7 Adolescence

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.
Berk
Adolescence
Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk
Physical and Cognitive

Development in Adolescence
Conceptions of Adolescence
§ Biological perspective:
§ puberty
§ G. Stanley Hall:
storm and stress
§ Freud: genital stage
§ Social perspective: © Pressmaster/Shutterstock
§ Margaret Mead: social and cultural influences

§ Balanced point of view:
§ biological, psychological, and social influences
Three Phases of Adolescence
11–12 to
Early § Rapid pubertal change
14 years
§ Puberty nearly
Middle 14 to 16 years
complete
§ Full adult appearance

Late 16 to 18 years § Anticipation of adult
roles
Hormonal Changes in Puberty
§ Growth hormone and thyroxine

§ Boys:
§ androgens: testosterone
§ Girls:
§ estrogens
§ adrenal androgens
© Goodluz/Shutterstock
Sex Differences in
Body Growth in Adolescence
Boys Girls
Growth § starts age 12½ § starts age 10

spurt
§ shoulders broaden § hips broaden
Proportions § longer legs
Muscle–fat § gain more muscle, § add more fat

makeup aerobic efficiency
Decline in Physical Activity
from Ages 9 to 15
Figure 11.2
(Adapted from Nader et al., 2008.)
Sexual Maturation
Primary Sexual Secondary Sexual

Characteristics Characteristics
§ Maturation of the § Other visible parts of the
reproductive organs body that signal sexual
§ Girls: menarche maturity
§ Boys: spermarche § Girls: breasts
§ Boys: facial hair, voice
change
§ Both: underarm hair
Individual Differences in
Timing of Puberty
§ Heredity
§ Nutrition, exercise
§ SES
§ Race/ethnicity
§ Early family experiences
§ Secular trends
© Samuel Borges Photography/Shutterstock
Adolescent Brain Development
Synaptic pruning Cognitive

Prefrontal cortex advances:
continues
n attention
Expansion of n planning
Linkages among n integrating
synaptic
cortical regions information
connections,
strengthen n self-regulation
myelination
Increased
More sensitive to responsiveness to
Neurotransmitter n stress
excitatory n pleasure and
response changes
messages novelty
Sleep Habits in Adolescence
§ Still need almost as much sleep, but go

to bed later:
§ sleep “phase delay”
§ social habits
§ Lack of sleep impairs executive
function:
§ reduced achievement
§ increased anxiety, depressed mood
§ high-risk behaviors
Reactions to
Pubertal Changes
n Preparation, information
n Surprise
Girls helpful
n Mixed feelings
n Ethnic variations
n Preparation, information
helpful
Boys n Mixed feelings
n Could benefit from more
social support
Adolescent Moodiness
§ Linked to more
negative life events
§ Mood swings:
§ related to daily events
§ highs in peer settings
§ lows in adult-
structured settings
© Susan Stevenson/Shutterstock
Parent–Child Relationships
§ Rise in conflict:
§ has adaptive value:
psychological
distancing
§ different views of
adolescent readiness
for responsibility
© Iakov Filimonov/Shutterstock
§ Most conflict is
§ mild
§ balanced by
affection, support
Consequences of Pubertal Timing
Girls Boys
n Unpopular, withdrawn, n Popular
low in confidence n Self-confident,
n Less positive body independent
Early
image n More positive body
Maturing n More deviant behavior image
n Prone to lasting n More deviant
difficulties behavior
n Popular n Unpopular
n Sociable, school n Anxiety, depressed
Late leaders mood
Maturing n More positive body n Less positive body
image image
Factors Accounting for
Pubertal Timing Effects
§ Cultural ideals of
physical attractiveness
§ Fitting in with peers’
physical maturity
© Dragon Images/Shutterstock
Nutrition in Adolescence
§ Calorie needs increase

§ Poor food choices
common:
§ skipping breakfast
§ eating fast foods
§ Iron, vitamin–mineral
deficiencies
§ Family meals associated
with healthier diet © artemisphoto/Shutterstock
Eating Disorders
§ Starve self due to fear of getting fat

§ Equally common across SES groups
§ Racial/ethnic variations
Anorexia
§ Heredity, neurotransmitter abnormalities,
nervosa
parenting style, and personal/cultural
factors contribute
§ Difficult to treat
§ Strict dieting, excessive exercise, and
purging
Bulimia § Heredity, parenting style, and
nervosa personal/cultural factors contribute
§ More common and easier to treat than
anorexia
Adolescent Sexuality
§ North American attitudes

relatively restrictive:
§ media and family messages
contradictory
§ more liberal attitudes over
past 40 years: most say
extramarital sex OK for
committed partners
§ Activity matches attitudes:
sexual activity rates © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
declining since 1990s
U.S. Adolescents Reporting Ever
Having Had Sexual Intercourse
Figure 11.4
(From U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services,
2012f.)
Characteristics of
Sexually Active Adolescents
§ Early pubertal timing

Personal § Childhood impulsivity
§ Weak sense of personal control
§ Step-, single-parent, or large family
§ Little or no religious involvement
Family
§ Weak parental monitoring, disrupted
parent–child communication
§ Sexually active friends and older
Peer siblings
§ Alcohol, drug use
§ Poor school performance
Educational
§ Low educational goals
Adolescent Contraceptive Use
§ 20% of U.S. sexually

active teenagers do
not use consistently
§ Reasons:
§ concern about others’
opinions
§ unrealistic about
consequences
§ sexual exploitation
Figure 11.5
(Adapted from Godeau et al., 2008; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012f.)
Homosexuality
§ Impact of heredity:
§ X-linked
§ Prenatal sex hormones
§ Birth order
© Pressmaster/Shutterstock
§ Sequence of coming out:
§ Feeling different
(ages 6–12)
§ Confusion (ages 11–15)
§ Self-acceptance (end of
adolescence)
Adolescents and STDs
§ STD rates highest in adolescence:

§ especially high in United States
§ 1 out of 5 to 6 sexually active teens
affected
§ AIDS most serious:
§ manifests 8–10 years later
§ often infected during adolescence
§ Females more easily infected
§ STD education improving
U.S. Adolescent
Pregnancy Statistics
§ About 727,000 teen

pregnancies in most
recently reported year
§ 12,000 younger than
age 15
§ 1 in 4 end in abortion
§ 87% of births to
unwed mothers
Figure 11.6
(From Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2011c.)
Factors Contributing to
Adolescent Parenthood
§ Low parental warmth,

abuse
§ Repeated parental divorce
§ Poor school achievement
§ Alcohol, drug use
§ Antisocial behavior
§ Low SES
© Monkey Business
Images/Shutterstock
Risks for Teenage
Mothers and Babies
§ Low educational
attainment
§ More time as single
parent
§ Economic difficulties
§ Pregnancy and birth
complications
© travis manley/Shutterstock § Weak parenting skills
Teen Pregnancy
Prevention and Intervention
Prevention Intervention
Strategies Strategies
§ Better sex education § Health care
§ Skills for handling § Help staying in school
sexual situations § Job and life-
§ Information and access management training
to contraceptives § Parenting instruction
§ Academic and social § Adult mentors
competence § Affordable child care
§ School involvement § Father support
U.S. Adolescent Substance Use
§ Have tried, by
grade 10:
§ cigarettes—33%
§ alcohol—58%
§ illegal drugs—37%
§ By end of high school:
§ 11% smoke regularly
§ 27% report recent
heavy drinking Figure 11.7
§ 25% have used highly (Adapted from ESPAD, 2012; Johnson et al., 2011.)
addictive drugs
Substance Use versus Abuse
Experimenters Abusers
§ Psychologically § Low SES
healthy § Family mental health
§ Sociable problems, substance
§ Sensation-seeking abuse
§ Child abuse
§ Impulsivity, hostility
§ Drug-taking starts
earlier
Prevention and Treatment
§ Good school programs

§ promote effective
parenting
§ teach skills to resist
peer pressure
§ reduce social
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
acceptability of drugs
§ Interventions to
prevent harm
§ Family and individual
therapy
Piaget’s Theory:
Formal Operational Stage
§ Hypothetico-deductive reasoning:
§ problem solving based on a hypothesis,
deducing logical, testable inferences
§ pendulum problem
§ Propositional thought:
§ evaluating the logic of verbal
propositions without using real-world
circumstances
Piaget’s Pendulum Problem
Figure 11.8
Follow-Up Research on
Formal Operational Thought
§ School-age children show beginnings of

formal operational thought
§ Adolescents are considerably more
competent:
§ reason about more variables simultaneously
§ grasp logical necessity
§ Formal operations may not be universal:
§ training and context contribute
§ schooling is powerfully influential
Gains in Information Processing:
Executive Function
§ Attention
§ Inhibition
§ Strategies
§ Knowledge
§ Metacognition © arek malang/Shutterstock
§ Cognitive self-regulation
§ Speed of thinking
§ Processing capacity
Scientific Reasoning
§ Coordinating theory with evidence

§ Contributing factors:
§ working memory capacity
§ exposure to complex problems
§ metacognitive understanding
§ open-mindedness
§ Adolescents and adults vary widely
Scientific Reasoning Task
Figure 11.9
(Adapted from Kuhn, Amsel, &
O’Loughlin, 1988.)
Consequences of Adolescent
Cognitive Changes
§ Self-consciousness and self-focusing:

§ imaginary audience
§ personal fable
§ Idealism and criticism
§ Decision making:
§ influenced by
immediate reward © CREATISTA/Shutterstock
§ fall back on well-learned,

intuitive judgments
Sex Differences in Mental Abilities
Biological Environmental
Skill Performance
Influences Influences
Girls n More verbal
Girls do better advantaged in stimulation
Verbal throughout the earlier n Language arts
school years development of considered
left hemisphere “feminine”
Boys do better Boys n Math

on tests of advantaged in considered
complex numerical “masculine”
Math reasoning, but memory, spatial n Parents see
difference is reasoning boys as better
shrinking at math
School Transitions
in Adolescence
§ Grades decline with

each transition:
§ higher academic
standards
§ less supportive teaching–
learning environment
§ Drop in self-esteem:
§ girls more than boys
§ additional strains increase © Intellistudies/Shutterstock
risk
Problem Behaviors Across
Transition to High School
Figure 11.12
(Adapted from Roeser, Eccles, &
Freedman-Doan, 1999.)
Helping Adolescents
Adjust to School Transitions
§ Parent involvement,
monitoring
§ Close friendships
§ Smaller units within
schools
§ Same-ethnicity peers
© michaeljung/Shutterstock
§ Homeroom teacher
relationships
Supporting
Academic Achievement
§ Authoritative
Child-rearing § Joint decision making
practices § Parent involvement in education
Peer influences § Valuing high achievement

§ Warm, personal teaching
School § Classroom learning experiences
characteristics § Opportunities to break out of low
academic tracks
§ Limited hours of part-time employment
Employment § Availability of work–study programs
High School
Graduation Rates
Figure 11.13
(From OECD, 2011a.)
Factors Related to
Dropping Out
§ Low grades, low academic self-esteem

§ No extracurricular involvement
§ Family background:
§ uninvolved parenting style
§ limited parental education
§ Grade retention
§ Large, impersonal schools
§ General education, vocational tracks
Dropout Prevention
Strategies
§ Remedial instruction
§ Personalized counseling
§ High-quality vocational
training
§ Addressing personal
factors related to
© Armadillo Stock/Shutterstock dropout
§ Extracurricular
participation
Emotional and Social

Development in Adolescence
Erikson’s Theory:
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Identity Role Confusion

§ Defining who you are, § Lack of direction and
what you value, and self-definition
your direction in life § Earlier psychosocial
§ Commitments to conflicts not resolved
vocation, relationships, § Society restricts
sexual orientation, choices
ethnic group, ideals § Unprepared for
§ Exploration, resolution challenges of adulthood
of “identity crisis”
Self-Concept in Adolescence
§ Unifies separate traits into more

abstract descriptors
§ May describe
contradictory traits
§ Gradually combines
traits into organized
system: © Goodluz/Shutterstock
§ qualifiers
§ integrating principles
Self-Esteem in Adolescence
§ Continues to gain new

dimensions:
§ close friendship
§ romantic appeal
§ job competence
§ Generally rises, but
drops temporarily at
school transitions
© Aleshyn_Andrei/Shutterstock
§ Parenting style affects
quality and stability of
self-esteem
Identity Statuses
Commitment
Exploration
High Low
identity identity
High
achievement moratorium
identity identity
Low
foreclosure diffusion
Identity Status
and Cognitive Style
Identity-achieved
Information-gathering
Moratorium
Foreclosure
Dogmatic, inflexible
Diffusion
Long-term diffusion Diffuse-avoidant
Factors That Affect
Identity Development
§ Personality
§ Child-rearing practices:
§ attachment
§ Peers, friends
§ Schools, communities
§ Culture
§ Societal forces
© Goodluz/Shutterstock
Culture and Identity
§ View of self-continuity
§ Cultural-majority
adolescents:
§ individualistic view
§ enduring personal essence
§ Cultural-minority
adolescents:
§ interdependent view
© dboystudio/Shutterstock
§ constantly transforming
self: coherent narrative
Kohlberg’s Stages of
Moral Development
Stage 1: Punishment and

Preconventional obedience
level
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose
Stage 3: “Good boy–good girl”
(morality of interpersonal
Conventional level cooperation)
Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining
Postconventional Stage 5: Social contract
or principled level Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
Research on
Kohlberg’s Theory
§ Few people reach

postconventional
morality
§ Stages 3 and 4 reflect
morally mature
reasoning
§ In real life, people often
reason below actual
capacity © arek_malang/Shutterstock
Sex Differences in
Moral Reasoning?
§ Kohlberg: emphasis on rights and

justice orientation
§ Gilligan: emphasis on “ethic of
care” orientation
§ Each sex uses both orientations,
but females may stress care more,
because of greater involvement in
activities involving care and
concern for others
Reasoning About Situations
Raising Competing Issues
§ Moral
§ Social-conventional
§ Personal:
§ personal choice weighed
against community
obligations
§ personal rights integrated
with ideal reciprocity
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Influences on
Moral Reasoning
§ Child-rearing practices:
§ caring, supportive
§ discussions of
moral concerns
§ Schooling: higher
education
§ Peer interaction
§ Culture © Alan Bailey/Shutterstock
Moral Reasoning and Behavior
Factors influencing behavior include

§ maturity of moral reasoning
§ emotions: empathy, sympathy, guilt
§ temperament
§ cultural experiences and beliefs
§ moral identity
§ parenting practices: inductive discipline,
moral standards
§ schooling: just educational environments
§ civic engagement
Civic Engagement
§ Volunteering promotes
§ moral maturity
§ altruism
§ Influential factors:
§ family: knowledge of
civic issues
§ school, community:
§ vision and skills for
civic engagement
§ service-learning
© mangostock/Shutterstock
programs
Religious Involvement
and Morality
§ Formal religious
involvement declines
in adolescence
§ Religious involvement
linked to
§ more community service
§ less drug and alcohol
use
§ delayed sexual activity
© Gordon Swanson/Shutterstock § less delinquency
Pragmatic Approach
to Morality
§ Claims Kohlberg’s stages inadequately

account for behavior in everyday life
§ Moral judgments are practical tools that
§ depend on current context and motivation
§ are frequently directed at self-serving goals
§ Critics: People often rise above self-
interest to defend others’ rights.
Gender Intensification
in Adolescence
§ Increased gender
stereotyping of attitudes
and behavior
§ Not universal, more
common in girls
§ Biological, social, and
cognitive influences
§ Declines by late © Blend Images/Shutterstock
adolescence
Parent–Child Relationships
in Adolescence
§ Strives for autonomy:
§ emotional component: self-reliance
§ behavioral component: independent
decision making
§ Deidealizes parents
§ Authoritative parenting:
§ balancing autonomy-granting with
monitoring
§ extra challenging during adolescence
Parent–Adolescent Conflict
§ Facilitates adolescents’
identity and autonomy
§ Signals parents to adjust
parenting style
§ Cultural variations:
§ acculturative stress
§ decreased family time not
universal
© Golden Pixels LLC/Shutterstock
Family Influences on
Adolescents’ Adjustment
§ Family circumstances that affect

appropriate autonomy-granting:
§ financial security
§ parental work pressures
§ stable marriage
§ Sibling relationships:
§ less intense, in both positive and negative
feelings
§ attachment remains strong in most cases
Characteristics of
Adolescent Friendships
§ Fewer “best friends”

§ Stress intimacy, mutual
understanding, loyalty
§ Friends tend to be similar,
and become more so:
§ identity status
§ educational aspirations
§ political beliefs
§ deviant behavior © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
Sex Differences in
Girls Boys
§ Emotional closeness § Shared activities
§ Communal concerns § Achievement, status
§ Get together to § Competition, conflict
“just talk” § Androgyny related to
§ Self-disclosure, support increased intimacy
Self-Disclosure in
Relationships
Figure 12.1
(From D. Buhrmester, 1996, “Need Fulfillment, Interpersonal Competence, and the Developmental Contexts of Early
Adolescent Friendship,” in W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup [Eds.], The Company They Keep: Friendship in
Childhood and Adolescence, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 168. Reprinted with permission of Cambridge
University Press.)
Friendship Risks
§ Corumination:
§ anxiety, depression
§ Relational aggression:
§ girls’ closest friendships
of shorter duration
§ Internet communication:
§ racial and ethnic slurs
© wrangler/Shutterstock
§ sexual obscenity
§ harassment
§ reduced quality of face-to-face interaction
U.S. Teenagers’ Daily Use
of Social Media
Figure 12.2
(Adapted from Lenhart et al., 2010.)
Benefits of
§ Opportunities to explore
self
§ Opportunities to deeply
understand another
§ Foundation for future
intimate relationships
§ Help in managing stress
§ Improved school attitudes
© oliveromg/Shutterstock and involvement
Cliques and Crowds
§ Cliques:
§ small groups: 5–7
§ good friends
§ similar in family
background, attitudes,
and values
§ Crowds: © Robbi/Shutterstock
§ larger: composed of
several cliques
§ membership based on
reputation, stereotype
Increase in Romantic
Relationships
Figure 12.3
(Adapted from Carver, Joyner, & Udry, 2003.
Changes in Dating
During Adolescence
§ Mixed-sex cliques prepare teenagers for

dating
§ Dating goals change with age:
§ early adolescence: recreation, peer status
§ late adolescence: intimacy, compatibility,
affection, social support
§ Relationships with parents and friends
contribute to security of romantic ties
Dating Problems
§Too-early dating:
§ drug use, sex,
delinquency
§ poor academic
achievement
§ dating violence
© MJTH/Shutterstock
§ For gay and lesbian
youths:
§ finding partners
§ peer harassment, rejection
Depression in Adolescence
§ Most common psychological

problem: 15–20% have had
one or more major episodes
§ Twice as many girls as boys:
§ early-maturing girls
§ gender intensification
§ Influential factors:
§ heredity
§ parental depression
© Jochen Schoenfeld/Shutterstock § learned helplessness
Adolescent Suicide
§ Suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence

§ Related factors:
§ gender
§ ethnicity
§ family environment, high life stress
§ sexual orientation
§ personality:
§ intelligent, withdrawn
§ antisocial
§ triggering negative events
Preventing Suicide
§ Attend to warning signs

§ Provide adult and
peer support
§ Teach coping
strategies
§ Remove access to
means: gun control
legislation
© Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock
Delinquency
§ Widespread in early and middle

adolescence, then declines
§ Related factors:
§ gender
§ SES, ethnicity
§ difficult temperament
§ low intelligence, poor school performance
§ peer rejection, association with antisocial
peers
§ family characteristics
§ neighborhood
Two Routes to
Adolescent Delinquency
§ Early-onset: behavior
begins in childhood:
§ biological risks and inept
parenting combine
§ linked to serious
antisocial activity
§ Late-onset: behavior
begins around puberty
§ peer influences
© Ardelean Andreea/Shutterstock
Path to Chronic Delinquency
Figure 12.4
Preventing Adolescent
Delinquency
§ Positive family relationships

§ High-quality teaching
§ Communities with healthy
economic and social
conditions
§ Multisystemic therapy © Alexander Raths/Shutterstock
§ Zero tolerance policies

are inconsistent, ineffective

7 Adolescence

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Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.

Physical and Cognitive

§ Margaret Mead: social and cultural influences

§ Full adult appearance

§ Growth hormone and thyroxine

Growth § starts age 12½ § starts age 10

Muscle–fat § gain more muscle, § add more fat

Primary Sexual Secondary Sexual

Synaptic pruning Cognitive

§ Still need almost as much sleep, but go

§ Calorie needs increase

§ Starve self due to fear of getting fat

§ North American attitudes

§ Early pubertal timing

§ 20% of U.S. sexually

§ STD rates highest in adolescence:

§ About 727,000 teen

§ Low parental warmth,

§ Good school programs

§ School-age children show beginnings of

§ Coordinating theory with evidence

§ Self-consciousness and self-focusing:

§ fall back on well-learned,

Boys do better Boys n Math

§ Grades decline with

Peer influences § Valuing high achievement

§ Low grades, low academic self-esteem

Emotional and Social

Identity Role Confusion

§ Unifies separate traits into more

§ Continues to gain new

Stage 1: Punishment and

§ Few people reach

§ Kohlberg: emphasis on rights and

Factors influencing behavior include

§ Claims Kohlberg’s stages inadequately

§ Family circumstances that affect

§ Fewer “best friends”

§ Mixed-sex cliques prepare teenagers for

§ Most common psychological

§ Suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence

§ Attend to warning signs

§ Widespread in early and middle

§ Positive family relationships

§ Zero tolerance policies

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