8.early Adulthood

Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.
Berk
Early Adulthood
Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk
Physical and Cognitive

Development in Early Adulthood
Senescence
§ Influences:
§ genetic
§ lifestyle
§ environment
§ historical period
§ Multidimensional and multidirectional
§ Average life expectancy has increased
25–30 years over past century
§ “Wear-and-tear” theory (“the body wears out
from use”) is oversimplification
Theories of Biological Aging
DNA-Cellular Level Organ/Tissue Level

§ Programmed effects § Cross-linkage theory
of specific genes: § Gradual failure of
§ “aging genes” endocrine system
§ telomere shortening § Declines in immune
§ Random events: system functioning
§ mutations and cancer
§ free radicals
Cardiovascular and
Respiratory Changes
§ Heart:
§ few resting changes but reduced
performance under stress, exercise
§ hypertension, atherosclerosis
§ disease declining due to better lifestyle
§ Lungs:
§ maximum vital capacity declines after age
25
§ stiffness makes breathing harder with age
Motor Performance
in Adulthood
§ Athletic skills
§ peak between ages 20 and 35
§ decline gradually until sixties or seventies,
then more rapidly
§ Continued training
§ slows loss
§ retains vital capacity,
muscle, response speed
© Pete Saloutos/Shutterstock
Aging and 10-km Running Time
Figure 13.2
(From H. Tanaka & D. R. Seals, 2003, “Dynamic Exercise Performance in Masters Athletes: Insight into the Effects of
Primary Human Aging on Physiological Functional Capacity,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 5, p. 2153. © The
American Physiological Society (APS). All rights reserved. Adapted with permission.)
Immune System
in Early Adulthood
§ Declines after age 20:

§ shrinking thymus: reduced
maturity and differentiation
of T cells
§ B cells rely on T cells to
function
§ Stress weakens
immune response:
§ psychological stressors © Subbotina Anna/Shutterstock
§ physical stressors
Reproductive Capacity
§ Increase in delayed childbearing

§ Fertility risks for women:
§ problems jump sharply at 35–44 years
§ reduced number, quality of ova
§ Fertility risks for men:
§ problems gradual, starting
age 35
§ decreased sperm volume,
motility
§ increased percentage
abnormal sperm © wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
First Births to Women by Age
Figure 13.3
(From U.S. Census Bureau, 2012b.)
Variations in Health
§ U.S. early adulthood death rates exceed

other industrialized nations:
§ extreme obesity
§ gun-control policies
§ SES variations:
§ poverty
§ lack of universal health care
§ environmental factors:
pollution, crowding,
stressors, lack of social
support © Rommel Canlas/Shutterstock
Leading Causes of Death
in Early Adulthood
Figure 13.4
(Adapted from U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011b.)
Causes of Overweight
and Obesity
§ Heredity
§ Ethnicity
§ Declining physical
activity
§ Increase in calorie,
sugar, and fat intake © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
over last four decades

§ Basal metabolic rate
declines with age
Obesity Trends
Among U.S. Adults
Figure 13.5
(From Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012a.)
Consequences of Obesity
§ Health problems:
§ heart disease
§ diabetes
§ various forms of cancer
§ early death
§ Social discrimination:
§ finding mates
§ housing
§ education, careers
§ Mistreatment
© pedalist/Shutterstock
Treating Obesity
§ Lifestyle changes:
§ diet
§ exercise
§ Record-keeping:
§ food intake
§ body weight
§ Social support
§ Problem-solving skills
© Flashon Studio/Shutterstock
§ Extended intervention
Dietary Fat
§ Saturated fat from meat and dairy

§ plays a role in breast and colon
cancer and in heart disease
§ should account for 7% or less of
daily calories
§ Replace saturated fat with
unsaturated fat from fish,
vegetables
§ Total fat should account for
30% or less of daily calories
Dietary Fat and High Blood Pressure
Among Africans in Three Regions
Figure 13.6
(Adapted from Luke et
al., 2001.)
Exercise
§ Recommendations:
§ 150 minutes per week of moderately intense
exercise
§ two sessions of resistance exercise per week
§ Over half of Americans are inactive:
§ more women than men
§ low SES:
§ less safe neighborhoods
§ less social support for exercising
Benefits of Exercise
§ Reduces fat, builds muscle

§ Boosts immune system,
resistance to disease
§ Cardiovascular benefits
© bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
§ Mental health benefits:
§ reduces anxiety, depression
§ enhances cognitive
functioning, well-being
§ Longer life
Substance Use
in Early Adulthood
Peaks at 19–25 years, then declines:

§ up to 12% of men and 6% of women
ages 19–25 are substance abusers
§ cigarettes, alcohol are
most common
§ drugs:
§ marijuana
§ stimulants
§ prescription drugs
§ party drugs © Edyta Pawlowska/Shutterstock
Cigarette Smoking
§ About 19% of U.S. adults smoke

cigarettes:
§ numbers slowly declining
§ fewer college graduates; more college
students, high school dropouts
§ more men, but gender gap shrinking
§ most start before age 21
§ Deadly health risks
§ Hard to quit: most in treatment
programs restart within 6 months
Alcohol Abuse
in Early Adulthood
§ 10% of men, 3% of women are heavy drinkers

§ About one-third of heavy
drinkers are alcoholics
§ Genetic, cultural factors
in alcoholism
§ Causes mental, physical
problems
§ High costs to society
§ Treatment is difficult: half © Kamira /Shutterstock
relapse in a few months
Heterosexual Attitudes
and Behavior
§ Most have intercourse by age 25

§ Most sex in context of a relationship:
§ 70% had only one partner in past year
§ partners similar to each other
§ Sex less frequent than media suggest:
§ only one-third twice a week or more
§ more often in twenties, declines with age
§ Most satisfied with their sex lives; only a
minority report sexual problems
Homosexual Attitudes
and Behavior
§ Public acceptance growing: majority say it’s

“OK,” support civil liberties, job opportunities
§ Estimated 3.5% of U.S. population are
homosexual or bisexual
§ Sexual behavior similar to that of
heterosexuals
§ Tend to live in larger cities, college towns
§ Tend to be well-educated
Risks of Sexual Activity
§ STDs:
§ In the United States, 1 in 4 contract an STD
during lifetime
§ AIDS:
§ incidence of HIV-positive adults highest in U.S.
among industrialized nations
§ homosexual sex
§ intravenous drug use
§ Sexual coercion:
§ rape: 18 percent of U.S. women
§ perpetrators’ personal characteristics and
cultural forces are predictive
Factors Related to
Sexual Coercion
Perpetrator Characteristics Cultural Forces

§ Manipulative, remorseless § Men taught to be
§ Approve of violence dominant, competitive
against women § Women taught to be
§ Accept rape myths submissive
§ Misinterpret social cues § Acceptance of violence
§ Childhood sexual abuse § Dulled sensitivity due to
§ Sexual promiscuity
media, pornography
§ Alcoholism
Consequences
of Sexual Coercion
§ Immediate: shock,
confusion, withdrawal
§ Long-term: fatigue,
depression, substance
abuse, social anxiety,
suicidal thoughts © Arlem Furman/Shutterstock
§ Physical injury
§ STDs
§ General ill health
Preventing and Treating
Rape and Abuse
§ Community services:
§ underfunded
§ few for victimized men
§ Routine screening
§ Validation of experience
§ Safety planning
© Kenfotos/Shutterstock
Psychological Stress
§ Related to
§ social conditions
§ traumatic experiences, life events
§ daily hassles
§ Caused or worsened by low SES
§ Associated with
§ overweight and obesity
§ diabetes
§ cardiovascular problems
§ decreased immunity
Cognitive Changes in
Early Adulthood
§ Piaget:
§ postformal thought
§ Perry:
§ epistemic cognition
§ Labouvie-Vief:
§ pragmatic thought
§ cognitive-affective
complexity
© wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
Development of
Epistemic Cognition
§ Dualistic thinking
§ Relativistic thinking
§ Commitment within relativistic thinking
§ Contributing factors:
§ opportunities to tackle challenging
ill-structured problems
§ peer interaction
§ metacognition
Development of
Pragmatic Thought
§ Adulthood brings
§ increased experience with real-world
problems
§ new ways of thinking that thrive on
contradiction and compromise
§ Increase in cognitive-affective complexity:
§ greater awareness of one’s own and
others’ perspectives
§ improved emotion regulation
Age-Related Changes in
Cognitive-Affective Complexity
Figure 13.7
(From G. Labouvie-Vief, 2003, “Dynamic Integration: Affect, Cognition, and the Self in Adulthood,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, p. 203, copyright © 2003, Sage Publications.
Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications.)
Expertise and Creativity
§ Expertise:
§ acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field
§ takes many years
§ enhances information processing
§ Essential for creativity:
§ move to problem finding
§ 10-year rule
§ rise in creative productivity in early adulthood
§ requires multiple personal qualities
The College Experience
§ Formative, influential
“developmental testing ground”
§ Exposure to new ideas, beliefs,
and demands fosters diverse
cognitive capacities:
§ reasoning about ill-structured
problems
§ broader attitudes and values
§ Depends on participation in
© Kzenon/Shutterstock campus life
Dropping Out of College
§ U.S. dropout rates:

§ 44% at two-year schools
§ 32% at four-year schools
§ Personal factors:
§ preparation, motivation,
skills
§ financial problems, low SES
§ Institutional factors:
§ few support services © milosljubicic/Shutterstock
§ Early support crucial

Periods of
Vocational Development
§ Fantasy period
§ Tentative period
§ Realistic period:
§ exploration
§ crystallization
© Goodluz/Shutterstock
Factors Influencing
Vocational Choice
§ Personality
§ Family influences:
§ parent–child
vocational similarity
§ Teachers
© michaeljung/Shutterstock
§ Gender stereotypes:
§ gender-role conformity
diminishing slowly
Personality Types
and Vocational Choice
Personality type Vocational Choice

Investigative § Scientist, engineer
Social § Counselor, teacher
Realistic § Construction worker, plumber
Artistic § Writer, musician
Conventional § Accountant, banker
Enterprising § Supervisor, politician
Vocational Preparation of
Non-College-Bound Young Adults
§ U.S. high school graduates poorly

prepared for skilled occupations
§ Lack vocational placement, counseling
services
§ Work–study apprenticeships can help:
§ European model programs
§ rare in the United States
Emotional and Social

Development in Early Adulthood
Emerging Adulthood
§ Explore alternatives in
§ education
§ work
§ personal values, behavior
§ Routes to adult
responsibility vary in
§ timing
§ order
§ Develop a more complex
self-concept
© mimagephotography/Shutterstock
Identity Development in
Emerging Adulthood
§ Explore in breadth, depth:

§ Depth: higher in self-esteem,
well-being, and adjustment
§ Too much breadth: poor
adjustment, anxiety,
depression, deviant behavior
§ Dual-cycle model:
fluctuating between making
new commitments and
© Zurijeta/Shutterstock
evaluating old ones
Religion in
Emerging Adulthood
§ Religious practice falls in late teens,

twenties: 1 in 4 U.S. 18- to 29-year-
olds unaffiliated with a particular faith
§ Religion remains more important to
American young people than in other
Western nations
§ Many construct individualized faith,
weaving together diverse traditions
Religiosity Among Cohorts of
U.S. 18- to 29-Year-Olds
Figure 14.1
(Adapted from Pew
Forum on Religion and
Public Life, 2010.)
Worldview in
Emerging Adulthood
§ “Generation me” controversy:

§ Is there increased narcissism, materialism?
§ Cohort evidence
questions these claims
§ Involvement in
volunteerism,
community service
§ Voter turnout
© michaeljung/Shutterstock
Cultural Change, Cultural Variation,
and Emerging Adulthood
§ Cultural change:
§ entry-level positions require more education
§ wealth, longevity free young people from
immediate entry to work force
§ Emerging adulthood largely limited to
§ middle, high SES in industrialized nations
§ wealthy, privileged few in developing
countries
§ Some researchers question whether
emerging adulthood is a distinct period
Fostering Success
in Emerging Adulthood
§ Resilience:
§ cognitive attributes
§ emotional attributes
§ social attributes
§ social support
© Andresr/Shutterstock
Erikson’s Theory:
Intimacy versus Isolation
Intimacy Isolation
§ Making a permanent § Hesitant to form close
commitment to intimate ties
partner § Fear of losing identity:
§ Giving up some § competitive
independence, redefining § rejecting of differences
identity § threatened by closeness
§ Secure identity associated
with fidelity
§ Fosters favorable friendship
and work relationships
Levinson’s Early Adult Season
§ Early adult transition:

§ dream:
§ women have “split dreams”
§ mentor
§ “Age-30 transition”:
§ men “settle down”
§ women unsettled:
§ occupational, relationship
commitments
© dotshock/Shutterstock
Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life
in Men
20s n intimacy concerns
30s n career consolidation
40s n generativity
50s and 60s n “keepers of meaning”
70s n spirituality, reflection
Social Clock
§ Age-graded expectations
for life events
§ Less rigid than in earlier
generations
§ Following social clock
lends confidence,
contributes to social
stability
§ Distress if not following or
© chaoss/Shutterstock
falling behind
Selecting a Mate
§ Most select partners similar to

themselves
§ Gender differences:
§ women: intelligence, ambition,
financial status, moral character
§ men: attractiveness, domestic skills
§ evolutionary perspective
§ social learning view
§ Higher value placed on attributes
that contribute to relationship
satisfaction © arek_malang/Shutterstock
Childhood Attachment and
Adult Romantic Relationships
Attachment Working Adult

History Model Relationships
comfortable with trust, happiness,
Secure intimacy; unafraid of friendship
abandonment
emphasize jealousy, emotional
independence, distance, little
Avoidant
mistrust, anxiety physical pleasure,
about closeness unrealistic beliefs
seek quick love, jealousy, desperation,
Resistant complete merging emotional highs, lows
Triangular Theory of Love
§ Intimacy: warm, tender

concern
§ Passionate love: sexual
attraction
§ Companionate love:
affection and caregiving
§ Passionate love early,
companionate love later
© bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock § Passion gradually fades
while intimacy,
commitment strengthen
Keeping Love Alive
§ Make time for the relationship.

§ Tell your partner you love him or her.
§ Be available when your partner needs
you.
§ Communicate constructively about
problems.
§ Show interest in important aspects of
your partner’s life.
§ Confide in your partner.
§ Try to understand, forgive offenses.
Friendships in Early Adulthood
§ Friends
§ are usually similar in age,
sex, SES, interests
§ enhance self-esteem,
make life more interesting
§ Trust, intimacy, and loyalty
continue to be important
© Adam Gregor/Shutterstock
§ Contributions of
social media
§ Siblings as friends
Gender and Friendship
Same-Sex Friendships Other-Sex Friendships

§ Gender differences: § Fewer than same-sex
women’s more § Educated, employed
intimate women have largest
§ Individual differences: number
§ longer friendships § Benefits to both
more intimate genders:
§ friendships preferred § men: opportunity for
companions and emotional
confidants for single expressiveness
people
§ women: new points
of view
Factors Related to Loneliness
n peaks in late teens, early twenties

Age
n declines into seventies
n frequent life transitions

n separated, divorced, widowed
Circumstances
n immigrants from collectivist to
individualistic cultures
n socially anxious
Personal n insecure models of attachment
characteristics n socially unresponsive, defensive
behaviors
Age-Related Change in Emotional
Distress Due to Loneliness
Figure 14.2
(Adapted from Rokach, 2001.)
Family Life Cycle
§ Early adulthood:
§ leaving home
§ joining families in marriage
§ parenthood
§ Middle adulthood:
§ launching children
§ Late adulthood:
§ retirement
§ death of spouse © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
Leaving Home
§ Average age of leaving increased over

last 50 years:
§ financial dependence is a factor
§ More than 50% leave, return briefly
§ Culture, SES, ethnicity affect ability to
leave, interest in leaving
§ Parents highly committed to helping
young people move into adult roles
Trends in Marriage
§ Marrying later
§ 70% marry at least once
§ Fewer marriages:
§ staying single,
cohabiting, not
remarrying after divorce
§ Trend toward
legalization of
same-sex marriage © Pitcha Torranin/Shutterstock
Traditional and Egalitarian
Marriages
Traditional Egalitarian
§ Clear division of roles § Partners as equals:
§ Woman: cares for § share authority
§ balance in attention to
husband, children, jobs, children, home,
home spouse
§ Man: head of § most well-educated
household, economic women expect this
form of marriage
support
Gender and Housework Hours
Figure 14.3
(From L. P. Cooke, 2010, “The Politics of Housework,” in J. Treas & S. Drobnic, [Eds.], Dividing the
Domestic: Men, Women, and Household Work in Cross-National Perspective, p. 70. Copyright © 2010 by
the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Jr. University. Adapted with the permission of Stanford
University Press, www.sup.org.)
Factors Related to
Marital Satisfaction
§ Age at marriage
§ Timing of first pregnancy
§ Relationship to extended family
§ Marital patterns in extended family
§ Financial and employment status
§ Family responsibilities
§ Personality characteristics
§ Positive biases of partner’s attributes
Partner Abuse
§ Committed by both men and women, but

women more likely to be seriously injured
§ Violence–remorse cycles common, related
to
§ personality
§ developmental history
§ family circumstances
§ culture
§ Existing treatments not very effective; need
whole-family approach, services for men
Assaults by Intimate Partners
Against Women
Figure 14.4
(From Kaya & Cook, 2010; World Health Organization, 2000, 2005.)
Trends in Having Children
§ In United States,
fewer married
couples have
children (70%)
§ Delay having
first child
§ Decline in family
© Rob Marmion/Shutterstock size: U.S. average
of 2.1 children
per woman
Decision to Have Children
Advantages Disadvantages
§ Warmth, affection § Loss of freedom
§ Stimulation, fun § Role overload
§ Growth, learning § Financial strain
experiences § Impinge on woman’s
§ Carry on legacy career
§ Sense of
accomplishment
Transition to Parenthood
§ Parental roles
§ often become more traditional with first birth
§ with second birth, pull back from traditional roles
§ Typically mild decline in relationship
satisfaction; sharing child care predicts
happiness
§ Later parenthood eases transition:
§ attainment of occupational goals
§ more life experience
§ stronger relationship
Parenting
§ With young children:

§ effective parents work together as
coparenting team
§ challenges: few social supports, hard to
find child care
§ With adolescents:
§ brings sharp changes
§ challenges: negotiation of roles, dip in
family life satisfaction
Parent Education
§ Parenting books,
magazines,
websites
§ Social networks,
media, especially
© Creativa/Shutterstock
for mothers
§ Classes
Singlehood
§ Increasing: 8%–10% remain single for life

§ Gender differences:
§ women more likely to stay single
§ more well-educated women, uneducated men
single after age 30
§ Ethnic differences: African Americans single
longer
§ Stressful periods:
§ late twenties
§ mid-thirties for women
Cohabitation
§ Increase in unmarried,
sexually intimate couples
living together
§ Preparation for marriage
vs. alternative to marriage:
§ North Americans who cohabit
before engagement more likely
to divorce
§ In Western Europe, cohabiters
nearly as committed as
married people
§ Homosexual cohabiters
report strong commitment © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Childlessness
§ Involuntary:
§ no parenthood partner
§ infertile
§ may be dissatisfied
§ Voluntary:
§ usually college-educated
and committed to
prestigious jobs
§ About 20% of women
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
§ Negative stereotypes
weakening
Divorce Rates
§ Stabilized since 1980s

§ In U.S., about 45%:
§ about 10% higher for
remarriages soon after
first marriage
© Yuriy Rudyy/Shutterstock
§ Most common times:
first seven years,
midlife
§ young children and
adolescents involved
Causes and Factors in Divorce
§ Ineffective problem solving

§ Separate lives
§ Major problems: infidelity, money
issues, substance abuse
§ Background factors: age, religion,
prior divorce, family background
§ SES
§ Gender roles, expectations
Consequences of Divorce
§ Major change in life and self-image

§ opportunities for positive and negative
outcomes
§ Immediate consequences generally
subside in 2 years
§ disrupted social networks, support
§ increased anxiety, depression, impulsivity
§ traditional women, noncustodial fathers may
have more problems
§ New partner enhances life satisfaction
§ more crucial for men
Remarriage After Divorce
§ Most remarry within 4 years of divorce:

§ men sooner than women
§ Vulnerable to breakup:
§ reasons for marriage:
§ too focused on practical matters
§ carry over negative interaction patterns
§ view divorce as acceptable resolution
§ stepfamily stress
§ Takes 3 to 5 years to blend new family:
§ education, couples/family counseling can help
Variant Styles of Parenthood
§ Stepparents
§ Never-married
single parents
§ Gay and
lesbian parents
© Stuart Jenner/Shutterstock
Stepparents
§ Stepmothers:
§ experience more parent–child
conflict
§ Stepfathers:
§ those with children establish positive
bonds faster
§ Relationship quality varies widely
§ Higher divorce rate than for
remarried couples without
stepchildren
Never-Married Single Parents
§ Affects 11% of U.S. children

§ Predominantly African-
American women: reliance
on extended family
§ Increased financial hardship
for low-SES women
§ Paternal involvement:
§ reliability of biological father
§ stepfather–stepchild © H. Tuller/Shutterstock
relationships
Gay and Lesbian Parents
§ 20%–35% of lesbians,
5%–15% of gay men
§ Children of heterosexual
past relationships, adoption,
or assisted reproduction
§ Children do not differ from
peers cognitively, socially
§ May build “families
of choice”
© Dubova/Shutterstock
§ Stigma a major concern
Career Development
in Early Adulthood
§ Disappointment near start

of career is common:
§ many job changes in twenties
§ national economy affects
career paths
§ Adjust expectations to
opportunities to advance
§ Effective mentors enhance
adjustment, success
© Odua Images/Shutterstock
Challenges to Women’s
Career Development
§ Discontinuous career paths: leave for

child rearing, family care
§ Gender gap in salary affected by
college major choice
§ Low self-efficacy for male-dominated
fields
§ Gender stereotyping
§ Few mentoring opportunities
Ethnic Minorities’
Career Development
§ Racial bias in workplace

remains strong:
§ harder to find a job
§ harder to improve
employability
§ Ethnic minority women face
combined discrimination:
§ successful women have high
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
self-efficacy
Racial/Ethnic Hiring Bias
Figure 14.5
(From D. Pager, B. Western, & B. Bonikowski, “Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment,” American
Sociological Review, 74, p. 785, copyright © 2009, American Sociological Association. Adapted by permission of SAGE
Publications.)
Work–Family Balance
§ Dual-earner marriages are common; most have

children
§ Role overload:
§ widespread problem
§ magnified for women in
low-status jobs
§ Workplace supports: © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
time-flexible policies
§ Effective balancing benefits both home
and work life

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8.early Adulthood

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Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E.

Physical and Cognitive

DNA-Cellular Level Organ/Tissue Level

§ Declines after age 20:

§ Increase in delayed childbearing

§ U.S. early adulthood death rates exceed

over last four decades

§ Saturated fat from meat and dairy

§ Reduces fat, builds muscle

Peaks at 19–25 years, then declines:

§ About 19% of U.S. adults smoke

§ 10% of men, 3% of women are heavy drinkers

relapse in a few months

§ Most have intercourse by age 25

§ Public acceptance growing: majority say it’s

Perpetrator Characteristics Cultural Forces

§ U.S. dropout rates:

§ Early support crucial

Personality type Vocational Choice

§ U.S. high school graduates poorly

Emotional and Social

§ Explore in breadth, depth:

§ Religious practice falls in late teens,

§ “Generation me” controversy:

§ Early adult transition:

20s n intimacy concerns

30s n career consolidation

50s and 60s n “keepers of meaning”

70s n spirituality, reflection

§ Most select partners similar to

Attachment Working Adult

§ Intimacy: warm, tender

§ Make time for the relationship.

Same-Sex Friendships Other-Sex Friendships

n peaks in late teens, early twenties

n frequent life transitions

§ Average age of leaving increased over

§ Committed by both men and women, but

§ With young children:

§ Increasing: 8%–10% remain single for life

§ Stabilized since 1980s

§ Ineffective problem solving

§ Major change in life and self-image

§ Most remarry within 4 years of divorce:

§ Affects 11% of U.S. children

§ Disappointment near start

§ Discontinuous career paths: leave for

§ Racial bias in workplace

§ Dual-earner marriages are common; most have

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