Chapter 9 Evolution and Speciation

9.2 Speciation: How Species Form

Guided Inquiry Assignment
 Biological species is a population or group of populations in nature whose individual members can
interbreed to produce viable, fertile offspring – offspring that can also interbreed.
 When some members of a sexually reproducing population change so much that they are no longer able to
produce viable, fertile offspring with members of the original population, speciation has occurred.

Speciation
1. Define Species. A group of organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring

2. What is speciation? Speciation is the formation of a new species from an existing species.

3. What is the difference between macroevolution and microevolution?

Macroevolution is the formation of a new species , while microevolution is changes in a population.

4. What factors do biologists use to distinguish one species from another?

Most biologists distinguish one species from another based on reproductivity: members of different species either
won't or can't mate with one another, or, if they do, the resulting offspring are often sterile, unviable, or suffer some
other sort of reduced fitness.

5. Complete the following table by adding definitions and examples for each reproductive isolating mechanisms.

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Pre-zygotic
Prevention of Mating
Behavioral Isolation
 Any special signals or behaviors
that are species-specific prevent
interbreeding with closely related
species.
E.g., Easter Meadowlark and Western
Meadowlark are nearly identical in
shape, coloration, and habitat.
However, the species do not mate due
to the differences in their songs.
Temporal Isolation
 Two species may occupy the same
habitat and have timing barriers.
E.g., Three orchid species in the genus
Dendrobium bloom at different times.
Ecological/Habitat Isolation
 Two species may live in the same
general region but in different
habitats, so they may encounter
each other rarely, if at all.
E.g., the northwest garter snake prefers
open areas such as meadows and
rarely enters water. The common
garter snake is commonly found near
water.
Prevention of Fertilization
Mechanical Isolation
 Two closely related species may
attempt to mate but are
unsuccessful due to anatomical
genital incompatibility.
E.g., Insects Lock-and-key system
Gametic Isolation
 Gametes from two different
species may meet but do not fuse
to form a zygote.
E.g., The sperm of one species may
not be able to survive in the
environment of the female
reproductive tract of another species.
Post-zygotic
Prevention of Hybrids
Hybrid Inviability (Zygote Mortality)
 Zygote is unable to survive and usually
dies before birth due to genetic
incompatibility which prevents normal
mitosis after fertilization.
E.g., Sheep + Goat  zygote forms but dies in
early development before birth
Hybrid Sterility
 The offspring is unable to reproduce due to
the inability of the offspring to produce
normal gametes.
E.g., Horse + Donkey  Mule (offspring is
sterile or unable to produce gametes)
Hybrid Breakdown
 Type of reproductive failure that appears
after the F2 generation of crosses between
different species or subspecies.
It is caused by incompatibility between
interacting genes.
E.g., Different species of cotton plants cross,
but their hybrid offspring produce weak and
sterile seeds.
6. What is a pre-zygotic isolating mechanism? Pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms don’t allow mating between species or
prevent fertilization of eggs.

7. What is a post-zygotic isolating mechanism? Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms prevent hybrid zygotes from
developing into viable, fertile individuals.

Types of Speciation
 Biological species is only one of several species concepts that include the morphological and phylogenetic species
concepts.
 The process of speciation requires populations of organisms to become, and largely to remain, genetically isolated
from one another.
 There are two types of speciation, called sympatric and allopatric speciation, and they are based on how gene flow
is disrupted within a population.

8. Complete the following table by including definitions and examples of the type of speciation.
Sympatric Speciation Allopatric Speciation
Definition: Definition:
 More common in plants than animals, chromosomal  Speciation occurs when a population is split into two or
changes in plants or non-random mating in animals alters more isolated groups by a geographical barrier.
gene flow.  Eventually, the gene pool of the split population becomes
 The result is reproductive incompatibility without so distinct (due to natural selection, mutations, and gene
geographical isolation. flow) that the two groups are unable to interbreed when re-
introduced.
Example: Example:

Adaptive Radiation
 A type of allopatric speciation.
 The Galapagos Islands’ finches are also an
example of adaptive radiation since the
common ancestral species diversified into a
variety of differently adapted species. This
speciation occurs everywhere but is easily
studied on island chains.

Example: Red crossbill bird beaks – Different sized

birds have beaks that can open different-sized
cones.

9. What is necessary in a population for the process of speciation to occur? For speciation to occur, a population must
either become divided into at least two populations that are reproductively isolated from each other, or become
reproductively isolated from its parent species.
10. Explain why sympatric speciation is more common in plants than in animals. Sympatric speciation is more common
in plants because many plants are able to self-pollinate and are able to survive if they encounter errors in cell division
which can lead to polyploidy.

11. Why are smaller populations more likely to undergo speciation compared with larger populations? Smaller
populations are more likely to undergo speciation than larger populations for the following reasons:• They become
isolated on the periphery of their species range, where local environmental conditions may be different compared to
the average environmental conditions of the parental species range. As a result, natural selection is more likely to
occur, which changes the gene pool of the small population relatively quickly.• They are likely to have greater genetic
differences between themselves and the average parental species population.• Their small population size allows
genetic drift to have a larger impact on the population’s gene pool.
Divergent and Convergent Evolution
To this point, all discussions of evolution have been examples of divergent evolution.

12. Define divergent and convergent evolution and review the examples provided for both.
Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution

Example: Modern elephant and the Wooly Mammoth. Example: Wings on birds and bats
They share a common ancestor and yet evolved into two Natural selection favored flight in these species, but they do not
different species. share a common ancestor. Thus, their wings evolved differently
Another example is the dog, the wolf, and the fox. from different structures.

The Speed of Evolutionary Change

13. Distinguish between the two models that describe the speed of evolution.
 Gradualism Dynamic Equilibrium
a model of evolution that views evolutionary change as slow a model of evolution that views evolutionary history as long
and steady, before and after a divergence periods of stasis, or equilibrium, that are interrupted by periods
of divergence.

Human Impact of Activities

 Human activities have had great impact on speciation, population decline, and extinction. Many activities essentially
isolate populations.
 For example, these human-made barriers are resulting in allopatric speciation (due to geographical isolation) and
need to be monitored closely: conversion of wilderness into cropland, development of areas for tourism and building
urban subdivisions and roads.
 Outcomes include:
 speciation through adaptive radiation after geographical isolation
 speciation through genetic drift after a bottleneck effect
 species endangerment and/or extinction due to insufficient genetic diversity from population isolation (e.g.,
giant panda)

14. List 3 ways that human activity can affect species and speciation, and explain how.
Human activities may fragment habitats when people build roads and suburbs. These barriers may geographically
isolate some species, encouraging speciation events. Unregulated hunting can cause large and rapid species decline,
leading to genetic drift in the form of the bottleneck effect. The building of dams for hydroelectric power generation
floods large areas of land and fragments habitats.

15. What is thought to be the cause of the mass extinction of 65 million years ago, and how did it trigger new evolution?
The cause of the mass extinction of 65 million years ago is thought to be triggered by the impact of a large asteroid.