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    5 views175 pages

    Vdoc - Pub Cognitive Foundations of Natural History Towards An Anthropology of Science

    Uploaded by

    Burak Solmaz

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Cex cuvage et pubis dn le cede Tccord de codon pst en 1977 ete I ‘idan de Maton dence Phomme ei Pre Sy oth Univer of ‘Combed Toten euoplnnes son ais pour es tes Oe parce {aad er cove calla pervent pe en pneu lang ‘Ts vragen prnnt ot wlement ot an ane de rs qu a Mabon de este homme e Cane Unie ren convenn de paber eee a ‘Eitutne dam le monde ater dr ter snd pub conjontement pr fe Je {ann ost ar Cambrdge Usiverey Pres “This bock ie poled par ofthe Jot polishing spreement cabled in 1977 {rewenn the Fenton ee Maton ec de Pome adhe Pre Spin of {be Uney of Cambri pblihed onder hi arangerent ay apes inn) ‘nropen lnguge ein th eof vole felled ents, never ngage ‘New hooks wl pps eer ini eno oe ofthe vis which ‘Mason ccc Phresh Cambie Univeny Pres ae ony eed th pu All tooks pub joel by the Mazon dere de Tome the ‘Cambeige Unieaty Pew wil be dad by the Pros oughow the word “COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS OF NATURAL ae ‘Towards an anthropology of scence SCOTT ATRAN ate aet pen Cin ‘CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Comtege NewVor Pore Choner Meboome Sydney TA MAISON DES SCIENCES DE HOMME rate tg ten sn Don, “See ees | stage a See ‘ital owner (© Mito Ss Tamme nd Cre Unive Pr 92 pied Pt i Ct Bey Radon Pr Lined Matt, Wishie key ing pion ds Cogniv fondant Saory: wand on “mpl ftom carts ry Cn ing i penin ae em Shs co teins ote teri alpiy 1 Foci "TE tke 3, Nee Ser — inn Te errs send an ce GN 408 san oe amen CONTENTS finroduction PART I FOLKBIOLOGY 21 in he beginning 22 A basic level 33 Lieforms| 24 Exceptions that prove the rue 25 Family fragments 4) TE SEMANTICS OF LIVING KINDS 1 Domain specifiy 212 Meming ss merley 1 Nature and aeesiy 5:4 Phenomenal reaity and nomic theory 15 Kinds of maaral Rnd PART II ARISTOTELIAN ESSENTIALS 4 ESSENCE AND ENVIRONMENT 41) Form and mater a 8 ” $52 Genoe and Eon 52 Divaion and anembly 5 Analogy $4 Pale amp PARTI FROM HERBALS TO SYSTEMS 6 onions oF Tat spactts CONCEPT fn Back tomate 63 Charting new tertory 153 Species forever 64 Onna ex ov0 71 Fras of exon 73 Teal and error 73 Arand ietion 74 Paradise reguined PARTIV THE SCIENTIFIC BREAKAWAY Ar Sen and sain . 12 Aad the walls came combing dos 1) Fecing opether the Sagmens ‘4 Organieaton 85 End of ees 5: Savage avy 9.2 Cognitive “pathogeness” 93 Specalating 544 Mans as animals 513 The analogy of ate 96 Man dethroned 57 Disposition to sucess ‘CONCLUSIONS APPENDIX MILESTONES OF NATURAL HISTORY NOTES [REFERENCES INDEX 19 ma is 39 aa 20 275 Bs wo PREFACE “The following pages ae intended ro eave a arsdos, which 2 parle wrmed sap. The pusnle lencountered atthe at of graduate stay in anhropoogy ‘mo introductory courses and texts began by proclaiming the prychic nity of Inimankind, only to proceed straight he sty of ukral vanations. Having se long combated te enocmnrie view of Wester thought a innate of Inevitable, anthropologits had langely come to renounce all ape to nasvim 2 cenifally absurd and ideologically permicious. But in philosophy. py ‘ology and gute the argument over univers of human cognition tng vigorously pursed. A new navi arove fee of thore simple-minded Prenpporitns that mos anehopologit had rightly downed For the prof of people ike mysll~ who were prpened by the ine of| niveraly conceived debate between Noa Chomky and Jean Piaget: hen Gi 1973), at now, their respective outlooks on univers had the most r= reaching implication forthe ay of copton (cluding its boli sec) ‘The meting was organized by the Royaumont Center ora Scene of Man se ‘Royaumont Center 198). AS the dicusion unfolded Ieame to think that (Chomsky wa, i the main, ight and Pagee wrong: no lope or empiri {grounds supported the cai that the innate ad univer foundations of human Seiki sedans to a snot lle lie epee bd ‘ame way for al egaiive operations ‘Why, indeed, make the pit assumption tha al or even some, ofthe setreing (se pesenspecic) domain of aman knowledge and experience ae eructred alike? Tes hardly pla thatthe ich and diverse sort of adult ‘mental competence ae induced, tnd or contracted By general procedures from the poor and fragmentary experince of childhood. More likely, there ae a arity of fily welbarsuleed moder of human ehinking ~ inherently | diferente components of human nature acquired over milion of year of thologal snd cogs evolon ‘Now for te paradox, which Paget mggeted such reasoning leads 0 Sapp, in Chomaky’s fbn, tat each Fandamentl rye of human know edge oes from specialized cognitive apie; hen cence, which i patently {iden fom other forms of human knowledge, should alo be inatly (rounded in some spel “stence-forming faculty.” But soppose aso that Since integrates the varius domain of human knowledge, and in ways ‘ontingent upon unfree insights no the rations beeween domains. From this ater supponton, flows tht scence cannot exist part fom (alongie ‘or pot) constituent domains ence, cant conta disney, Inviton sndencores the paradox i clear thatthe growth of scenic Knowleige, whether in culture or individ mind, ak the gua-sotomatc Character evident inthe acqion of sch ordinary forms of knowledge 28 linge competence, spl appresason, fil cognition, color percepsion corte pprebenson of Ling kinds ‘But be pardon goes deper, undermining the ditintveness of ordinary ‘forms cfksowiedge is wel ence dos try integrate the various ordinary ‘Somat therefore obterates hel boundaries and dsintegrates the suppo- sey fied and spc characters. Sappsing hae the cognitively maturing adult thinks a would-be cenit. then tlk of the mature dvd reining any ‘pected cognitive faculties no longer bs to make much sense. "The radon dippears,Ibeeve, when one drops the elated presippostons that scence tends f0 thoroughly itegrate the domains of ordinary human Ienowiedge and that cognitive maturation necenarly proceeds in the dietion of. sine retoning. In fcr, cence scarely fees ordinary thinking sbout ‘Gotomry mater and mote adults Become highly competent eatural per formen without say aenfc knowledge. Chen, eibsl people, modem layflk— even sents in their nonworking hours ~ realy partition che trdnay range of human experience according f0 copie domains that ate pretty mach the sme acow clare, By and large, these domains remain ructwally sable and are adequate for dealing withthe phenomenal wold of ‘ordinary Boman experience “To dlatrate thi rather sootancos and ads acquisition of “common sexu" Tatalyz fol knowledge of ving hinds, The development of since {vines no sch spontaneity and stably. There appears t© be no specily ‘ont "alone forming-aculry.” adbough tere may be more genera ‘egal primipler ur tasanal caplanaton nd ili. Pater cenain scence fied to pec commonsense domains, This book takes the example of systematic ~the since of Blog clasiation = whic ‘merged aan liboration of univer cognitive schema commen 0 alland only {alkbcogil eaxonomie ‘Naar! hisory ike tral phloophy, transcended the bounds of common sexs by cling pon various reproenatonal tecnigues tht increased the ‘depth nd extent fs coverage ofthe ats, Albough by no means restricted to {his or that domain of common ses, such ehnigus sil ad to operate with ‘the materi ofthis or that domi nmin. The moral: theories and analogs {hat allow ut speculate beyond coomon-iemse donans must oigimally be ormulated in terms of them, eat, with pointe reference co the cognitive “givens” of our specie, erhap the psyecogia condition that scence inl be compatible with ‘common-sense univeralr imposes insurmountable bases to some ines of ‘enti advance. Even so, there would belle ese to lent the role of ‘common nse in the growth and understanding of iene Fortis owing the ‘contraint-of common rene that sence develops tall and can be made ‘scenible tothe cildren of contemporary Stone Age peoples edly 29 ‘Surown sons and daughters The prevent book endeavors 0 make hi obvious [A good dei ofthe sbjec mater itera into this book was originally ‘catered in carer preentations Pat I draws on thee sources "Covert fragments snd che orgie ofthe Botan fay (Man 1851-71, 1983), "The ‘ature of felbotaieal Mors” (Ameria Antrpoogl, 67398-31988) “Ondiary_comtrsins on the semantics of living Kinds: 2 commonsense slernative to recent tetments of natraobjet terms” (Mind and Language, 227-6), 198), "Do natural Kind concept form + natural Kind?” (Paper ‘elvered tothe second resin ofthe Franco-Brish Project on "Language, Communication and Cognition”, Landon, May 198; "Basie conceptual do ‘ais (Mind and Longe, 47-16 1989.) Many ofthe argument for Par I inily appeared in "Presheorecl apecs of Aritoelan definition and tlaifation of animals: the eae for common sense” (Shs in Hisory and Philosophy of Slee, 16113-16198), Patil contin ides from nar, “Origins of the species and genus concepts: anthropological perspective” Juma! ofthe Hinory of Big 2195-279, 197), and from a paper, "The commonsense bas of Buon's Métadenanrele” (Severed to the "Calloge International Bufo 8," Pais~ “Monbard Dijon, Jane 198), Mucho he material n Par TV derives rom the following: a ene of crs given to the Deparment of Social Andhropolog. (Cambridge Univerty at the sieation of Jack Good, inte ttn, 1984), ny course "Cute and Communication” (aught jin with Dan Sperber athe cole der Hats Exodes en Siences Scie in Pars, 1985-1980), and the paper “Whither the new ethnography?” (tivered tothe King's College Research Centre Conference on "Complex Cature Categorie,” Cambridge University, Nore 9). Tam paiculrly gratefl to Clemens Heller, President of the Maton des Secs de Homme, fr th institutional suppor that carried me though the lean years, when mc watin question Other nsetstins helped along the Wa: Columb University, the Fondation Fysn, the ste Thysen Stiftung an, ‘pecily the Centre National del Recherche Scientifique and the Neon ‘Sence Foundation Scholar's Aveard Program in he History and Philosphy of| Saence (Grant No. SES-#307896). Profesor Jacques Bate, of the Museum [National d'Hioire Nature de Pars, Kindly offered whit proved to be # rewarding and lating asocaton withthe Libortoue J'Ethnobotanique &t TEthnerocloge (now the Laboratoire dthnobiologt-Biogéograptic). The newly formed Groupe de Recherche sr la Cognition (CREA ~ CNRS) athe Ecole Polytechnique provided the forum of ideas and technical means forthe Sina elation of ths work. 'A dep intelectual debts owed Dan Sperber, whose knowledge and since cncouraged my swarenes of certain fondamenta ies ested here and served to harnss some ofthe wider hypothe. {have abo posted gre fom ctitcaldcasons and conespondences with AleanderAlland, Brent Belin, ‘Chudie Friedberg, David Hall, Jonathan Hodge, Piere Jaco, Eat Maye, ‘Georges Métal, Philip Sloan nd Peter Steves. Generous yeus of advice from Lawrence Hinchfld and the affection bestowed by my family were ‘ndperable othe doggedae and compleson of my enterprie. A very spc thanks goes to my dauges, Tatiana and Lars, and to my Son Enliano, or such ofthe joy tht snimates my fe and work i | | | COMMON SENSE: ITS SCOPE AND LIMITS Phin am nen, pa, ape the omen ree fh ‘rhe nah of myo. Aste ak eh he ‘a en hp xs Be gon nt al You na et ade edhe ees hy hese (@ihop eon Bercey, Tid Dice Been Tyrant Pun 79) Evge since Plato, many philosophers hve held common sense in poor exeem. “This partly notable in scene erly, which tend to dims the popula _ssumion tat people do know not of wha hey ordinal think they know a vestige of "Stone Age metaphyin" Science, ie appear, isthe only trustworthy daimant 4 eue comprehension of the world, wheres commen sense is br faithworthy fr savages, children andthe nedvced rabble Tes ‘formate dat power and sora of wens have sold consmon ee So shor. For once ts prope cope and lms ae understod, much tha Seems bare in the development of sence Becomes pli, "Troe, there i much im gusntam mechanics and relativity theory, asin evolutionary shory and molecule Biology, that couner-inttive, oa east has no precedent everyday thought But 2 comprehension of the baie concept fame works of ay, ania mechanic and del systematics Wa instrumental in the cit formulation of the corresponding modern scent theories: Maniplson of these frameworks, in carn, pivoted on awarens of the cope ad limi of common sme “Comnon see were wid yteaic abit wo fer to de results and procter of certain special kinds of ordinary thinking to what nl ‘Societies is conidered, andi cognitively response for che consideration of, ‘manifestly pereivble empiri fact ~ ke che fet hat ras is green (when it teal is peecved to be gre) treed in this wey, comiton tee abo inches saterents pertaining co whats plausly an inatly grounded, and speccespetc, apprehension of the sputo-tempora, geomet, chromatic, ‘hemi and organic world in which we, andl other human beings, ive ou ‘ales {G.E-Moore prs dhe mate in hi igh “The “Common Sense view of the wool”. in cerein fundamental exer” wholly tus, What t meat by saying that so-and-so isa etre trite in "the Common Sene view ofthe world”? Something ike this ‘That is hing which very or very nary every tne ada who has the ‘se ofl his somes (eg was not bom blind or den), belivs or knows (where "beeves" and "known" are wed dspsiionly. Doe one ned to Add: And of which, for many centres, ie would have een ere 1043 ‘hie (aps) eee ees Soccer ee ee ne ae ee ee a eect (cante wcommere aoceass Soo ee ee ee ea galt aici eens ae ee ere Di reeling incre gee neared Ser ee ee a ehaeee seen Sone ra ee ea dps tebow pt rere ee ee ee = ee oe ane ee er ee oe et een ace Seer ale ee Sees Seo eae pee ey oreo ai pion Sas ee eee ase ee een | speculation must sart from i. There just is no other place eo begin to think ooo eee Se eee [plate niagara iran | CCommon-ene bel are beyond dispute not bec they happen to ace such thinking and thereby prvent commonsense fom exceeding i proper storey tor common ene remane vad ony so long seit rected oe ‘manfenly vibe dimensions ofthe everyday world, that 0 phenomenal felt. Studied refecton and measured experimeneaion, however, ea lead 0 knowledge of another world ~ a noaphenomenal world of asonomicl, smicescopic and erolatonary dineeion = cat ean only be vaguely peeved, tata, with dhe appara of seleevden inetons that belongs common ‘Common sre, then, tn indabitable source of truth for knowledge of the reullyexperened focal world, but flible 8 2 means of insight nto che scientific univene, Ti, opines Peirce (13s), what the eghtenth-cenury Seotsh commonsense pilovopher did ne fll appreciate? “The Scotch filed to rcognite thatthe original ble only remain Indabtable in dee application oie that resemble the primitive mode fife», Modem scence, with is microscopes and telescopes, wth. Chemise and elecy, and with ts entiely new appliances of Mbt pues in quite smother word: almost as mach so iit had wansported ‘ur rae to another planet. Some ofthe old bei have no application ‘ceed in extended see, and in sock ented ec they ae oe ‘mes dabitable and subject eicsm. (as. 5st) "Thos, while the Scot may have overated the vaity of commen sense, ‘others have certinly underrated i This book san fort to reso the balance ‘of knowledge between common sense and scence by reinterpreing their Felaionship light of ew evidence and recent research in anthropology and prychology Te approaches its subject, not fom the more tadionalphilosoph- ‘El hixonslorsoclopcalpepecives but rom a vantage tit eink s more Tse and necesary toa of thee hat of eogation. BY “cogaton,” I mea ‘gue simply the internal stractre of ide by which the world i concepualaed Everyone who tas ever done or thought about since has entrained cognitive claims aboot how the world can of should be thought of. But ‘uvcul le tention har ben paid othe concep origin and ruetre of ‘hove claims ~ to wha ic sbout the human mind that makes our specie Capable of shining sintiealy, I should ike to apply thi “eogmisve™ ppespecive with ew toward explaining the uccenive scent neamations, anormatons and mutations of whet Hime rled “that ain sock nf “ideas.” which human imapination may indeed exceed but never be aleogether fie of this scenario, common sense does not preclue, but nites dott inlade, any magicah mythicoeligious, meaphoccal or other “symbolic” elaboration ofthe empisea world. Any symbole aterance snonproposionl, however ‘one chooses to look sitll, no ted mening (ot even a conenelaie fone) canbe asigned that Would pert a coherent evaluation of enalments, 3 empirically, no determinate facta! content cn be stebuted whe cone- ‘yrru experience ight define confirm dicot pyle to sei mnemonic structure canbe accorded for constr storage an rc of iformation. In plying sue and metaphor symbol leaves the Imerpettion of ay uterance signify “oper-ended” ‘Te go beyond the “bare™ fats of common sense and into the word of scenes the, one must fre ofall ecogize that rymbolic teams fthe worl do not constate explanations ofthe fics, Beene symboisn cannot systematically patter old aes, fort cannot consienly projet patterns fo sec hing sgt E ld Sigua rssloe fom sand the Hippocratic doctor fom the pairs pita ms Hippocratic doctors fom the puri Ml ange eplnations ayin gue eee ‘Tea abu o Poon me a ov fan Sending of Se roc mt ee he on © thot chung now fer ner, Whe Poss ie cate miged aan wh nce SSS) Spe ewe ae we ‘sng inion oon ee inca explain ome {te de nets ot pare fa pee tno ocr ny pr we rent {imped xia hn Spee eis nei ein ‘Sf ne Sa men ns oS ‘Buti ore to explain ne rufa ph familie penomens te fir phenomena of conmon sn would have fo be Calidad thoy coseurd. ‘Witt sch sandra ret thee old be vo olga of progies achieve. That why, a Kk (te) cope pots ot, pow departs fom omen wr cy ie ero” Forcrample the aston of problem cone with th to-temport esti ofthe heavenly bodes depend ion sore open ee ope 2nd ins of common tense. The sage th eth he postion fh a and the ie ar determined by elton: however such calason ich wee developed as naigton abcd onthe samp tt eo ‘thr be ao nd whee hy commons ppb ecly ‘cine we art by cunt the phy poston ofthe tg aoe wth she chered pon of sanded reat our mere mnie ‘metho eng objet tc sun and peeing cures ofc ned cnr rl Sach ened eet he gh i pat spatotempor poston, re Pel ng ound ‘with which we are most intuitively familia. ® oe 7 teh regec, what happened natal hoy inoue what exceed in mtr poopy. Ame of Bologa yper emerged Provide Strom sem otra forth comparative way of erase eveoping notion of pis, gener, fies and clases tat natural historians ‘managed to progcstvly sundance wha wn deny = ean ome extent Rfommon fo the viewpoints of ondnary fll everywhere. Ulnately, this ffamowork would provide 4pratal bais for the comprehensive survey of beings the world over, and’ concepul foundation for the theoreti ‘hboraton of thei nrelatons, How this tanstion i our apprehension of the living word from weting to subject cemesbout al heen sie to show. “Thiinguiry ha four pars, which are broadly allows Par "Folbiology,”loks at sone ofthe principal features ofthe common seme baground to mitral history, focwsng on bow people the world over ‘ordinarily clay locally perceived living Kinds. The perspective i tha of ‘mobiology, «ranch of cognitive anthropology cone with eudying the trays members of colt aprehend and wie the lel fra and fauna. A ‘Sgn contrast comer to lige both egard to the ordinary eatgorization ‘Of arifacs andthe exsordiary sini caaieaion of ving Kinds, “Two decades of intensive empiri and heortilers-cultual work seem to reveal that flkbologiclclasfictson is xonomic, being composed of Tigi birarchy of incsive cles of organisms or xa. At each level of the Hacc the taxa, which are motaally exclusive, exhaustively parton dhe loally perceived biot, Lay taxonomy, i appety swniveraly and primarily einpoved of three actly din hierarchical levels, ranks te levels of tng ene, gveresprome a Herm (Bevin 1973)? 7 nig beginner eters tothe cntalogia category of plants or tat of animals eciading human, Soon cures have single words to denote the ocnical or soologicl realm, lke “beat” for nonhuman animal. Other ‘ares employ desrpve pss, ike "hues of the earth (eb non for {he plant kingdom of the Bunag of Timor c redberg 1984) Some occ: ‘ee special maker forthe unique bepiner, Hk the numeric clases ek for ns swith the Talal Maya Ben ea 1974. Sell ter forego the ws of ny pee words, pass or matkes,aléhough sem ha fom a eal age “humans conceptually ding the cl of plants an che clas of imal, 2 indicated by sade of young Mayan (Suos 1973) and. American cilen (Dougherty 1979 Macaamars 1983), New Guinea highlander (Hays 19%). lndonesun natives Taylor ro tho alough some Engsh speaker oninar- iy cons “tee” with “lant, Both ate covered By an snared category of ‘as wnt enow ot oF mi Gnound (Wersbcks 1985) “The bai lever locally subordinate, bu psychologically prog, ro the = form level Welly it is conte a 3 fndamertom relatos, tat i, 20 ‘rtautve and mutually exclusive parsioning ef the loa ora and fauna into well-bounded morpho-bebavioral gels (which visa aspects ready per ‘eplble a lane). or the most pst xa at tis evel corespond, within predictable His, to those species of the fed biologi that are spatially Smpttric fe coving in he tame locality) and temporally nondimensonal ee eee Serotec Ce a cet enn ene ees re ree ermine ee rare epee ae teehee cnet earn im reich ee era soc roe memaaegrr es Cesc haga ee eee Baleares ea ee Se eesti Seer cme ean arg eum ae Aer i or oe Seger coer So ee | Sree aie ii eerste re ae a aren eee ere Feirtpieclsamepnae un ses a a et ae eens ees Se ee eee eects pte neti ader rer) Soe rene ene taro Sok Smee apron ont Se ad eet ee genet ieee ome ge fee neg eee eee sa bretimpion af undelvng nice that wedrpios the takonomie bey of ‘organic phenomen exemple "The saetific conception of ving kinds dfs fom the folk conception by allowing that any ofthe rypicl properties ofa kind may prove to be intl {oitsred nature, Baty for empl, have many fee typ properties of ide and outiies have many ofthe typical properties of mammal neverthle, bats ‘remanrmale and oniche ae birds. Bot even today commonaene meaning ‘ype despite obviowt variation smong indvial not directly ted o scenic ference. flaypeopleacept moulfication of fel ‘Shon it becate the scenic taxon proves compasbe with ever ‘ommon-enc eam; at che sntieeonept can nally bee aside, a the lay notion erste as “natural kind” rpurdles. Thus, owing to their Singular morphologies and ecologic rl, bat and onicher ze Ely ety € oneeptully cae and euxonomicly resign. By contrast, wee and sputow femain American fle Kinds wih peeumed nares, although they do not onform 9 scent (phlei) lines Despite the relive autonomy of common sense implied inthe fact that folkbiclogieal taxa are not demarated ike scenic tn, folk and scenic tlasifeatons have tended to hae a base pesempion. The idea that living kinds suurally fall ogo “groupe within groups" by vite ofa systematic mibedding oftheir ensence determining physi properties. aly, wl ok ‘ippoe that patenings in morphologieal pet and ecologic proclivity are ‘determined, scence hat come to focus on the determination of genetic liation. Throughout hitory, people have assumed that he primary Toes of ‘derlying proper responsbl forthe reali of ving hinds occurs 2t roughly the level ofthe nondimensionsl pei ar, “Artotelian Enel." concerned with rethinking Aristo’ much Inaligned esensalit doctrine by highlighting ie flkbologcl foundations From thi vantage, his biological works seem largely geazed to providing 7 lncpld undertanding ofthe diferences and smarts betwee fle toa {cording to the ditrbuon of vital fancios through the ranks [rams out ‘hat Arutoue did not appaenlyenfertsin many ofthe notions eaditonally ‘cbuted wo esentiaism, och athe idea of exeraly Sed species andthe bei’ that variation within species dacs not consis alginate objec of dy or Art, individuals belong to pei 2 joint Function of parentage and environment. Thas the examination of deviation fom type can factor ost the various contibutioos of heritage and milla thi are reponable fo how organisms “come to be” eentialy Bke others, tat is for thelr gees Moreover, beaute species ae integrally bound to thet respective environ ‘nents ad because envionments may change, spe are meter neesanly enutnt nor evelaing. "To the query "Wha natre?” he pilsophiclly inclined might respond: shat dere ot “te realy of things” Bt there is preplsophi Sense in which “naire” ders from the aici on the one hand, and he ‘prmaoral onthe other Proms prvhecreil tandpoin, ate ings ke robin or Robert, der rom robtsand the Redeemer by seston of manent ‘ly: hatin Wire of chose xual ctor that ae pela othe typeof ‘hing and make ie whatever ta bird ora man, What separates Aritode's ‘exo “nature” (phys) fom, st, the notion ofatae" (on entraned by ‘he Buna of Timor (Friedberg 194390) simply this whereas humans the ‘worl over ordinarily presume each dint living kind bas proper ate, “Asstt fster sumer that all the dice nator of flkesxonemie ing Kinds (01 well a howe nonlving sores modeled on the living) are cusly nected. Thats why rato’ phss bathe dal sng of given Kind” tnd of Naren geet “Asstale's primary tsk wa to find a principle of unity underlying the iversity oF ordinary phenomenal ype. In prac, thi meant sembly erving each busiclevel genericspecieme (tomo ids) fom form (meiston gens) Ie farther implied combining the various ie-forms by "analogy ala) sto an integrated conception of ie ‘Aristactian life-forms ae distinguished and related through posewion of| nalogou organs ofthe ame een fnctions (ocomation, digestion, repo- Auction, respon); for example, bed wings, quaduped fet and fh fins ‘ont anlogons organs of locomotion. The geneicupeciemes af exch ie form are then diferentated by degrees of “more or les” with respect to sient organs. Because these organs are esental, and naturally “Yor the beter," hey are necenany adapted tothe pec requzements ofeach species Isbtal envionment (bia). Thus al bids have wings for moving about and bee for obtaining nutrments, ut, wheres the predatory eagle is pataly lagnose by long and aerove wing and a sharply hooked bea, the goose — ‘wing eis dierent mode of ies parally diagnosed by aleser and broader tring spin and 2 Sater il. The principled clsfiason of flkbologcal ext "by divson and ase” (ess and syugege) cds when all art defined, that i, when each genenespecBine 8 completely diagnoted with respet > every eset organ Sch definition, however, doe ot pertain oa ‘peas in the aba, bt to community of organsm-n-hele-enronmen. “This fs sustained scentie reach program difeed from moder since ints preoccupation wth exphining the familiar and known, eather than with caploring the unknown for ss own sake. The program filed owing £0 2 fandamenl antagonism berween what wer ively nonphenoreal means andthe enornenal nd sought. To explain the vile oder of things Arte fad rece to internal fntions, But auch function cannot be properly derstood if swith Arto, they are feted primary to their morpholog™ {almanizations, Moreover, a any al atrait, he ecogized no mot than five or sx hundred species. He knew tha there were kinds not pret in his ‘own finiar environment, bathe had no idea that here were orders of Imagaitle of difeence Between what wa ely apparot and what exited ‘world-wide, Given the (wong) assumption that a phenomenal survey of satrally occuring kind was pracealy complete, Arstote hoped 1 finda ‘toc and conic sym of cca hon bythe al and ever method [Neverlen, by inquiring into how the appateny dese natures of com= monly epprchended specs may be causally rtd to the Nature of lie Arto establhed the theoretical program of nara history. art Il, “Herbals co Systems," examines the developments that Jed from heals ro sjtematc botany and analyzes the atempt of hence o overcome the Limi fcommon see withthe sd of rational tition. Two stages inthis ' advance of natural hitory ate expecially noteworthy: the elaboration ofthe ‘xonomi pene 3 perpetual sef-eproducing unit om a common sed, {nu the couaton ofthe genus a+ pecepelly nd mnemoniclly prveged ‘rank immediately saperordinate othe pees "Afr Ato, the practice of copying descriptions nd ilseations of iving kinds from previous source superseded stl el experience in the school late aniguity. Well no the Renaisance, scholastic "natrass™ took i for {ranted tat te loa or and fauna of mother and central Europe cold be filly catrgosied under the Mediterranean plane and animal eypes found sn sncent works, Herbals and bearer ofthe tne were fr femoved from aby ‘copia ba ‘Only when German, Dutch and Kalan hebalits of the sintenth and seventcenth centuries etamed fo catomaryitiions of mature did progres come posse. But they penised in axing a Latin (or Itiized Gree) ‘nomenclatural ype whenever silt local pei oul be tached tit This fostered the comparson of ancient and foe ype t lea forme fn don, 2 sees of technological innovations allowed 2 permanent record of the ‘knowledge gine the preservation of dried specimens in herbaria, the esablih- ‘ment of Poanicl and nological gardens, sdvancsin the at of woodcac andthe Invencon of movable ype Folk knowlege war hur ecovere, agin sandards for comparison and fixed for communication ars loa boundaries of me and ple. Information svat exchanged among diferent commis withost lu of specify and oumulaed, and worldwide catalogue of species could be envisaged. The problem, then, would be to systematize the weet of new form into an fveriching texcnomy that would be a prychologially convenient a fk- texonomy in providing an intlcral map ofthe realy visible organic wor, "Theft step cowards» systematic global cafieation involved Suing the species at an ternal sleperpenting ony. Although ecological and tepro- Ahcive evra are ually covariant ndistor of lc species stars, only the later would provide cros-communty tats to morphologieal grouping: the ‘mows commnly percved features of lca species would abo be the chat ‘tally happened fo bred ever toe. The permanent fiaton of lel ible types would yield sempitral forms and thus sanction the principle of ‘emai comparion and placement within higher groups extending a ope to the world large. Species now fixed repraductvely and erally, rather than ecologically and local, could be abstracted ffom context and ft ito "Topethr with he inroducton ofspecicbreeding crite, the emergence of the genus concept wa inaly motivated by histral dials that explo- ‘ation had posed for common seme, Te gents wat orginally designed tallow the eduction of pee by an order of magnitude co equivalence cas whose number and quality the mind could canly manage again (Fom over 6.00 Enown speci to some Goo gers. The place of a new species inthe natural cotder of genera woud be inal determined in ether Of wo Ways: 6) BY ’ ‘mpc! intuition, the, readily wnble morphological agreement with 2 Entopensrepretenaive a some ther prefered ypespeci of he genus of (@) by ‘elec nein, that is analyse agreement wit the genetic feacuicaion according to the number, eopelogal dispostion, geometneal, ‘onfigurion and magrtide ofits coset elements But the one would ‘imately be commenrarate with the other, thor allowing a mathemati, ‘edton ofthe new specie to ts anocated type by reson of heir common. Fructifeaion. As rest the customary srry ofthe folk aturait might be ‘ional extended to world-wide sale. This wat the git ofthe “narra syste” Par IV, “The Scientific Breakaway,” explores the inlleetal dissociation of natural tory fom flkbslogy ding ete eighteenth and ery nineteenth entries hich paved the way for he bith of modem systematics, Modivaing the theo beak were both practi and more speculative agenda: Practical cerned Gon ional em of generat an empirical method centering fon fails and clases The gen om role the ebiefexonomic rank and there wa» dynamic eaueument ofthe ration between speci 2d higher fonder tsa in ert of biological fenctons, anomie sractre and ioral procene. At the same time, the specultive program that sought to unify the able forms of Mein 2 "great chain of Being” (eal marae) reached 8 ‘alminaion throogh the theory-forming™Analogy of Nature” With the resintien ofthis rogram, a global patering of ile lan and animal forms ‘wat four inadequate for understanding the underying ode of if. Aa est ‘irl Hstory’s common-sense penceupation with comprehending phenome ‘al ely gave way to bilogy’s qua to explain the unforsen "The gun's defining charter the fucfeation ~ was erally a ational notion, although meaphyscllysinconed athe seat of Me Te equied ‘Soncrpual lation of thweanalyially pried cacicter of he wie rae nd ower tae could Be apoditially smanged into 4 proet eombinsory sytem. The deachabity and reducbilty of visble pars to computable ‘harcies was, however, pins fel waraned inthe ese of animal the parts of animals immediatly lend themselves to considersion 2 Fanctionaly Inerjoined organs rxther chan ar vnbly jntposed fener "Morener, comervition of animal learns Blocked aremps to disolve snimal nd therfore ukimately plan) kinds ingo angle tale of ional tharacte Ast of generic cares propored for ne anal iform would {see spy tothe ater ven if fantonally anlage, he meri eg cach gr cla of animals hardly manifest external feta: to lope exprenon ofthe means for acquiring nutment would nk sy, he ‘oforation of «mara teth othe structre of Bird's beak "The este wae able to dispense with plane iff, They ae fandamen= tally provinal indicator of eologieal sata ted up with our wndertanding of {he way local Kinds intertelate and appeat to us Devoid of loa! context, owes, plane Ieforms repreene only what Linneas would gual tebratefe-form (pethape Deco we ures se Yencbrit) 3 Nt 50 Tat emovedffom an objective appreciation of morphologies! afin between ‘eterna themscves. From te Renawance onerards, he analysis of 00185 {Gl forms proceded mostly within the framework of separate monographs ‘reatng dint animal efor, Special concer for thre farms eee ‘ay ruled outa whole approach to animal organization rom the tat But ‘ecrse thee were italy many fewer animals co worry about than planes (wld animals spell beng bardr to por in nate to relocate for ud and ‘eramine without detoyng), te problem di ntseem a fst compelingin {ice ofthe myriad plan forms chat occupied the ateton of thove maturaliss sesking s gba yuem, "Alo levening the importance ofthe genus wat the geometrical rte of ‘exploration and discovery. Recall that the genus a8 inoduced in an fot co ‘ope with» numberof plant speci approximately one order of magnitude ‘Shove that which ancient and Rensnance herbals ordinarily fice. But once SSearenes of new forms had increased by yet another order of maprtad, che ‘amily becme the new bas for taxonomy. “The fly wil rooted in lea groupings that folk impli recognize ‘but seldom mame, sch feline, eguids, Iogumes and granen. Those "cover ‘roupings genealy donot violate the Boundai f moder fais, but they Imay crt ie-forme for example, among the amy of legumes may be found Iefbs, vines tees and bute, Pustermore, unlike axonomialy arrayed ‘seericspecemes and Hfeforms the lel series of covert groupings doesnot ‘over the local envionment with a morpho-enlogs ql bu tidied with {ps A srtgy emerged for closing the gap by looking fo ober environments for sme at well diferent family “agmens,” and by wing sich paral ‘ere drawn fom many diferent environments, European naturalists ought to fil the natin any and all environment with a single worldwide series of fami, The arategy became the "natural method.” ‘Only by giving the correlation of viable characters atthe family level 2 physiological dimension, however, could one afm the family’s biologic Fecpgry, This lone would justify the fly extegery's eli co ontlogica statu and sll ophold the que fora vibe order spain the entice ving trork, The analysis of zoological cae provided the ground for zn abstract. foton of anatomic integrity that could oppor he vibe arrangement of familie, The fay thereby became the prime locus af speculation a 0 tho ‘er, the fly il om arn athe favored taxonomic rank. Tht dee fara blow tothe ies that taxonomy shoul am principally ata visible order, By then clear epotemic break had emerged beoween scence and commen sete, although thd not mean that the one would ignore the other “The speclaon tht guided the natural method of aranging lif’ visible forms centered on the ies of « "great chain of being” organized scoring 0 [Newtons "Analogy of Nature” of Locke's "Raleof Analogy.” The Rl says tha all ef nature's kod mt be compounded ofthe ame properties fxnd 0 onsite the realy perrpuble"mtslevel" phenome Of everyday exper iene natal hiory, man was the eilevel ie lation to which all tte foms of Me were 0B organized acorn bly appar spec, tems fimly and can Insodaced fom natural phlnophy. the theory” fensiuve “Aalogy of Nature” combined and eri though tre olde roachrietng analogies of ata ior: man the perfec anal, the Plan at opened animal andthe organi a3 miro, ‘Gran tht the analogies of mythico-cigiows ought, ike the formative analgie of cine, fe resins ofthe man mind hat ae no ound © seme experience In fic he the pnp analogies of satura tory wee 10 part of European rma lore. But the foun of sich ies at at tearing nthe coun fusence What maton how hy ae ed: Contrary to ‘ys analogy, the gol of et salogy i ukiately to ede to dead atphor” motto proce ctermallyoperend “eth” Ie sims "9 ukimatey terminate ny metaphorical imprecion by (dell) sccommodaing, fone subject wo another ina whallydtersnate manne. Becae uch acon ‘moan oft don not and aly enn) ec athe Phenomena evel of ‘eouble tition, a nonphenomenal accommodation sought his Wy. Formative aalopc become pine contents of atic bration an king. They ae wed to show tha fama ching belong to more extensive Glas of objec and proces, whic defend for their ocurtence on more errs retinal orc popri that te not inimetely obviose rope may be partial wieepble to comprehend sd elaborate certain rig formative ies of ence Hecase thee ave pvlged connection ‘eit bse cognition: Sach, ems the es of the gts chain of being" ‘Auured, the thes of continous progreion of ving forms i nie bviou par nor patel of fiktaxonomy in which divert is mani. Sl, the putative nature ofthe chain ineuiveymainained much relation to more famdameval fk concepdont the explosion of continy inited 3 rovatch program forcing ov a graduated sxem of rltionships among ‘smo aprekended ning Mid nd id hit by centering compan on ‘nan thi on a ee fama and nan ie I tts word the terms ofthe analogy were csetaly common sre jem That 3 rexon why the analogy was initalycompeling and ako readily wane. For one lensed inthe cent communi cognitive Crvicament, such spesave “wis” would spe! contapoudy song tho be daborated and armed in ways at mare ily arated baie Cognition might no be. "The oultan knowlege of organi variation and underlying connection wat rial mended fate the ordering phenomenl hinds Evenly. teeame 1 primary objet of nero in il, with knowledge of phenomena Kindy ving merely to eae stad. This "geal aft erween object snd grxnd was. hllmak ofthe passage from atral history to biology. Ye, to get ftom theft the nf involvednotso much adil rupeare ‘with common sexe as maiming + continuing ccs through reeves In al my sim it 0 show how our univer held coeeton ofthe Hing wold i both hisorely prior fo, and pychologily necamry fo, 2) {Sentie— or ymboie~ caborton of tha woe. As we salle, ordinary orton of spec genericpecin) fy covert agmen) ad css ie form) nt ony contin o provide epee sco to ou wl evionment ea cogitv eto te loge univer tage Artest this aspect of Common seme, thea, conte everyday hnowledge of naar, wie ao ‘Srving 112 natura heuiie for regulating out sient dealings withthe oumos Since, nom, not only producesnovelundentanding ofthe nvr, ‘tao mark the oe bounds f oar common von ofthe world Between ‘tne and common sae tee eed nt be any contadcson or conic.) | | PARTI FOLKBIOLOGY ‘And God called dry land arch; an the gatering together of he waters he called the set and God sw thai ws good. ‘And God sid, Let che earth bring forth gra, the heb yielding ed, and the tree yielng fut afer ts hind, whose sedis in cel, upon the earth and ic wat ‘And God sid, Let the water bring forth abundant the moving creature hat hath Hand bird that may Ay above te earth inthe open firmament ot hesven, ‘And Gol created gett whale, and every ving ting that moveth which the waters boughs forth abundantly, fer thei kind and every winged bcd fer his kind: and God sw thai was good. ‘And Go blewed them, saying, Be fuel, nd mulply, and fil the wae in theses, and et bids mulply throughout the eth ‘And God sid Let the earth bring forth the ving creature afer hi kind lage eae (hana), and creping thing, an brute ofthe earch after its kind: andi wa 0 ‘And God si, Let wt make man in our image fer ou ikenes: and et him have dominion over the fh f the te, and over the bid of he ai, and over the large bet, and overall he earth nd over every creeping thing hat cespeth upon the earth (Gees) a FOLKTAXONOMY “Thee ae onmisakable cower regultiesn the rctre of flebiologi- {al csafieaton. But thee reglarives go much deeper than porported ‘nore parle berween, ny, the Renatnanee herbals of Westem Enrope and (Chinese pharmacopoct. The cay sgiicantsstemaie resemblances between Enropesn orderings af fora and fauna and tore of other gest cviations apparently owe to biologic conception ofthe world common to fk ‘rerywhere In particle, al own clare appear to enter notions of) ‘ological specie a lent how "nondimensonal” specie (..coexiing inthe same locality over a few observed generation) of verebrats and fowering ‘lanes thar are manift and. phenomenally sent for human being, 8) ‘equental patterns of naming (eg, “oak,” “shingle oak," "spouted shingle oak"), (i) tra controction by means of an appreciation of overall patemns of ‘morphological regularity (vasouly termed “abit” “Yai,” of “aspect, (iy) evereching animal "ife-form grouping hat more or les correspond 10 ‘modem roologial ane (eg bird, a), and (0 overarching plant “efor” {roupings that have no place a moder banc texonomy but ate nonetheless retvinw scelogial giicanee (ng mer =). “Tosay te systems of eneylopeic thought that pertain to che stra word in other cviaatios exhibit “precarions” or “parle” to what was 0 emerge 1 Wester sence acral tell abou he wl significant smilies, at leat in natarl story. Concentration on historical paraiso tends 0 bvcue the fact dat the coure of nara hitory im Europe after the [Renaisance was determined by novel empiral problems whose sslution required snguls Kind of mechanic rationality, For inane, the eoneepual paras dat emerged in rope to del with he anceing dicovry and flrston of ew tours €iformatn dno ven Chine. Te, to (Glick or ecpcopetin orgie mene thn +thonsnd ori ac ec puns roughly the ee mer ound nll Kaown fokbilogi ah ao fn the mors of Ancont and Medieval Eoope, the Mie Eat and Meso SneichThe Chine emp, i om, encamped many int mb ‘altrer whow rageive fltnonomitsclleaively sim t0 hone of Spec. Yer there ho evens of sy tema tempest + axon peice of morphologeal iafomaton beyond tha aeady pret ny fakexoony Incourat fo pre-test, however, cre with wing do haven sddisond poet in commons whee in Ant Geer, Egypt, nd, Me™ dmc Chin, here an fort to ep he preumed medicinal popes td ech vicar of popsos grouping f patted sity snd to rganine thse aeibuton summary Eahon Ye, profiae ahtmay bee compar ‘vere egeiaonl schemata vinaton we, thet ema be no pred tramcilvel crmpodencs between them, Por any nich thet wih ‘der he presied reaondhpr betwen pat and amas secording > socal staan or yma coer, neem Sonnac and cule ‘pei. This ise beat ly contingent upon Mori and enironmen= {leone and eae symbol as conan of gil comeqsenc ot tepinc verfabity (or fsb) thf wool lowe consent ere tion aos clue Agathe ely yeas osu corespondence involves univ, commonsense apretion of morphological pate of Suny snd difernce among. groupe (of spose) wih group (oF itor)” In his datcstoryeptle to the founding work of aytematic botany, Andres CCeslpino (1583) clans dhe practices of eae natrl historian wh, ike Diowories, assembled [plans] by medicinal properties... Others have asi slphabtally, 3 thet one can more ely tore content in memory Buc de clasiiction tha unite plants by th natrl alin may Be ensiered theese, the surest and the mot efcacious, be it forthe emery orf the say of plans secondary] proper. Gene and secs te consitued neither from medina properties, nor by rnon of tome ue, nor from the place in which they occu. Thse ae sll scadens 9) By stempting to proceed srightway to an account ofthe various views of satura nds, without Sint creflly dering those kinds in regard ” morphological smilies and difrences, ancient and medieval herbals ‘hecrede only im confounding our spontaneous appreciation of ata eee ‘ons Ie sems” notes Toumelort (1647) "hat the more they enriched ‘medicine, the more they threw botany into confsion." Likewise, for Baton (1749.49) anoint of the empl method in ociogy, natural htry mst, fs fal furnish the “exact description ofeach hing” "The ancien fled to fil the neenary condition ef an adequate naral itary because they dd not belive that ching which were of no we were worthy of| ‘study One could cte the twenty-seven book of Pliny, Rela herbrom genera, wherein be places together ll the tbs which he does not realy vale so tat he contents himelf with narsing them alpbabetaly, Indiating only certain of de genera characteristics nd ues for medicine Baflon oppor he fir thn, rch Cetin, Toutefr and Lina, ho woul arisuly impose ont on matte: none, be i {ord wih sh yea on ncomary pete o 2 comet a tory He abo apes Gat “cact dopon” shouldbe Kel to rely erepible characters of ete morplogy so do jet am inive (rng for mul siya fing ofthe Kind ths emeone salted by talon or peu mighe expe in an unpopled cath Detaled Crain of tera anatomy and thew of the mironeope, no le than Seda vitom, would eso be eectvey ended om» deter Sion of gene pedis no ates how aiedly we hey might Be for nda pysologialfanction ogee. ‘What incarom her te mggeron at scent ater hiory aghedaway ftom soncing 10 abvcas old bee nether Cenpne Tears not Baflon preted hat pope before them had eve ced pln or animale Sconce with ck peed oppret esos what nm (750 1) wou sho intend Wy pin tut xf xo I teed hoa of Gree, Rome andthe Renan fad on th cote, sry it wool Be {lly mppon tht more primitive mcs or contcnporary prere peopl cou do Bower ~ e aap swage of Montaigne and Rowneas ocwitanding ‘There are, robe: sure, striking resemblances to be found between the ancient ‘sin of Gece nd Rome, this Miva and Renainance dress, and tho of Mamomeri, the Mille Fa Chen and nda. Peg there depart be "ana" roupngs of pans tts groupings ba ot 0937 Teal presived morphologies, but onthe bof tome acknow Iced vine In European bel ince Py, or tne, vor pec of Epstanae ave often grouped wih plans of ot Ein boca of 8 Simi in he etre nd clr of hep ih was Yalow «medi orga. Sims, inthe snteeutvsntry Arto haba) Known athe Exdinr Manunpt (Emm toch wo Waid. pant ape the ‘shui ("ary plane), belonging to the wie Chichorixe ofthe Com= poste, and mameyacahtonl lle milk plant), pee of Faphobs. These [eal inked together on the bts of ther milky jie ~ je thought to ‘nceueltton in women, TE would be 2 mitake, however, to conclude at so many have fom such servations, tht knowledge of ving kind wat excuively,oreven primarily, 4 pricteal Enowledge dependent on ctrl vitses* Admitedly, the ina {atk of natural hitorans or rhizomatia, wat to provide a wnt record of features of plans (nd anon) deemed beneficial or harmfal o mat well being, eipecilly the “hidden” specs of rooe, sep and entra. But such perormative knowledge wat ineif dependent on 4 rich and prior competence with respect the visble pater of che ving wordt doer indeed appr that Ital tend to make thei appeerance 2 a rather advanced sage of cyte development yet this hardy indicates "the ate advent of inte in plans” (Singer 19372) 8 sch ‘A commonsense appreciation of phenomena! reality ii seems, largely independent of cull parochial concerns however, this knowledge of the ‘ible pattems of che organic world doe function provincial that within ‘helocl bounds of everyday expenence. Such base competence appear tobe fandamentlly the sme in ll mes and plas since humankind fie scquced righ to the Liman ee, Home spe would be oes accenible tal andthe vsble patterns it revels mediately obvious, ht there would be ‘no need for members of + given clare #0 insroct one another in such Iencovege n= aed of Aztec ek botany, for instance, Pato yTraneoso (ait) procae much more detailed appreciation of plant Mie “for is own sak” than the Badanus herbal woald lead one to spec. | Simiuly, wieh respect tthe flkclasifcation ofthe Teckal Mays of ‘Mesico andthe Aguruna Jvaro of Pee, Belin (17810-12) notes tht more ‘han third ofthe named plants in both nce ve no known olen tc they poitonow or pestfeous. Like the overwhelming more of named ‘ants, however, how aparemy lacking incall uly af alo grouped Accnring to “overall percepl sme “This fring would soem t0 onzovert the view that pelicrite man names and cafe only thse ZR econ tne sme immed ncn pee for eviea closer examination of Thsophra's Historia pena, which provides the touchstone for many Iter European herbal, shows tata dion of Cull virtues sped the felling premiere hot shred wine te ‘neceary consequences of emily in underlying enti ature (phy), and that theres often no beer sign of ire nna han poplar inion ‘of everill resemblance in readily visble morphological spect (co, ee, ‘shen, morph). In other words, leamed communication reste the eines ple acceptance of morphological eye, a Aguins wo apely noted “igus es Signin specie in rebo natraius™ (Sona telga 7), Ye, even nate Antiquity the common ene fondaon of ntl tory were ofl ignored, Susequent development ony aggevstd ths neglect Following te Rensinance, proponents of + rasoslsyeem and empire frthad forthe woke nding of plans ad amas emphasised tbe Problem of finding sivers) standards of agreement about morpbolog nig. But che slaons fred were pinay consdred o be poopie evel only seal fa were hough of bored organ Sow of base commen dnponton coal organi “the egerent os worldwideaconomy wereneessngly ran om nonntsive mode of resoningand chervton exp recor coxomay Trowicige dna The carchy of commons exept tha ‘mutt and method ak nally scepted bean v0 bresk dwn under the arden of incorporating» prion numberof nscale xtc organs Inthe everyday ves matty ke everybody ee, colder do ithout thee categorie, ye, interient waren of thi eleumsance Serged only inthe rlaane acknowledgment at people se ormay ‘Scope othe convenient of ntleculyotwor aon. Uap {Er te who dae to hnow more tan jt the crocloge sequence of SSentte Gicovery, aprecnion of the mater bas bry improved nce Barwin, The copntve fon tha have honey compelled nd enabled finda veive sary fet parse Bent only in che i, Comer the flowing eth mia work om the htory of botany to Darwin, Jas Sachs (173) s890 provides the fmework fr fnamerabesbeoeniterpeatns of the coune of aur! hry. Sachs str snpesminded prema hat ‘Scar i origi inthe "anpeuced™ and “inva” indie Inocaoes of pcepon and enti the bepoing, ho socitons were Sncened wh pst mantel the eet to promote the Enowedge of Fan for praca purpons by carl deerigon of nd foms the Tnpeon fed fon the ind ofthe oberer dat thre ate vations al groupe of plans which aves dict racmblancs fo one another {oem an he characteris” (Onc he mind wa fed fom the ep of tron school, mtr) roupr cold be ined tough tbe Simple numernon of oberaon: "The perepion of natural aint among Pans ‘Gall aly be baie fom exact Sesion thouand mes epee, ever from the abracsons ofthe Artoean shoo, which reed ectally on Spel ebervation’ (7 "Whi nepal wei an individ ype he induct ew tte growth of nowicige denis thee se ate oclualy eae ‘ese One eminent anthropologist phy and oc nvronment of Young childs conti, which conta no inert parted "tig "The child due coun, taght o impo spon hi environment kindof

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