Chapter 4 – Exponential Functions

Exponential functions: used to describe something that increases or decreases in a multiplicative

manner

Examples:
• Increasing: population growth (cell division)
• Decreasing: decay (help coroners determine time of death)

Defined: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 , where 𝒂 > 𝟎 and 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏.

𝑎 > 1, exponential growth function 0 < 𝑎 < 1, exponential decay function

1 𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 Example: 𝑦 = (2)

Note: exponential functions ≠ power functions

𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥2
Cell division is an example of exponential growth. Assume the time for a cell to divide is 1 day. Starting
with a single cell, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 defines this growth.

Time (days): x Number of Cells: f(x)

0 1

1 2

2 4

3 8

4 16

5 32

If the sample starts with 5 cells, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 ∙ 2𝑥 defines this growth.

Time (days): x Number of Cells: f(x)

0 5

1 10

2 20

3 40

4 80

5 160

Therefore, the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 ∙ 2𝑥 , where c is the initial population, defines this growth.

Starting with a single cell, 𝑐 = 1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

For an initial population of 5 cells, 𝑐 = 5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 ∙ 2𝑥

 Laws of Exponents:

▪ Product Rule: 𝒂𝒙 ∙ 𝒂𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙+𝒚

𝟏
▪ Negative Exponent Rule: 𝒂−𝒙 =
𝒂𝒙

𝒂𝒙
▪ Quotient Rule: 𝒂𝒚
= 𝒂𝒙−𝒚

▪ Zero Exponent Rule: 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏

▪ Power of a Power Rule: (𝒂𝒙 )𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒚

▪ Power of a Product Rule: (𝒂𝒃)𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒙

𝒙
𝒚 𝒙
▪ Rational Exponent Rule: 𝒂𝒚 = ( √𝒂)

Bernoulli: compound interest example

Amount invested: $1
Duration: 1 year
Interest rate (year): 100%
n Computations Amount
(number of times (in dollars)
interest is
compounded per
year)
1 1 1 2.00
1 + 1 or (1 + 1)
2 1 2 2.25
1(1.5)(1.5) = (1.5)2 or (1 + 2)
4 1 4 2.44
1(1.25)(1.25)(1.25)(1.25) = (1.25)4 or (1 + ) = 2.44140625 …
4
12 1(1.08333 … )12 = 2.61303529 … 2.61
52 1(1.019230769 … )52 = 2.692596954 … 2.69
365 1(1.002739726 … )365 = 2.714567482 … 2.71
1,000 1(1.001)1000 = 2.716923932 … 2.72
1,000,000 1(1.000001)1000000 = 2.718280469 … 2.72
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∞ 2.71828182 … ≈ 𝑒 2.72

1 𝑛
Euler: 𝑛 → ∞ (1 + 𝑛) ≈ 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟖 … = 𝒆

Natural Exponential Function: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙

Practice: Solve each equation for x.

1.) 4𝑥 = 8𝑥+1 2.) 4(32𝑥 ) = 12

Application Example:

Salmonella bacteria, found on almost all chicken and eggs, grow rapidly in a nice warm place. If just a
few hundred bacteria are left on the cutting board when a chicken is cut up, and they get into the
potato salad, the population begins compounding. Suppose the number present in the potato salad
after t hours is given by

𝑓(𝑡) = 500 ∙ 23𝑡 .

(a) If the potato salad is left out on the table, how many bacteria are present 1 hour later?

(b) How many were present initially?

(c) How often do the bacteria double?

(d) How quickly will the number of bacteria increase to 32,000?

Homework: 4.1 a & e; 4.3 a & b; 4.5 a

 Chapter 4 – Logarithmic Functions

Exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses (𝑥 ↔ 𝑦).

Prerequisite: 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)]

3
Practice: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1; are 𝑓(𝑥)and 𝑔(𝑥) inverses?

Logarithmic functions: used to rescale something that is increasing (or decreasing) in a multiplicative
manner so as to measure its increase (or decrease) in a new way that does
increase (or decrease) linearly

Defined: 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 ↔ 𝒂𝒚 = 𝒙, 𝒂 > 𝟎, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏 & 𝒙 > 𝟎

Laws of Logarithms:

• Product Rule: log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦

𝑥
• Quotient Rule: log 𝑎 (𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦

• Power Rule: log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑘 ∙ log 𝑎 𝑥

• log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1

• log 𝑎 1 = 0

• log 𝑎 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟

log 𝑥
• Change of Base Rule: log 𝑎 𝑥 = log𝑏 𝑎 (let b = 10 or 𝑒)
𝑏
Practice: Solve.

1.) log 4 64 = 𝑥 2.) log(𝑥 + 5) + log(𝑥 + 2) = 1

3.) 𝑒 1−4𝑥 = 2 4.) log 𝑎 64 = 2

2 −𝑡
5.) 3 ∙ 4𝑥 = 36 6.) 3𝑡 =9

Application Example:

When a pharmaceutical drug is injected into the bloodstream, its concentration at time t can be
approximated by 𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐶0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 , where 𝐶0 is the concentration at t = 0. Suppose the drug is ineffective
below a concentration 𝐶1 and harmful above a concentration 𝐶2 . Then it can be shown that the drug
should be given at intervals of time T, where

1 𝐶2
𝑇= ln .
𝑘 𝐶1

A certain drug is harmful at a concentration five times the concentration below which it is ineffective. At
noon an injection of the drug results in a concentration of 2 mg per liter of blood. Three hours later the
concentration is down to 1 mg per liter. How often should the drug be given?

Homework: 4.1 c & g; 4.2 a, c & d; 4.3 c; 4.5 b

 Chapter 4 – Allometric Functions

Allometry: the study of the relationship between the size and function of components of a living
organism’s body and growth or size of the whole body (approximation)

Examples:
• body mass to skeletal mass
• body weight to blood volume

Defined: Two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are allometrically related if 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏 , a and b are constants.

If 0 < 𝑏 < 1, 𝑦 increases at a slower rate (proportionally) than 𝑥.

If 𝑏 > 1, 𝑦 increases at a faster rate (proportionally) than 𝑥.
If 𝑏 = 1, 𝑦 changes at constant proportion to 𝑥 (isometric, not allometric)

A popular example of allometric growth involves the body mass, 𝑥, and the mass of the major
claw, 𝑦, of the male fiddler crab. The allometric function describing this relationship is 𝑦 =
0.036𝑥1.356. Since 𝑏 > 1, the growth rate of the major claw is much greater than that of the
rest of the body.

Application Example:

Let x represent the weight of an animal (in grams) and let y be the animal’s brain size (in grams).
Suppose x and y are related by 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏 (allometrically). The brain weight of an individual weighing
1000g is 18.7 g. The brain weight of a 1500g individual is 26.1g. Given this information, find a and b.
Interpret your results.

Homework: 4.6 a, b & c; 4.10 a, b & c

 Chapter 4 – Semi-log and log-log graphs

Rescaled exponential functions will appear linear on a semi-log graph.

o Exponential function: 𝑦 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎𝑥

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

x-axis: y-axis: Number of

Time (in days) Cells after 𝒙 days

0 1

1 2

2 4

3 8

4 16

5 32

6 64

Semilog graph: rescale y-axis (ln 𝑦)

x-axis: Time y-axis: 𝒍𝒏 𝒚

in days Number
of Cells
after 𝒙
days

0 1 0

1 2 0.693

2 4 1.386

3 8 2.079

4 16 2.773

5 32 3.466

6 64 4.159
Rescaled allometric functions will appear linear on a log-log graph.

o Allometric function: 𝑦 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 𝑏

Example: 𝑦 = 0.25 ∙ 𝑥 0.5

x-axis y-axis

0 0

1 0.25

2 0.35355…

3 0.43301…

4 0.5

5 0.55902…

6 0.61237…

Log-log graph: rescale x- & y- axis (ln 𝑥 & ln 𝑦)

x-axis: (𝒍𝒏 𝒙) y-axis: (𝒍𝒏 𝒚)

𝑙𝑛 0 𝑙𝑛 0

𝑙𝑛 1 𝑙𝑛 0.25

𝑙𝑛 2 𝑙𝑛 0.35355…

𝑙𝑛 3 𝑙𝑛 0.43301…

𝑙𝑛 4 𝑙𝑛 0.5

𝑙𝑛 5 𝑙𝑛 0.55902…

𝑙𝑛 6 𝑙𝑛 0.61237…
Example:

Assume 𝑀 is an allometric function of 𝑁. Suppose that the log-log (base-10) graph approximately goes
through the points (−1, −3) and (1, 1). Give an equation that expresses 𝑀 as a function of 𝑁.

Homework: 4.7 a & b