man's blood is l that of and

w h e n the blood group A has genotype JA|o tlere the genotype of

of child s biood can be
is 0 . So, in this case there is an eaual chance that the genotype
Woman s
ether blood
or o . Due to this, there is an equal chance of the child acquiring blood groUp A or blood

group O.
way the sex of a child
child from its parents, in the
same
Just as the blood group is inherited by a

is also inherited from the parents: mother and father. We will

now describe the inheritance
oy orbygir)
ot sex a child trom the parents. Inheritance of sex is also known as sex determinatiorn. Fiease note that

while discussing the determination of sex of a child, we use letter symbols to describe whole sex

chromosomes rather than individual genes. The sex chromosomes are

XX for a female (girl)
XY for a male (boy)
Sex Determination
A person can have a male sex or a female sex. The
process by which the sex of a person is determined
is called sex determination. Genetics is involved in
the determination of the sex of a person. This can be
explained as follows.
The chromosomes which determine the sex of a
person are called sex chromosomes. There are two Y
types of sex chromosomes, one is called X chromosome
and the other is called Y chromosome.
) A male (man or father) has one X chromosome (b)The human female (woman
(a) The human male (man or

and one Y chromosome [see Figure 20(a)]. This means father) has one X chromo- or mother) has two X
that half the male gametes or half the sperms will have some and one Y chromosome chromosomes.

X chromosomes and the other half will have Y Figure 20. The sex chromosomes.
chromosomes.
Y chromosomes) [see Figure 20(b),
) A female (woman or mother) has two X chromosomes (but no
X chromosomes.
This means that all the female gametes called ova (or eggs) will have only
If a sperm carrying X chromosome
The sex of a child depends on what happens at fertilisation : (a)
fertilises an ovum (or egg) which carries X chromosome, then the child born will be a girl (or female). This
is because the child will have XX combination of sex chromosomes (see Figure 21).

Mother's Father's sperms

eggs (or ova) (Half X;
(AllIX) Half Y)

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XX XY

XX zygote XY zygote
(Female child : Girl) (Male child: Boy)

Figure 21. Inheritance of sex in humans.

chromosome lertilises an ovuim (or egg) which carries A chromosone, then the
(b) If a sperm carrying Y will have XY combination of sex chromosomes
This is because the child
child born will be a boy (or male).
(see Figure 21).
 nts iu anmais (IiCIuamg nunai beigS). TTTus, Tuuintait 8 r c t

HOW ARE CHARACTERISTIcs (OR TRAITS) TRANSMITTED TO PROGENY

Genes are responsible for the characteristic features (or traits) of an organism: plant or animal. The
characteristics or traits of parents are transmitted to their progeny (offsprings) through genes present on
their chromosomes during the process of sexual reproduction. This happens as tollows.
Genes work in pairs. There is a pair of genes for each characteristic of an organism (one is dominant
gene and the other is recessive gene). Each parent possesses a pair of genes for each characteristic on a pair
of chromosomes. However, each parent passes only one of the two genes of the pair for each characteristic
to itsprogeny through gametes. Thus, the male gamete and female
characteristic from the gene pairs of gamete carry one gene for each
male
parents (which
are located on the
pair of chromosomes). But when a
gamete fuses with a female gamete during fertilisation, they make a new cell called
set of genes (on a full set of zygote with a full
chromosomes). This zygote grows and develops to form
having characteristics (or traits) from both the parents which it has inherited
a
organismn
new

The two genes (or pair of

through genes.
genes) responsible for a particular characteristic
are
always present on the corresponding positions of the pair of Chromosome pair
chromosomes. For example, in Figure 15 the two
genes for the same
characteristic (length of plant stem), are
present on the
positions of the pair of chromosomes. One gene of the pair corresponding
is for 'tallness'
and the other is for 'dwarfness'. Please note that
two genes (or a pair of
though the progeny inherits Genes
genes) for each trait from its parents but the trait
shown by the progeny depends on which inherited
gene is dominant of
the two. For example, if a
pea plant progeny (or hybrid) inherits the gene Gene for
for tallness (T) from one parent and the Gene for
gene for dwarfness (t) from the tallness (T) dwarfness (t)
other parent, then it will show the trait of 'tallness' and
become a tall plant
because the gene for tallness is dominant over the Different forms
gene for dwarfness. So, of same gene
although the gene for dwarfness (t) is present in all the cells of the
it does not show its
hybrid Figure 15. Genes work in pairs.
plants, effect (because it is a recessive
gene). If, however,
both the parent plants pass on one copy each of the recessive
gene for dwarfness (t) making the genotvpe
(tt), then the traits of dwarfness will appear in the progeny
plant.
Please note that the genes for 'tallness' and 'dwarfness' are not to be
considered two different genes.
They are just the two forms of the same gene which controls
only one characteristic teatuure of
length of its stem. But there can be increase in length of stem making the plant tall or derrease in a plant
the leneth
of stem, making the plant dwarf.
 Seeds and
wrinkled-green see
eeds.
RULESFOR THE INHERITANCE OF TRAITS:
MENDEL'S CONTRIBUTION
Inheritance is the transmission of
genetically controlled characteristics (or traits) from one
to the next. We will now
describe how Mendel studied the inheritance of characters or traits generation
in
generations of pea plants cultivated by him. First we will discuss 'monohybrid inheritance' which various
the inheritance of a concems
single characteristic (or single trait) such as plant height. After that we will describe the
dihybrid inheritance which involves the inheritance of two characteristics (or two
and seed colour. traits) such as seed shape
1. Monohybrid Inheritance and the Law of Segregation
In order to trace the inheritance of
a
single pair of contrasting characteristics among the pea plants (like
tall stem and short stem), Mendel
crossed (cross-bred) the pure-bred pea plants differing in these traits and
noted their occurrence in the
progeny of succeeding generations.
() Mendel first crossed pure-bred tall pea plants with
tall pea plants were produced in the first
pure-bred dwarf pea plants and found that oniy
generation or Fi generation (see Figure 9). No dwarf pea plants
(or short pea plants) were obtained in the first
generation of progeny. From this Mendel concluded that

Cross breeding

Tallx Dwart Tall Tall Tall Tall

(TT) (t1t) (Tt) (Tt) (Tt) (T)
(All tall plants)
(a) Parental generation (b) F, generation
Figure 9. A cross
of pure-bred tall and dwart pea
plants
the first generation (or F cross) showed the traits of only one ot the parent plants tallness. The trait o
other parent plant, dwarfness, did not show up in the progeny of tirst generation.
 ) Mendel then crossed the 183
tall pea
dwarf plants were obtained inplants
of the first
plants and
the second
generation (F1 generation) and found that tal
other words in the F2 generation (or F2 generation) in the ratio of 3: 1. In
generation, three-fourth plants were tall and one-fourth
Mendel noted that the dwarf were dwarf (see
trait of the parent pea plant which had Figure 10).
seemingly disappeared the first
in
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Cross breeding
IR

Tall x Tall
Tall Tall Tall Dwarf
T) T) (TT) (Tt) Tt) (t)
(a)F generation (6) F, generation
Figure 10. A cross of tall plants of F1 generation produces tall and dwarf plants in
the ratio of 3 :1.
generation progeny, reappeared in the second generation. Mendel said that the trait of
the dwarfness of one of
parent pea plant had not been lost, it was merely concealed or
supressed in the first
emerge in the second generation. Mendel called the repressed trait of 'dwarfness' as generation to re-
the expressed trait of 'tallness' as the 'dominant trait'. In this 'recessive trait' and
way, Mendel's experiments with tall and
dwarf pea plants showed that the traits may be dominant or recessive.
Mendel also noted that all the pea plants produced from the
either tall or dwarf. There were no plants with intermediate
hybrid tall parents of F1 generation, were
height (or medium height) in-between the tall
and dwarf plants. In this way, Mendel's experiment showed that the traits
(like tallness and dwarfness) are
inherited independently. This is because if the traits of tallness or dwarfness had blended
(or mixed up),
then medium sized pea plants would have been produced.

Out of a total 1064 pea plants of F2 generation, Mendel found that there were 787 tall
pea plants and 277
dwarf pea plants. The
ratio of tall
plants to dwarf plants comes to be 787 277 2.84 1, which is
approximately equal to 3:1. Thus, a yet another result obtained from Mendel's monohybrid inheritance
experiment is that the ratio of tall plants to dwarf plants in the F; generation is 3: 1. Since tallness is a
dominant trait and dwarfness is a recessive trait,
so we
can also
say that the contrasting progeny in the F,
generation occur in the ratio of 3 dominant to I recessive. The ratio 3: 1 is known as the monohyhrid

ratio.
The results of monohybrid cross enabled Mender to formulate his tirst law of inheritance which is
called the law of segregation. According to Mender # TITst laW ot inheritance : The characteristics (ar

traits) of an organism are determined by internal "tactors which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of
Such factors can be present in a single gamete. we Will now explain the results of nuuh

and dwarf pea plants theoretically by using

Mendel's lirSt lLaw of inherit.an
h i d Inberitavm.
 CLASS: BloLO Y
184 SCIENCE FOR TENTH
(11) The gametes of tall pea plant then cross with the gametes of the dwarf pea plant oy PO Or
first
generation (or generation)
rertilisation to form zygotes which then produce various progeny in oneFifactor
the
of inheritance from each
which
consists of all tall plants. Thus, the F1 generation possesses in the following chart:
parent plant which were carried in gametes. The parental cross is shown clearly
Parental Cross
Dwarf plant
Parents' phenotype (Appearance) Tall plant

Factors of inheritance ,TT

Gametes C
(Formed from separation of factors)

Crossing of gametes
during fertilisation

Tt Tt
Fi generation genotype. Tt

Tall Tall Tall

Fi generation phenotype- Tall
(All tall plants)

have factors Tt in which T is the factor for

In the Fi generation shown above, all the progeny plants of them
the Fi generation have the factors Tt, so all
tallness which is a dominant trait. Since all the plants in
show up in first
recessive trait of dwarfness, which does not
are tall. The small letter t represents
T.
generation in the presence of dominant trait with
in the first generation (Fi) are n o w cross-bred
(iv) When two hybrid, tall pea plants (Tt) produced This again happens by the separation
each other, then they will produce second generation (F2) pea plants.
individual gametes and then crossing of the gametes during
offactors of inheritance of these tall plants into
fertilisation as shown below:
F1 Cross

Tall plant Tall plant

Fi generation phenotype (Appearance)
Tt
Factors of inheritance

Gametes

(Formed from separation of factors)

Cross of gametes
during fertilisation

F2 generation genotype. TT

F2 generation phenotype. Tall Tall Tall Dwarf

(Three tall and one dwarf plant)
in the F2 generation (or second generation), the pea plants produced
We from the above chart that
can see
Tt all
factors TT, Tt, Tt and tt. Now, the plants having genotype TT, Tt and
have genotype or inheritance the three plants (TT, Tt and Tt) are tall, The plant
dominant trait "tallness', so all
contain the factor T for recessive trait "dwartness', s o it is a dwart plant. Please
has both factors t for the
having the genotype tt
note that though a single copy
of
factor s enougn
to m a k e a plant
tal but both copies of factor t (that
(or short).
make a plant dwarf
is tt) are necessary to
get 1 plant having 8enotype , 2 plants having genotype Tt and l plant
In the F, generation, we
ratio in monohydrid cross will be:
the genotypic
having genotype tt. So, TT:Tt : tt = 1 :2:1
 185
Again, in plant, so the phenotypic m studygear
the F2 generation, we get 3 tall plants and 1 dwarf
ratio in monohybrid cross will be:
Tall plants :Dwarf plants = 3:1
This result is the same as that obtained
through experiments.by Mendel
2. Dihybrid Inheritance and the Law of Independent Assortment
Dihybrid inheritance involves the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characteristics (or contrasting
traits) at the same time. The two pairs of contrasting characteristics chosen by Mendel were shape and
colour of seeds : round-yellow seeds,
and wrinkled-green seeds (see Figures
11 and 12). In order to trace the
inheritance ot two pairs of contrasting
traits, Mendel crossed pea plants
having round-yellow seeds with pea
plants having wrinkled-green seeds
and noted their occurrence in the
succeeding generations of pea plants.
Mendel made the following Figure 12. Wrinkled-green pea
Figure 11. Round-yellow pea seeds.
observations seeds.
(1) Mendel first crossed pure-bred
pea plants having round-yellow seeds with pure-bred pea plants having wrinkled-green seeds and found
that only round-yellow seeds were produced in the first gerneration. No wrinkled-green seeds were obtained
in the F generation. From this it was concluded that round shape and yellow colour of the
seeds were
dominant traits over the wrinkled shape and green colour of the seeds.
self pollination
seeds cross-bred by
(ii) When the F generation pea plants having round-yellow
were

of shape and colour were obtained in s e c o n

then four types of seeds having different combinations
and wrinkled-greer
generation or F2 generation. These w e r e round-yellow, round-green, wrinkled-yellow
and counted them shape wise and colour wise. He got the
seeds. Mendel collected a total of 556 F2 seeds
followingresult:
Round-yellow seeds 315
Round-green seeds 108
Wrinkled-yellow seeds 101
Wrinkled-green seeds 32
of seeds can be written as:
The phenotypic ratio of different type
Wrinkled Wrinkled
Round Round
yellow green 315 108 101 32
yellow green
seeds seeds seeds
seeds 9 3

Thus, the ratio of each phenotype (orappearance)

ot the seeds in the F2 generation is 9:3:3: 1, Th

ratio.
IS known as the dihybrid
. hat he had started witlh two conbinations of characteristics in seeds: round-yello
 Parental Cross
Parents' phenotype Plants having Plants having
round-yellow wrinkled-green
seeds seeds
Factors of inheritance R Y

Gametes (RY RY Ty
Fusion of gametes

Rr Yy Rr Yy
F1generation genotype Rr Yy RrYy

F generation phenotype Round Round Round Round

yellow yellow yellow yellow
F Cross
Fi generation phenotype Plants having Plants having
round-yellow round-yellow
seeds seeds
Factors of inheritance

Gametes

(One hybrid) (Other hybrid)

HERE AND EV 1ON
187
Gametes from one hybridd
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13
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RY Round Round Round Round
yellow yellow yellow yellow
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
Round Round Round Round

Fusion of gametes yellow green yellow green

(shown in the table) RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

Round Round Wrinkled Wrinkled
yellow yellow yellow yellow

RrYy Rryy rYy Iryy

Round Round Wrinkled Wrinkled
yellow green yellow green

F2 ratio : Round-yellow =9; Round-green =F3

Wrinkled-yellow =
3; Wrinkled-green = 1
This result is the same as that obtained by Mendel through experiments.