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MACHINE DESIGN

1 STATIC, DYNAMIC & FATIGUE LOADING

1. STATIC LOAD

• A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.
1.1 MODES OF FAILURE
A mechanical component may fail as a result of any one of the following three modes of
failure:
• Failure by elastic deflection
• Failure by general yielding
• Failure by fracture
1.2. STRESS
• Stress is defined as an intensity or magnitude of an internal resisting force developed
Force
at a point under given load. unit = = N / m2
Area
1.2.1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRESSURE AND STRESS
• Pressure is externally applied or due to acting louds whereas stress is internal
resisting force developed or induced at a pt.
• Pressure Always acts normal to the surface but stress can act normal or parallel to
the surface.
• Pressure is scalar whereas stress is a tensor

Fig.1: Cutting a section

Fig.2: Equilibrium of part

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Internal resisting force acts similarly to externally applied load but in opposite direction.

dF
=
dA
dF = σdA

F =  dA

When externally applied load (P) increases, then internal resisting force (F) also
increases.
Upto Fmax , P increases gradually. So gradual deformation takes place.
But, if the externally applied load is beyond F max then sudden deformation
occurs. Length increases and diameter decreases Fracture takes place.
1.3. STRENGTH OR FAILURE STRESS
• Strength is defined as the maximum or limiting value of stress that a material can
withstand without any failure or fracture.
• If σinduced ≤ σyield, then yielding, then yielding (permanent deformation) will not occur.
• If σinduced ≤ σultimate , then fracture will not occur.
• If σyield ≤ σinduced ≤ σultimate , then yielding will occur without any failure.
Units of stress and strength
Pa, MPa, GPa, Kgf/cm 2
1 Kgf → force by 1 kg of mass
1 × 9.8 N = 9.8N

2. TYPES OF MATERIAL

2.1. HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL

• Same elastic properties at any pt. in a given directions [i.e., elastic properties are

independent of point]

2.2. ISOTROPIC MATERIAL

• Same elastic properties in any direction at a given point [independent of direction]

2.3. ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL

• Exhibit direction dependent elastic property

2.4 ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL

• Exhibits different elastic properties in orthogonal directions at a given pt.

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Fig.3: Types of material

3. ELASTIC CONSTANTS

Normal stress
E (Youngs modulus of elasticity) =
•
Longitudinal Strain

Shear Stress T
G (Shear modulus of rigidity) = =
•
Shear strain Y

Normal stress 
K (Bulk modulus of elasticity) = =
•
Volumetric strain V

 Lateral strain 
Poisson's Ratio (µ) = –  
•  Logitudinal strain 

• E = 2G (1 + µ)

• E = 3K (1 – 2µ)

9 KG
E=
3K + G

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4. SHEAR STRESS

• When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent planes with respect
to each other, the resulting stresses on these planes are called shear stresses.

Fig.4: Shear failure of mechanical member

P
τ=
A
where, τ = shear stress (N/mm 2 or MPa), and
A = cross-sectional area under shear of the rivet (mm 2)

5. STRAIN

Fig.5: Types of strain

5.1. LONGITUDINAL STRAIN
• It is the normal strain in the direction of loading.
5.2. LATERAL STRAIN
• It is the normal strain in the direction which is perpendicular to the direction of loading.
• Every longitudinal strain is associated with two lateral strains.
• Longitudinal and lateral strains are unlike is nature.

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Fig.6: Longitudinal and Lateral strain

L (L f – L o ) → + ve
longitudinal =x = =
Lo Lo

Tensile strain

d ( df – do ) → –ve
lateral =y =z =
do do
V
volumetric = =x + y + z
Vo
5.3. SHEAR STRAIN
• Shear strain (γ) is defined as the change in the right angle of an element under shear.

Fig.7: Shear strain

Y=ϕ

tan  =
L
For smaller angles, tanϕ ≈ ϕ

= =·L
L
P
=
A
 
G= or y =
y G

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where,
γ = shear strain (radians)
G is the constant of proportionality known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (in
N/mm 2 or MPa)
For carbon steels, G = 80000 N/mm 2 and for grey cast iron, G = 40000 N/mm 2

6. FACTOR OF SAFETY

• While designing a component,it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in case

of an accident.This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety.

• The factor of safety is defined as

failure stress
(fs) =
allowable stress
• The allowable stress is the stress value,which is used in design to determine the

dimensions of the component.It is considered as a stress,which the designer expects will

not be exceeded under normal operating conditions.

• For ductile materials, the allowable stress, σ is obtained by the following relationship:

Syt
σ=
(fs)

• For brittle materials, the relationship is,

Sut
σ=
(fs)

7. TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS

• When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting

in parallel planes, then the machine member is said to be subjected to torsion.

• The internal stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist, are called torsional

shear stresses.

• Consider a shaft fixed at one end and subjected to a torque (M t) at the other end as shown

in fig. As a result of this torque ,every cross-section of the shaft is subjected to torsional

shear stress.

• The torsional shear stress is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the outer surface.

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Fig.8: Shaft subjected to torsion

• The torsion equation is given as:

 Mt G
= =
r J L
Where, τ = torsional shear stress at a distance r from shaft axis
Mt = applied torque
r = radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation
J = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section about the axis of rotation
G=Modulus of rigidity
L=Length of shaft

 =Angle of twist in radian on a length L

7.1. DESIGN OF SHAFT

• The design of the shaft can be done on the basis of two criteria which are explained
below.
7.1.1. STRENGTH CRITERIA
• The strength criteria uses the first two terms of torsion equation and design is done on
basis that stress induced in the shaft must not exceed the strength of material of shaft.
 Mt
=
R J
d4
J=
32
16Mt
=
d3

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7.1.2. RIGIDITY CITERIA
• The rigidity criteria uses the last two terms of torsion equation and design is done on
the basis that maximum angular twist must exceed a certain value.
T G
=
J L
TL
=
GJ
• The expression GJ is called torsional rigidity of the shaft.

8. BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS

• A beam or a member is said to be under pure bending when it is subjected to two equal and
opposite couples in a plane along the longitudinal axis of the beam (i.e. bending couples) in
such a way that magnitude of bending moment remains constant throughout the length of
the beam
• Every beam is not under pure bending but a part of a beam may be under pure bending.

Fig.9: Pure bending

8.1. BENDING EQUATION
• The following equation is known as bending equation.

= b =
MR E
IN.A. Y R

𝐌𝐑 → Moment of Resistance offered by the plane of cross-section of the beam

𝐈𝐍.𝐀. → Moment of Inertia (i.e. second moment of area of the plane of cross-section) about
neutral axis of the plane of cross-section
𝐘 → Distance of a fibre on the plane of cross-section of the beam from the neutral axis
𝛔𝐛 → Bending stress developed at a fibre on the plane of cross-section located at a
distance of Y from the neutral axis
𝐑 → Radius of curvature of Neutral Fibre or Neutral Layer
• Moment of Resistance represents resisting bending couple offered by the plane of
cross-section of the beam. Resisting bending couple is formed due to the two equal

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parallel internal resisting tensile and compressive forces (F) developed above and
below the neutral axis of the plane of cross-section of the beam.

Fig.10: Analysis of part subjected to bending

• Neutral Axis → Neutral axis is the line of intersection of neutral surface with plane of
cross-section of the beam. Neutral Axis always coincides with centroidal axis in the
plane of cross-section of the beam under pure bending.
• Neutral Layer → Neutral layer is the longitudinal fibre whose length before and after
bending remains same.
8.2. ANALYSIS OF BENDING EQUATION

= b =
MR E
IN.A. Y R
Case 1:

= b
MR
IN.A. Y
MR Y
b = IN.A.
Hence for a given bending moment,
1
( σb )max ∝
ZN.A.
ZN.A. ↑ ⟹ ( σb )max ↓
Chances of failure ↓
• Cross section which has higher IN.A. is best suitable under bending [Bending Stress
should be minimum]
• For a given area, I-section is the best section
M.Y
σb Y
= IN.A.⁄M.Y =
(σb )max max Ymax
IN.A.
Y
Therefore, σb = (σb )Max [ ]
Ymax

(σb )Top YTop

=
(σb )Bottom YBottom
Condition for safe design with respect to strength criterion
(σb )maxinduced ≤ σpermissible

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M
≤ σpermissible
ZN.A.
M ≤ ZN.A. × σpermissible
Therefore, MR = ZN.A. × σpermissible
For a given material, σpermissible is constant, hence
MR ∝ ZN.A.
ZN.A. ↑ ⟹ MR ↑ ⟹ M ↑ ⟹ Chances of failure ↓
Case 2:
𝛔𝐛 𝐄
=
𝐘 𝐑
EY
σb =
R
EYmax
(σb )max =
R
For a given Ymax, σb ∝ E⁄R
This case is used when radius of curvature of neutral axis (R) is known
Case 3:
𝐌𝐑 𝐄
=
𝐈𝐍.𝐀. 𝐑
E. IN.A. = MR . R [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, E. IN.A. is Flexural Rigidity]
For a given R, ⇒ E. I N.A. = MR
E. I N.A. ↑ ⟹ MR ↑ ⇒ Slope and deflection ↓
Chances of bending ↓
• Flexural Rigidity is used in design of beams based on Rigidity Criterion
• Section Modulus is used in design of beams based on Strength Criterion
• Under the equilibrium condition, M = MR
E.IN.A.
• Therefore, R =
M

• When M is constant, then R is constant (beam will deflect in form of Circular Arc)
• When M is zero, then R is infinite (beam will deflect in form of Straight Line)
• When M is variable, then R is variable (beam will deflect in form of Parabolic Arc)
Mb y
σb =
I
where, σb = bending stress at a distance of y from the neutral axis
Mb = applied bending moment
I = moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis

8.3. ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING

• There are certain mechanical components subjected to an external force, tensile or
compressive, which does not pass through the centroid of the cross-section.
• According to the principle of statics, the eccentric force P can be replaced by a parallel
force P passing through the centroidal axis along with a couple (P × e),

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where
e= eccentricity of the applied load from centroidal axis.

Fig.11: Eccentric Loading

9. PRINCIPAL STRESSES

• A point is said to be under combined stresses when it is subjected to both normal & shear
stresses on any one of the three mutually perpendicular planes passing through that point.
• The aim is to derive expressions for maximum normal stress & maximum shear stress
developed at a critical point when it is subjected to combined stresses.
• Critical point is a point on a critical cross-section where stresses induced are maximum.
• Critical cross-section is a cross-section where stresses induced are maximum.
• The above derived expressions are used in the design of a machine component (i.e. in
Theories of Failure Equation) when it is subjected to combined loading conditions.

Fig.12: Shaft subjected to torsion, bending and axial load

• In this case, every cross-section is a critical cross-section because everywhere load is same
and area is same.
• C is the critical point [on the bottom fibre] as maximum shear stresses and maximum
bending and axial compressive stresses are induced at C.

9.1. NORMAL & SHEAR STRESSES ON OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER BIAXIAL STATE OF
STRESS AT A POINT

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Fig.13: Small element subjected to complex loading

• σn = 1⁄2 [σx + σy ] + 1⁄2 [σx − σy ] cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ

• 𝜏𝑠 = − 1⁄2 [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ] sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃

• The principle stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses acting in
material for particular loading.Maximum normal stress is called Major principle stress
and Minimum normal stress is called Minor Prinicple stress.
2
• σ1,2 = 1⁄2 [(σx + σy) ± √(σx − σy ) + 4τxy 2]
σ1−σ2
• In Plane τmax = ± [ ], on x-y plane
2
σ2−σ3
• In Plane τmax = ± [ ], on y-z plane
2
σ3−σ1
• In Plane τmax = ± [ ], on x-z plane
2

10. COMBINED BENDIND AND TORSION

• Mechanical members are generally subjected to more than one kind of loads at a time. These
loads may be axial loads, bending loads or/and torsional shear loads etc. Transmission shafts
are often subjected to axial tensile force, bending moment or torsional moment or their
combinations.
• The design of transmission shaft consists of determining the correct shaft diameter from
strength and rigidity criterion.
• When the shaft is subjected to axial tensile force (P), the tensile stress is given by,
P
σt =
πd2
( )
4
4P
σt = πd2

• When the shaft is subjected to pure bending moment (Mb), the bending stresses are given
by,
d
Mb y Mb (2) 32Mb
σb = = =
I πd4 πd3
( )
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• When the shaft is subjected to pure torsional moment (M t), the torsional shear stress is given
by,
d
Mt r Mt (2) 16Mt
τ= = =
J πd4 πd3
( )
32
• When the shaft is subjected to combination of loads, the principal stresses and principal shear
stresses developed in the shaft are obtained by constructing Mohr’s Circle.
The normal stress is denoted by σx while the shear stress is denoted by 𝜏.
• Two cases are considered for calculating σx
• Case I: The shaft is subjected to a combination of axial force, bending moment and torsional
moment
σx = σt + σb
• Case II: The shaft is subjected to a combination of bending and torsional moments without
any axial force
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑏 ,
τxy =τ
• The Principal stress 𝜎1 is given by,

σx σx 2
σ1 = ( ) + √( ) + (τ)2
2 2
• The max shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by,

σx 2
τmax = √( ) + (τ)2
2

11. INTRODUCTION

• In previous chapters, the stresses were due to static loading only. But only a few machine
parts are subjected to static loading. Since many of the machine parts (such as axles, shafts,
crankshafts, connecting rods). are subjected to variable loading.

12. DYNAMIC LOADING

• The load whose magnitude or direction or both changes with time is known as dynamic
loading.
12.1. MEAN STRESS
• Mean stress is defined as the average of the maximum and minimum stress (with
taking their sign).
max + min
m = 2
12.2. VARIABLE STRESS OR STRESS AMPLITUDE
• Variable Stress or Stress Amplitude is defined as the half of the difference of maximum
and minimum stresses.

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max − min
a = 2
12.3. STRESS RATIO
• Stress Ratio is defined as the ratio of minimum stress to the maximum stress.

Stress Ratio = min

max

13. TYPE OF DYNAMIC LOADING

• The dynamic loading can be of different types based on the nature of variation of stress
direction wise as well as magnitude wise.
13.1. COMPLETELY REVERSED STRESS
• The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice-versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses. For example consider a
rotating beam of circular cross-section and carrying a load W. This load induces stresses
in the beam which are cyclic in nature. A little consideration will show that the upper fibre
of the beam are under compressive stress and the lower fibres are under tensile stress.
After the half a revolution ,the lower fibre occupies the position of upper fibre and it
experiences compressive stress.

Fig.14: Completely reversed stresses

max =  ; min = −
max + max , −
m =
2  m
=
2
max − max
m = 0 ; a =
2
+
a = 2
; a = 
13.2. FLUCTUATING STRESSES
• The stresses which vary from a minimum value to maximum value of same nature
(either tensile or compressive) is known as fluctuating stresses.

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Fig.15: Fluctuating stresses

max + max , max − max

m =
2 a = 2
13.2.1. REPEATED STRESSES
• The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.

Fig.16: Repeated stresses

max = , min = 0
max + max , −0
m =
2  m
=
2
 max − max
m 2  a
= ; =
2
−0 
m =
2
; m =
2
13.2.2. ALTERNATING STRESSES
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to maximum value of the opposite nature
(i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive)
are called alternating stresses.

14. FATIGUE FAILURE

• Materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress magnitude which is lower than the
ultimate tensile strength of the material and sometimes it is even lower than the yield
strength.
• It has also been found that the magnitude of the stress causing failure decreases as the
number of stress cycles increase.

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• This phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to fluctuating stresses is the main
characteristic of fatigue failure.
• Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading.
• The fatigue failure depends upon a number of factors, such as number of cycles, mean
stress, stress amplitude, stress concentration, residual stresses, corrosion, size of the
component and creep.
14.2. ENDURANCE LIMIT
• The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles (106 cycles) without fatigue failure.
• It may be noted that term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for
other types of loading ,the term endurance strength may be used.

14.2.1. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FACTORS ON ENDURANCE LIMIT

• The endurance limit of a material as determined by the rotating beam method is for
reversed bending load. There are many machine members which are subjected to loads
other than reversed bending loads. Thus the endurance limit will also be different for
different types of loading.
• Se ′ = Endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed
bending stress (N⁄ mm2 )
• Se = Corrected endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected
to reversed bending stress (N⁄mm2 )
EnduranceLimit for reversed bending load Se = SeKb = Se As Kb = 1
EnduranceLimit for reversed axial load Se = SeK a
EnduranceLimit for reversed torsional load Se = SeK s
• When a machine member is subjected to variable loads ,the endurance limit of the
material for that member depends upon the surface conditions. When the surface finish
factor is known ,then the endurance limit for the material of the machine member may
be obtained by multiplying the endurance limit and the surface finish factor.
where Ksur is the surface finish factor.
Se = SeKsur
A little consideration shows that if the size of the standard specimen is increased, then
the endurance limit of material will decrease. This is due to the fact that a longer
specimen will have more defects than a smaller one.
where Ksz is the size factor
Se = SeKsz
When all the factors are taken into account the corrected endurance limit is given by
Se = SeKLKszKsur
14.3. FATIGUE LIFE
• The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen
can complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

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• In the laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam
machine developed by R.Mooore
• The results of this test are plotted by means of an S-N curve.
• The S-N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the number
of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper.

Fig.17: Plot of Stress amplitude and Stress cycle in log -log scale.
• For ferrous materials like steels, the S-N curve becomes asymptotic at 10 6 cycles, which

indicates the stress amplitude corresponding to infinite number of stress cycles.

• The magnitude of this stress amplitude at 10 6 cycles represents the endurance limit of
the material.

• For non-ferrous metals like aluminium alloys, the S-N curve slopes gradually even after
106 cycles. These materials do not exhibit a distinct value of the endurance limit in a true

sense.
• For these materials, endurance limit stress is sometimes expressed as a function of the

number of stress cycles.

14.4. LOW-CYCLE AND HIGH-CYCLE FATIGUE

• There are two regions of this curve namely, low-cycle fatigue and high-cycle fatigue.
• Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000, is called low -
cycle fatigue.

• Components subjected to low-cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of ultimate

tensile strength or yield strength with a suitable factor of safety.

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Fig.18: Low cycle and high cycle fatigue

• Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are more than 1000, is called

high-cycle fatigue
• Components subjected to high-cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance
limit stress. S-N curves, Soderberg lines, Gerber lines or Goodman diagrams are used
in the design of such components.

14.5. REVERSED STRESSES – DESIGN FOR FINITE AND INFINITE LIFE

Case 1: When the component is to be designed for infinite life, the endurance limit
becomes the criterion of failure.
Such components are designed with the help of the following equations:
Se
σa =
(fs)
Sse
τa =
(fs)
where σa and τa are stress amplitude in the component and Se and Sse are corrected
endurance limits in reversed bending and torsion respectively
Case 2: When the component is to be designed for finite life, the S-N curve can be used.
The curve is valid for steels.
It consists of a straight-line AB drawn from (0.9Sut ) at 103 cycles to (Se ) at 106 cycles on a
log-log paper.

Fig.19: Finite life S-N curve

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• Locate the point A with coordinates [3, log 10(0.9Sut )] since log 10(103 ) = 3
• Locate the point B with coordinates [6, log 10(Se )]since log10(106 ) = 6
• Join AB
̅̅̅̅ , which is used as a criterion of failure for finite-life problems

• Depending upon the life N of the component, draw a vertical line passing through
log 10(N) on the abscissa. This line intersects ̅̅̅̅
AB at point F
• Draw a line FE
̅̅̅̅ parallel to the abscissa. The ordinate at the point E, i.e. log 10(Sf ), gives
the fatigue strength corresponding to N cycles.
• The value of the fatigue strength (S f) obtained by the above procedure is used for the
design calculations.

15. STRESS CONCENTRATION

• Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-section. The fig shows the average
stress distribution when there is no effect of stress concentration.

Fig.20: Average stress distribution

• The following figure shows the stress distribution when the effect of stress concentration is
taken into account.

Fig.21: Stress distribution with stress concentration

• In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used. It is denoted by 𝐾𝑡 and defined as,
Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity
Kt =
Nominal stress obtained by elementary equations for
minimum cross − section

σmax τmax
Kt = =
σ0 τ0
where σ0 and τ0 are stresses determined by elementary equations (nominal stresses) and
σmax and τmax are localized stresses at the discontinuities.

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• In static loading , stress concentration in ductile material is not so serious because in ductile
material local deformation or yielding takes place which reduces the concentration .
• The effect of stress concentration factor under static loading is more serious for brittle material
because they don’t permit any yielding.
• The effect of stress concentration under fatigue loading is more serious for both the materials.
15.1. CAUSES OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
15.1.1 VARIATION IN PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes
• Cavities in welds
• Air holes in steel components
• Non-metallic or foreign inclusions
15.1.2 LOAD APPLICATION
• Contact between the meshing teeth of the driving and the driven gear.
• Contact between the cam and the follower
• Contact between the balls and the races of ball bearing
15.1.3 DISCONTINUITIES IN THE COMPONENT
• Certain features of machine components such as oil holes or oil grooves, keyways and
splines, and screw threads result in discontinuities in the cross-section of the component.
There is stress concentration in the vicinity of these discontinuities.
• For a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in
fig.11. The theoretical stress concentration factor is given as
max .  2a 
Kt = = 1 +
  b 
a is the half length perpendicular to the load and b is the half length parallel to the load.
When a/b is large , the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value
of K becomes very large.

Fig.22: Effect of an elliptical hole

15.1.4 MACHINING SCRATCHES
• Machining scratches, stamp marks or inspection marks are surfaces irregularities, which
causes stress concentration.
15.2. REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
15.2.1. ADDITIONAL NOTCHES AND HOLES IN TENSION MEMBER
• Single notch results in a high degree of stress concentration.

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Fig.23: Stress concentration with notch

• The severity of this high stress concentration is reduced by three methods.
• The severity of stress concentration can be reduced by providing multiple notches.

Fig.24: Reduction of stress concentration by multiple notches

• The severity of stress concentration can be reduced by providing multiple drilled holes
along with notches.

Fig.25: Reduction of stress concentration by multiple notches

15.2.2 PROVIDING FILLET RADIUS, UNDERCUTTING AND NOTCH FOR MEMBER
IN BENDING
• The figure shows stepped bar subject to bending moment and it can be seen that stress
line changes rapidly along sudden enlargement

Fig.26: Stress concentration due to sudden enlargement

• The severity of stress concentration can be reduced by providing undercut and notches.

Fig.27: Reduction of stress concentration by undercut and notch

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15.2.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION IN THREADED MEMBERS

Fig.28: Reduction of stress concentration by undercut

16. NOTCH SENSITIVITY (q)

• Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging

effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading,

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress

q=
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress
σ0 = nominal stress as obtained by elementary equations

Actual stress = K f σ0 , where Kf= fatigue stress concentration factor

Theoretical stress = K tσ0 , where Kt= theoretical stress concentration factor

(Kf σ0 −σ0 ) (Kf −1)
Therefore, q = =
(Kt σ0 −σ0 ) (Kt −1)

K f = 1 + q(K t − 1)

• When the material has no sensitivity to notches, q = 0 and K f = 1

• When the material is fully sensitive to notches, q = 1 and K f = K t

• The magnitude of the notch sensitivity factor q varies from 0 to 1

• In case of doubt, the designer should use (q = 1) or (K t = K f ) and the design will be on the

safe side.

17. SODERBERG, GOODMAN AND GERBER LINES

17.1. SODERBERG LINE

A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Syt on the abscissa

σm σa
+ =1
Syt Se

If (fs ) is the factor of safety, then

σm σa 1
+ =
Syt Se (fs )

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Fig.29: Soderberg, Gerber and Goodman lines

17.2. GOODMAN LINE
A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa
σm σa
+ =1
Sut Se
If (fs ) is the factor of safety, then
σm σa 1
+ =
Sut Se (fs )
17.3. GERBER LINE
A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa
σa σm 2
+( ) =1
Se Sut

If (fs ) is the factor of safety, then

σ σ 2
(fs ) a + [(fs ) ( m )] = 1
S e S ut

17.4. Modified Goodman Diagrams

The components, which are subjected to fluctuating stresses, are designed by
constructing the modified Goodman diagram. For the purpose of design, the problems
are classified into two groups:
(i) components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses
(ii) components subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.
Separate diagrams are used in these two cases.
The modified Goodman diagram for fluctuating axial or bending stresses is shown in
Fig.21. In this diagram, the Goodman line is ‘modified’ by combining fatigue failure with
failure by yielding. In this diagram, the yield strength S yt is plotted on both the axes—

abscissa and ordinate — and a yield line CD is constructed to join these points to define

failure by yielding. Obviously, the line CD is inclined at 45° to the abscissa. Similarly, a

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line AF is constructed to join S e on the ordinate with S ut on the abscissa, which is the
Goodman line discussed in the previous article. The point of intersection of these two
lines is B. The area OABC represents the region of safety for components subjected to
fluctuating stresses. The region OABC is called modified Goodman diagram. All the points
inside the modified Goodman diagram should cause neither fatigue failure nor yielding.
The modified Goodman diagram combines fatigue criteria as represented by the Goodman

line and yield criteria as represented by yield line. Note that AB is the portion of the

Goodman line and BC is a portion of the yield line.

If the mean component of stress (m) is very large and the alternating component (a)
very small, their combination will define a point in the region BCF that would be safely
within in the Goodman line but would yield on the first cycle. This will result in failure,

irrespective of safety in fatigue failure. The portion BF of the Goodman line is a

vulnerable portion and needs correction. This is the reason to modify the Goodman line.

Fig.30: Modified Goodman Diagram for Axial and Bending Stresses

while solving a problem, a line OE with a slope of tan θ is constructed in such a way
that,
a
tan θ =
m

a (P /A) Pa
Since = a =
m (Pb /A) Pm

Pa
tan θ =
Pm
The magnitudes of Pa and Pm can be determined from maximum and minimum forces
acting on the component.

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