Management CHAPTER 5

Organizational Individuals in
Behavior Organizations:
An Integrated Perspective Perception,
Personality,
Jon L. Pierce & and Cultural
Donald G. Gardner
with Randall B. Dunham Differences
PowerPoint Presentation
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western by Charlie Cook

5–1
 Part 2 Individuals as
Organizational Members
• Perception, Personality, and
Cultural Differences
• Attitudes in Organizations
• Motivation in Organizations
• Behavior in Organizations

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–2

 Management Practices and Organizational
Affect Employees

Management
Practices

Employee Perceptions,
Attitudes, Motivation
& Behavior
Organizational
Design

FIGURE II–1
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–3
 Learning Objectives
1. Define perception, describe the perceptual process,
and explain how perception affects organizational
behavior.
2. Explain what a self-fulfilling prophecy is and its
importance to managers.
3. Describe the Johari window and how it is used to
improve employee interactions.
4. Describe attribution theory and how it is used to
circumvent perceptual problems in organizations.
5. Define personality and how knowledge of employees’
personalities may be used by managers to promote
organizational effectiveness.

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 Learning Objectives (cont’d)
6. Describe the relevance of the following personality
traits to organization behavior: organization-based
self-esteem, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and
the “Big Five.”
7. Define culture and explain its importance to the
management of organizations.
8. Describe Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5

 Chapter Concepts
• Perception
 The process by which people organize and obtain
meaning from the sensory stimuli they receive from the
environment.
• Personality
 The collection of psychological characteristics or traits
that determines a person’s preferences and individual
style of behavior.
• Culture
 The way in which a society as a whole perceives the
world and how it should operate.

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 The Importance of Perception
• Perception
 The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.
 Perception helps define “reality.”
 Objective reality—what truly exists in the physical
world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
 Perceived reality—what individuals experience
through one or more of the human senses, and the
meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
 Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s
perceived reality does not match objective reality.

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 The Perceptual Process
Sensation Selection Organization Translation
a
b
c
d S
e S e
e l
n e
s a a a a a

Stimuli interpretation
c

Stimuli organization
Stimuli acceptance
Physical sensation
o c c c t c c a&c
S g g g
t r i
h h h h h h
i y l l l o
m m m m n
f p p p p p p
u r r r r r
l i f
s s s s s r&s
i l t t t i
t v v v l
e t
u r e
v s r
w s
x
y
z

FIGURE 5–1
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 The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation
 An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
 The process a person uses
to eliminate some of the
stimuli that have been
sensed and to retain others
for further processing.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
3. Organization
 The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for
“storage.”
4. Translation
 The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
5–9
 Physical Characteristics of Stimuli
•Contrast
 The difference between one
stimulus and surrounding
stimuli that makes that
stimulus more likely to be
selected for perceptual
processing.
•Novelty
 When the stimulus an
individual senses differs
from stimuli experienced in
the past.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
•Intensity
 The forcefulness that
enhances the likelihood that
a stimulus will be selected
for perceptual processing.
•Change
 The variety that causes a
stimulus to be selected for
perceptual processing.
5–10
 Contrast Effect

WERE PULL
HALF AFTER THESE

MUST
FROM WHICH
FOR
NEED
USUAL
OTHER

EACH
NOTE
LIST

FIGURE 5–2
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 Characteristics of the Perceiver
• Motive
 Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s
current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g.,
hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of
the stimulus.
• Personality
 An individual characteristic that creates an increased
likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the
characteristic will be noticed.

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 The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• Organization
 The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into
a framework for “storage.”
 Stimuli become associated when they:
 Are similar in physical resemblance.
 Occur in close physical (space) proximity.
 Occur in close time proximity.
 Are used for figure-ground differentiation.
 Are used together to achieve closure—a perception of
the whole or to piece together a message.

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 Figure-Ground Illustration
• Field-ground differentiation
 The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.

FIGURE 5–3
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 Closure
• Closure
 The tendency to organize
perceptual stimuli so that,
together, they form a
complete message.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Introduction to psychology:

Explorations and applications by Dennis Coon. Copyright © 1977
by West Publishing Company. All rights reserved. FIGURE 5–4
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–15
 The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• Transition
 The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning.
 Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective
reality) of objective reality :
 Primacy effect
 Recency effect
 Stereotyping
 Halo effect
 Projection
 Selective perception
 Expectancy effects

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–16

 Transition Errors
• Primacy effect
 The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.
• Recency effect
 The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.
• Stereotyping
 The generalization (application) of a person’s prior
beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during
encounters with members of that class of objects.

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 Transition Errors (cont’d)
• Halo effect
 The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation
of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.
• Projection
 The process by which people attribute their own
feelings and characteristics
to other people.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–18

 Transition Errors (cont’d)
• Selective perception
 The selection of things consistent with one’s own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are
inconsistent with that viewpoint;
 A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs
that conflict with new information.
• Expectancy effect
 The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that
confirm expectations.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs
when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to
reflect their expectations in a situation.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–19

 Self Perceptions: The Johari Window
Relationship from A’s position
Known to A Unknown to A
Known to B
Relationship from B’s position

B’s unshared data One way to

Openly shared data A’s blind spots conceptualize
the possible
combinations
of what you
know about
yourself and
Unknown to B

what others
Unknowns in the
A’s unshared data know about
relationship
B’s blind spots you.
Future potential

Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented

in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books. FIGURE 5–5
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 Characteristics Affecting the Perception of
Others

Group membership
Person Perceived
Status
Organizational culture
Organization
Competitive conditions

Perceiver Attribution errors

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 Perceiving Others
• Characteristics of the person perceived
 Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe
personality traits to people because they share certain
characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with
others.
• Characteristics of the organization
 An individual’s association with an organization affects
the perception of that individual.
 Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how
other individuals are perceived within the organization.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–22

 Perceiving Others (cont’d)
• Characteristics of the perceiver
 Attribution theory—explains how people assign
responsibility and the cognitive processes by which
they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the
behavior of others.
 Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed
behavior of others to internal or external causes.
 Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the
effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects
of external causes when we judge other people’s
actions.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–23

 Reducing Perceptual Errors
• Self-understanding
 The acknowledgement that you and people who interact
with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
• Conscious information processing
 Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning
the accuracy of what you perceive.
• Reality testing
 The comparison of developed
perceptions about a stimulus object
to another (objective) measure of the object.

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 Personality
• Personality (individual differences)
 The characteristics or traits that describe how people
are likely to behave in a given situation.
 Determines how a person will react to a managerial
practice.
• Pitfalls in assessing personality
 Making hasty judgments about personalities.
 Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm
judgments.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–25

 Determinants of Personality
• Nature (heredity)
 The assumption that part of personality is biologically-
based and predetermined.
• Nurture (environment)
 The assumption that
personality is shaped
primarily by life
experiences,
especially those
of early childhood.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–26

 Dimensions of Personality
• Self-esteem (self-concept)
 How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.

Low Self Esteem High

Incapable Capable
Incompetent Competent
Insignificant Significant
Unworthy Worthy

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 Self-Esteem Dimensions
• Global self-esteem

• Role-specific
self-esteem

• Job-based
self-esteem

• Organization-based
self-esteem (OBSE)

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 Other Dimensions of Personality
• Locus of control
 The degree to which people believe their actions
determine what happens to them in life.
 Internal locus of control—occurs when people believe
that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the
determinants of their destiny.
 External locus of control—
occurs when people believe that
external factors such as luck,
other people, or organizations
are the determinants of
their destiny.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–29

 Measuring Locus of Control
I more strongly believe that

Internal Control External Control

Promotions are earned through Making a lot of money is largely a

hard work and persistence. matter of getting the right breaks.
In my experience I have noticed Many times the reactions of
that there is usually a direct teachers seem haphazard to me.
connection between how hard I
study and the grades I get.
The number of divorces indicates Marriage is a legal gamble.
that more and more people are not
trying to make their marriages
work.
When I am right I can convince It is silly to think that one can really
others. change another person’s basic
attitudes.

Source: Derived from Rotter’s I-E test. J. B. Rotter. 1971. External

control and internal control. Psychology Today 5(1):37–42, 58–59. TABLE 5–1
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–30
 Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)
• Machiavellianism
 Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who
advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional
behavioral approach by individuals to organizational
participation in meeting their personal objectives.
 The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner
that will meet one’s own needs.
 The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as
a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its
impact on others.

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–31

 Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)
• The “Big Five” personality theory
 The view that all personality traits can be distilled into
five big ones:
 Extroversion—outgoing/withdrawn
 Adjustment—flexible/rigid
 Agreeableness—cooperative/uncooperative
 Conscientiousness—thorough/sloppy
 Inquisitiveness—curious/disinterested

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 Cultural Differences Among Culture
Organizational Members Knowledge
Beliefs
Laws
Morals
• Culture defined Art
Assumptions

 How a society perceives the world

Customs
Habits

and how it should operate based

on the beliefs, values, attitudes,
Institutions
and expectations for behavior that
Parenting
the society believes to be good, Education
Religious activities
effective, desirable, and beneficial. Law enforcement
Entertainment

Future
Generations

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 Cultural Awareness and Managers
• Culture affects:
 The success of expatriate employees
in overseas assignments.

 The effectiveness of management

practices and leadership styles
in different cultures.

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 Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
• Individualism-collectivism
 The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to
act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
• Power distance
 The acceptance of large differences
in power between the most and least
powerful in society.
• Uncertainty avoidance
 The degree to which cultures differ
in the extent to which they tolerate
uncertainty.

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 Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) cont’d
• Masculinity-femininity
 The degree to which a society displays mostly
traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
• Time orientation
 The degree to which cultures
possess a short or long
perspective on time.

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 Cultural Differences for Ten Countries
High High Long-term
Power Uncertainty Time
Individualism Distance Avoidance Masculinity Orientation
High USA Russia Japan Japan China
Netherlands China France USA Japan
Germany France Russia Germany Hong Kong
France Hong Kong Hong Kong
Indonesia
West Africa

Medium Russia Japan West Africa China Netherlands

Japan China West Africa Germany
Germany Indonesia
Netherlands France

Low China Netherlands Indonesia Russia West Africa

West Africa Germany USA Netherlands Indonesia
Indonesia USA Hong Kong France
Hong Kong USA
Russia

Collectivism Low Low Femininity Short-term

Power Uncertainty Time
Distance Avoidance Orientation

Source: G. Hofstede. 1993. Cultural constraints in management

theories. Academy of Management Executive 7(1):81–94. TABLE 5–3
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