6.middle Childhood

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.
Berk
Middle Childhood
Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk
Physical and Cognitive

Development in Middle Childhood
Body Growth
in Middle Childhood
§ Slow, regular pace

§ Girls shorter and lighter until about age
9, when trend reverses
§ Lower portion of body grows fastest
§ Bones lengthen, broaden
§ Muscles very flexible
§ All permanent teeth appear
Common Health Problems
§ Malnutrition
§ Obesity
§ Vision
§ Hearing
§ Illnesses
§ Injuries
© Brian Eichhorn/Shutterstock
Health Risks for Obese Children
§ More likely to be overweight adults

§ Physical symptoms:
§ high blood pressure, cholesterol
§ respiratory problems
§ insulin resistance
§ Development of lifelong problems:
§ heart disease, diabetes, gall bladder
disease, cancer, early death
Causes of Obesity
in Middle Childhood
§ Overweight parents
§ Low SES
§ Parental feeding practices:
§ overfeeding
§ overly controlling
§ Insufficient sleep
§ Low physical activity
§ Television © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
§ Eating out
Psychological and Social
Consequences of Obesity
§ Stereotyping/teasing
§ Social isolation
§ Depression
§ Emotional, academic,
and behavior problems
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
§ Reduced life chances
Treating Obesity
§ Family-based interventions:
§ diet change
§ exercise program
§ positive reinforcement
§ School environment:
§ screenings
§ improved nutrition standards
§ additional recess/physical education time
§ obesity awareness programs
Vision
§ Myopia (nearsightedness):
§ most common vision
problem
§ likelihood increases
with time spent
reading, writing,
using the computer © GWImages/Shutterstock
Illness in Middle Childhood
§ High rates in first two

years of school
§ 15 percent have
chronic conditions:
§ asthma
§ severe illnesses,
such as sickle cell
© Ilike/Shutterstock
anemia, cancer, and
diabetes
Asthma
§ Bronchial tubes highly sensitive to

stimuli:
§ cold, infection, allergies, stress
§ wheezing, coughing, breathing problems
§ Risk factors:
§ heredity
§ pollution
§ stressful home life
§ poor health care © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
§ obesity
Unintentional Injuries
§ Boys more at risk

§ Motor vehicle accidents are leading
cause of injuries
§ Prevention:
§ school-based education programs
§ protective helmets
§ reduce exposure to hazardous
situations
Injury Mortality
Figure 9.3
(From National Center
for Injury Prevention
and Control, 2012.)
Motor Development
in Middle Childhood
§ Gross-motor skill gains:

§ flexibility
§ balance
§ agility
§ force
§ Fine-motor skill gains:
© JHershPhoto/Shutterstock
§ writing
§ drawing
Sex Differences in
Motor Development
§ Girls better at fine-motor

skills
§ Boys better at gross-
motor skills, sports
§ Social environment:
§ parental expectations
© Jeff Thrower/Shutterstock
§ self-perceptions
§ coaching, media
Development of Play
§ Games with rules:

§ sports
§ invented games
§ Adult-organized sports
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
§ Rough-and-tumble
play: establishes
dominance hierarchy
§ Physical education
Piaget’s Theory: Attainments of the
Concrete Operational Stage
§ Conservation:
§ decentration
§ reversibility
§ Classification
§ Seriation: transitive
inference
§ Spatial reasoning:
cognitive maps © Jaren Jai Wicklund/Shutterstock
Conservation
Decentration Reversibility
Focusing on Thinking through a
several aspects of series of steps and
a problem and then mentally
relating them reversing direction
Classification
§ Children pass the class inclusion

problem between ages 7 and 10.
§ Collecting and classifying items
become common.
© auremar/Shutterstock
Seriation
§ Ability to order items

along a quantitative
dimension—becomes
efficient around 6–7
years
§ Transitive inference:
ability to seriate
mentally—appears © Terrie L. Zeller/Shutterstock
around 7 years
Spatial Reasoning
Preschool,
§ Landmarks
early school age
§ Landmarks along
organized route of travel
Ages 8–10
§ Can give directions using
“mental walk”
§ Overall view of large-scale

End of middle space
childhood
§ Mastery of scale
Cultural Differences in Maps
Drawn by School-Age Children
Figure 9.5
(Reprinted from Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 4, G. Parameswaran, 2003, “Experimenter
Instructions as a Mediator in the Effects of Culture on Mapping One's Neighborhood,” pp. 415–416. Copyright
2003, with permission from Elsevier.)
Limitations of
Concrete Operational Thought
§ Operations are concrete:

§ applied to information children can
perceive directly
§ work poorly with abstract ideas
§ Continuum of acquisition: children
master concrete operational tasks
gradually, step by step
Follow-up Research on
§ Culture and schooling

affect task performance:
§ Going to school provides
experiences relevant to
Piagetian tasks.
§ Certain nonschool,
informal experiences in
some cultures foster
© ZouZou/Shutterstock
concrete operations.
Information-Processing View of
§ Neo-Piagetians: gains in information-

processing speed, rather than shift to a
new stage
§ automatic schemas free working memory
§ central conceptual structures
Key Gains in
Information Processing
§ Working memory
§ Attention
§ Flexible strategy
use
§ Cognitive
self-regulation
© Oksana Kuzmina/Shutterstock
Attention in
Middle Childhood
Attention becomes more
§ selective
§ adaptable
§ planful
© arek_malang/Shutterstock
Memory Strategies
Rehearsal (early grade school)

§ repeating information to oneself
Organization (early grade school)

§ grouping related items together
Elaboration (end of middle childhood)

§ creating a relationship between pieces
of information not in the same category
Attention-Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder
§ Inattention
§ Impulsivity
§ Excessive motor activity
§ Results in:
§ academic problems
§ social problems
© Suzanne Tucker/Shutterstock
Treatment of ADHD
§ Stimulant medication:
§ improves attention, academic
performance, and peer relations for
70%
§ insufficient by itself
§ Family intervention
§ Adults with ADHD need ongoing
assistance
Knowledge Base
and Memory
§ Becomes increasingly elaborate and
better organized
§ Motivated learners actively use what
they know to expand their knowledge.
§ leads to greater academic success
Culture, Schooling,
and Memory Strategies
§ Memory strategies
are mostly useful for
recalling isolated bits
of information.
§ Western schooling
gives little practice in
using everyday cues: © Photodiem/Shutterstock
§ spatial location
§ arrangements of objects
Theory of Mind
§ Understanding of mental activity

becomes more elaborate and refined.
§ Views mind as active and controllable:
§ attention, concentration increase
§ mental inferences
§ false-belief knowledge
Second-Order
False-Belief Task
Figure 9.6
(Adapted from Astington, Pelletier, & Homer, 2002.)
Promoting
Cognitive Self-Regulation
§ Point out important
features of tasks.
§ Stress importance of
planful learning.
§ Suggest effective
learning strategies.
© Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock
§ Emphasize monitoring
of progress.
Information Processing
and Academic Learning
§ Reading:
§ phonological awareness, information-
processing speed, and visual discrimination
contribute to reading skills
§ blend whole-language and phonics
approaches
§ Mathematics:
§ learn facts and procedures through practice,
reasoning, experimenting with strategies
§ blend drill and “number sense” approaches
Intelligence Tests
Group Tests Individual Tests

§ Allow testing of large § Require training and
groups experience to
§ Require little training administer
to administer § Provide insights about
§ Useful for instructional accuracy of score
planning § Identify highly intelligent
§ Identify students who children and children
need individual testing with learning problems
Typical Intelligence Test Items
Figure 9.7
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
of Successful Intelligence
Figure 9.8
Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences
§ Linguistic
§ Logico-mathematical
§ Musical
§ Spatial
§ Bodily-kinesthetic
§ Naturalist
§ Interpersonal
© spotmatik/Shutterstock
§ Intrapersonal
Nature, Nurture, and IQ
§ Adoption studies
confirm the influence
of both heredity and
environment.
§ Ethnic differences are
largely environmental.
§ A dramatic secular trend
(generational rise in IQ)
supports the role of © Alexander Trinitatov/Shutterstock
environment.
Cultural Bias in Testing
Two views:
§ Tests not biased;
represent success in the
common culture
§ Cultural influences affect
test performance:
§ communication styles
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock § test content
§ stereotypes
Communication Styles
Middle-SES Low-SES
White Parents Minority Parents
§ Knowledge-training § Analogy or story-
questions starter questions
§ no right answer
§ Hierarchical style § fosters complex
of communication verbal skills
§ Collaborative style
of communication
Effects of Stereotype Threat
on Performance
Figure 9.9
(Adapted from McKown &
Weinstein, 2003.)
Reducing
Cultural Bias in Testing
§ Combine test scores

with assessment of
adaptive behavior
§ Culturally relevant
testing procedures:
dynamic assessment
© Alex Kosev/Shutterstock
Language Development
§ Increases fourfold during school years

Vocabulary
§ 20 new words a day
§ Mastery of complex constructions

improves
Grammar
§ Examples: passive voice, infinitive
phrases
§ Adjust to people and situations

Pragmatics
§ Phrase requests to get what they want
Learning Two Languages
§ Bilingual development:
§ learn both languages at the same time or
learn first language, then second
§ sensitive period during childhood
§ Bilingual education:
§ language immersion
§ English-only programs: risk of inadequate
proficiency in both languages
Features of High-Quality
Elementary Education
§ Class size
§ Physical setting
§ Curriculum
§ Daily activities
§ Teacher–student © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
interactions
§ Evaluations of progress
§ Relationships with families
Educational Philosophies
§ Traditional vs. constructivist

§ New philosophical directions: social-
constructivist
§ teachers and children as partners
§ many types of symbolic communication
§ teaching adapted to zone of proximal
development
§ cooperative learning
Teacher–Student Interaction
§ Teachers:
§ caring, helpful, stimulating, emphasizing
high-level thinking—fosters achievement
§ use of repetitive drill, bias in favor of
well-behaved students—impedes
achievement
§ Self-fulfilling prophecies: have greater
impact on low-achieving students
Grouping Practices in
Elementary Schools
§ Homogeneous
ability groups—
a potent source
of negative
self-fulfilling
© Rob Marmion/Shutterstock
prophecies
§ Multigrade
classrooms
Teaching Children with
Learning Difficulties
§ Children often placed in regular

classrooms:
§ mild mental retardation
§ learning disabilities: 5–10% of
school-age children
§ Law requires “least restrictive”
environment: inclusive classrooms
§ full inclusion
§ resource rooms
Creativity
The ability to
produce original,
appropriate work
that is useful in
some way
Figure 9.10
(Reprinted by permission of Laura E. Berk.)
Convergent and Divergent
Thinking
Convergent Divergent
§ Generating correct § Generating multiple,
answer unusual possibilities
§ Emphasized on
intelligence tests
© Pressmaster/Shutterstock
Educating
Gifted and Talented Children
§ Gifted: exceptional intellectual

strengths
§ Talented: outstanding in a specific field
§ Educational approaches:
§ enrichment in regular classroom
§ pull out for special instruction
§ move to higher grade
§ multiple intelligences models
International
Comparisons
in Academic
Achievement
Figure 9.11
(Adapted from Programme for International
Student Assessment, 2009.)
Cultural Variations in Schools
§ United States:
§ less challenging teaching
§ variable teacher training,
salaries
§ Finland:
§ nationally mandated
curricula, teaching © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
practices, assessments
§ Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan):
§ nationally mandated curricula
§ well-prepared, well-paid teachers
Emotional and Social

Development in Middle Childhood
Erikson’s Theory:
Industry vs. Inferiority
Industry Inferiority
§ Developing a sense § Pessimism and lack of
of competence at confidence in own
useful skills and ability to do things well
tasks § Negative responses
from family, teachers,
§ School provides and peers can
many opportunities contribute to negative
feelings
Changes in Self-Concept
During Middle Childhood
§ More balanced, fewer

all-or-none descriptions
§ Social comparisons
§ Real vs. ideal self
§ References social
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock groups
§ Cultural variations
Hierarchical Structure of
Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood
Figure 10.1
(Photos from left to right: © Mary Kate Denny/PhotoEdit; © Tom Pannell/Corbis; © Mitch Wojnarowicz/The Image Works; Radius
Images/Photolibrary)
Influences on Self-Esteem
§ Culture
§ Child-rearing
practices
§ Attributions:
§ mastery-oriented © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
§ learned helplessness
Role of Parenting
in Self-Esteem
§ Authoritative style is best

§ American self-focused cultural values
can
§ undermine achievement
§ foster antisocial behavior
§ lead to other adjustment problems
§ Encourage worthwhile goal-setting to
boost self-esteem
Achievement-Related
Attributions
Reason for
Reason for Failure
Success
Mastery- Controllable factors that

Ability
oriented can be overcome by effort
Learned External Ability, which cannot

helplessness factors be changed by effort
Influences on
Learned-Helpless Attributions
§ Parents
§ believe child incapable
§ make trait statements
§ Teachers
§ are unsupportive
§ believe child incapable
§ Gender differences
§ SES, ethnic differences
Figure 10.2
(Adapted from Ng, Pomerantz, & Lam, 2007.)
Emotional Development
in Middle Childhood
§ Self-conscious emotions: governed by

personal responsibility
§ Emotional understanding:
§ explains emotion using internal states
§ understands mixed emotions
§ empathy increases
§ Emotional self-regulation:
§ motivated by self-esteem and peer approval
§ emotional self-efficacy
Coping Strategies
Problem-Centered Emotion-Centered
Coping Coping
§ Appraise situation § Use when problem-
as changeable centered coping does
§ Identify difficulty not work
§ Decide what to do § Internal, private, and
aimed at controlling
distress when little can
be done about outcome
Changes in
Moral Understanding
§ Flexible moral rules:

§ lying not always bad/truthfulness not
always good
§ considers prosocial and antisocial
intentions
§ Clarifies link between moral imperatives
and social conventions:
§ considers people’s intentions and the
contexts of their actions
§ Cultural similarities/differences
Understanding
Individual Rights
§ Challenges adult authority

within personal domain
§ Views denials of personal
choice as wrong
§ Places limits on personal
choice, typically deciding © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
in favor of kindness and

fairness
Understanding
Diversity and Inequality
§ By the early school years

§ associates power, privilege
with white people
§ assigns stereotyped traits to
minorities
§ With age, overt prejudice
declines:
§ focuses on inner traits
© Notte Lourens/Shutterstock
§ subtle prejudice may persist
Individual Factors
Contributing to Prejudice
§ Fixed view of
personality traits
§ Overly high
self-esteem
§ Social world in
which people are
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock sorted into groups
Reducing Prejudice
§ Long-term intergroup
contact:
§ neighborhoods
§ schools
§ communities
§ Fostering belief in
changeability of
human traits
© Monkey Business
§ Volunteering
Images/Shutterstock
Peer Groups
§ Organize on basis of
proximity, similarity
§ Peer culture:
§ vocabulary, dress
code, gathering place
§ can involve relational
aggression and © Blend Images/Shutterstock
exclusion
Friendship in
Middle Childhood
§ Personal qualities, trust become

important
§ More selective in choosing friends:
§ tends to select friends similar to self
§ Friendships fairly stable, can last several
years
§ Type of friends affects development:
§ aggressive friends often magnify antisocial
acts
Categories of
Peer Acceptance
n popular-prosocial
Popular
n popular-antisocial
n rejected-aggressive
Rejected
n rejected-withdrawn
Controversial
Neglected
Bullies and Victims
Bullies Victims
§ Most are boys § Passive when active
§ Physically, verbally, behavior expected
relationally § Lack defenders
aggressive § Inhibited temperament
§ Socially prominent, § Physically frail
powerful § Overly protective,
controlling parents
Helping Rejected Children
§ Coach positive social

skills.
§ Promote perspective
taking and social
problem solving.
§ Alter peers’ negative
opinions. © Dawn Shearer-Simonetti/Shutterstock
§ Intervene in negative
parenting practices.
Gender Typing in
Middle Childhood
§ Gender stereotypes:
§ extended to include personalities and
school subjects
§ more flexible views of what males and
females can do
§ Gender identity (third–sixth grade):
§ boys’ “masculine” identification strengthens
§ girls become more androgynous
Gender Identity
§ Self-evaluations
affect adjustment:
§ gender typicality
§ gender contentedness
§ felt pressure to
© Elaine Willcock/Shutterstock conform to gender
roles
Family Relationships
§ Parents:
§ coregulation
§ Siblings:
§ rivalry
§ companionship
and assistance © Andresr/Shutterstock
§ parental encouragement
of warm sibling ties
is vital
Only Children
§ High in self-esteem,
achievement motivation
§ Closer relationships
with parents:
§ greater pressure
for mastery
© tokyoimagegroups/Shutterstock
§ Peer acceptance tends
to be less favorable:
§ lack of practice in conflict
resolution
International Divorce Rates
Figure 10.3
(Adapted from U.S. Census
Bureau, 2012b.)
Consequences of
Parental Divorce
Immediate Long-Term
§ Drop in income § Improved adjustment
§ Parental stress, after two years
disorganized § Multiple divorces
home life associated with greater
§ Child reactions adjustment difficulties
vary with age, sex, § Father’s involvement and
temperament effective coparenting
improve adjustment
Helping Families
Through Divorce
§ Shield children from conflict.

§ Provide continuity in daily life.
§ Explain the divorce.
§ Emphasize permanence of
situation.
§ Sympathize with children’s
feelings.
§ Use authoritative parenting.
§ Promote relationship with
both parents. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Blended Families
Mother–Stepfather Father–Stepmother
§ Most common § Often leads to reduced
§ Boys tend to adjust father–child contact
quickly § Children in father
§ Girls often adapt less custody often react
favorably negatively
§ Older children and § Girls and stepmothers
adolescents of both slow to get along at
sexes display more first, gradually adapt
adjustment problems favorably
Maternal Employment and
Child Development
§ Benefits:
§ higher self-esteem
§ positive family and peer
relations
§ fewer gender stereotypes
§ better grades
§ more father involvement
§ Drawbacks:
§ heavy employment demands
© c12/Shutterstock
associated with ineffective
parenting
Support for Working Parents
§ Involvement of other
parent
§ Flexible schedules
§ Job sharing
§ Paid sick leave
§ Gender-equitable pay
and opportunities
© Gladskikh Tatiana/Shutterstock
§ High-quality child care
Fears and Anxieties in
Middle Childhood
§ Common fears include

§ poor academic performance
§ peer rejection
§ personal harm
§ threats to parents’ health
§ frightening media events
§ School phobia:
§ 5–7 years: maternal separation
§ 11–13: particular aspects of school
§ Harsh living conditions promote severe
anxieties
Ethnic and Political Violence
§ Chronically dangerous
environments:
§ loss of sense of safety
§ desensitization to violence
§ impaired moral reasoning © ZouZou/Shutterstock
§ pessimistic view of future

§ Parents, communities, schools
must provide reassurance,
security, intervention:
§ preserve physical, psychological,
educational well-being
Child Sexual Abuse
§ More often girls

Characteristics
of victims § Most cases reported in middle
childhood
§ Usually male
Characteristics § Usually a parent or known by parent
of abusers § Internet and mobile phones used to
commit abuse
§ Emotional, physical, and behavioral
Consequences reactions
§ May persist for years
Prevention and § Prevention: education
treatment § Treatment: long-term therapy
Factors Related to Resilience
§ Personal characteristics:
§ easy temperament
§ mastery orientation
§ Warm parental
© Sascha Burkard/Shutterstock relationship
§ Supportive adult outside
family
§ Community resources

6.middle Childhood

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

6.middle Childhood

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.

Physical and Cognitive

§ Slow, regular pace

§ More likely to be overweight adults

§ High rates in first two

§ Bronchial tubes highly sensitive to

§ Boys more at risk

§ Gross-motor skill gains:

§ Girls better at fine-motor

§ Games with rules:

§ Children pass the class inclusion

§ Ability to order items

§ Overall view of large-scale

§ Operations are concrete:

§ Culture and schooling

§ Neo-Piagetians: gains in information-

Rehearsal (early grade school)

Organization (early grade school)

Elaboration (end of middle childhood)

§ Understanding of mental activity

Group Tests Individual Tests

§ Combine test scores

§ Increases fourfold during school years

§ Mastery of complex constructions

§ Adjust to people and situations

§ Traditional vs. constructivist

§ Children often placed in regular

§ Gifted: exceptional intellectual

Emotional and Social

§ More balanced, fewer

§ Authoritative style is best

Mastery- Controllable factors that

Learned External Ability, which cannot

§ Self-conscious emotions: governed by

§ Flexible moral rules:

§ Challenges adult authority

in favor of kindness and

§ By the early school years

§ Personal qualities, trust become

§ Coach positive social

§ Shield children from conflict.

§ Common fears include

§ pessimistic view of future

§ More often girls

You might also like