
4. Friendship of the Weimar republic with the German enemies especially western powers, League of Nations
through the 'Policy of fulfillment' made it unpopular
5. Its failure to defend Germany from foreign aggression e.g. in 1923 French and Belgian forces invaded Ruhr
region and looted industries, minerals which increased its unpopularity
6. Its failure to address economic problems like unemployment, inflation, high cost of living, economic
depression of 1929 e.g. by 1932 6 million Germans were unemployed.
7. Its inability to maintain law and order e.g. Weimar Germany was characterized by numerous uprisings and
revolts, demonstrations by communists, Free corps, series of political assassinations
8. The domination of Weimar Germany by the Jews e.g. Jews owned the major businesses. Jewish politicians
dominated the government, Jewish artists and musicians flourished in Berlin which increased Nazi
propaganda of purifying the Aryan race
9. The government's failure to check the growing influence of communism that was spreading from
10. Russia made many wealthy landlords, industrialists, middle class to support Hitler
11. The failure of the republic to liberate Germans from foreign rule in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania
12. increased Hitler's nationalistic propaganda to reunify Germany
13. Weimer republic had weak politicians e.g. corrupt officials and government ministers who embezzled state
funds, failed to solve social and economic problems
14. The failure of the Weimer republic to attract the support of the German army e.g. army and the ex-
soldiers hated the disarmament clause of the Versailles treaty hence many Germans supported
15. Hitler who promised the revival of German military power
16. The death of outstanding Weimar leaders e.g. President Hindenburg in 1934 gave chance to Hitler to declare
himself the president of Germany
17. Failure of the Weimar republic to win support of the professional groups like legal an d teaching
professions, civil service e.g. some Bavarian authorities who hated the republic released Hitler after
18. only 9 months in prison instead of 5 years
Other factors
Conclusion
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR 1936-1939 AND THE APPROACH TO SECOND WORLD WAR
The Spanish civil war was a major conflict fought in Spain from J936 to 1939. It was a struggle between the conservatives
(army, church, landowners and fascist elements) against republicans, socialists, communists and anarchists in Spain. The
republicans were supported by foreign volunteers and Soviet Union while the nationalists led by General Franco were
supported by Germany and Italy, The forces on the right were led by General Franco and were called Nationalists while
the forces on the left were led by Azana and were called Republicans.
THE CAUSES OF THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
The effects of economic depression of 1929-1935 led to the outbreak of the Spanish civil war . It severely
affected the agricultural and industrial sector like the exports of olive oil, wine fell in value, iron and steel industries
collapsed leading to massive unemployment thus the government lost support of the workers thus causing a civil war.
The anti-Catholic policies of the Republicans caused the civil war in Spain. The government banned the Jesuit
order and church schools, deprived the Catholics of civil liberties (anti-clerical policies of the second republic). The priests
were no longer paid by the state and the historic privileges of the Catholic Church were attacked. This attracted
opposition from majority of the Spanish people who saw the Catholic Church as the basis of the Spanish civilization
The general insecurity in Spain caused the Spanish civil war. By 1936, there was disorder and political violence
throughout Spain. The peasants seized land from the major landowners and there were many strikes, riots, burning of
churches, arson, assassinations. The murder of the monarchist politician Calvo Sotelo by republican police increased

opposition from the nationalists led by General Franco thus causing the civil war in Spain.
The attempt by the second republic to reduce the influence of the army in the Spanish politics led to the outbreak
of the Spanish civil war. Thousands of army officers were made to retire early on half pay and this caused resentment in
the army.
The rise of Spanish nationalism contributed to the occurrence of the civil war in Spain . Spain was once the
world's most powerful country and by 20th century, it was a poor and corrupt country. It had lost nearly all is overseas
possessions like Cuba, Philippines. This influenced the Nationalists led by Franco to fight the second republic to restore the
tarnished Spanish glory.
The desire to crush the separatist movements of the Basques and Catalans who wanted to control their own affairs
caused the Spanish civil war. The republicans sympathized with separatists especially the Catalans while the nationalists
opposed them on the grounds that it would weaken Spain.
The nationalization policies of the Second republic led to the outbreak of the Spanish civil war. The
republicans nationalised public services, land, banks and railways which threatened the
interests of the Spanish capitalists. The huge estates in Spain were nationalized and taken over by the government. This
made the capitalist forces led by General Franco to declare war against the Popular Front hence causing the civil war.
The fear of communism led to the outbreak of the Spanish civil war. The Popular Front in Spain was associated with
communism and the Soviet Union thus the democratic powers like Britain, France turned a blind eye to the intervention
of the European dictators and the activities of the nationalists leading to the outbreak of the Spanish civil war
The second republic deprive the Spanish nobility of any special legal status
The appeasement policy of the democratic powers e.g. France, Britain, USA etc did not support the second republic
General Franco was opposed to the fall of the Spanish monarchy in 1931 (King Alfonso XIII)
The measurer, against the big landlords
The military rising against Spain's democratic Second Republic was the equivalent of the fascist takeovers that followed
the coming to power of Mussolini in Italy (1922) and Hitler in Germany (1933)
THE SIGNIFICANCE/EFFECTS OF THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
The war led to massive loss of lives because of its savagery and brutality on both sides. The church suffered appalling
losses at the hands of republicans i.e. more than 6000 priests, nuns and monks were killed, while in Barbastro region more
than 80% of clergy died. The most notable single incident was the bombing of Guernica by German planes in 1937 in
which about 1600 people were killed. The nationalist estimated that about a million people died during the war due
to violent death on battlefield, disease end malnutrition
It caused massive destruction of property e.g. 9 out of 10 houses were damaged in the bombing of Guernica by
German planes in 1937. Cities like Barcelona, Madrid, churches, homes were destroyed during the course of the war.
The war increased media involvement in war coverage. There was widespread use of propaganda and news coverage
e.g. photographs showing dead and wounded children were produced by both-sides for foreign consumption. This
made many authors to especially George Orwell to describe the circumstances and horrors of the war.
The war attracted the intervention of foreign powers e.g. Franco's forces received aid from Germany and Italy while
republicans got some aid from Russia and international volunteers from Britain, France, USA . Mussolini and Hitler sent men,
military equipment, food, raw materials to the nationalists.
It manifested the appeasement policy of Britain e.g. Britain and France did not officially and openly support the
republicans in the war because they wanted to prevent the spread of the war to other parts of Europe and thus
announced their policy of non-intervention.
The German support to the nationalists enabled Hitler to access Spanish minerals for the German factories after
the victory of General Franco. Spain provided minerals to Germany until 1944.
The war enabled the Germans and Russians to use the war as a testing ground for German and Russian men
and equipment. Germany and Soviet Union used Spain as a 'dress rehearsal' for a later war between the two powers. They
both brought in their newest weapons and practiced their skills in destroying civilian targets from air. Germany sent a

special squadron known as 'Condor legion used in bombing raids.
The war made the fascists/dictators popular in Europe and their countries . The success of the nationalists
marked the triumph of dictatorships over western democracy and this boosted the image of the axis powers.
The war led to European tension over the Mediterranean shipping as a result of Germany and Italy involvement in
the war. The British ships, including warships were attacked by submarines of unknown origin.
The Spanish civil war led to establishment of fascism in Spain under General Franco. Spain joined Italy- Germany and
Japan in the anti-Comintern Pact at the end of the war as an alliance of dictators pursue a common foreign policy against
communism.
The Spanish civil war prompted Hitler to pursue further aggressive foreign policies e.g. it Hitler to annex
Austria in March 1938 without attracting remarkable interest in Europe. Italy was preoccupied in Spain.
The war led to displacement of people e.g. thousands of Spanish republicans went to exile in refugee camps in southern
France to escape reprisals by General Franco and the nationalists. Others were forced to migrate to Russia and Latin
American countries.
After the war General Franco sent about one million of his republican enemies to prison and concentration
camps.
The Spanish civil contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The victory of the fascists gave confidence to
the dictators that they could directly challenge the western democrats. This led to more aggressions that finally led to
the outbreak of World War II.
The Spanish civil war generated a new wave of warfare for example the use of tanks and the terror of aerial
bombings. Such strategies were adopted during World War II.
The war exposed the weaknesses of the League of Nations. During the civil war, Russia, Germany, Italy ignored the
league covenant on arms by massively exporting arms to Spain.
The Spanish civil war enabled the Spanish to overcome the economic depression through massive aid from the
Nazis and fascists and also through massive mobilisation of the people to fight in the war.
The war intensified Italo-German hostility towards Russia . During the war, Russia supported the republicans
while Italy and Germany supported the nationalists. This drew communist Russia to western democracies during
World War II.
REASONS FOR THE NATIONALIST VICTORY IN THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
The support from the foreign powers to the nationalists e.g. German transport planes helped ferry. Franco's army
from Morocco to Spain, 16,000 troops, the Condor Air Legion while Mussolini supplied 75,000 soldiers. This outweighed
foreign support for the republicans.
The non-intervention policy of Britain, France, and USA prevented the republicans from purchasing arms openly,
denied aid to the republican government and hampered its ability to resist the nationalists
General Franco was an excellent field commander whose cautious and gradual tactics helped to secure nationalist
victory. He had strong military tactics and political strategies.
The Nationalists had the support of the most powerful groups in Spain especially the army officers, capitalists,
landowners, Catholic Church (domestic support).
An embargo on arms stopped international aid from the republican sympathizers but many countries turned a blind
eye to the fascist supporters of Franco.
Franco skillfully held together the various nationalist groups while the republicans were bitterly divided
between the communists, socialists and the anarchists
The weaknesses of the Non-intervention Committee led to the victory of the nationalists. It was not able to stop
the flow of help to General Franco from Italy, Germany but put a great strain on the republican regime in Spain.
Britain hoped that General Franco would be an effective bulwark against communism and thus allowed
him to defeat the republican regime

The elite army of Morocco supported the revolt
The fear of communism as the popular front was associated with communism
General Franco received financial support from the American Texaco oil company and other influential
sympathizers in Washington
Nationalists were better organized
1. Discuss the causes of the Spanish civil war of 1936
2. Examine the causes and effects of the Spanish civil war of 1936
3. Analyze the reasons for the nationalist victory in the Spanish civil war (1936-1939)
4. To what extent was the involvement of foreign powers decisive in securing a nationalist victory the Spanish civil
war by 1939?
5. Explain the significance of the 1939 Spanish civil war.
6. Assess the impact of the Spanish civil war (1936-1939) on Europe
7. Account for the success of General Franco in Spain by 1939
8. To what extent did the Spanish civil war contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE
THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945
World War II started in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on-Germany following Germany's
invasion of Poland and lasted up to 1945. It was fought between Germany and her allies like Italy and Japan (Mis powers)
against Britain, France, Russia and later USA plus their allies in different parts of the world. It ended in 1945 with the defeat
of Germany and her allies.
THE CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II
1.The weaknesses of Versailles settlement of 1919 led to the outbreak of World War II. The Versailles settlement was
signed between Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Turkey and the victor powers after world war one. The settlement especially
Versailles treaty had various weaknesses that sowed seeds for the outbreak of World War II as explained below;
i. The settlement was imposed on Germany by the victor powers . Germany did not take part in the discussions
and resolutions leading to the treaty and was simply called to endorse. This later made the Germans under Hitler to
violate its terms consequently leading to World War II.
ii. It entirely blamed Germany for causing world war one. It failed to apportion the blame for outbreak of World
War I properly and fairly and condemned Germany alone for the outbreak of World War I. This annoyed Germans
who developed feelings of revenge against Britain, France which resulted in the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
iii. It imposed unfair penalties on Germany in the reparations to the victor powers . Germany was forced to
pay 6.6million pounds in form of money, ships, livestock, and minerals. This led to economic hardships which Hitler
exploited to rise to power and start a series of aggressive wars that resulted in World War II with his invasion of Poland.
iv. It only disarmed Germany from 4 million to 100,000 soldiers yet other powers continued with their arms
programs. Germany was disarmed and made powerless to resist any attacks while the victor powers further increased
their armaments. As a result German nationalists like Hitler started rearming Germany which sparked off a new arms
race that caused World War II.
v. The Versailles settlement neglected the interests of Italy and Japan leading to the rise of dictators. Italy felt
cheated because she did not receive ail the territory promised her in 1915. This made Italy and Japan to ally with
Germany to form the axis alliance. This axis alliance and its aggression destabilized international peace and led to
World War II.
vi. It was so harsh to Germany that later on led to Britain and France adopting the appeasement policy in
1930s which later caused World War II. When Germany began to rearm in 1934, many politicians in Britain and France

felt Germany had a right to rearm in order to protect herself. The Munich agreement of 1938 allowed Germany
to fake back Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia.
vii. It created weak states around Germany that became vulnerable to German aggression . States such as
Poland, Austria and Czechoslovakia were economically and militarily weak and unable to defend themselves against
aggression from axis powers. This encouraged Hitler to conquer them one by one which caused World War II when
Germany attacked Poland in 1939.
viii. It disintegrated Germany leading to the rise of German nationalism for example 3 million Germans were
absorbed in Austria, 2 million Germans in Yugoslavia, 2.5 million Germans in Poland, 3 million Germans in
Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Hitler started the campaign of liberating Germans from foreign rule which led to his
invasion of Poland that caused World War II.
ix. It created a weak League of Nations which failed to effectively handle international disputes. The LONs
lacked a joint navy, army to deal with aggressors which encouraged Hitler to wage aggressive wars and violate the
Versailles treaty which resulted in outbreak of World War II
x. The treaty of Versailles of 1919 made Germany to search for new allies and this led to the creation of Rome-
Berlin-Tokyo axis which increased tension and suspicions in Europe that finally contributed to the outbreak of World
War II.
xi. Versailles settlement led to the rise of dictators in Europe for example Mussolini and Hitler. Hitler and
Mussolini's rise was based on their rejection of the Versailles treaty. These later supported the rise a fascist dictator
General Franco in Spain. The activities of these dictators threatened the democratic powers resulting into World
War II.
xii. It denied Germany of her territories in Europe, Africa and other territories which created bitterness among
the Germans. Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine, West Prussia, Tanganyika, Namibia, Togoland which made Hitler
to embark of imperialistic adventures to acquire territories which sparked off World War II when he attacked Poland.
xiii. Versailles settlement forbade the union of Austria and Germany yet; both countries very much wanted it .
This hurt the Germans and later in March 1938, Hitler invaded and annexed Austria to Germany to unite all Germans
in one state and this aggression heightened tension in Europe leading to outbreak of World War II.
xiv. The treaty of Versailles cut Germany into two through establishment of the Polish Corridor . This hurt the
German national feelings and made Hitler to wage wars against Lithuania, Czechoslovakia and Poland to reunify the
country which climaxed in the outbreak of World War II IN 1939.
2.The weaknesses of the League of Nations (1920-1939) led to the outbreak of World War II. The LONs failed
to preserve world peace and contain the events in the inter-war period that resulted in the outbreak of World War II as
explained;
i. Lack of permanent army to enforce League resolutions encouraged German, Japanese, Italian aggression
e.g. when Hitler was ordered to move out of Czechoslovakia, he refused knowing that the league had no army
to challenge him. This gave Hitler confidence to invade Poland in 1939 which sparked off World War II.
ii. The failure of LONs to attract the membership of USA denied the league the American economic and
military resources. As a result, the LONs failed to check aggression from the axis powers which resulted in the
outbreak of World War II in 1939.
iii. The League of Nations failed to restrain the European dictators e.g. Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in but
no action was taken by the league, in 1936 Hitler violated the Versailles treaty e.g. remilitarize the Rhineland,
rearmed Germany. This encouraged aggression and eventually led to World when Hitler invaded Poland in
1939
iv. The League, of Nations failed to stop the German invasion of Poland which sparked off World War II.
The league did not restrain German aggression against Poland and the declaration of war by Britain and France
against Germany which led to the outbreak of World War II.
v. Failure of LONs to safeguard democratic governments in Germany, Italy, Spain led to the rise of
dictators who caused a series of aggressive wars that climaxed into world war II in 1939 e.g. Weimar republic
in Germany was overthrown by Hitler, the Liberal government in Italy was overthrown by Mussolini,
conservative government in Spain was overthrown by republicans.
vi. The inability of the League of Nations to enforce the provisions of the Versailles settlement led to
occurrence of World War II e.g. Germany invaded and remilitarized the Rhineland; Hitler united-Austria. This
increased the economic and military strength of Germany and encouraged Hitler to attack Poland thus causing

World War II.
vii. The LONs failed to stop the Spanish civil war 1931-36 between General Franco's rebels supported by Italy
and Germany against the Spanish republican government supported by Britain and France. The war acted as a
dressing rehearsal for World War II.
viii. The failure of League of Nations to promote collective security among its members led to the outbreak
of World War II. Countries ignored the idea of collective security in preference to their own national security
thus there was no collective action against Hitler, which encouraged him to wage a series of aggressive wars that
resulted in the outbreak of World War II.
ix. The failure of LONs to prevent the re-emergence of the alliance system during the inter-war period led
to the outbreak of World War II e.g. axis alliance of Germany, Italy and Japan, alliance of Britain, France, Poland,
non-aggression pact between Germany and Russia etc. This again divided Europe into hostile camps.
x. The failure of the LONs to detect and avert the economic depression of 1929-35 led to outbreak of
World War II. It failed to promote free trade, address the loopholes in the gold standard system. The resultant
economic hardships encouraged aggression from axis powers which caused World War II.
xi. The failure of LONs to prevent re-armament in the inter-war period led to World War II. It failed to
disarm the victor powers such as France, Britain which made Hitler to rearm Germany to their level which
revived arms race in Europe which caused World War II.
3.The revival of the alliance system in Europe led to World War II. By 1939, Europe was divided into hostile camps
e.g. Germany, Italy and Japan formed the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis while France and Britain and Russia formed some
sort of Entente and this increased tension, suspicions leading to the war. Britain also had a military alliance with Poland
thus when Germany attacked it in 1939, Britain declared war on Germany leading to the outbreak of World War II.
4.The Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and Soviet Union of August 1939 increased Hitler's confidence to
invade Poland, fight Britain and France since it removed the German fear of war on two fronts (Eastern and Western
fronts). The Pact of Steel signed in May 1939 strengthened the military ties between Germany and Italy and made Hitler
more reckless in pursuing German interests like the invasion of Poland which led to the outbreak of World War II.
5.The rise of nationalism in Europe contributed to the outbreak of World War II. The desire to revive the
greatness of Germany, unite all the Germans who were torn apart by Versailles settlement led to Hitler's invasion of
Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland which led to the outbreak of World War II. Mussolini was also driven by Italian
nationalism to create a fascist empire in the Mediterranean region and Africa to invade Ethiopia, Albania which all
disrupted European peace and led to World War II in 1939. Japan wanted an empire in the Pacific region extending into
China and Australia thus leading to Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. This militant nationalism climaxed in the
German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that sparked off World War II.
6.The ideological differences led to outbreak of World War II. Britain, France, USA supported the ideology of
democracy while Germany, Italy and Japan promoted authoritarianism (autocracy). This increased hostilities between
Axis powers and allied powers as shown by the Spanish civil war in 1936. The fear of communism made Britain and
France to adopt the policy of appeasement to enable Hitler and Mussolini destroy communism which they exploited to
rearm, violate the Versailles treaty, and wage a series of aggressive wars that culminated in the outbreak of World War II.
Fascism and Nazism glorified militarism and war as acceptable means of achieving national goals. , As a result
Mussolini and Hitler adopted aggressive foreign policies involving wars which climaxed in the outbreak of World War II.
7.Re-armament/arms race and militarism in Europe led to the outbreak of World War II . By 1939, Different
European countries e.g. Germany, Britain, France, Russia were involved in the manufacture of defensive and aggressive
weapons and increased the size of their armies. This created tension, suspicion and rivalry which caused World War II. It
also increased the desire by the European dictators in Italy and Germany to revenge on the victor powers which led to
the war.
8.The rise and alliance of dictators contributed to the outbreak of World War II. The dictators included Adolf Hitler,
Benito Mussolini, Hirohito and General Franco. The dictators formed the Berlin-Rome- Tokyo axis which increased
aggression, militarism, tension and suspicions in Europe. The dictators invaded other countries e.g. Japan attacked
China, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, Albania, Hitter attacked Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland. Hitler and Mussolini
intended to dominate the whole world and in an effort to stop them, World War II occurred.

9.The effects of economic depression of 1929-1933 contributed to the outbreak of World War II as
explained;
i. Economic depression kept Britain and France busy solving internal economic problems and gave little
attention to the activities of the League of Nations. This weakened the League of Nations and made it unable to
deal with rising aggression in Europe which contributed to the outbreak of World War II.
ii. The depression destroyed the economies of many countries causing unemployment, high inflation which
provided fertile ground for the rise of dictators and authoritarian governments that promised to solve economic
problems for example Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy, military clique in Japan. These started aggressive wars that
caused World War II.
iii. Countries which were hit by the depression resorted to imperialism so as to conquer others for market, raw
materials for example Japan annexed Manchuria in 1931 and Italy invaded Ethiopia.
iv. It damaged international relations where countries resorted to high tariffs as a mechanism to protect their
economies and this spoilt political harmony which caused World War II.
v. It made USA to withdraw from European affairs and this left Britain, France and other league members
unable to challenge German aggression which resulted in the outbreak of World War II.
10.The failure of appeasement policy contributed to the outbreak of World War II. Appeasement was a policy
followed by the British and later by the French, of avoiding war with aggressive countries such as Japan, Italy and
Germany by giving way to their demands, provided they were not too unreasonable. This policy was suggested by British
Prime Minster Neville Chamberlain. However, the appeasement policy later failed and caused World War II as
explained below;
i. The western powers took no action to check German rearmament because of the policy of
appeasement. The policy enabled Germany to regain its military power and thus attack other countries e.g.
Poland which caused world war II in 1939.
ii. Appeasement convinced Hitler of the complacency and weakness of Britain and France to such an
extent that he was willing to risk attacking Poland, thereby starting World War II. The policy made the dictators to
think that the victor powers had lost political and military control over world affair.
iii. Though Britain and France strongly protested at the union between Germany and Austria (1938 many
in Britain saw it as the natural union of one German group with another. But Britain's lack of action encouraged
Hitler to make demands on Czechoslovakia thus paving way for the outbreak of World War II.
iv. Appeasement especially with regards to Czechoslovakia (Munich agreement) gave Britain and
France time to rearm for an eventual fight against Hitler. Thus when Hitler attacked Poland in 1939 Britain
was ready for a military showdown with Germany thus causing World War II.
v. Appeasement led to only half-hearted British action against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia . The
success of fascist aggression in Ethiopia encouraged further axis aggression from Germany, Italy which destabilized
European peace and led to World War II.
vi. The policy enabled the Germans and other aggressors to revive the alliance system in Europe e.g. the
formation of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis by Germany, Italy and Japan which destabilized Europe hence causing
World War II.
vii. Appeasement undermined the efforts of the League of Nations. It was sidelined by the European
democrats especially Britain and France and failed to check aggression in Europe which resulted in the outbreak
of World War II.
viii. Appeasement increased Hitler's prestige at home as Britain and France gave way to him and this
encouraged him to fake bigger risks. The policy encouraged him to annex Austria in 1938 encouraged Hitler to
invade Czechoslovakia in March 1939 paving way for outbreak of World War II. Neither Britain nor France
officially intervened in the Spanish civil war though Germany and Italy sent decisive help to General Franco.
Britain tried to entice Mussolini to remove his troops by officially recognizing Italian possession of Ethiopia
(1938]. The war encouraged further axis aggression which caused World War II.
ix. The originators of the appeasement policy i.e. Britain and France eventually got fed up of it because they
realized Hitler was a man who could not be satisfied. So when Hitler occupied Poland, the democrats
abandoned the policy and declared war on Germany leading to World War II. The policy enabled Germany
to nullify the Versailles treaty e.g. German re-occupation of Rhineland, by 1938 the reparations had been largely
cancelled enabling Germany to recover which gave her the economic strength to wage wars which climaxed

with the German invasion of Poland and outbreak world war II.
x. Appeasement policy encouraged the spread of new ideologies of Fascism and Nazism ,
authoritarianism for example in Spain. Austria. Czechoslovakia which intensified conflicts and threatened the
interests of western powers thus causing World War II.
xi. Appeasement policy led to Anglo-German naval agreement in 1935 condoning German naval
rearmament. This enabled Germany to rebuild its naval forces which increased its confidence to attack other
nations which resulted in the outbreak of World War II.
xii. Appeasement policy led to rebirth of militant German nationalism and desire for revenge against
former allied powers for the humiliation of Versailles treaty of 1919 which led to outbreak of World War II.
xiii. Appeasement policy pursued by Britain and France made the aggressors to think that their demands
were justified. It is out of this conviction that Hitler invaded Poland in 193 which sparked off World War II.
11.After Hitler's success at Munich, he was so convinced that Britain and France would remain passive, that he
decided to gamble with Poland. This led to German invasion of Poland in September 1939 which sparked off World
War II
12.The role of the Press propaganda and public opinion led to war hysteria, increased suspicion among the
countries especially in Germany, Poland, Britain, France hence leading to World War II. The newspapers, magazines,
journals, and radios created favorable conditions for war e.g. the German press like the Popular Observer newspaper
advocated for foreign wars, exaggerated the persecution of Germans in Poland. In mid 1930s the British and French press
called for an end to the appeasement policy and partly influenced British and French governments to fight Germany in
1939 hence leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
13.Hitler's persecution of the Jews in Germany, Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia contributed to the outbreak of
World War II in 1939. Hitler and Nazis had a program to exterminate the Jews from Germany and Europe in general. The Jews
were persecuted and massacred by Nazis in Germany, Italy. Poland, and Austria. This was opposed by Britain. France, USA,
Russia and this made these powers to join the against Germany when she invaded and occupied Poland in September 1939
14.Economic imperialism and its conflicts particularly by the dictators contributed to outbreak of
World War II. The dictators invaded other nations in order to acquire raw materials, restore their
national prestige, expand their territories and influence etc. Mussolini for example invaded Ethiopia
in 1935, Albania, Hitler of Germany invaded Austria. Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Japan attacked
Manchuria of China. All these imperialistic designs increased tension, conflicts in Europe, threatened
the interests of other powers and thus led to World War II in 1939.
15.The Spanish civil war and the rise of General Franco of Spain led to outbreak of World War II. The European
dictators especially Mussolini of Italy supported General Franco while Britain and France supported the conservative
government. The victory of General Franco and the dictators gave confidence to the dictators that they could
directly challenge the western democrats. This led to more aggressions that finally led to the outbreak of World War II.
16.The German invasion and occupation of Poland on 1st September 1939 sparked off World War II. It made the
European democrats to abandon the policy of appeasement and confront Hitler militarily. Germany refused to
withdraw from Poland within 24 hours given and thus Britain and her allies declared war on Germany on 3ra September
1939 leading to the outbreak of World War II.
WHY THE ALLIED POWERS DEFEATED THE AXIS POWERS IN WORLD WAR II
From July 1943 to August 1945 allied powers like Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, and USA defeated axis powers like
Italy, Germany and Japan due to the following reasons
Germany's Invasion of Russia in June 1941 contributed to the defeat of Axis powers. The Operation Barbarossa
against Russia had negative consequences for example made it possible for Britain.
USA to attack Hitler from the western front hence the German forces were divided between east and west hence the
defeat of axis powers.

The entry of USA in the war on the allied side contributed to the victory of the allied powers. The Japanese invasion
of Peart Harbor in 1941 made USA to join the war and brought the badly needed tanks, food, and clothing to the allied
powers while the axis powers had no reinforcement whatsoever.
The ruthless brutal behavior of the Axis soldiers in the conquered territories contributed to their defeat. The Nazis
treated the conquered people of Eastern Europe as sub-humans fit to be slaves of Germans which aroused resentment in
their conquered territories. As a result the local population in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Russia set up resistance
movements that carried out acts of sabotage en the German forces, provided valuable military information to the allied
troops hence lading to the defeat of Axis powers for example Marshal Tito organized resistance forces against Germany
in Yugoslavia.
The American defeat of the Japanese in Midway Island In 1942 contributed to the defeat of axis powers. In 1942,
the American naval aircraft destroyed the Japanese fleet which weakened the naval power of the axis forces in the Pacific
and ended the period of unchecked Japanese success.
The allied success at the bottle El Alamein In October 1942 in Egypt contributed to the defeat of axis powers. The
common wealth forces expelled the axis forces from North Africa and secured the strategic Suez Canal from falling into
the hands of the Germans. The possibility of linking up the axe forces in the Middle East and Ukraine was cleared and the
battle seriously drained the German forces.
The German failures in Russia facilitated the victory of the allied powers. The Russians defeated German forces
at Stalingrad in 1943 which shattered the myth that Germans were invincible boosted the Russian morale. After the
battle of Stalingrad, the Russians advanced and defeated the German allies of Finland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
The superiority of the allied air power led to the defeat of the axis powers. The US Air Force, Royal Air Force of Britain
destroyed the axis lines of communication especially railways and canals, destroyed Germany's major ports and cities
especially the great industrial centre of Ruhr and her oil resources which weakened her all war efforts.
The vital role of the allied naval forces led to the victory of the Allied powers. By 1943, the German U boats were
being driven out of the Atlantic by the allied navies. British navy removed the threat from surface raiders by sinking
'Bismarck', Germany's only battleship at the lime (May 1941), provided escorts for convoys carrying tanks, aircraft,
canned meat and other supplies to help the Russians.
The superior technology of allied powers contributed to the defeat of axis powers. Britain, USA and France
produced long range missiles, radars, aircrafts with better ranges and precision compared to those of the axis powers
like the German VI (flying bombs) and V2 (long range rockets) that fated to knock cut Britain from the war
The fall of Italy in September 1943 paved way for the defeat of axis powers. Italy provided air bases for bombing the
German military forgets in central Europe and Balkans. German troops were kept occupied in Italy when they were
needed to resist the Russians. This enabled the allies to liberate France and other areas in Europe, Italy also joined the
allies against Germany.
The numerical strength of allied powers led to the defeat of axis powers . The allied powers had more
manpower and soldiers from all over the world for example USA, East Africa, South Africa, Balkans, China, India,
USSR, France, Britain etc. and thus defeated the axis powers who were clearly outnumbered in many battles.
The serious tactical mistakes of the axis powers contributed to their defeat. The failure of Japan to appreciate
the importance of aircraft carriers. Hitler's failure to provide for the winter campaign in Russia and his policy that
Germans must not retreat, his concentration on production of V rockets instead of Jet aircrafts were serious mistakes
that cost them the war.
The death of Hitler led to the final defeat of Germany. Hitler committed suicide on 30th April 1945 and this
demoralized and disorganized the axis fighters thus leading to their defeat. He was succeeded by Admiral Doenitz who
unconditionally surrendered to the allies on May 7, 1945.

The use of atomic bombs on Japan made it to accept allied terms of unconditional surrender . On 6th and 9th
August 1945, USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively which led to unprecedented
destruction of life and property and thus forced Japan to surrender on 14th August 1945 thus ending World War II in
the defeat of Axis powers.
The vast resources of the allied powers enabled the defeat of axis powers. The British commonwealth, USA, USSR,
China represented a combination of manpower, wealth, raw materials, industrial capacity and scientific skit1 more powerful
than that of Axis powers. This superiority facilitated the defeat of the axis powers.
The disastrous leadership of Hitler contributed to the defeat of the axis powers. Hitler was full of false confidence
which made him underestimate his opponents. He refused to listen to the advice of his military generals and hence made
fatal mistakes like attacking Russia and refusing to allow strategic withdrawals like during the attack at Stalingrad which
undermined the morale of the axis soldiers thus leading to their defeat.
On the other hand, the allied leaders like Winston Churchill, Roosevelt. Truman, and Josef Stalin showed great skill
in mobilizing their citizens and people in occupied countries to support their war efforts against the axis powers.
The fighting of the war on large scale in many parts of the world led to the defeat of axis powers. The area was too
big e.g. Russian front, both sides of the Mediterranean Sea. Western front and coastline of France, pacific war etc for the
axis powers that had fewer troops which led to their defeat in various part.
The ability of the allied powers to cut off supply of raw materials to Japan, Italy and Germany led to the defeat
of axis powers. The Americans closed the Panama Canal to Japanese ships, the allies imposed trade embargo on Japan
in important war materials like oil, rubber, shipping and Germany was short of rubber, cotton, nickel and later oil. This
weakened the resistance of the axis powers f- The policy of unconditional surrender by Roosevelt and Truman i.e. the allied
powers were determined to defeat axis powers and achieve total victory by overthrowing the Nazi. Fascist and Japanese
military regimes made them to succeed.
The use of propaganda by allied powers in the media e.g. on BBC, Voice of America. The propaganda mobilized
support for the allies, increased morale of the fighters and supporters thus defeating the axis powers.
The allies soon learned from their early failures. By 1942 they knew how to check German 'lightning attacks' and
appreciated the importance of air support and air craft carriers. Consequently they built up air and naval superiority
which won the battles of Atlantic and the Pacific and slowly staved their enemies of supplies
The bad weather conditions led to the defeat of axis powers. The German forces were affected by severe winter
conditions in Russia that claimed many German soldiers.
The entry of Russia Into the war boosted the strength of the allied powers because it provided the badly needed
equipment like tanks, clothing, armaments, food whereas the axis powers had no external boost
The axis powers under estimated the strength/might of the allies. Hitler expected rapid victory in war over both
Britain and France, after which he would be able to wage war against Russia alone.
However, he failed to defeat the British army and it turned out to be a protracted war.
THE EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR ON EUROPE
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
World War II led to massive loss of lives of both combatants and civilians. About 40 million people died on battle
field, due to explosions, starvation. About 20 million were Russians, 6 million were Poles, 4 million were Germans, 2
million Chinese, and 6 million Jews were killed by Nazis in the Nazi death camps. This contributed to depopulation in
Europe.

It led to massive destruction of property in Europe. German cities like Dresden and Hamburg were destroyed by
allied bombings, 85% of buildings in Warsaw were destroyed by German troops. Much of western Russia was
completely devastated, almost 50% of the total French wealth was lost (housing, factories, railways, mines, livestock), serious
damages in south Italy from bombings. This led to extensive urban redevelopment in ruined cities after the war especially
in USSR and Germany.
The 2nd world war led to displacement of people . After the war, about 21 million people were displaced and
this created problems to allied powers to resettle the people, repatriate the refugees. Many Czechs, Poles had been sent to
Germany to work as slave laborers, some had been put into concentration camps and some had been forced to flee from
invading armies. Some Europeans migrated to North and South America, Australia, South Africa.
The war led to economic decline in Europe due to destruction of industries, destruction of agricultural land by bombings
like Ruhr in Germany, north east France, London thus leading to unemployment, inflation, poor standards of living,
shortage of food and essential commodities. The economy of Western Europe was devastated by the bombings
which had destroyed almost all important industrial zones.
The war gave birth to cold war in Europe between Russia and he former allies. After the war, Russia
set up satellite communist regimes in almost every country in south Eastern Europe which led to sharp
ideological conflicts with western capitalist powers for example Berlin blockade of 1948-49 thus causing
cold war.
The end of World War II led to allied occupation of Germany by USA. Russia, Britain and later France
for an indefinite time. Each power occupied and administered a defined zone and Berlin was similarly divided
into sectors. Reparations were also collected by the powers from the areas they occupied. This later led to
the division of Germany into West Germany and East Germany.
The war led to formation of alliances and renewal of arms race , the western allies formed NATO in
1949 while the eastern countries formed Warsaw Pact in 1959, after the war there was advancement in the
production of nuclear weapons by USA, Soviet Union, Britain, and France. These were to strengthen their
defensive capacities in case of war.
World War II led to ideological division of Europe into two camps i.e. capitalist camp and socialist
camp. The capitalist world like USA, Western Europe emphasized private ownership of resources. The socialists
like Russia and most of Eastern Europe emphasized state control of resources.
The war led to the collapse of League of Nations and formation of United Nations organization
to promote peace, cooperation and human rights. It tried to promote social, political and social
harmony through its agencies like UNHCR, WHO, ILO, WFP, UNICEF since 1945.
World War II led to massive population movements in Europe. In the areas taken from Germany by
Russia and Poland and in German-speaking areas in Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia, about 10 million
Germans were forced to leave and move to West Germany so that no future German government would
be able to claim those territories.
World War II proved how it was possible to wipe out the human race from the face of the earth
through warfare. This was underscored by the atomic bombing of Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
massive loss of lives in the course of the war, threats of nuclear warfare
POSITIVE EFFECTS
The end of the war led to the trial of German war criminals between 1945 and 1946. The war criminals
were tried and punished especially the surviving Nazi leaders at Nuremberg by an international military
Tribunal for example Ribbentrop, Seyss-Inquart and other Generals closely associated with Hitler.
World War II led to the signing of peace treaties between the allies and the minor defeated powers

especially Italy, Rumania. Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland in 1947. The peace treaties were prepared by the foreign
ministers of allied powers. Italy lost Trieste, Finland lost territory to Russia while Germany had surrendered
unconditionally.
The war led to the redrawing of the map of Europe . Austria was detached from Germany. Russia
received part of East Prussia, Poland was given a western frontier incorporating much former German
land.
It Increased Russian influence in European affairs , Russia played a key role in liberating Eastern
Europe from Nazi' occupation during the war. After the war Russia signed military alliances with mostly
eastern European countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, East Germany etc and established
satellite communist regimes.
The war led to the provision of relief and rehabilitation of war-torn Europe. From 1943, the allies
provided relief and rehabilitated the territories liberated from axis occupation. By 1947, they had saved
millions of lives from the effects of famine, disease, the destruction of homes and the general economic
breakdown in many of the defeated countries. In 1947, the Americans provided the Marshall aid to Western Europe
to rebuild their devastated economies especially Britain, France, Sweden, Austria, Italy which led to great economic
prosperity in the 1950s.
It led to wartime conferences organized by the allied powers. During the course of world II, the allied powers
particularly USA, Britain and Russia organized the-Yalta conference and Potsdam conference which laid the
foundation or post war Europe.
The war led to the formation of United Nations organization to replace the discredited League of Nations to promote
peace, cooperation and human rights. It tried to promote social, political and social harmony through its agencies like
UNHCR, WHO. ILO, WFP, UNICEF since 1945.
World War II facilitated rapid scientific and technological development in Europe and beyond. After the war,
countries like France. Britain. USA, and USSR invested in research and development to produce weaponry for national
defense and medicine to alleviate diseases. As a result, radar systems, jet engines, ballistic missiles, nuclear weapons,
DDT to combat malaria, penicillin for treating wounds were produced
The war ended Europe's domination of the rest of the world. It led to the decline of Western Europe as global powers
because they were exhausted by the fighting and thus lost their hegemony over international affairs. Germany was
devastated and divided, France and Italy were on the verge of bankruptcy. Britain sold of many of her foreign investments
leading to the emergence of USA and USSR as new super powers because they suffered relatively little from the war and
had enjoyed great prosperity from supplying war materials, food to other allies.
World War II led to loss of colonies by European powers due to the decolonization process that followed. The war
weakened the military and economic strength of European colonial powers. By 1970 most countries in Asia, Middle
East, and Africa had regained their political independence.
The war led to the establishment of Jewish state of Israel in 1948. The world was disturbed by the massacre of about 6
million Jews by Nazis in Europe, As a result the Jewish nationalists supported by United Nations partitioned Palestine and
established Israel as a permanent home for the Jews.
The war led to the spread of communism in Europe. The war enhanced the prestige of communist government of
Russia due to its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany. This enabled the spread of communism to Eastern Europe such
as Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, East Germany, and Bulgaria by the soviet soldiers who occupied the liberated
areas. Communist parties were very popular across Western Europe and fared well in the post-war elections especially
in France and Italy.
World War II led to the downfall of dictators and axis leaders in Europe. Mussolini of Italy was dismissed and later died
in 1943; Hitler committed suicide in his underground bunker In 1945 while the rule of Japanese military ended after the

Americans used atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, This led to the overthrow of the Nazi,
Fascist and Japanese militarist regimes.
The war led to the defeat of Germany and her allies i.e. Axis powers by the allied powers. Nazi Germany, fascist
Italy, imperial Japan were completely defeated and transformed into democracies and peace-loving nations. This led to the
collapse of Nazism and fascism which had been responsible for terrible atrocities.
World War II led to change of governments in Europe. In Italy, the monarchy was abolished and o Republican
government set up in 1946, in Germany, the Nazi dictatorship ended and there was establishment of a democratic
government in West Germany and a communist government in East Germany. In France, the 3'd French Republic fell and
the 4m Republic (1946-1958) was established, labour governments were established in Britain.
The war led to the birth of European Economic Community in 1957 (EEC). After 1945, the European states particularly
in Western Europe abandoned their traditional culture of rivalry and competition and started to cooperate
economically, politically, militarily e.g., Organization for European Economic Cooperation, European Coal arid
Steel community that gave birth to EEC
The war contributed to unpopularity of liberal democracy and rise of welfare states in Europe . The' new
governments provided medical care, education, family allowances, subsided housing for the poor, unemployment
allowances thus leading to the rise of welfare states and governments in Norway, Denmark, Britain, and France
World War II enhanced women's rights movements in Europe. The vacuum created in factories, offices, farms,
church by men fighting in the war was filled by women. After the war, these women refused to give up their jobs and
the governments in Germany, Britain. USA, France etc. were forced to allow women to work and to increase equality in
pay with their male counterparts
The war led to Increased American influence in European affairs. After the war the U.S. army stationed in Europe to
prefect Western Europe against a possible Soviet or German) attack. It a/so provided economic assistance to Western
Europe through the Marshall Plan.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. To what extent was Adolf Hitler's foreign policy responsible for the outbreak of World War II in 1939?
Expected points
1. Hitler's foreign policy aimed at repudiating the Versailles peace treaty, formation of greater Germany including
those who belonged to German culture in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, make Germany the greatest military
power in the world, have good relations with England etc
Role of Hitler's foreign policy
2. The withdraw of Germany from the League of Nations in 1933 and withdraw from the disarmament conferences
in Geneva
3. His non-aggression pact with Poland in 1934 alarmed European powers who feared German aggression
southwards through Poland
4. The repossession of Soar by Germany in 1 935 encouraged Hitler to start making military preparations on a large
scale
5. Hitler's unsuccessful efforts to annex Austria in 1934 alarmed Europe about Germany's imperialistic
designs. This sparked off alliances in Europe to jointly face German aggression in future e.g. Italy,
Czechoslovakia and later France entered a military pact
6. Hitler violated the Versailles treaty especially its military clauses and thus started remilitarizing
Germany. This alarmed Britain, France and Italy and thus formed a united front against German
aggression
7. Hitler signed a naval pact with England in 1935. This gave lee way to Germany to increase her military
strength as long as it did not exceed that of England. The increased Germany power encouraged
it to attack other nations
8. Hitler signed a military alliance with Italy and Japan called the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis in 1937. This
again divided the world into two hostile camps. Britain, France and Russia also formed their alliance

9. The German annexation of Austria in 1938 into the Nazi empire encouraged Hitler into further acts
of aggression
10. Hitler signed the Munich agreement with western powers in September 1938 in which Germany
regained Sudefenland region of Czechoslovakia and promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia.
However, Hitler later violated this which undermined European diplomacy
11. The German invasion and occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 exposed the failure of the
appeasement policy and made Britain and France to abandon it
12. Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with Soviet Union in 1939. This encouraged Hitler to invade
Poland on 1st September 1939
13. German invasion of Poland sparked off world war II
14. His aggressive foreign policy led to The formation of military pacts in Europe e.g. the alliance of Britain,
France and Russia
Other factors
2. "Adolf Hitler's invasion of Austria was primarily responsible for the outbreak of World War II" Discuss
Expected points
1. Hitler of Germany invaded Austria in 1938. His aim was to reunify Germany, acquire the German lost territory,
repudiate the Versailles treaty and revive German power in Europe
2. It exposed the weaknesses of the League of Nations which failed to take action against Hitler and
his aggressive policies
3. It increased mistrust and suspicions from western democratic powers against Hitler and created a
state of uncertainty in Europe which caused world war II
4. Hitler's use of force against Austria undermined European diplomacy in handling disputes
5. It encouraged Hitler into further acts ot aggression which threatened world peace e.g. he was
encouraged to attack Czechoslovakia in 1938 and Poland in 1939 which had substantial German
populations which sparked off world war II
6. It encouraged rearmaments and conscription among the European powers in preparation for war
which revived arms race e.g. in Britain
7. It allowed Hitler to control large areas of Austria with necessary economic and military resources
which encouraged him to declare wars e.g. Austria's soldiers, weapons and its rich deposits of gold
and iron ore areas, strategic position in central Europe
8. It exposed the weaknesses of the appeasement policy pursued by the democratic powers i.e. France
and Britain- which later made them to militarily confront Hitler to stop further German advance when he invaded
Poland
9. It was a violation of the Versailles treaty that forbade the union of Germany and Austria which
attracted the hostility of Britain and France hence increasing tensions in Europe
10. if encouraged the formation of military pacts in Europe e.g. the alliance of Britain, France and Russia
11. The invasion encouraged other dictators (aggressors) to openly violate international -law which
increased tension in Europe leading to world war II e.g. Italian invasion of Albania, Japanese
invasion of Manchuria (China)
12. invasion was treated as a manifestation of open German aggression, a type that had disturbed peace in 1914
13. If encouraged Hitler to sign the non-aggression pact with Stalin of Russia which encouraged him to invade Poland
Other factors and conclusion
3. "Adolf Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia was responsible for the outbreak of World War II." Discuss
4. "Adolf Hitler's invasion of Poland was primarily responsible for the outbreak of World War II." Discuss
3. "The outbreak of World War II was inevitable" Discuss

4. Account for the outbreak of World War II in 193?
5. The Appease men! Policy was primarily responsible for the occurrence of World War II" Discuss
6. To what extent did the Versailles treaty contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
7. How did Appeasement Policy lead to outbreak of World War II?
8. How far did the rise of dictators contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
9. "To what extent did the Spanish Civil War (1 931 -36) contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
10. Explain the rote of the Axis Alliance in the outbreak of World War II.
11. "Germany'* invasion of Poland fed to the outbreak of world war II" Discuss
12. "The policies of Britain led to the outbreak of World War II" Discuss
13. "Germany was mainly responsible for the outbreak of World War II" Discuss
14. Account for the defeat of the Axis Powers In World War II.
15. Discuss the reasons why the Axis Powers were defeated In the second world war
16. Examine the impact of World War If on Europe
17. "The 2nd World War was a turning point In the history of Europe" Discuss
18. Assess the Impact of World War II on Europe up to 7970
19. Explain the obstacles to international cooperation and peace in Europe during the inter-war period (1920-1939).
SIX WAR-TIME ALLIED CONFERENCES

THE YALTA CONFERENCE 1945
THE POTSDAM/BERLIN CONFERENCE 1945

CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (1945-1970)
United Notion-, Organization officially came into existence in October 1945 after World War II to replace the discredited League
of Nations. It was an international organization formed to promote world peace and cooperation with its headquarters in New
York. It was a product of the Atlantic Charter of 1941. The UN's Charter established 6 distinct bodies that served different
functions e.g. General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice,
Trusteeship Council.
REASONS WHY THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION WAS FORMED (Aims and Objectives)
To maintain international peace and security in the entire world using diplomacy and peaceful
resolution of conflicts.
To check and control aggressive leaders whose actions had resulted in breakdown of international
peace and security and outbreak of wars.
To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of people.
To provide relief services for the rehabilitation of many people that had been displaced and
rendered helpless as a result of wars
To punish war criminals for their "crimes against peace and humanity". Many Nazis and Fascists
faced military tribunals.
To control drug trafficking and traffickers both of whom had been condemned for causing social
unrest and making the world become mad with very many unruly people.
To help the war-ravaged countries like Japan and Germany and other countries destroyed by World
War II to recover and rebuild their countries. It was to also ensure the reunification of-countries
dismantled by the war like Germany
To promote economic cooperation, rendering assistance from the countries that had enough resources to those with
meager (less) resources.
To promote better health standards in the world through supporting establishment of hospitals,
health facilities, controlling epidemic diseases.
To promote disarmament and check both nuclear and conventional arms race so as to encourage
people to observe peace.
To promote democratization and this was to be encouraged by the International! Court of Justice tor
the protection of human rights.
To combat environmental threats e.g. controlling sea pollution, controlling the spread of the desert
conditions, protecting plants, animals etc. and improving the rural and urban settlements.
To resettle these people displaced and left homeless by wars and other catastrophes.
To assist the colonized countries to get their independence. This was realized in South Africa, Namibia etc.
To promote the rights of the children e.g. their rights to seek education, to enjoy adequate nutrition,
housing, health, recreation and this was embraced in the 1959 declaration in the rights of the

children.
To promote women emancipation. They were to be integrated in the development process and
there was to be no discrimination between men and women.
To address the problems of workers in the world such as poor working conditions, child labour,
unemployment
GENERAL SUCCESSES/ ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (1945-1970)
The UNO improved its membership from 50 members in 1945 to over 150 by 1970. This enabled it to
act as a forum to address international problems where representatives of countries come together
and talk to each other. Even the smallest nation had a chance to make itself heard in a world forum.
This promoted international diplomacy in world affairs.
The UN tried to maintain international peace and security by peaceful resolution of conflicts, use
of military forces, peace keeping forces which led to 25 years of relative peace up to 1970 e.g. it
helped in resolving conflicts between Iran and Soviet Union in 1946. Suez Canal crisis of 1956, Cuban
missile crisis in 1962, Turkish-Greek conflict over Cyprus in 1964 etc.
The UN encouraged worldwide disarmament and arms control by setting up the Disarmament
Commission in 1952 and initiating the disarmament talks, established Atomic Energy Commission
to check the spread of nuclear weapons. Through the efforts of UN, a nuclear limitation
treaty was signed in 1968 by the nuclear powers which helped to control the spread of the most
destructive weapons to other countries.
The UN helped in the control of diseases and promoting good health. The World Health Organization tackled cholera
epidemic in Egypt in 1947 which threatened to spread through Africa and Middle East. Quick action by a UN team
brought epidemic under control and waged a continuous battle against other diseases like malaria, TB, Leprosy. The UN
provided money to train doctors, nurses and other health workers in developing countries and kept governments
informed about new drugs. By 1966, WHO had helped over 1200 health projects in 152 different countries.
The UN helped to minimize threats against the environment like pollution, deforestation, and
desertification. In 1972, it organized an environmental conference in Sweden and set up United
Nations Environment Programme with headquarters in Nairobi which raised international awareness
about environmental damage and conservation.
It provided humanitarian assistance to victims of floods, conflicts, wars (refugees). After. 1968 floods in Florence
(Italy), UNESCO played an important part in repairing and restoring damaged art treasures and historic buildings. The
UN agencies like United Nations High Commission for Refugees, World Food Programme helped Arab refugees from
Palestine who were forced to leave their homes when Palestine was divided up to form Israel e.g. in providing basic food,
clothing, shelter, medical supplies, built schools, hospitals, houses, training centers in refugee camps lo enable refugees to
get Jobs.
The UN enabled several states get Independence by 1970 in Africa. Asia and Latin America. The UN through The
trusteeship Council assisted many nationalities morally, politically and materially in their move towards independence.
!t helped the former colonies of Germany, Italy. Japan to achieve independence or self-government. The various states
of former Italian empire in Africa got independence such as Libya, Somaliland became part of Republic of Somalia, and
Eritrea was reunified with Ethiopia. In 1960. The UN sent peace keeping forces to help facilitate the decolonization
of Congo from Belgian rule.
UNO United/wed the contain aggressive leaders that threatened the independence of member stares e.g.
North Vietnam aggression led by Ho Chi Minn against south Vietnam in 1960s was contained by LIN
members, Gaddafi's attempts to annex Chad in the 1960s were slopped by the UN intervention,
North Korea1; attack on South Korea in i960 was repulsed by UN army led by MacArthur.

The UN de-campaigned cultural and racial discrimination in most parts of the world. UN condemns
the racist Smith regime in Rhodesia and applied sanctions on it. In the General assembly of UN,
African states constantly challenged the South African policies of apartheid, 1n 1970, ten African countries
attempted to secure the expulsion of South Africa from the United Nations.
It promoted economic development and provided financial assistance to developing countries

through financial agencies like International Monetary Fund that provided short-term loans to
countries in financial difficulties, World Bank that provided larger and longer loans for economic
development. In 1970. The United Nations Development Programme gave economic assistance
to 93 developing countries amounting to 95.5 million dollars. The UN General assembly designated
the sixties as "UN Development Decade" in an effort to expand the trade, industry and agriculture
of the under developed countries. The food Agricultural Organization (FAO) promoted agricultural
development in Third world countries.
The UN tried to promote democracy and respect for human rights through the declaration of universal
human rights and setting up the International Court of Justice at Hague. All member governments
of UN were expected to produce a report every 3 years on the state of human rights in their country.
This encouraged respect for human rights for example right Jo liberty, religious and political freedom,
right to education and economic well-being. The ICJ at Hague successfully settled judicially the
frontier dispute between Holland and Belgium and a disagreement between Britain and Norway
over fishing limits
The efforts of UN led to establishment of the Jewish state of Israel in 1948 . The UN proposed the
partition of the state of Palestine between the Jews and Arabs in order to create a homeland for
Jews who had been persecuted in Europe by the Nazis. The Jews declared an independent state
of Israel in 1948 which was recognized by UN. To deal with specific problem of Arab refugees from
Palestine, United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) was set up in 1950.
The UN promoted the rights of children. In 1946 United Nations International Children's Fund (UNICEF) was set up
to look after the special problems of children in countries affected by war or other calamities, it helped children left
homeless in World War II, improved health and living standards of children especially in poorer countries. In 1959,
UN officially declared children's rights e.g. basic rights like parentage, health, right to education, balanced diet.
The UN through international Labour Organization led to Improvement In the working conditions for
example child labor was discouraged, long working hours condemned, ensured fair wages and salaries to workers,
relations between employers and employees.
The UN addressed Issues related with drug trafficking and consumption of intoxicating drugs like
opium through sensitization programs about the dangers of such drugs
UN promoted education especially in developing countries and countries ravaged by World

War II. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) encouraged
the spread of literacy, spent much of its time and resources setting up schools, teacher-training
colleges in under-developed countries. Its principle was "the best way to avoid war is by educating
people's minds in the pursuit of peace. UNESCO coordinated educational research and promoted
international scientific and cultural cooperation. It staged conferences of educationists, scientists
and technologists.
UN ensured international relations in space in the 1960s. The Treaty of Principle Governing the Activities of water in
the Exploration and Use of Outer Space was signed by Russia, USA and Britain, It involved arrangements for mutual aid
in space and for the banning of the use of space for military purposes.
UNO succeeded in preventing the outbreak of another world war (world war III) by promoting
international diplomacy and brotherhood. If existed as a forum for almost all notions of the world.

The member countries were 127 by 1970 and its very existence averted many potential crises that
would have caused another global war
The UN integrated different cultures of the world through international sports and games such as football,
boxing, athletics, Olympic Games.
In 1970, the UN was able for the first time to discuss to call together a World Youth Assembly with 758 delegates to discuss
contemporary political and social problems
FAILURES OF UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION
The UN failed to ensure effective disarmament which was one of its aims. In most cases, the UNO
disarmed the small states but failed to disarm the big powers like USA, Russia. Britain, France, and
China that instead produced more sophisticated and dangerous weapons like nuclear weapons,
intercontinental ballistic missiles. Russia and USA refused to agree to international control mechanisms
of the nuclear weapons especially during the difficult period of the cold war.
The decolonization process was slow and not complete by 1970 because of the weaknesses of
Trusteeship Council. By 1970, South West Africa (Namibia), a territory given to white South Africa as
a mandate by the Versailles treaties in 1919 was still a trouble spot. It remained under white minority
rule as was South Africa itself, Angola, Mozambique, and Southern Rhodesia which were all under white colonial rule.
UN failed to convince developed countries to provide meaningful economic conditions to poor

countries to facilitate their development. Developed countries continued to dominate markets
in poor countries, attach hard conditions on loans and foreign aid, discriminate countries on the
basis of ideology thus widening the gap between the poor and rich nations. When Poland and
Czechoslovakia applied fo r loans from World Bank, they were both refused because they were
communist states.
The UN failed to totally solve the Arab-Israel conflict in the Middle East. The creation of Israel in 1943
left o million Palestinian Arabs as refugees. The Arab states never recognized the right of the state Of
Israel to exist which led to frequent conflicts and wars in the region e.g. the Israeli-Arab wars of 1948,
1967, 1973.
The UN failed to resolve completely some conflicts and crises thus leading to massive loss of lives,
genocide and other horrors e.g. Greek-Turkish conflict over Cyprus, Kashmir conflict between India
and Pakistan, Congo crisis were not fully addressed e.g. the Congo crisis led to the killing of the first
Prime minister Patrick Lumumba following the withdrawal of the UN forces.
The UN failed to wipe out drug and human trafficking which were evils against humanity . This was
because the sensitization programs were not followed by effective measures to control the traffickers.
The UN failed to address and end the cold war and its effects that threatened world peace. USA and
Russia with divergent ideologies continued to rival in many parts of the world leading to proxy wars.
The UN failed to check aggression from big powers e.g. 1956 USSR invaded Hungary and in 1968
USSR invaded Czechoslovakia and refused to withdraw despite Security Council resolutions. UN also
tailed to check American aggression in Vietnam in 1960s.
UN failed to stop the new alliance system for example the formation of NATO, Warsaw Pact, Baghdad Pact, and Western
Block versus Eastern block
The UN failed to reunite the countries that were disunited by World War II and its effects . By 1970 Germany
was still divided into East Germany and West Germany; Vietnam into South Vietnam and
North Vietnam. Korea into South Korea and North Korea.

THE SEARCH FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE
THE INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS RESOLVED BY UNO BY 1970
UNO played a major role in helping defuse international crises and in resolving conflicts. If undertook complex
operations involving peacemaking, peacekeeping, mediations, diplomatic means and humanitarian assistance. The
UN was successful in its peace keeping efforts especially in crises which did not directly involve the interests
of the great powers as evidenced below
The UN succeeded in solving the conflict between Iran and Soviet Union. In 1941, Iran was jointly
occupied by allied powers to prevent possible axis occupation but after World War II, UK withdrew
their forces from southern Iran while Russia remained in Northern Iran. The UN Security Council passed a resolution urging
USSR to withdraw its troops from Northern Iran and in 1946 USSR withdrew thus ending the conflict. On 23'a May 1946
the two countries normalized their diplomatic relations.
The International court of Justice at Hague dealt successfully with the frontier dispute between Holland and
Belgium as well as disagreements between Britain and Norway over the fishing limits.
The UN solved the conflict between Indonesia and Holland between 1945 and I949. After the defeat of Japan by
allied powers in 1945. Indonesia declared its independence from Japan. However, Holland tried to regain control of
Indonesia and this fed to hostilities between the two states, UNO intervened and achieved a ceasefire and by 1949 the
conflict had ended with Indonesia becoming fully independent.
The UN Security Council intervened in the Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan in the years
1949 to 1961. After 1947. Kashmir a large province lying between India and Pakistan was claimed
by both slates. The Indians occupied the southern part of Kashmir while the Pakistanis occupied the
northern part which led to frequent armed hostilities. This deadly armed conflict was halted by the
UN through enforcing a ceasefire using the UN peacekeepers. The UN observers were deployed at
the border of India and Pakistan in 1949 to prevent further armed hostilities.
The UN contained the North Korean aggression against South Korea In 1950. In 1950, North Korea
invaded South Korea (Korean War) and the UN Security Council passed a resolution calling upon
member states to defend South Korea. The troops of 16 nations led by USA pushed North Korean
forces out of the south and preserved the frontier between the two Koreas along the 38 parallel states.
The two countries signed an armistice in 1953 hence halting the war.
UN successfully intervened in the Suez Canal crisis of 1954. When the Egyptian President Abdel Nasser suddenly
nationalized the Suez Canal, in which Britain, France had many shares, the two powers protested strongly and sent
troops to protect their interests. At the same time Israelis also invaded Egypt from the east to overthrow Abdel Nasser.
However, UN General Assembly passed a resolution demanding the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Egypt. Britain,
France and Israel heeded and thus the crisis ended peacefully using UN peacekeepers.
The UN also intervened in the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 and finally succeeded in averting a nuclear
war between USA and Soviet Union. Through the UN mediation, Russia agreed to withdraw its nuclear
missiles from Cuba and USA pledged not to invade Cuba or assist the Cuban exiles to invade Cuba.
UN tried to contain the conflict between majority Greeks and minority Turks on the island of Cyprus
from 1964. In 1963, the Greek leader proposed constitutional changes to reduce the influence of
minority Turks on the island which sparked off a civil war. The UN intervened using the UN peace
keeping forces ana1 ended the civil war and also prevented the intervention of Turkey and Greece
in the Cyprus. A UN peace-keeping force was permanently stationed in Cyprus to prevent the
Greeks and Turks from resuming hostilities.

The UN settled the conflict between Italy and Yugoslavia over the control of Trieste after World War II. From
19-17 to 1954, Trieste was declared an independent state under the protection of UNO. Later, it was divided between
the two states thus ending the dispute between Italy and Yugoslavia
The UNO tried to diffuse the conflict/dispute between the Jews and Arabs in Palestine. After
investigations, (he General Assembly approved a resolution to. partition Palestine and set up the
Jewish state of Israel in 1947.
The UN partially solved the Congo crisis, in 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo
(UNOC). The largest military force of its early decades, to restore order to the breakaway State of Katanga. In
1961, UN forces moved against the rebellious forces of Katanga and forced them to sign an armistice. The UN
restored Katanga to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964. While travelling to meet with
rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag Hammarsjold, the UN Secretary -General died in a plane
crash.
The UN promoted cooperation among member states through the principle of universality and resolved
international conflicts. This helped to reduce international tensions and led to a period of 25 years of relative
peace up to 1970.
UN Initiated the disarmament talks in the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) from 1969 among the big
powers which reduced tension and conflicts arising out of nuclear arms race. USA and Soviet Union agreed
to place limits on strategic weapons like ballistic missiles.
UN tried to check the aggression of leaders like Ho Chi Minh of North Vietnam who wanted to forcefully
spread communism to South Korea.
UN cooled down the conflict between Britain and USSR during the Greek civil war in 1946
Through UN agencies like IMF, World Bank, UNHCR, WFP, poverty, refugee crises, food shortages and human
suffering that would have caused international conflicts were minimized.
THE CONFLICTS THAT UNO FAILED TO ADDRESS BY 1970
The UN was unable to prevent a series of wars between Israel and various Arab states in 1948-49, 1956, 1967
and 1973 following UN controversial decision of dividing Palestine between the Jews and Arab Palestinians that was
not accepted by majority of Arabs.
The UN failed to settle the dispute between Britain and Albania in 1944. In 1946,'Britain accused Albania
of laying mines near the Greek island Corfu and demanded for compensation from Albania for the damage caused
to the British shipping. The International Court of Justice upheld the claim and ordered Albania to compensate
Britain. Albania refused to pay, claiming the court had no right to judge the case.
UN failed over the Hungarian crisis of 1954. When Hungary tried to exert its independence from Russian control.
Soviet troops entered Hungary and crushed the revolution. The Hungarian government appealed to UNO, but
the Russians vetoed a Security Council resolution calling for a withdrawal of their forces. Russia simply ignored
UNO.
The UN failed to handle the Czechoslovakia crisis of 1968 when Russia and Warsaw Pact allies invaded
Czechoslovakia in order to halt Alexander Dubcek's political liberalization reforms and uphold the power of the
communist ideology. The Security Council tried to pass a motion condemning action, but the Russians vetoed it.
UN could not do anything in the face of USSR's refusal to cooperate.
The UN failed to settle the Congo crisis of 1961-64 leading to massive loss of lives including the death of Dag
Hammarskjold; the UN Secretary General who died in a plane crash in the Congo an Patrice Lumumba, the

first Prime Minister of Congo.
It failed to handle the Kashmir crisis since 1947 between India and Pakistan over the border-territory
of Kashmir leading to occasional armed hostilities between nuclear-armed India and Pakistan that
threatened regional peace. UN failed to find a permanent solution to the Kashmir question.
It failed to end the cold war politics which polarized the world for many years and threatened
international peace for example NATO members conflicted .with WARSAW pact countries. If failed
to completely remove mutual mistrust among the great powers e.g. USA and USSR and this increased
tensions in different parts of the world.
The UN failed to implement comprehensive disarmament especially among the super powers who
produced more sophisticated nuclear weapons, atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs, earth satellites
especially soviet union, USA, France. This threatened international peace.
United Notions failed to normalize relations between North and South Korea and they remained
divided and technically at war. The tensions in the Korean Peninsula remained high and highly
militarized. After 1953, the United Nations committee for the reunification of Korea achieved no
success by 1970.
The UN failed to handle the southern Rhodesia problem of unilaterally declaring independence under fan Smith
which brought diplomatic conflicts between her and her allies of Portugal and apartheid South Africa and other
independent African states.
United Nations failed to peacefully handle the conflicts between Greece and communist states
in the Balkans. In December 1946, the Greek government complained that Albania, Bulgaria and
Yugoslavia were giving assistance to communist rebels in the Greek civil war. Russia prevented
Security Council action and the communist states refused to cooperate with UN Special commission
on the Balkans which was set up to secure the peaceful settlement of disputes in the Balkans.
UN Security Council failed to address the Berlin blockade and the German problem as a whole which brought
the western powers and Soviet Union on the brink of war in 1948, 1958 and 1961.
THE CHALLENGES/WEAKNESSES FACED BY UNITED NATIONS BETWEEN 1945 - 1970
The world was still full of economic and social problems, acts of aggression and wars continued by 1970
The shortage of funds curtailed the activities of UN. The vast scope of UN work needed large sums of
money to finance its operations. It was entirely dependent on contributions from member states for
its peace keeping operations, expenses of special agencies. Inadequate funding and dependence
on members for funds affected the operations of UN like promoting education, fighting diseases,
peace keeping operations e.g. during and after the Congo crisis from I960 to 1964, Russia, France
and Belgium refused to contribute financially to UN which brought UN close to bankruptcy
The lack of a permanent UN army made it difficult to prevail upon powerful states with selfish interests
for example USSR ignored UN demands for the withdrawal of Russian troops from Hungary (1956).
In 1967, when the member states withdrew their troops from the Egyptian border with Israel, the
conflict escalated. UN was unable to stop wars when warring parties were not ready to stop fighting.
Lack of a permanent army limited the scope of its peace keeping operations in war-torn countries.
The ideological differences of the leading members affected the activities of UNO. The clash of rival ideologies
hindered the work of peace-keeping and enforcement of international law. The great powers provided aid to only
countries that subscribed to their ideologies for example When Poland and Czechoslovakia applied for loans from World
Bank in 1950s, USA refused because they were communist states. Because of the differences in ideologies, leading

powers promoted coups, civil wars, led to continued division of Germany. Vietnam, and Korea thus defeating the
objectives of the U.N.O-
The UN lacked effective penalties and relied on weak economic sanctions e.g. it imposed trade embargo on
Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa but were ignored by other members like Portugal. This delayed the achievement of
independence of Namibia, South Africa frorn the white minority rule.
The dictatorship of the Security Council (Veto powers) was one of the biggest challenges of the UN. The
five permanent members of the Security Council i.e. Russia. USA, Britain, France and China dominated decision making
and used the veto for their selfish national and imperial interests e.g. Russia used its veto during I he Hungarian crisis of!
956 to prolong its stay in Hungary. The existence of the veto prevented the development of an international peace-
keeping force.
The timing of its involvement in areas of disputes was not clear . Sometimes the UN delayed to intervene for
example in Vietnam. Cuban missile crisis. This left the UN to be accused of indecision and lack of firmness. This made
some countries to put more faith in their own regional organizations like NATO and signed many agreements without
involving the UN.
The cold war politics curtailed the activities of the UN. The great powers promoted civil wars in Korea. China.
Angola as proxy wars to further the interests of the leading powers. The continued division of Germany, Korea was
largely due to cold war politics.
The domination of USA personnel, armies, agencies in the UN system attracted hostility of other UN members.
The headquarters of UN are in New York. USA which is not a neutral state. USA provided the UN with 25% of its annual
budget and this enabled it to influence the decisions which sometimes were not in interests of international peace and
diplomacy.
The duplication of services provided by some UN agencies was a big challenge because it led to wastage of
effort and resources for example WFP and FAO, World Bank and IMF overlapped too much which overstretched the
financial resources of the body. The FAO was criticized for spending too much on administration and not enough on
improving agricultural systems. GATT and UNCTAD seemed to be working against each other i.e. GATT tried to
eliminate tariffs and anything else that restricts trade while UNCTAD tried to get preferential treatment for the
products of Third world countries.
The arms race especially between USA and its allies versus Russia again threatened international peace and
stability. The major powers spent vast sums of money on armaments at the expense of economic development. The
UN faced the challenge of securing the cooperation between the super powers to carry out nuclear disarmament
and stop the spread of nuclear weapons beyond the great powers.
The formation of regional security organizations e.g. NATO. Warsaw pact, SEATO undermined the collective action
of UNO against aggression. The members of these security organizations often intervened in the conflicts affecting
their members without the involvement of UN.
Neocolonialism i.e. exploitation of independent powers by the big powers in Europe and North America which
hindered the development of many third world countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America. Because of imperial interests,
many European companies opposed UN action against Katanga in which they had vast financial interests.
The emergence of Power blocs and alliances within the General Assembly e.g. Non-Aligned Movement.
Islamic Conference, African group, Arab group etc. These challenged the dominance of western nations in the UN and
almost paralyzed the activities of UN.
The UN was faced with the challenge of the Arab-Israeli conflict which it inherited from the British in 1948. This
conflict led to a series of wars in Middle East that imposed a heavy burden on UN in peace keeping operations and also
threatened regional and international peace

It was faced with world economic problems and under development e.g. in Africa there unfavorable terms
of trade, challenges of Poverty, disease, the deteriorating environment and other non-traditional security factors that
posed enormous threats to the international community.
The civil wars and coup d’etats in Nigeria, Ghana. Congo, Uganda undermined the UN objectives of
promoting democracy and peace.
The colonial question and hostilities/issue of sell-determination e.g. in Namibia, South Africa,
Zimbabwe, Indonesia had not been granted independence.
The influence of the super powers ruined the prestige of UN in the 1960s and 1970s. The progress of
international relations was often a result of bilateral negotiations between Russia and USA rather than through
United Nations, Some major international problems were handled by the major powers with UN playing a
secondary role e.g. Suez Canal crisis and Middle East crisis.
THE STRENGTHS OF UNITED NATIONS
Its wide membership from 51 in 1945 to about 150 members by 1970 . This made it a truly world
organization than its predecessor
The membership of the superpowers like USA and Soviet Union. These two powers were the founder
members of the UN
Its earlier successes earned it approval and respect e.g. disarmament, prevention of wars between Israel
and various Arab states, socio-economic support through its various agencies like UNESCO, WHO.
UNICEF, UNDP etc.
It had a strong administrative structure such as Security Council, Genera! Assembly, Secretariat,
Trusteeship Council, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice.
The veto powers of the five permanent members of the Security Council helped to take decisive
action against aggression or any other disputes
Its capacity to mobilize a peace keeping force in case of need
The six official UN languages such as English, Drench. Russian, Chinese, Spanish and Arabic. All The and
debates were translated in these six official UN languages.
UN spent much more time and resources on economic and social matters and its scope was wider than
the League of Nations.
The increased power and prestige of the Secretary General enabled the UN to fake more decisive action
than the League of Nations. The UN Secretary General had greater responsibility and influence than his
counterpart. He had the power to bring before the Security Council any matter he wished.
The UN was committed to safeguarding the individual human rights which the League of Nations
did not get involved in.
1. Why was United Nations Organization formed?

2. Discuss the aims of the founders of United Nations organization
3. To what extent did the UNO achieve the aims of the founders up to 1970?
4. Assess the achievements of the United Nations Organization up to 1970

5. Discuss the activities of UNO up to 1970.
6. Examine the weaknesses and strengths of UNO between 1945 and 1970.
7. Examine the world problems with which UNO was concerned between 1946 and 1970,
8. Examine the role played by UNO in Its peace keeping operations up to 1970.
9. How successful, was UNO in dealing with international disputes up to 1970?
10. To what extent was the UN successfully the search for peace by 1970?
11. Examine the role of UNO In maintaining world peace up to 1970.
12. To what extent did the UNO succeed in resolving international conflicts by 19707
13. Examine the challenges faced by UNO between 1945 and 1970.
14. Discuss the problems faced by UNO in achieving the objectives of its founders by 1970?
CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT

THE COLD WAR, 1945-1970
Towards the end of World War II, the harmony which had existed between USSR. USA and Britain begun to deteriorate
and the old suspicions came to the tore again. Relations between Soviet Russia and the West soon became so difficult
that although no actual fighting took place directly between the two opposing camps, the period after 1945 saw the
first phase of what became known as 'Cold war'. This struggle was 'cold' because there was no actual fighting and it
was 'war' because it was a serious and deadly conflict.
Cold war was an ideological struggle of democracy and capitalism championed by USA and its allies like Britain,
France, Japan, Canada and communism championed by USSR and its allies like Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary. It
was the state of hostility without actual warfare that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union from after
World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union.
It was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars and economic competition between the
communist world (Soviet Union and its allies) and the capitalist world primarily USA and its western allies, it was a
period of poor relations between the capitalist, democratic powers led by USA versus the communist, authoritarian
powers led by USSR.
Though the powers were not engaged in any major battle with each other, cold war was expressed through;
 Military coalitions such as NATO, Warsaw pact
 Strategic force deployments
 Extensive aid to allied states deemed vulnerable
 Proxy wars like Korean war
 Espionages
 Propaganda
 Conventional and nuclear arms race
 Rivalry a' sports events
 Technological competition e.g. space race
 Military tensions
 Economic competition
THE CAUSES OF COLD WAR
The ideological differences between communist states and capitalist, liberal and democratic states caused
cold war. USA and Soviet Union represented two opposing systems of government and economic management. In
USA and Western Europe, the government was elected by free elections, there was freedom of press, speech, political
association and operated on the basis of private ownership of national wealth while in Soviet Union, the government
was formed by the communist party and believed in collective ownership of national wealth and centrally planned
economy. USSR and USA saw each other as profound enemies to their basic ways of life which strained their relations
thus causing cold war.

Josef Stalin's foreign policies caused tensions and threatened the interests of the western powers leading to cold
war. Stalin's policy of occupying Eastern Europe after the defeat of Nazi armies in Finland, Germany, Poland, Romania
alarmed western countries. He supported communist parties in Western Europe especially in Italy, France, Spain and parts
of eastern Germany and Austria, supported the Greek communists in 1946 to make Greece a soviet republic
which alarmed the capitalist countries of USA. Britain who supported the monarchists. Josef Stalin revived
claims to control large provinces of eastern Turkey (naval bases in Bosphorus and Dardanelles). This
threatened western capitalist and created conflicts with western powers thus leading to cold war.
The Berlin blockade of l946-49 following the disagreements among the victor powers about the
future of Germany caused cold war. Soviet Union controlled half of Germany and half of Germany's capital,
Berlin. The United States. Britain and France controlled western Germany and West Berlin. In June1948, the
Soviet Union blocked roads and railroads that led to West Berlin. The western powers used air lift (planes)
for over a year to maintain the supplies. This strained the relations and heightened the rivalry between the
Soviet Union and the United States.
The rise of politicians hostile to soviet Russia in Europe and USA caused cold war. After the death of
Roosevelt, his successor Harry Truman was more suspicious and toughened his attitude towards communist.
Bernard Baruch, an American presidential adviser, James Byrnes warned the Russians that USA would maintain
a permanent military presence in Europe, US ambassador George Kennan sent a "Long Telegram" warning
USA about soviet threats to American interests. The moderate and conservative parties, social democrats in
Western Europe supported western alliance against Soviet Union. This worsened the relations between the
communist camp and western powers leading to cold war. The new leaders failed to agree with Russia on a
number of issues thus causing tension, suspicions and mistrust that resulted into cold war.
The spread of communism in Eastern Europe and Increased communist propaganda in countries like
Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia strained relations between Russia and the western powers
hence cold war. The West's economic values and vested interests were fundament ally threatened by the
spread of communism.
The disagreements In Yalta and Potsdam conferences over the future of Germany and Poland led to cold
war. Although the 'Big three' leaders all agreed to work for democracy, there were ideological disagreements
over what democracy meant. Stalin believed that a democratic government had to be a communist
government because only the communists truly represented the working people. Roosevelt, on the other
hand, believed that democracy involved a number of different political parties competing to win the people's
support in free elections. The USSR wanted to impose heavy reparations on Germany, whereas America
wanted Germany to be rebuilt. These bitter disagreements contributed to the deterioration of relations
between America and the USSR.
The iron curtain speech by Winston Churchill in 1946 caused cold war. The speech called for an
Anglo-American alliance against Soviets whom Churchill accused of establishing an "iron curtain" from
Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic. He called for a stronger western alliance against Russian
imperialism. This antagonized the relations between the west and east leading to cold war.
The Truman doctrine of American policy of containment increased tension and suspicion between
East and west , leading to the cold war. The policy was meant to stop the spread of communist by all
possible means for example USA financed the Greek monarchy regime against the communist rebels in the
Greek civil war to stop the spread of soviet influence in Europe. Turkey was also threatened by Russian-
backed communist rebels and USA also backed the government to stop the spread of communism. However
the Russians were determined to resist this policy thus resulting in cold war.
The Marshall Aid plan affected relations between USSR and USA thus causing cold war. USA financed
the recovery of Western Europe otter World War II to rebuild their democratic and economic systems so that
the people would not turn to communism. However Russia prevented the eastern bloc members from
receiving the Marshall aid Plan and instead established the Molotov plan. Russia considered the US aid as
American interference in the internal affairs of other states since it required states that applied for it to disclose their

economic records to the American government and an attempt to check the spread of communism. This strained
relations between USSR and western powers thus leading to cold war.
The Molotov plan as an alternative to marshal plan for the reconstruction of Eastern Europe increased
tensions with Western Europe thus causing cold war. Molotov, Russia's foreign minister on Stalin's
orders forced eastern European countries to refuse marshal aid.
The setting up of Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) in 1947 to coordinate the work of
European communist parties and enforce ideological conformity. This aroused the suspicions of the
western powers on the Russian activities in Eastern Europe especially in Poland and Czechoslovakia
thus causing cold war.
The fall of China into hands of communist in 1949 worsened the relations between USA and Russia.
The communist forces under Mao Tse-Tung and backed by Russia defeated the nationalist forces
backed by USA and established a communist government in China while the nationalist forces fled
to the island of Taiwan.
The selfish national interests of various European countries mostly interested in national recovery
at whatever cost led to conflicts among the counties like in Korea, Vietnam, Middle East, Greece,
Turkey
The US imperialism and continued involvement in European affairs caused cold war . After World War II,
USA dominated Western Europe which attracted hostility and envy from Soviet Union whose ambitions to expand its
influence in the whole of Europe was curtailed thus leading to cold war. The Soviets feared that USA would use Western
Europe as a base to attack.
The formation of military alliances i.e. NATO in 1948 versus Warsaw pact in 1955 caused cold war. The
western powers formed a military alliance called NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization while
Russia and its allies farmed Warsaw Pact as defensive military alliances. These alliances heightened
tensions, intensified suspicion and rivalry between the super powers hence leading to cold war.
The arms race coupled with scientific developments in research in military and space exploration
escalated cold war. Russia carried out an ambitious armament policy that threatened USA and its
allies e.g. successful testing of atomic bomb by Russia in 1949. It was this arms race that created
tension, mistrust, suspicion, fear hence causing cold war.
The role of spy networks such as CIA, FBI for USA, KGB for Russia. MOSSAD for Israel; a US ally etc. caused cold war.
These carried out spying on military capacities and technologies and other activities on each other e.g. an American
spy plane was shot down over Russia in 1960. Soviet Union through KGB financed European and American communists
involved in intelligence operations. This strained relations between USA and USSR thus leading to cold war.
The press propaganda between East and West increased the tensions and over exaggerated the
contentious issues like the future of Poland, Germany, Korea e.g, BBC, Voice of America, Radio
Free Europe, Radio Moscow, state-owned radio and TV, newspapers in Eastern Europe. Soviet
propaganda used Marxist philosophy to attack capitalism for exploitation of labor and imperialism.
This intensified the mistrust and suspicion between socialist camp led by Russia and the Free world
camp led by USA thus leading to cold war.
The desire to control the world economic resources and strategic areas led to cold war. The super
powers scrambled for areas of strategic and economic importance winch included deserts, ports of
Danzig, Berlin, Ruhr industrial area, Cuba, Korea, China, major seas and waters like Mediterranean
Sea. Baltic Sea for global ideological dominance, influence and power. This created conflicts and
tension that caused cold war.
The weaknesses of United Nations organization e.g. it failed to restrain the activities of the super powers

especially USA, Soviet Union as far as space exploration, military alliances, arms race, imperialistic
designs were concerned. This strained the relations between western powers and socialist countries thus
causing cold war
The occupation of the German territories of Finland, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland by the Red Army.
Russia used military control to direct both internal and external policies in these states, impose communist or
communist-dominated governments. This attracted the concern of the western powers leading to the
deterioration in relations with Russia.
The establishment of a Jewish state (Israel - Palestine conflict} in 1948 strained relations between the powers
thus causing cold war e.g. the communist powers supported the Arabs while USA, Britain and other western
powers supported the Israelis.
The Korean crisis of 1950-53 affected the relations between USA and USSR. After World War II. Korea was
divided into North and South Korea. North Korea became communist. South Korea was a capitalist
country. The North Korean army invaded South Korea in 1950. USA supported the South Korean forces
and repulsed the north communist forces supported by China and Russia. This strained the relations between
USA and Russia thus causing cold war.
The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 worsened the relations between USA and Soviet Union. In 1961, USA
attempted to overthrow the communist government in Cuba but failed. Russia supplied Fidel Castro of Cuba
with rockets and missiles capable of firing far into USA. The American fleet blockaded Cuba against Russian
ships and this brought the two super powers on the brink of a nuclear war. After delicate negotiations the
Soviets removed all missiles in exchange for US agreement not to invade Cuba. This however heightened
tensions between the super powers.
The historical suspicions caused cold war. Soviet Union could not forget that in 1918, Britain and USA
had fried to destroy the Bolshevik revolution, Britain and USA could not forget that Stalin of Russia had signed
Nari-Soviet Pact with Hitler of Germany in 1939. This perpetuated mutual suspicions between the two sides
thus causing cold war
THE EFFECTS OF COLD WAR
Cold war led to the spread and development of communism in Eastern Europe for, example in
Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia. Russia aimed at using these state
as satellite states against the west
Cold war led to political unrest as the communists and the capitalists fought proxy wars in China, Greece,
Korea, Vietnam and Turkey. These conflicts led to massive loss of lives, destruction of property, destroyed
international relations.
Cold war accelerated arms race and military developments. There was intense competition between USA
and USSR to accumulate advanced military weapons for example both countries produced nuclear
weapons, atomic bombs, ballistic missiles. This arms race threatened international peace.
It led to increased flow of foreign aid to member countries of the two camps. USA assisted Western Europe
through Marshall Plan while Russia assisted Eastern Europe through the Molotov Plan and Council for
Mutual Economic Assistance [COMECON]. Foreign aid was also extended to Africa by USA and USSR as
long as their political ideologies were adhered lo. All this assistance contributed to economic recovery of the
world after World War II.
Cold war led to the formation of Intelligence and security organs to spy on the opponents about their
military capacities, technologies and other activities e.g. in 1947, Harry Truman formed CIA, Department
of Defense, Russia set up The Intelligence Network of Russia (KGB), Others included MOSSAD of Israel.

Cold war fears led to formation of military alliances/camps in Europe for defensive purposes. Western capitalist
countries led by USA created NATO in 1949 while communist countries of Eastern Europe led by USSR formed Warsaw
Pact In 1955.
Cold war led to the division of Germany into East and West and the building of the Berlin wall. The cold war
tensions made USA, Britain and France to merge their areas of occupation to form West Germany with a capitalist
ideology. East Germany with a communist ideology was under Russian control.
Cold war led to the rise of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1955 among the Third world countries to avoid the
East-West confrontation. The emerging countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose
sides in the east-west conflict. The movement was to ensure that the members do not engage in the wars and conflicts
of communism and capitalism.
It led to international conflicts and terrorism sponsored by two antagonistic camps e.g. the two super powers
used suicide bombers, high jacking of planes and ships, kidnaps and assassinations to eliminate their real and potential
enemies. These were common in the Middle East, Balkans, Kashmir and Africa.
Cold war promoted the de-colonization process in some countries of Africa and Asia. USSR de-campaigned
colonialism in order to win new grounds for communism in the colonized areas and thus sponsored independence
movements such as MAU-MAU and FRELIMO movements. USA and USSR wanted to extend their influence in the
European colonies hence leading to independence in India. Middle East, North Africa and later sub-Saharan Africa.
The cold war politics divided the world into two antagonistic camps/blocks . The two blocks were capitalist
camp led by USA, Britain. France. Italy. West Germany. Portugal, Norway etc and the communist camp led USSR and
much of Eastern Europe.
It weakened the operations of United Nation Organization. UNO was formed to create and maintain world peace
and unity. However, USA and USSR divided the world into two conflicting camps. Ideological conflicts between USA
and USSR hindered the success of the Security Council since they used their veto powers to promote their political
ideologies and interests.
Cold war politics led to economic cooperation and Integration based on political Ideology . USA provided
aid to Western Europe through Marshall Aid plan to reconstruct their economies and check the spread of
communism there. Russia also provided economic assistance like rice to North Korea, Cuba to avoid the threats
from West. There was formation of economic groups like European Economic Community, IMF, World Bank by the
capitalist block and Council of Economic Co-operation among the soviet allies.
It led to the survival of dictatorships in Africa and elsewhere due to the support from either communist or
capitalist allies. The dictators were maintained in power as long they implemented either communist or capitalist
ideologies e.g. apartheid regime in South Africa was supported by USA, Fidel Castro in Cuba was supported by Russia.
Cold war partly led to economic recession. USA and USSR spent a lot of their resources on military expenditure and
in manufacturing deadly weapons like atomic weapons at the expense of other productive sectors. This weakened
their economies.
Cold war politics led to wide spread coup d’états in the 3ra world countries e.g. USA used CIA to overthrow
unfriendly governments through coup d’états e.g. in Iran in 1953, in Guatemala in 1954 in Conga, the CIA-backed
Mobutu overthrew Patrice Lumumba, in Uganda, President Milton Obote who had developed socialist leanings was
overthrown by Idi Amin supported by western powers. It also led to the establishment of military bases around the
world due to cold war politics. This was because the military camps (NATO and Warsaw Pact) had to set up military
bases within/near their allies to ensure their security e.g. USSR established military bases in North Korea, Poland,
and Cuba while USA bases were in South Korea, West Germany, Kenya, Liberia.

Cold war indirectly promoted education in satellite countries of the respective camps. USA and
Russia competed in awarding scholarships for students to study in their countries as a strategy to strengthen
their political ideologies. These students were indoctrinated with either communist or capitalist ideologies.
Cold war resulted into space exploration in an attempt by USA and USSR to surpass each other in space
technology. Both powers launched successful ventures into space e.g. in 1957 Russia launched the first earth
satellite (Sputnik) which inaugurated the space race.
1) "The emergence of the cold war was Inevitable" Discuss

2) Examine the causes and effects of cold war
3) To what extent were USA policies responsible for the occurrence of cold war?
4) Examine the causes of the cold war
5) Account for the non -armed conflict in Europe between 1945-1970
6) Discuss the main features of cold war politics In Europe between 1945 and 1970.
7) Account for the emergence of cold war politics In the 1940s
8) Assess the impact of the cold war on world politics up to 1970-
9) Examine the impact of cold war on Europe up to 1970.
10) “Josef Stalin's policy was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the cold war.” Discuss
Expected Points
Role of Joseph Stalin's policies
1. Josef Stalin's expansionist policy towards Eastern Europe. Stalin's policy of occupying Eastern Europe
after the defeat of Nazi armies e.g. Finland, Germany. Poland. Romania alarmed western countries
(west considered this as soviet aggression)
2. Josef Stalin's support to the Eastern Europe communist regimes. Joseph Stalin interfered in the affairs of
Eastern Europe and set up communist governments e.g. in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania,
Romania. In Poland in 1947 he replaced the Polish peoples' party with the Polish Communist party,
encouraged communist coup de tot in Czechoslovakia in 1948
3. Josef Stalin supported communist parties in western Europe especially in Italy, France, Spain and parts
of eastern Germany and Austria
4. Josef Stalin support 3d the Greek communists in 1946 to make Greece a soviet republic which alarmed
the capitalist countries of USA, Britain who supported the monarchists
5. Josef Stalin revived claims to control large provinces of eastern Turkey (naval bases in Bosphorus and
Dardanelles)
6. Josef Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1 ?47 to draw together various
European communist parties
7. Josef Stalin instituted Molotov plan to counter the Marshall Aid plan which angered the west.
Stalin denounced American interference in European affairs through Marshall plan which he
considered as Russia's sphere of influence
8. Josef Stalin's open aggression at Yalta and Potsdam e.g. Stalin wanted to cripple Germany completely
to protect USSR against future threats, wanted to imposed a heavy war indemnity on Germany which
other allied leaders opposed
9. Josef Stalin's support of the communist victory in China under Mao Tse Tung against the Nationalists who
were supported by western powers and considered the rightful rulers of China
10. Josef Stalin instituted the Bertin blockade in June 1948 to May 1949 which strained the relations between
Russia and western powers
11. Josef Stalin's nuclear program and the development of the atomic bomb aroused arms race e.g. August
1949, USSR tested its first atomic bomb which alarmed the Americans
12. Josef Stalin misused Russia's veto powers in the UN Security Councils for example in the Korean crisis between 1950-53
13. Stalin's occupation and exploitation of Iran after world war II
14. Josef Stalin issued scholarships to foreign scholars for indoctrination to communist ideology
15. Josef Stalin signed the Sino-Soviet alliance in 1950 which worried the western powers
16. Josef Stalin supported the division of Germany. In 1949, the British, French and American zones became

the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) while the communist eastern zone became the German
Democratic Republic (East Germany]
17. Stalin's policy of disregarding the promise of free elections in Poland and other eastern European countries
made at Yalta conference irritated western powers
18. Stalin's speech in 1946 in which he said that communism and capitalism could never live peacefully together
and future wars were inevitable until the final victory of communism was achieved. This frightened the
western powers
Then other factors and conclusion
To what extent was Winston Churchill responsible for the outbreak of cold war?
Expected points
Role of Winston Churchill
1. He was the prime minister of Britain from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. He led Britain's fight against
Nazi Germany in World War II
2. Churchill's disagreements with Josef Stalin at Yalta and Potsdam conferences e.g. Churchill opposed Stalin's demands
that Poland should be given all German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse
3. His 'iron curtain' speech heightened tensions. He opposed the increasing Soviet influence in eastern and central
Europe for example ancient cities of Europe like Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna. Budapest, Belgrade. Sofia,
Bucharest were part of the soviet sphere of influence
4. His championed the ideology of capitalism and thus fuelled ideological differences with Soviet Union. He
was strongly anti-communist
5. Churchill celled for the formation of NATO as a defensive military alliance against possible soviet aggression
6. He allied with western leaders like Harry Truman and Roosevelt of USA, leaders of France, West Germany to
frustrate soviet expansion and interests in Europe
7. His policies over Greece for example he supported The Greek monarchy against the communist rebels backed
by Soviet Union
8. He supported the Truman doctrine of 1947 as an attempt by USA to contain the spread of communism by all possible
means
9. Winston Churchill and his anti-communist speeches influenced USA to provide Marshal Aid to help in the economic
recovery of Europe. Molotov of Soviet Union denounced it as American interference in the internal affairs of other
states
10. He promoted the 'special relationship' between Britain and USA which attracted hostility from Soviet Union due to
increased American influence in European affairs
11. As a prime minster of Britain in the 1950s, Winston Churchill worked hard to revive British global influence
which clashed with Russian interests in many parts of the world
Other factors and conclude
CHAPTER TWENTY NINE

POST-WAR MILITARY ALLIANCES IN EUROPE
In 1949, the prospect of further communist expansion prompted USA and 11 other western nations to form the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).The Soviet Union and its communist allies in Eastern Europe founded a rival
alliance, Warsaw Pact in 1955. The alignment of nearly every European nation into one of the two opposing camps
formalized the political division of the European continent that had taken place since World War II. This alignment
provided the framework for the military standoff that continued throughout the cold war era.
THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) 1949-1970
NATO was a military alliance of countries in Europe and North America formed on 4"' April 1949 purposely to defend
each other in case of an attack from USSR or any other country. The 12 countries in the alliance were Belgium. Canada,
Denmark. France. Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Norway, UK and USA. Its headquarters were in
Brussels. Belgium. It was a product of the Brussels Pact.

THE FACTORS FOR THE FORMATION OF NATO IN 1949/ Aims and objectives
The need to safeguard the democracy and civilization of member states against the wickedness of
dictatorship led to the formation of NATO. The western powers were afraid that Russian communism would undermine
these ideals.
The desire to ensure peace and stability in the region of alliance led to the formation of NATO. The greater military
cooperation among the countries of Western Europe lessened the chances of war,
breaking out between them again especially France and Germany. The member states aimed at
using diplomacy to resolve disputes and avoid the occurrence of another destructive war.
The need to check the growing Soviet imperialism led to formation of NATO in 1949. The Tear and
suspicion caused by aggressive expansion of communism from Soviet Union into central Europe like
the Russian threats against Greece and Turkey, coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948 supported by Russia
made these countries to form a defensive alliance
The desire to mutual defense in case of an attack especially from Soviet Union led to the formation of NATO.
After World War II, USSR starred to militarily threaten European states in an effort to spread communism. This therefore
inspired western nations to form a military alliance to defend each other.
The role of Marshall Plan influenced the formation of NATO. Western European nations formed an
alliance because they wanted to access economic aid from USA under Marsha) Plan. USA was
willing to provide assistance as long as the European nations agreed to cooperate with each other
as this would help them rebuild more quickly and this resulted into the formation of NATO
The need to encourage economic cooperation/collaboration and eliminate conflict in their

international economic policies led to the formation of NATO
The desire to develop Individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack led to the formation
of NATO. The western powers formed a military alliance in order to make an integrated plan of air
defense, provide mutual assistance in producing arms and conduct joint naval and air exercises.
The installation of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the support for guerilla warfare in Greece
by Soviet Union threatened the western leaders and influenced them to form NATO as a defensive alliance against Soviet
Union such as the communist coup in Prague.
Winston Churchill's “iron curtain speech” in 1946 also led to formation of NATO. Churchill made the
famous speech at Westminster College in USA and warned that an "iron curtain" was descending through
Europe, dividing the West from the area dominated by the Soviet Union. He called for a stronger western
alliance which could stand firm against Russian imperialism thus leading to NATO.
The huge strength of Russian military created fear in Western Europe. After World War II. Soviet Union
had the largest army in the world. NATO was therefore formed to counter balance the threats from Soviet
Union. USA and Canada were expected to maintain forces in Europe as their commitment to defend Western
Europe
The conflicting ideologies between Russia and her former wartime allies contributed to the formation of
NATO. Russia championed communism and communist governments while Western Europe and allies like
USA championed capitalism and democratic governments. Thus western powers formed NATO as a
'military wing' to defend capitalist member states.
The signing of Brussels Pact in Belgium in 1948 by Britain, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands and
Iceland for defensive purposes laid the foundation for the formation of NATO, The pact was
transformed into NATO in 1949 with the involvement of North America and other countries.

The Berlin blockade by Russia in 1948 encouraged the formation of NATO. Soviet Union cut off their
area of Germany, and closed access to West Berlin, which was located deep within the soviet zone of
occupation. The blockade caused confusion and economic hardships in West Germany. The Berlin
blockade led to negotiations between Western Europe, Canada and USA that ultimately led to creation of
NATO in 1949.
The danger of arms race initiated by Russia like the manufacture of atomic bombs in 1948 threatened the
security' interests of Western Europe and North America and thus formed a military alliance to collectively
contain the Russian military threats.
The weaknesses and failure of UNO to prevent the cold war compelled the western states to form a
security organization and advance their interests using a common platform provided by NATO .
The formation of the Communist Information Bureau in 1947 and the council for Mutual Economic
Cooperation (COMECON) by Russia to coordinate the activities of the communist block and
strengthen commercial relations among communist states compelled the western powers to form NATO
as a counter organization.
The presence of leading figures who advocated for the formation of military alliance e.g. Ernest Bevin, the
British Foreign secretary who was an ardent supporter of economic and military cooperation resulted in
the formation of NATO.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF NATO

NATO succeeded in establishing a joint military force in 1950 called Supreme Headquarters Allied
Powers Europe stationed in Paris. The NATO air power, naval force and ground forces were established and
strengthened ready to meet any challenge. NATO forces were equipped with modern weapons, planes, tanks.
The USA president Eisenhower became its first supreme commander general. This was in line with the NATO's
aim of creating a centralized command for mutual defense.
It reduced rivalry/antagonism among the member states through greater military and political
cooperation of the member states. However, disagreements still lingered on in the organization e.g.-some
member states were not happy with the American domination in the NATO affairs and for that reason France
withdrew from NATO in 1966.
NATO increased the military capacity of its member states like Britain, France, Canada, Italy- was done
through mutual aid in producing arms and ammunitions, strengthening naval fleets Combined military,
naval and air exercises. From 1949 onwards, large numbers of American troops and weaponry were stationed in Western
Europe ready to provide military assistance.
NATO provided financial assistance to member states hence making them financially stable and contributing
to their economic recovery through the Marshall Plan and European Economic Community.
It successfully guaranteed the territorial integrity and Independence of its member states especially those initially
threatened by Russia-backed communists e.g. Turkey, Greece. The communists made no territorial gains anywhere in
North Atlantic area since 1949.
NATO contained the spread of communism in Western Europe since 1949 by checking Russia's imperialism.
After the formation of NATO, the Berlin blockade was lifted by Soviet Union and there was no further advance of
communism in Western Europe. The NATO principle of 'an attack on one of the member states constituted an attack
on all member states' restrained Soviet Union.
It promoted disarmament and reduced production of dangerous weapons e.g. through signing treaties that
aimed at limiting the production of deadly arms or nuclear weapons like the SALT I and SALT II treaties. It also carried
out destruction of dangerous weapons.

It led to the redevelopment of the German strength but under international control through NATO . Germany
was also not allowed to manufacture nuclear, biological and chemical weapons- This ended German aggression and
militarism.
NATO was utilized to coordinate assistance in response to natural disasters like earthquakes, floods for instance,
the Arno floods which devastated Florence and Pisa in 1966 (Italy) brought a response from several NATO countries.
A number of NATO countries responded by providing humanitarian assistance which was needed [tents, helicopters,
food and medicine), primarily on a bilateral basis.
NATO provided a model for other collective security arrangements in other parts of the world such as South
East Asia Treaty Organization, Organization for Security and cooperation in Europe and Arab League. It also worked as
a base for western military and economic organizations. Economic organizations like European Economic Community
were formed along NATO principles.
NATO provided security and stability that promoted economic recovery in Western Europe . There was no war
in Western Europe since NATO came into existence which showed the effectiveness of NATO as an instrument of
peace in the North Atlantic area.
NATO restored West Germany's sovereignty and made her to join the western European Union in 1958.
Through the efforts of NATO. Germany successfully resisted forceful reunification under Russian influence.
NATO promoted democracy, respect for human rights, economic reforms in former communist countries in
central and Eastern Europe. It emphasized free and fair elections, rule of law. Market economy and this ensured good
governance.
NATO did not provide military support for revolutions against communism in Eastern European countries
during 1950s
THE FAILURES OF NATO
NATO failed to terminate communist activities in Western Europe e.g. the communist parties existed in France
and Italy. Communism remained in Eastern Europe like Bulgaria, Hungary and thus communism was not
completely wiped out by NATO.
NATO members in Europe failed to coordinate their military spending and policies e.g. France withdrew
her forces from NATO in 1966 developed her own nuclear weapons and advanced military aircraft hence
undermining the effort of collective peace.
NATO failed to prevent the formation of pseudo alliances among its members . In 1962 Britain and
USA signed the Anglo-American alliance by which USA supplied Britain with modern weaponry.
Such secret alliances increased suspicion among its members and undermined unity.
It also failed to ensure total cooperation and unify of the member state. E.g. the members of NATO conflicted
during the Suez crisis in 1956, Turkey and Greece conflicted in Cyprus which undermined their unity
NATO failed to achieve a truly unified military command. Close military organization was not possible due to deep
political disagreements among members e.g. France rejected the idea of a unified command and the British proposal
of a multinational nuclear force to which all members would contribute.
The NATO countries pursued different foreign policies which undermined the relevance of alliance .
France pursued a quite independent foreign policy, moving towards a neutral position between
Russia and USA and courting unaligned powers in Africa, Asia and South America.
NATO Intensified arms race in Europe between I960 and 1970. NATO and Warsaw pact members
developed new and deadly nuclear weapons, long-range weapons, and shorter-range weapons.

This threatened international peace and stability.
NATO failed in its aim of re-unifying Germany. Germany remained divided info West Germany guaranteed by
western powers and East Germany guaranteed by Russia. This caused the Berlin crisis of 1953, 1961 and other tensions
in Europe.
The creation of NATO also increased international tension in Europe resulting into cold war which
was an ideological conflict between the capitalists and communists. The enmity which re sulted
caused a big threat to European peace and stability.
It failed to control the activities of its members outside . Its area of Jurisdiction (operation) as some
member states involved themselves outside the NATO scope e.g. in the liberation of Angola and
Mozambique, USA's involvement in Vietnam's war between 1957-1975.
The formation of NATO led to the formation of Warsaw pact as a counter military alliance by the
communist countries led by USSR. This divided Europe into two hostile alliances and contributed to
tension and rivalry that existed in Europe in the 1970s
The lack of popular support in France and other countries weakened NATO. In 1956, Russia adopted
a policy of peaceful coexistence and minimized arms race with USA. This made many people in
the West to believe that NATO had outlived its usefulness and that disputes could be settled by
negotiation rather than confrontation
1. Account for the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 7949.
2. Discuss the factors that led to the formation of NATO by 1949.
3. "The formation of NATO in 1749 was inevitable" Discuss
4. Assess the achievements of North Atlantic Treaty Organization
5. To what extent had N.A.T.O achieved the aims and objectives of its founders by 1970?
6. To what extent was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization successful in maintaining peace In Europe between
1949 1970?
7. Examine the significance of NATO in European history.
8. How successful was NATO in an attempt to defend the interests of western bloc up to 1970.
9. Assess the significance of NATO in the history of Europe up to 1970.
10. Discuss the main difficulties that faced NATO by 1970.
11. Examine the challenges that confronted the North Atlantic Treaty Organization by 1970.
THE WARSAW PACT 1955-1970

Warsaw Pact was a military alliance of communist states in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union established in
1955. It was signed in Poland (Warsaw) and was officially called the "The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation
and Mutual assistance". The member states were Russia, Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania, its headquarters were in Moscow in Russia
REASONS/FACTORS LED TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF WARSAW PACT IN 1955

(Aims and objectives)
The formation of Warsaw pact was a response to the formation of NATO by the western allies in 1949. The re-
arming of West Germany in 1954 and its reintegration into NATO posed a potential threat to eastern
European countries and soviet interests. The communist powers reacted by establishing Warsaw pad to
counter the challenge posed by NATO.
It was formed to prevent the re-invasion of Russia as had occurred under Napoleon I in 1812 and Hitler
in 1941-1944. The establishment of the security zone between western soviet and Eastern Europe in the
name of Warsaw pact boosted the security of Soviet Union

Warsaw pact was established to promote and defend communism . Russia initiated Warsaw pact to use
Eastern Europe as a buffer zone to keep the rival ideologies of capitalism, democracy from Western Europe
at bay.
The refusal of western powers to dismantle the existing military block (NATO) in 1954 and sign a
general treaty promoting collective security in Europe as proposed by Russia influenced the communist
countries to establish their own military alliance in 1955.
The military alliance of Warsaw Pact was formed to strengthen the national and collective defense
capacities of member states against possible aggression especially through establishing a joint command
for their armed forces.
The liberation of Eastern Europe from Nazi aggression by Russian Red army during World War II laid
the foundation for military alliance. Russia established political and military control over the region especially
Poland, Czechoslovakia which paved way for the formation of Warsaw pact Warsaw pact was formed to
promote the use of diplomacy to settle international disputes among the member states so as not to disturb
international peace and stability.
The military alliance was established to promote the development and strengthen the economic
and cultural relations among the communist member states.
Warsaw pact military alliance was set up to defend the national sovereignty and political
independence of member states. If was based on mutual non-intervention in internal affairs of member
states.
Warsaw pact was formed to defend each other in case of an armed attack on one or several
member steles (mutual defense)
The establishment of communist governments in Eastern Europe after the end of World War II led to
formation of Warsaw pact. The governments in Hungary. Poland, Bulgaria, Albania depended on the soviet
military power for their survival hence signed a military alliance with Russia.
It was formed to promote effective measures towards a general reduction of armaments and
prohibition of atomic hydrogen and other weapons of mass destruction ' The desire by Russia to keep its
eastern European allies under its political and military control led to the formation of Warsaw pact
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF WARSAW PACT
Warsaw pact increased the military capacity of its member states. The member states developed sufficient military
capabilities to counter NATO in Europe. Under the auspices of Warsaw pact, Russia trained the national armies of member
states to soviet standards. In the 1960s, Soviet Union supplied the pact armies with modern tanks, short-range ballistic
missiles, fighter aircraft etc
It reduced rivalry/antagonism among the member states through greater military and political cooperation
of the member states. The military alliance promoted and strengthened the economic and cultural relations among the
communist member states. It established a political committee for handling foreign policy matters
Warsaw pact succeeded in setting up a Joint military command of the member states. It established a Unified Armed
Forces which was in line with the Warsaw pact's aim of creating a centralized command for mutual defense against
possible external aggression
It successfully guaranteed the territorial integrity and independence of its member states. Soviet Union
defined external aggression to include any anti-communist uprising in any member state. The Soviet Union declared
that such outbreaks were a result of western provocations. The alliance discouraged military attacks from NATO
countries

It united the communists against the threat of capitalism in Europe especially during the cold war. The pact
members led by Soviet Union enforced communist ideological uniformity in Eastern Europe. The Warsaw pact used
Eastern Europe as a buffer zone that kept the rival ideologies of capitalism democracy from Western Europe at bay
Warsaw pact activities spread communist influences in the rest of the world . The military alliance created closer
economic ties with Third World countries especially with Angola, Congo, Ethiopia Libya. Mozambique, South Yemen
and Syria. Bulgaria. Czechoslovakia, and East Germany were the principal Soviet proxies for aims transfers to the Third
World.
Warsaw pact provided the Soviet Union an official counterweight to NATO in east-west diplomacy. It gave
Soviet Union an equal status with USA as a leader of an alliance of independent states pursuing common interests
internationally
Warsaw pact enabled Russia to develop East European armies . The Warsaw military alliance helped to
counter the re-arming of West Germany in 1954 and its reintegration into NATO that had threatened the security
interests of eastern European countries and Soviet Union. Russia used the east European armies for its military strategy
against the western powers.
Warsaw pact provided financial assistance to member states like Czechoslovakia, Poland by Soviet Union hence
helping the member states to recover from the Nazi occupation and destructions of Eastern Europe during World War
II.
The Warsaw pact played a major port in the spread of communism by Soviet Union through eastern European
countries and then to parts of Western Europe like France. Italy. Many private industries and property in Eastern
Europe were nationalized in line with a communist planned economy
The alliance created a massive security blanket for all member states especially with the soviet military power.
It acted as a military deterrent on any European nations seeking war against other nations to spread their ideals. This
strengthened the national and collective defense capacities of member states against possible aggression.
Warsaw pact legitimized the presence of Russian troops and influence in Eastern Europe. The member state
remained in alliance as agreed (pledged to remain in alliance for 20 years)
FAILURES OF WARSAW PACT
Russia used the alliance to interfere in the internal affairs of the member states contrary to the principles of the
military alliance. The Russian army invaded Hungary; a member state and crushed (he Hungarian revolution in 1956.
Russia disrespected the national sovereignty as demonstrated in 1968 when the pact employed military forces against
Czechoslovakia to crush the democratic movement there.
The members had conflicting foreign policies despite pledges to pursue a common foreign policy . During the
Arab-tyaeli conflict in 1967, the Slovaks in Czechoslovakia showed great sympathy for Israelis although official soviet
and communist policy favored the Arabs. During the Soviet-Chinese dispute in the 1960s, Albania sided with China
The pact increased tensions in Europe especially when Soviet Union stationed long-range missiles in Warsaw
pact countries. USA responded by employing counter missiles in Western Europe. The creation of Warsaw pact
increased international tension which intensified cold war in Europe.
It Increased arms race in Europe . Warsaw pact members and NATO developed new and deadly nuclear weapons,
long-range weapons, and shorter-range weapons e.g. sophisticated nuclear weapons for the pact were stationed in
Poland. This threatened international peace and stability Warsaw pact members failed to coordinate their defense
policies.
The Eastern countries detested soviet dominance in Warsaw pact military structure especially Romania which
demanded a greater role in decision making. Romania adopted an independent national defense policy Warsaw pact

promoted authoritarian communist governments in Eastern Europe e.g. in Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia. The
military alliance suppressed any democratic uprisings and denied the concept of individual freedom in Warsaw pact
nations.
Warsaw pact failed to terminate liberal activities in Eastern Europe e.g. liberalization programs in
Czechoslovakia led by the communist regime of Alexander Dubcek were implemented. This: threatened to generate
popular demands for similar changes in the other East European countries and even parts of the Soviet Union.
The formation of Warsaw pact formally divided Europe into opposing armed camps. The formation of Warsaw
pact and NATO aligned nearly every European nation into one of the two opposing camps which formalized the
political division of Europe.
The military alliance was dominated by Soviet Union e.g. Russian-made tanks, aircraft and guns were used throughout
the member countries and the military command was dominated-by decisions made in Moscow
It also failed to ensure total cooperation and unity of the member states. In 1962. Albania was no longer invited
to Warsaw Treaty meetings and formally withdrew in 1968. Russia and other Warsaw members employed military forces
against Czechoslovakia in 1968 1o halt the revolutionary movement there.
Some countries in Warsaw pact were increasingly unwilling to subordinate their own interests to those of the
Russians e.g. Romania rejected the inferior role in the economic plan of Eastern Europe assigned to it by the Russians in
the COMECON plan. In 1958, Romania demanded the withdrawal from its territory of all soviet troops and officials.
Warsaw pact failed to prevent the formation of pseudo alliances among its members. Soviet Union-established a
special alliance with Czechoslovakia in the late 1950s as its most important ally. Later after 1968, Soviet Union created a
special alliance with Poland. Such secret alliances increased suspicion among its members and undermined unity.
Some member states participated in agreements against the military alliance (Warsaw poet) which was contrary
to the principles of the alliance e.g. in 1962, Albania ended its participation in Warsaw pact, severed its relations with
Soviet Union and sided with China against Russia.
It failed to control the activities of its members outside its area of Jurisdiction (operation) as some member
states involved themselves outside the Warsaw pact scope. During the Soviet-Chinese dispute in the 1960s, Albania, a
pact member sided with China
The pact facilitated soviet political control of Eastern Europe by authorizing the Soviet Union to station its forces in
Warsaw territory
Warsaw pact undermined United Nations Organization
1. "The formation of Warsaw Pact In 1 955 was inevitable" Discuss
2. Account for the formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1 955,
3. Discuss the factors that led to the formation of Warsaw Pact by 1 955.
4. To what extent had Warsaw Pact achieved the aims and objectives of its founders by 1 970?
5. Assess the achievements of Warsaw Pact Treaty
6. How successful was Warsaw Pact in defending the Interests of communist bloc up to 1 970
7. Examine the significance of Warsaw Pact in European history up to 1970
8. Discuss the main problems that faced Warsaw Pact by 1970.

CHAPTER 19-29 Ross Jpns - Warswa-Pack

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CHAPTER NINENTEEN

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 1904-1905

CAUSES OF THE WAR

European History Page 1 of 74

The Japanese surprise naval attack on Port Arthur in February 1904.

Russian imperialism brought her into conflict with Japan.

THE EFFECTS OF RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

European History Page 2 of 74

THE RUSSIAN / BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTIONS OF 1917

CAUSES OF RUSSIAN/BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTIONS

European History Page 3 of 74

European History Page 4 of 74

THE EFFECTS OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917

European History Page 5 of 74

European History Page 6 of 74

European History Page 7 of 74

CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS FACED BY THE BOLSHEVIK GOVERNMENT UP TO 1924

European History Page 8 of 74

European History Page 9 of 74

European History Page 10 of 74

European History Page 11 of 74

European History Page 12 of 74

European History Page 13 of 74

European History Page 14 of 74

European History Page 15 of 74

European History Page 16 of 74

European History Page 17 of 74

THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF BEN1TO MUSSOLINI

European History Page 18 of 74

European History Page 19 of 74

European History Page 20 of 74

European History Page 21 of 74

THE WORLD ECONOMIC DEPRESSION IN EUROPE OF 1929-1935

THE CAUSES OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-1935

European History Page 22 of 74

THE EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-1935

European History Page 23 of 74

MEASURES ADOPTED TO OVERCOME THE ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929-35

European History Page 24 of 74

European History Page 25 of 74

THE WEIMER REPUBLIC IN GERMANY 1919-1934

European History Page 26 of 74

ACHIEVEMENTS OF WEIMER REPUBLIC

European History Page 27 of 74

European History Page 28 of 74

European History Page 29 of 74

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE

ADOLF HITLER AND NAZISM IN GERMANY 1933-1945

European History Page 30 of 74

THE FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NAZISM/HITLER TO POWER

European History Page 31 of 74

CONSOLIDATION OF POWER BY HITLER IN GERMANY

European History Page 32 of 74

European History Page 33 of 74

European History Page 34 of 74

THE FAILURES OF HITLER

FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF ADOLF HITLER

European History Page 35 of 74

European History Page 36 of 74

European History Page 37 of 74

European History Page 38 of 74

European History Page 39 of 74