Introduction to Acoustics:

The branch of physics that is concerned with the study of sound is known
as acoustics. We can define acoustics as,

“The science that deals with the study of sound and its production,
transmission, and effects”.

A scientist or researcher who studies acoustics is called an Acoustician and

someone working in the field of acoustics technology will be called
Acoustical Engineering. The main application of acoustics is to make the
music or speech sound as good as possible. It is achieved by reducing the
sound barriers and increasing the factors that help in proper transmission
of sound waves. Initially, acoustics was used only in industries which are
based on sound like an auditorium, theatre but today, the application of
acoustics has spread to many fields.

Acoustic energy:

it can be defined as the disturbance of energy which passes through matter

in the form of a wave. In other words, it is the energy concerning the
mechanical vibrations from its components is called Acoustic Energy. Any
acoustic event has the following stages..

The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical
event or process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and
volitional. The process in which some other form of energy is
converted into sonic energy producing a sound wave is called
transduction process. There are many kinds of transduction process that
convert energy from some other form into sonic energy, producing a sound
wave. The wave carries energy throughout the propagating medium.
Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that
again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be
purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains.
The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about
an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing
in a rock concert.

The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls
within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates
primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many
forms including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

Wave propagation
Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in
terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound.
What we experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are
pressure vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second.
In a common technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are
sampled in time, and then presented in more meaningful forms such as
octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of these popular methods are
used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic phenomenon.
The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic,
and infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This
range is important because its frequencies can be detected by the human
ear. This range has a number of applications, including speech
communication and music. The ultrasonic range refers to the very high
frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter wavelengths
which allow better resolution in imaging technologies. Medical applications
such as ultrasonography and elastography rely on the ultrasonic frequency
range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known
as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to study geological
phenomena such as earthquakes.
Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization
and measurement of acoustic signals and their properties.
The spectrogram produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of
the time varying pressure level and frequency profiles which give a specific
acoustic signal its defining character.
Transduction in acoustics:
A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In
an electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into
electrical energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers
include loudspeakers, microphones, particlevelocity sensors, hydrophones
and sonar projectors. These devices convert a sound wave to or from an
electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles
are electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity. The transducers
in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are
electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended
diaphragm driven by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure
waves.
Electret microphones and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—
as the sound wave strikes the microphone's diaphragm, it moves and
induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic systems used in medical
ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These are made from
special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical fields are
interlinked through a property of the material itself.
not present in the original sound

8.2 TYPES OF ACOUSTICS

below.
acoustics. These are discusscd
There are various types of the

8.2.1 Physical Acoustics

sound at all frequencies in air and
other
of s

acoustics encompasses propagation and absorption intrasound and ultrasound. Ph

Physical
semi-solids and solids. It deals
with airborne, audible sound,
liquids, from traffic, and nonlincar procm
includes both lincar processes such as the propagation ofsound
acoustics
faster than the speed of sound
such as the shock waves that are generated by planes flying
small increases and decreases in pressure
about the equilim
Sound waves in gases generate alternating forth along the direction propagtin
of

through the gas; the molecules oscillateback and

value that propagate these variations stimulate the ca
called a longitudinal wave. In air,
pressure
This kind of propagation is
that are brain as sound.
processed by the
which sends signals
cause changes in shape u
as shear waves (which
several different types of acoustic waves, such
In solids,
occur. Longitudinal waves can also
propagate in solids. In plates, rods and
not in volume) and surface waves,
waves (whether on the
Earth or the moon) have suriace an
are important. Seismic
beams, bending waves in everyday language the word sout
and are a legitimate part of acoustics. Although
shear components
sound in air, propagating vibration in
solids is an acoustical phenomenon s
is mostly used to refer to
building called structure borne sound.
in the solid materials of a
is
propagating
8.2.2 Engineering Acoustics
rec

Engineering acoustics development of devices to generate (e.g.. loudspeakers),

deals with the
sound of all kinds. The field of sound pr
microphones) and analyse (e.g., frequency analysers) 15 an
ortan
recordingand reproduction, with all its attendant electronics and measuring instruments, i
of engineering acousticsS.

8.2.3 Architectural Acoustics

ofs
Architectural acoustics is concerned with sound in buildings. One aspect of this field is the co
hited
within rooms to maximize the acceptability of music or intelligibility of speech. This brancn d
>a

acousticsdealswith sound in lecture theatres, concert halls, meeting rooms and classrooms. afa
nore live players, vocalists or lecturers, whether assisted by loudspeakers or not, r

by thecharacterofthe room in which it takes place. The corect choice and placement
and sound-retilecting materials in a room and the level o f noise in it are critical to obtain an
of

ac b
sound
abson
roperly placed reflectons can dircct the sound to where it is most needed. Properly placed
s

n dc a n

to interi
materials will preventreflections that might cause unpleasant echoes or cause sounds
 Sound Waves and Acoustics of Buildings 8.3

other 0ut
t In
In rooms that are too reverberant, it is difficult
ch music will sound dead and lifeless
to understand speech. In rooms that are n t
erherantenough,
derant characterIstics of a room are described by its reverberation times which
The e v e r b
vary with frequency
The ion time
verheration is usually longer at
time is
frequencies around 100 Hz than it is around 5000 Hz In concert hals
re e reverberation time is around 2 seconds. In homes, it is around 0.5 seconds. In a
eaverage reverberat

highly reverberant
cet with
h hard surfaces, such as a swimming p0ol, the average reverberation time can be several scconds
mless material
material is
is added to absorb sound. Another concern of architectural acoustics is sometimes called
lding acoustics and als with the reduction of noise transfer between rooms in buildings.

s24 Musical Acoustics

Masical acoustics considers the workings of traditional, experimental and clectronic musical instruments
no interaction of musicians, instruments, listeners and performance spaces means that many branches ol
S
ctics influence work in this fheld. Why, for example, does a Stradivarius violin sound the way tt does and
whydopeoplelike that sound?Canada is the birthplace of the world's first music synthesizer, constructed by
gh LeCaine in 1945. Le Caine called hisinstrument the Electronic Sackbut.Itcombined tape recordings
afreal sounds with electronically generated ones

825 Psychological Acoustics

hychologicalacoustics studies the brain's signal-processing function, which takes nerveimpulses from the
arand interpretsthem. Physiologicalacousticsdeals with models and theories of the operation of the ear
dits anatomy. One practical application of this field is the study of the elements important to achieve a
phonic efect. Anotheris thedeterminationofthose factorsthatmakeonesoundunpleasantorannoying
nd mother reverse. In offices, the sound from ventilation systems can provide a neutral, fairly low level
ckground noise that helps to mask intrudingsoundsfrom adjacent workstations. Other sounds with
mately thesame loudness are annoying.such asan imitating hiss,whistle,rumble or noar Thereis no
comelation between loudness and annoyance
826 Bioacoustics
studies allaspects of acoustic behaviour in animals and biologicalmediain general This field
pcs such as sound production by animals, bio-sonar,sound reception by animals, efects of noise
ls and medical diagnost using acoustics, especiallyultrasonics