Enzymes

Enzymes are generally globular proteins acting alone or in larger complexes. The sequence of
the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the
enzyme. An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it
catalyzes, with the word ending in –ase. Examples are lactase, alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA
polymerase. Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called isozymes.

Structure of Enzymes:

Primary Structure:

Enzymes structure is made up of α amino acids which are linked together via amide (peptide)
bonds in a linear chain. This is the primary structure. The resulting amino acid chain is called a
polypeptide or protein.

Secondary Structure:

The hydrogen in the amino group (NH2) and the oxygen in the carboxyl group (COOH) of each
amino acid can bond with each other by means of hydrogen bond, this means that the amino
acids in the same chain can interact with each other. As a result, the protein chain can fold up
on itself, and it can fold up in two ways, resulting in two secondary structures: it can either
wrap round forming the α-helix, or it can fold on top of itself forming the β-sheet.

α-helix structure

β-sheet structure
Tertiary Structure:

As a consequence of the folding-up of the 2D linear chain in the secondary structure, the
protein can fold up further and in doing so gains a three-dimensional structure. This is
its tertiary structure.

Tertiary Structure

Functions of Enzymes:

Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of
virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells.

They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding
in digestion and metabolism.

Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces that are more easily absorbed by
the body. Other enzymes help bind two molecules together to produce a new molecule.
Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific
reaction.

Enzymes catalyze all kinds of chemical reactions that are involved in growth, blood coagulation,
healing, diseases, breathing, digestion, reproduction, and many other biological activities. On
biological aspects, enzymes are instrumental substances to many functions in living organisms.
Signal Transduction:

Enzymes are competent of participating in signal transduction, where a chemical or physical

signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events, and a cellular response
ultimately appeared. The most common enzymes in signal transduction are protein kinases that
catalyze protein phosphorylation.

Macromolecules Degradation:

Large molecules can be broken down by enzymes into small fragments which can then be
absorbed by human body easily. Many nutritional ingredients are in the form of large molecules
such as sugar, proteins, and fat, which cannot be up taken easily by human body. Hence, these
ingredients are broken down by enzymes into smaller pieces before absorption, and this
process is called catabolism. Following absorption, the small molecules will be used as building
blocks to refresh the body through tissue repairing, regeneration, and growth, and this process
is called anabolism. Many enzymes need to be employed in catabolism and anabolism, such as
amylases and proteases.

Energy Generation:

Enzymes can generate energy for living organisms. Adenosine triphosphate, also known as ATP,
is the main storage form of chemical energy. ATP is a charged battery that can release energy
that powers biological activities. Enzymes are the transformer to turn energy into proper
chemical forms and store it in ATP molecules. Most of these enzymes are called ATP synthases.

Ion Pumps:

Some enzymes in the cell membrane act as ion pumps to move ions across a plasma membrane
against their concentration gradient involved in active transport mechanisms. These primary
ion transporters could convert energy from various sources including ATP, sunlight, and other
redox reactions, to potential energy stored in an electrochemical gradient.

Defense and Clearance:

In organisms, there are always some nonnutritive substances from external environment or
produced by the body itself, which can’t be either transformed into cellular constituents or
employed as energy source. Herein, they need to be converted into products to be excluded or
utilized as physiological, pathological, or toxicological components. Enzymes involving in this
procedure might be a single enzyme, a complex encompassing various enzymes or an enzyme
system, which perform a series of biochemical reactions though oxidization, reduction,
hydrolysis and so on.

Cell Regulation
Enzymes can move parts of a cell’s internal structure and reorganize them to regulate cell
activities. They deliver packages from one part to another inside cells, pull chromosomes apart
when the cells undergo mitosis, and also pull cilia to trigger cell movement or to help cells
move mucus up your airway as a routine to keep the airway clear. Common enzymes involved
in these movement mentioned above are myosin ATPase, kinesin ATPase, and dynein ATPase.

Other Functions
In addition, enzymes are also able to generate movement, with myosin hydrolyzing ATP to
generate muscle contraction, and transport intracellular substances around the cell as part of
the cytoskeleton. Enzymes are important players in many other functions, including immune
responses and aging processes. Luciferase is the major reason for the glowing of fireflies, and
enzymes in virus are involved in infecting cells or the release of virus particles from host cells.