3.

a) Analyze Klein-Gordon and Dirac free particle equations

Klein-Gordon equation Dirac free particle equation
Possibly the first attempt to describe motion Overcome the problems of the Klein-
of atomic particles that travel close to the Gordon Equation by adopting the method
speed of light of Schrodinger.

negative probability density probability density equation of Dirac

Transformed the energy and momentum
equation of relativistic particles into the Klein
Gordon Equation via quantum substitution
The interpretation of probability density was
one of the early problems of the Klein-Gordon
equation.
This is due to it being 2nd order in time.
removes the negative probability density.
Somewhat similar but quantum substitution is
done to the square root of the energy and
momentum equation of relativistic particles
1st order in time and space
according to Dirac, the equation should be
linear in the time derivative so that he could
maintain in the relativistic case the statistical
interpretation of the wave function adopted in
the non-relativistic case (Schrodinger
equation)

The field is spinless Since the Dirac matrices are 4 × 4 matrices

which should act on Ψ, then Ψ should be a
column vector with four rows where Ψ1 and
Ψ2 have positive energies with Ψ1 a spin up
particle and Ψ2 spin down. On the other hand,
Ψ3 and Ψ4, turn out to have negative energies
where Ψ3 is spin up and Ψ4
spin down.

The field is spin one-half

Only works on fermionic particles

b) Enumerate the merits of Dirac equation

 Overcome the problems of the Klein-Gordon Equation
 Able to interpret what particles with negative energies really represent (during those times
physicist struggled to interpret negative energies)
 His equation predicted the existence of antimatter
 Incorporates the quantum spin of a particle.
 Any solution of the Dirac equation is a solution of the Klein-Gordon Equation

c) Interpret the negative energy states for semiconductors and metals according to
Dirac theory.
Dirac took the idea from Pauli’s exclusion principle. Dirac began his argument saying that the
ground state (vacuum state) is not empty, but completely filled with negative energy particles following
Pauli’s exclusion principle. No state is empty according to Dirac. Therefore, the number of particles in
these energy states are infinite, and therefore has large number of degrees of freedom. He further
assumed that Negative energy states are passive or not observable. There is no physical quantity to
measure. This gives an idea the automatic collapse of a system can be prevented. Note that this is not
applicable for bosonic system because they do not obey Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only the positive
energy states are observable, and a system only in a positive energy state can give us the information.
Therefore, when a particle is excited from a negative energy state to positive energy stage, then there is
empty state created in the negative energy state. This empty state is called as hole-state which behaves
just like a particle of opposite quantum numbers of the particle which is excited to positive state.
(Example electron charge). Therefore, a pair of particles is created (pair production, particles, and anti-
particles). Therefore, both K-G and Dirac equations are grounded on many particle system. Dirac's idea
is more directly applicable to solid state physics, where the valence band in a solid can be regarded as a
"sea" of electrons. Holes in this sea indeed occur and are extremely important for understanding the
effects of semiconductors, though they are never referred to as "positrons". Unlike in particle physics,
there is an underlying positive charge—the charge of the ionic lattice—that cancels out the electric
charge of the sea.