Linear Transformations

Definitions
In this chapter, we aim to study of functions whose domains and
ranges are subsets of linear spaces. Such functions are called
transformations, mappings, or operators. This chapter treats
the simplest examples, called linear transformations, which
occur in all branches of mathematics. Properties of more general
transformations are often obtained by approximating them by
linear transformations. First, we introduce some notation and
terminology concerning arbitrary functions. Let 𝑉 and 𝑊 be two
sets. The symbol
𝑇∶ 𝑉→𝑊
will be used to indicate that 𝑇 is a function whose domain is 𝑉
and whose values are in the codomain 𝑊. For each 𝑥 in 𝑉, the
element 𝑇(𝑥) in 𝑊 is called the image of 𝑥 under 𝑇, and we say
that 𝑇 maps 𝑥 onto 𝑇(𝑥).

Definition 1 - If 𝑉 and 𝑊 are linear spaces, a function 𝑇: 𝑉 → 𝑊

is called a linear transformation of 𝑉 into 𝑊 if it has the
following two properties:
1. 𝑇(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑇(𝑥) + 𝑇(𝑦) for all 𝑥 and 𝑦 in 𝑉.
2. 𝑇(𝑐𝑥) = 𝑐𝑇(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in 𝑉 and all scalars 𝑐.
These properties can be combined into one formula which states
that
𝑇(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) = 𝑎𝑇(𝑥) + 𝑏𝑇(𝑦)
for all 𝑥, 𝑦 in 𝑉 and all scalars 𝑎 and 𝑏. By induction, we also have
the more general relation
𝑛 𝑛

𝑇 (∑ 𝑐𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑐𝑖 𝑇(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
for any 𝑛 vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑛 in 𝑉 and any 𝑛 scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , ⋯ , 𝑐𝑛 .

Example 1. Let 𝑇: ℝ3 → ℝ2 be a linear transformation, and let 𝐵 =

{𝑒1 ; 𝑒2 ; 𝑒3 } be the standard basis for ℝ3 . If
1 1 0
𝑇(𝑒1 ) = [ ] , 𝑇(𝑒2 ) = [ ] , 𝑇(𝑒3 ) = [ ]
1 2 1
1
find 𝑇(𝑣), where 𝑣 = [3].
2
Solution. To find the image of the vector 𝑣, we first write the
vector as a linear combination of the basis vectors. In this case
𝑣 = 𝑒1 + 3𝑒2 + 2𝑒3
Applying 𝑇 to this linear combination and using the linearity
properties of 𝑇, we have
𝑇(𝑣) = 𝑇(𝑒1 + 3𝑒2 + 2𝑒3 )
= 𝑇(𝑒1 ) + 3𝑇(𝑒2 ) + 2𝑇(𝑒3 )
1 1 0 4
= [ ] + 3[ ] + 2[ ] = [ ]
1 2 1 9
Example 2 - Define a mapping 𝑇: 𝑅 → 𝑅 as 𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥, where 𝐴 =
3 2

1 2 −1
[ ]
−1 3 2
(a) Show that 𝑇 is a linear transformation.
1
(b) Find the images of 𝑣 = [1]
1
Solution. (a) Indeed, for all vectors u and v in 𝑅 3 , we have
𝑇(𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣) = 𝐴(𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣) = 𝑎𝐴𝑢 + 𝑏𝐴𝑣 = 𝑎𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑏𝑇(𝑣):
Therefore 𝑇 is linear.
(b) We have
1
1 2 −1 2
𝑇(𝑣) = 𝐴𝑣 = [ ] [1] = [ ]
−1 3 2 4
1
Example. Define the mapping 𝑻: 𝑹𝟒 → 𝑹𝟑 by
𝒂
𝒃 𝒂+𝒃
𝑻 ([ ]) = [ 𝒃 − 𝒄 ]
𝒄
𝒅 𝒂+𝒅
Show that 𝑻 is linear.
𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑏1 𝑏2
Solution. For every 𝑢 = [ 𝑐 ] and 𝑣 = [ 𝑐 ] in 𝑅 4 and scalars 𝛼 and
1 2
𝑑1 𝑑2
𝛽, we have
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝛼𝑎1 + 𝛽𝑎2
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝛼𝑏 + 𝛽𝑏2
𝑇(𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑣) = 𝑇 (𝛼 [ 𝑐 ] + 𝛽 [ 𝑐 ]) = [ 1 ]
1 2 𝛼𝑐1 + 𝛽𝑐2
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝛼𝑑1 + 𝛽𝑑2
(𝛼𝑎1 + 𝛽𝑎2 ) + (𝛼𝑏1 + 𝛽𝑏2 )
= [ (𝛼𝑏1 + 𝛽𝑏2 ) − (𝛼𝑐1 + 𝛽𝑐2 ) ]
(𝛼𝑎1 + 𝛽𝑎2 ) + (𝛼𝑑1 + 𝛽𝑑2 )
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
= 𝛼 [ 𝑏1 − 𝑐1 ] + 𝛽 [ 𝑏2 − 𝑐2 ] = 𝛼𝑇(𝑢) + 𝛽(𝑣)
𝑎1 + 𝑑1 𝑎2 + 𝑑2
So 𝑇 is linear.
Example. Is the map 𝑻: 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐 defines as
𝒙 𝒙+𝒚
𝑻 ([𝒚]) = [ ]is a linear transformation ?
𝒙−𝒚+𝟏
Solution.
𝑥1 𝑥2
No, since for 𝑢 = [𝑦 ] and 𝑣 = [𝑦 ], we have
1 2
𝑥1 + 𝑦1 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑇(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑇 ([𝑥 + 𝑦 ]) = [ 1 ]
2 2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 + 1
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥 + 𝑦1 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑇(𝑣) = 𝑇 ([𝑥 ]) + 𝑇 ([𝑦 ]) = [ 1 ]+[ 2 ]
2 2 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 + 1 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 1
𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
=[ 1 ]
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 + 2
Thus 𝑇(𝑢 + 𝑣) ≠ 𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑇(𝑣) and 𝑇 is nonlinear.
 ‫‪Eiginvalues‬‬
‫‪and‬‬
‫‪Eiginvectors‬‬
‫لو عندنا ‪ .... Square Matrix‬مثال 𝐴 ‪ ....‬عايزين نبحث عن ‪ ... Vector‬مثال 𝑋 ‪...‬‬
‫و‪ ... Scalar‬مثال 𝜆 بحيث أن ‪....‬‬

‫𝑿𝝀 = 𝑿𝑨‬
‫في الحالة ده ح نسمي 𝜆 بــ‪ Eigin Value‬للـــ𝐴 والــ𝑋 بالــ‪ Eigin Vector‬المناظر للــ𝜆‪.‬‬

‫‪Example‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪−1 −1‬‬ ‫‪−2‬‬
‫‪Let 𝐴 = (0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪3 ) and 𝑋 = ( 3 ). See‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1 −1 −1 −2‬‬ ‫‪−8‬‬ ‫‪−2‬‬
‫‪𝐴𝑋 = (0 1‬‬ ‫𝑋‪3 ) ( 3 ) = ( 12 ) = 4 ( 3 ) = 4‬‬
‫‪0 3‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫𝑋‪𝐴𝑋 = 4‬‬
‫‪−2‬‬
‫كدة الــ‪ 4‬ده ‪ Eigin Value‬للـــ𝐴 ‪ ....‬والـ ‪ Eigin vector‬المناظر ليه ) ‪.( 3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬

‫سؤال ‪ ....‬في كام ‪ Eigin Value‬للــ‪ Matrix‬الواحدة ‪....‬‬

‫عدد الــ‪ Eigin values‬مساوي للـ‪ Order‬بتاع الـ ‪Matrix‬‬

 ‫عني ‪ ....‬لو الــ‪ Matrix‬حجمها 𝑛 × 𝑛 ح يبقي عندها 𝑛 من الــ‪ Egn values‬وكل ‪Eigin‬‬
‫ي‬
‫‪ value‬له ‪ Eigin Vector‬منا ظر‬

‫الهدف ‪ ....‬أني أعين حميع الــ‪ Eigin values‬ألي ‪ Matrix‬ونعين ‪ Eigin vector‬مناظر‬
‫لكل ‪.Eigin value‬‬
‫الطريقة ‪....‬‬

‫‪ 01‬فك الــ‪ Determinant‬ده وسويها بـ‪Zero‬‬

‫‪|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0‬‬
‫‪ 02‬بعد فك المحددة ح يظهر عندنا معادلة من الدرجة ‪ n‬في 𝜆 أسمها الــ ‪Characteristic‬‬
‫‪ Equation‬أو الـمعادلة المميزة‪.‬‬

‫‪𝑎𝑛 𝜆 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝜆 + 𝑎0 = 0‬‬

‫‪ 03‬أوجد جذور المعادلة ‪ ...‬اللي ح يكون عددها 𝑛 ‪ ...‬الجذور ده هي الــ‪Eigin Values‬‬
‫بتاعة الــ𝐴‪.‬‬

‫‪ 04‬دلوقتي لكل ‪ Eigin Value‬ح نعين ‪ Eigin Vector‬مناظر‪.‬‬

‫أزاي ‪ ....‬حل الــ‪Homogeneous System‬‬

‫‪(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0‬‬

‫بأستخدام الــ‪ Elementary Operations‬زي الــ ‪ Chapter‬اللي فات عشان نعين 𝑋 ‪...‬‬
‫و𝑋 ح تكون هي الــ‪ Eigin Vector‬المناظر‪.‬‬
 Problems
Ex. 01 Find the Eigen values and the corresponding Eigen
vectors of
𝟑 𝟒
𝑨=( )
𝟓 𝟐
Answer.

Set |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
3−𝜆 4
| |=0
5 2−𝜆
(3 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) − (5)(4) = 0
6 − 3𝜆 − 2𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 20 = 0
𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 14 = 0
(𝜆 − 7)(𝜆 + 2) = 0
Eigin values are 𝜆1 = 7 and 𝜆2 = −2.
𝜆1 = 7
(𝐴 − 7𝐼)𝑋 = 0
−4 4 𝑥1 0
( ) (𝑥 ) = ( )
5 −5 2 0
−4 4 1 −1
( )~( )
5 −5 0 0
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0
Set 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
𝑡 1
𝑋1 = ( ) = 𝑡 ( )
𝑡 1
𝜆2 = 2
(𝐴 + 2𝐼)𝑋 = 0
5 4 𝑥1 0
( ) (𝑥 ) = ( )
5 4 2 0
5 4 5 4
( )~( )
5 4 0 0
5𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 = 0
4
Set 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
5
4
4/5
𝑋2 = (5 𝑡) = 𝑡 ( )
1
𝑡

Ex. 02 Find the Eigen values and the corresponding Eigen

vectors of
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = (𝟏 𝟐 𝟑)
𝟏 𝟒 𝟕
Answer.

Set |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
1−𝜆 1 1
| 1 2−𝜆 3 |=0
1 4 7−𝜆
(1 − 𝜆)[(2 − 𝜆)(7 − 𝜆) − 12] − 1[(7 − 𝜆) − 3] + 1[4 − (2 − 𝜆)] = 0
(1 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 9𝜆 + 2) − (4 − 𝜆) + (𝜆 + 2) = 0
𝜆2 − 9𝜆 + 2 − 𝜆3 + 9𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 4 + 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 2 = 0
−𝜆3 + 10𝜆2 − 9𝜆 = 0 ÷ −1
𝜆3 − 10𝜆2 + 9𝜆 = 0
 𝜆(𝜆2 − 10𝜆 + 9) = 0
𝜆(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 9) = 0
Eigen Values are 𝜆1 = 0, 𝜆2 = 1, 𝜆3 = 9
𝜆1 = 0
(𝐴 − 0𝐼)𝑋 = 0
1 1 1 𝑥1 0
(1 2 3) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 4 7 𝑥3 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(1 2 3 ) ~ (0 1 2 ) ~ (0 1 2)
1 4 7 0 3 6 0 0 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = −2𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
𝑡 1
𝑋1 = (−2𝑡) = 𝑡 (−2)
𝑡 1
𝜆2 = 1
(𝐴 − 𝐼)𝑋 = 0
0 1 1 𝑥1 0
(1 1 3) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 4 6 𝑥3 0
0 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
(1 1 3 ) ~ (0 1 1 ) ~ (0 1 1 ) ~ (0 1 1)
1 4 6 1 4 6 0 3 3 0 0 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = −𝑡 → 𝑥1 = −2𝑡
 −2𝑡 −2
𝑋2 = ( −𝑡 ) = 𝑡 (−1)
𝑡 1
𝜆3 = 9
(𝐴 − 9𝐼)𝑋 = 0
−8 1 1 𝑥1 0
( 1 −7 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 4 −2 𝑥3 0
−8 1 1 1 −7 3 1 −7 3 1 −7 3
(1 −7 3 ) ~ (−8 1 1 ) ~ (0 −55 24 ) ~ (0 11 −5)
1 4 −2 1 4 −2 0 11 −5 0 0 0
𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0
11 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0
5 2
𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
11 11
2
𝑡 2/11
11
𝑋3 = 5 = 𝑡 (5/11)
𝑡 1
11
( 𝑡 )
Ex. 03 Find the characteristic values and the corresponding
characteristic vectors of
𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝑨 = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟑)
𝟎 𝟑 𝟏
Answer.

Set
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
 1−𝜆 −1 −1
| 0 1−𝜆 3 |=0
0 3 1−𝜆
(1 − 𝜆)[(1 − 𝜆)2 − 9] = 0
(1 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 8) = 0
(1 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 4)(𝜆 + 2) = 0
𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 4, 𝜆3 = −2
𝜆1 = 1
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
0 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(0 0 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 3 0 𝑥3 0
0 −1 −1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
(0 0 3 ) ~ ( 0 0 3 ) ~ (0 0 3 ) ~ (0 0 1)
0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 −3 0 0 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 = 𝑠 → 𝑥3 = 0 → 𝑥2 = 0
𝑠 1
𝑋1 = (0) = 𝑠 (0)
0 0
At 𝜆2 = 4
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
−3 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
𝑥
( 0 −3 3 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 3 −3 𝑥3 0
−3 −1 −1 3 1 1
( 0 −3 3 ) ~ (0 1 −1)
0 3 −3 0 0 0
 3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑠
𝑥3 = 𝑠 → 𝑥2 = 𝑠 → 𝑥1 = −
3
2𝑠
− 𝑠 −2
𝑋2 = ( 3 ) = ( 3 )
𝑠 3
3
𝑠

At 𝜆3 = −2
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
3 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(0 3 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 3 3 𝑥3 0
3 −1 −1 3 −1 −1
(0 3 3 ) ~ (0 1 1)
0 3 3 0 0 0
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 𝑠 → 𝑥2 = −𝑠 → 𝑥1 = 0
0 0
𝑋3 = (−𝑠) = −𝑠 ( 1 )
𝑠 −1
Ex. 04 Find the characteristic values and the corresponding
characteristic vectors of
𝟐 𝟏
𝑨=( )
−𝟗 𝟐
Answer.

Set
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
2−𝜆 1
| |=0
−9 2−𝜆
(2 − 𝜆)2 + 9 = 0
𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 13 = 0
𝜆1,2 = 2 ± 3𝑖
𝜆1 = 2 + 3𝑖
−3𝑖 1 𝑅12 (3𝑖) −3𝑖 1 𝑥1
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = ( )→ ( )( ) = 0
−9 −3𝑖 0 0 𝑥2
−3𝑖𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0
Let 𝑥1 = 𝑠 → 𝑥2 = 3𝑖𝑠
𝑠 1
𝑋1 = ( ) = 𝑠 ( )
3𝑖𝑠 3𝑖
1
𝜆2 = 2 − 3𝑖 → 𝑋2 = 𝑠 ( ) ‫ ألني كل اللي‬.... 𝐶2 ‫مش ح نحتاج نشتغل نحسب الــ‬
−3𝑖
𝐶1 ‫ بتاع الــ‬Conjugate ‫محتاجه اني أجب الــ‬
Ex. 05 Find the Eigin values and the corresponding Eigin
vectors of the matrix
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑨 = (−𝟒 −𝟐 𝟏)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Answer.

Set |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
2−𝜆 2 1
| −4 −2 − 𝜆 1 |=0
0 0 1−𝜆
(1 − 𝜆)[(2 − 𝜆)(−2 − 𝜆) + 8] = 0
(1 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 + 4) = 0
𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 2𝑖, 𝜆 = −2𝑖
𝜆1 = 1

1 2 1 𝑅12 (4) 1 2 1 𝑅2 (1) 1 2 1 𝑥1

5
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = (−4 −3 1) → (0 5 5) → (0 1 1) (𝑥2 ) = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝑥3
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
Set 𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = −𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
𝑡 1
𝑋1 = (−𝑡) = 𝑡 (−1)
𝑡 1
𝜆2 = 2𝑖
 2 − 2𝑖 2 1
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = ( −4 −2 − 2𝑖 1 )
0 0 1 − 2𝑖
𝑅1 (2+2𝑖) 8 4 + 4𝑖 2 + 2𝑖
→ (−4 −2 − 2𝑖 1 )
0 0 1 − 2𝑖
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑅1 ( )
8
1 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 𝑅12 (4) 1 + 𝑖 + 𝑖
→ ( 2 2 4 4 )→ ( 2 2 4 4 )
−4 −2 − 2𝑖 2 + 𝑖 0 0 2+𝑖
0 0 1 − 2𝑖 0 0 1 − 2𝑖
1 1 1 1 𝑥1
1 + 𝑖 + 𝑖
→( 2 2 4 4 ) (𝑥2 ) = 0
0 0 1 𝑥3
0 0 0

1 1 1 1
𝑥1 + ( + 𝑖)𝑥2 + ( + 𝑖)𝑥3 = 0
2 2 4 4
𝑥3 = 0
1 1
Set 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥3 = 0 → 𝑥1 = − ( + 𝑖) 𝑡
2 2

𝑡
1 1 −2
𝑋2 = (− ( + 𝑖) 𝑡) = 𝑡 (1 + 𝑖)
2 2
0
0
𝜆3 = −2𝑖

−2
𝑋2 = 𝑡 (1 − 𝑖 )
0
Ex. 06 Find the Eigin values and the corresponding Eigin
vectors of the matrix
𝟓 𝟒 𝟐
𝑨 = (𝟒 𝟓 𝟐)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Answer.
Set |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
5−𝜆 4 2
| 4 5−𝜆 2 |=0
2 2 2−𝜆
(5 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 10 − 4) − 4(−4𝜆 + 8 − 4) + 2(8 − 10 + 2𝜆) = 0
(5 − 𝜆)(𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6) − 4(−4𝜆 + 4) + 2(2𝜆 − 2) = 0
(5 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 6) + 16(𝜆 − 1) + 4(𝜆 − 1) = 0
(𝜆 − 1)( (5 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 6) + 16 + 4) = 0 × −1
(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆2 − 11𝜆 + 10) = 0
𝜆1 = 10, 𝜆2 = 𝜆3 = 1
𝜆1 = 10
−5 4 2 1 1 −4 1 1 −4
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = ( 4 −5 2 )→( 4 −5 2 ) → (0 −9 18 )
2 2 −8 −5 4 2 0 9 −18
𝑅23 (2)
1
𝑅2 (− ) 1 1 −4 𝑥1
9
→ (0 1 −2) (𝑥2 ) = 0
0 0 0 𝑥3
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0
Set 𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = 2𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 2𝑡
 2𝑡 2
𝑋1 = (2𝑡) = 𝑡 (2)
𝑡 1
𝜆 2 = 𝜆3 = 1

4 4 2 1 1 1
𝑥1
2
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = (4 4 2 ) → (0 0 0) (𝑥2 ) = 0
2 2 1 0 0 0 𝑥3
1
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 +𝑥 =0
2 3
1
Set 𝑥3 = 𝑡 → 𝑥2 = 𝑠 → 𝑥1 = − 𝑡 − 𝑠
2
1
− 𝑡−𝑠 1 −1 −1
( 2 ) = 𝑡( 0 )+𝑠( 1 )
𝑠 2
2 0
𝑡
−1 −1
𝑋2 = ( 0 ) , 𝑋3 = ( 1 )
2 0
Diagonalization
A matrix 𝐴 is said to be similar to a matrox 𝐵 if there exists a
nonsingular matrix 𝑃 such that
𝐵 = 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃
Theorem: If 𝑨 is similar to 𝑩. Then 𝑩 is similar to 𝑨.

Proof.

Theorem: The similar matrices have the same Eigen values.

Diagonalization
A diagonalizable matrix is the matrix which is similar to a
diagonal matrix.

Example
1 1
𝐴=( )
−2 4
1 1 2 −1
𝑃=( ) → 𝑃−1 = ( )
1 2 −1 1

1 1 1 1 2 −1
𝑃𝐴𝑃−1 = ( )( )( )
1 2 −2 4 −1 1
2 0
=( )
0 3

2 0
Since 𝐴 is similar to ( ) which is diagonal. Then 𝐴 is
0 3
diagonalizable. Also, we can estimate the eigin values which are 2
and 3.
Let 𝐴 be a diagonalizable matrix. If 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , ⋯ , 𝜆𝑛 with
corresponding eigin vectors 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , ⋯ , 𝑋𝑛 . Let
𝐶 = (𝑋1 𝑋2 ⋯ 𝑋𝑛 )
𝜆1 0 ⋯ 0
0 𝜆2 ⋯ 0
𝐷=( )
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝜆𝑛
Hence,
𝐶 −1 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷 ↔ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 ↔ 𝐴 = 𝐶𝐷𝐶 −1
𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
Ex. 10 Diagonalize 𝑨 = (𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 ). Hence, evaluate 𝑨𝟓 .
𝟎 𝟑 𝟏
Answer.

Set
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
1−𝜆 −1 −1
| 0 1−𝜆 3 |=0
0 3 1−𝜆
(1 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 4)(𝜆 + 2) = 0
𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 4, 𝜆3 = −2
𝜆1 = 1
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
0 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(0 0 𝑥
3 ) ( 2 ) = ( 0)
0 3 0 𝑥3 0
0 −1 −1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
(0 0 3 ) ~ ( 0 0 3 ) ~ (0 0 3 ) ~ (0 0 1)
0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 −3 0 0 0
 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 = 𝑠 → 𝑥3 = 0 → 𝑥2 = 0
𝑠 1
𝑋1 = (0) = 𝑠 (0)
0 0
At 𝜆2 = 4
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
−3 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 −3 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 3 −3 𝑥3 0
−3 −1 −1 3 1 1
( 0 −3 3 ) ~ (0 1 −1)
0 3 −3 0 0 0
3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑠
𝑥3 = 𝑠 → 𝑥2 = 𝑠 → 𝑥1 = −
3
2𝑠
− 𝑠 −2
𝑋2 = ( 3 ) = ( 3 )
𝑠 3
3
𝑠

At 𝜆3 = −2
(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 0
3 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(0 3 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 3 3 𝑥3 0
 3 −1 −1 3 −1 −1
(0 3 3 ) ~ (0 1 1)
0 3 3 0 0 0
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥3 = 𝑠 → 𝑥2 = −𝑠 → 𝑥1 = 0
0 0
𝑋3 = (−𝑠) = −𝑠 ( 1 )
𝑠 −1
1 −2 0
𝐶 = (0 3 1)
0 3 −1
1 0 0
𝐷 = (0 4 0 )
0 0 −2
1 −1 −1 1 −2 0
𝐴𝐶 = (0 1 3 ) (0 3 1)
0 3 1 0 3 −1
1 −8 0
= (0 12 −2)
0 12 8
1 −2 0 1 0 0
𝐶𝐷 = (0 3 1 ) (0 4 0)
0 3 −1 0 0 −2
1 −8 0
= (0 12 −2)
0 12 8
𝐶 −1 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷
Hence,
𝐴5 = (𝐶𝐷𝐶 −1 )5
= 𝐶𝐷5 𝐶 −1
 −1
1 8 2 1
𝐶 = (0 −1 3 )
8
0 3 −1
1 −2 0 1 0 0 1 8 2 1
𝐴5 = (0 3 1 ) (0 1024 0 ) (0 −1 3)
8
0 3 −1 0 0 −32 0 3 −1
1 −341 −341
= (0 496 528 )
0 528 496

𝟑 𝟒
Ex. 11 Diagonalize 𝑨 = ( ). Hence, evaluate 𝑨𝟔 .
𝟓 𝟐
Answer.

Set |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
3−𝜆 4
| |=0
5 2−𝜆
(3 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) − (5)(4) = 0
6 − 3𝜆 − 2𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 20 = 0
𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 14 = 0
(𝜆 − 7)(𝜆 + 2) = 0
Eigin values are 𝜆1 = 7 and 𝜆2 = −2.
𝜆1 = 7
(𝐴 − 7𝐼)𝑋 = 0
−4 4 𝑥1 0
( ) (𝑥 ) = ( )
5 −5 2 0
−4 4 1 −1
( )~( )
5 −5 0 0
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0
 Set 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
𝑡 1
𝑋1 = ( ) = 𝑡 ( )
𝑡 1
𝜆2 = 2
(𝐴 + 2𝐼)𝑋 = 0
5 4 𝑥1 0
( ) (𝑥 ) = ( )
5 4 2 0
5 4 5 4
( )~( )
5 4 0 0
5𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 = 0
4
Set 𝑥2 = 𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑡
5
4 𝑡 4
𝑋2 = (5 𝑡) = ( )
5 5
𝑡
1 4
𝐶=( )
1 5
7 0
𝐷=( )
0 2
𝐴6 = (𝐶𝐷𝐶 −1 )6 = 𝐶𝐷𝐶 −1
1 4 7 0 5 −4
=( )( )( )
1 5 0 2 −1 1
7 8 5 −4
=( )( )
7 10 −1 1
27 −20
=( )
25 −18