Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255

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Chemie der Erde

journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/chemer

Isotopic and geochemical identifications of groundwater salinisation

processes in Salalah coastal plain, Sultanate of Oman
Brahim Askri a,b,∗ , Abdelkader T. Ahmed c , Razan Ali Al-Shanfari a , Rachida Bouhlila b ,
Khater Ben Khamis Al-Farisi d
a
Department of Built and Natural Environment, Caledonian College of Engineering, Oman
b
Laboratory of Modeling in Hydraulics and Environment, National Engineering School of Tunis, Tunisia
c
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, Egypt
d
Department of Monitoring of Water Resources, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources, Oman

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A detail investigation was carried out to improve the current knowledge of groundwater salinisation
Received 24 February 2015 processes in coastal aquifers using hydrochemical and isotopic parameters. Data of major ions for 40
Received in revised form wells located in the Salalah plain aquifer, Sultanate of Oman, were collected during pre-monsoon 2004
21 December 2015
and analysed. The groundwater changes along the general flow path towards the coast from fresh
Accepted 23 December 2015
(EC < 1500 ␮S/cm), brackish (EC: 1500–3000 ␮S/cm) and saline (EC > 3000 ␮S/cm). Results of inverse
Editorial handling - H. Guo
modeling simulations using PHREEQC show that dissolution of halite may be the main source of Cl and
Na in the study area. Ionic delta calculation indicates that the depletion of Na and K and enrichment of Ca
Keywords:
Salalah coastal plain
and Mg in groundwater were probably attributed to reverse ion exchange reactions. During a sampling
seawater intrusion campaign conducted in October 2015, 11 groundwater samples were collected for Cl, Br and isotopic
groundwater salinisation analysis (2 H/18 O). Molar Cl/Br ratios in fresh groundwater were higher than those of seawater, indicating
saturation index the impact of halite dissolution on the groundwater quality. For saline groundwater, these ratios were
less than those of seawater, showing the influence of anthropogenic input from agriculture on the same.
Relatively depleted isotopic signature of all groundwater samples show that the monsoon precipitation
is the main source of groundwater recharge in the study area.
© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction oconcentration, evaporate rock dissolution, mobilisation of brines,

Actually, a large percentage of population lives in coastal
regions. UN Atlas (2010) indicated that about 44% of world’s pop-
ulation lives within 150 km of the shoreline. The rapid growth of
population in these regions increased the water resources demand.
In arid and semi-arid regions, withdrawal of fresh groundwater
from coastal aquifers can induce declining groundwater levels
and result in seawater intrusion (Moujabber et al., 2006; Askri,
2015). This phenomenon generally occurs when the discharge is
higher than the recharges in aquifers with direct dynamic connec-
tion to the sea (Shammas and Jacks, 2007). Salinisation of coastal
aquifers can occur due to direct seawater intrusion, but it can
also involve a range of complex hydrogeological and geochemical
processes that control water quality in different ways; e.g., evap-
∗ Corresponding author at: Caledonian College of Engineering, P.O. Box: 2322, CPO
Seeb 111, Oman.
E-mail address: askrib@yahoo.com (B. Askri).
sea-spray accumulation, upcoming of saline deep groundwater due
to heavy exploitation and pollution (Han et al., 2014). In this regard,
Rajmohan et al. (2009) showed that the chemical constituents of
the groundwater in Barka region, Sultanate of Oman, are originat-
ing from saline water sources, reverse ion exchange and mineral
dissolution. Jeevanandam et al. (2007) indicated that calcium and
magnesium in the groundwater in the lower part of Ponnaiyer River
basin in India are derived mainly from dissolution of carbonate pre-
cipitates along with the ionic exchange reactions. For the Korba
coastal aquifer in Tunisia, Zghibi et al. (2013) revealed the presence
of direct cation exchange reactions linked to seawater intrusion and
dissolution processes associated with these reactions. Han and al.
(2011) showed that mixing, ion exchange, dissolution of dolomite
and precipitation of gypsum and calcite are involved in salinisation
of coastal aquifer in Laizhou Bay, China. Andersen et al. (2005) stud-
ied the geochemical processes occurring at a seawater/freshwater
interface in a shallow coastal aquifer in the Isefjord at the northern
part of Zealand, Denmark. They showed a slow freshening process

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2015.12.002
0009-2819/© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
244 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Fig. 1. Location of monitoring wells during pre-monsoon 2004.
where calcium from freshwater displaced the marine sodium and
magnesium from the exchanger complex.
This paper presents a case study from the Salalah coastal plain
aquifer in the Sultanate of Oman. Since 1970, this aquifer has
been used intensively to supply water for municipal, agricultural
and industrial purposes. As consequence, the groundwater levels
have shown a noticeable decline since 1982 (Clark et al., 1987).
Declining groundwater levels has resulted in saline water intru-
sion and deterioration of groundwater quality. Several techniques
were implemented in order to reduce the rate of seawater intru-
sion to the plain aquifer. Since 2003, the wastewater drained from
the Salalah city was treated to the tertiary level and about 80%
of the total volume of treated water was used to inject the plain
aquifer (Shammas, 2007). To control agricultural water use in the
plain, a metered output was allocated to each farm in order to
provide a fixed amount of free water in accordance to the farm
size. Despite the implementation of these measures, groundwa-
ter levels are still declining and seawater intrusion is progressing
in most the coastal areas (MAF-ICBA, 2012). Shammas and Jacks
(2007) indicated that the seawater intrusion is always increasing
along the coastal and residential zones due to over-pumping for
irrigation purposes. Management of fresh groundwater resources
in Salalah plain requires an understanding of the processes con-
trolling the groundwater geochemical evolution and flow system
dynamics. The objective of this study is to improve the knowledge
of groundwater salinistaion processes in the Salalah plain, using
hydrochemical and isotopic data.
2. Methods
2.1. Study area
The study region occupies an area of 200 km2 and lies between
16◦ 59 24 and 17◦ 07 48 Latitudes and 54◦ 03 and 54◦ 12 36 Longi-
tudes (Fig. 1). It is a part of the Salalah coastal plain in southeastern
Sultanate of Oman. The Arabian Sea creates a natural border in
South, while Jabal Al-Qara (mountain) limit the north, which serves
as a recharge zone of the study area. Topography is a southerly
gently sloping terrain and high elevation is observed at north.
Three wadis (ephemeral streams) exist in the study area, and flow
towards coast. The Sahalnawt earth dam has been built during 1993
in the piedmont of Jabal Al-Qara to provide flood protection to the
Salalah city and to recharge the groundwater aquifer from which
the city draws its potable water supply.
2.2. Climatic data and hydrological background
The study area presents a hot desert climate although it is
quite different from the arid conditions in the rest of the country
and the Arabian Peninsula. This is due to the local topogra-
phy and the summer monsoon, which occurs between June and
September. The monsoon coming from the Arabian Sea and the
Indian Ocean transports water masses to the coast causing fog
and light rain. The monsoon rainfall in the Salalah plain ranges
from 45 to 154 mm/year with an average of 110 mm/year, whereas
it varies from 230 to 450 mm/year in the Jabal Al-Qara areas
(Shammas, 2007). In addition to monsoon, strong cyclones occur in
the plain once 3–7 years. They provide important water masses up
to 400 mm/day sometimes resulting in large wadi floods (Strauch
et al., 2014). Daily temperatures vary from 27 ◦ C in January to 32 ◦ C
in June. Humidity ranges from 40% to 97% in February and July,
respectively. Evaporation rate is about 1700 mm/year.
2.3. Geological and hydrogeological background
Geology of the Salalah plain consists of broad gently dipping
belt of Tertiary limestone (middle to early Miocene age). The pri-
mary aquifer in the plain occurs in the karstics and limestone of
the Fars group. The Fars group of Tertiary age comprises mainly
Nar and Adawnib Formations (Fig. 2). The Adawnib Formation
is made of carbonate and conglomeratic marine deposits. It is
subdivided into three parts: Dahariz, Hafah and Baleed contain-
ing clayey-silty argillaceous limestone, silty limestone and sandy
limestone, respectively (D&MI, 1992). The recharge to the aquifer
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Fig. 2. Hydrogeological cross-section of Salalah plain and adjacent Jabal Al-Qara (after Geo Resources Consultancy, 2004).
zone in the Adawnib Formation takes place mainly from monsoon
precipitation in Jabal Al-Qara (Shammas, 2007). This water per-
colates through the Umm erRhaduma Formation of the Jabal and
flows out into the plain as subsurface recharge. The Fars group of
120 m thickness is underlining by the low permeable and saline
Mughsayl Formation, which is composed of limestone of Tertiary
age (Early Miocene to Oligocene). The most important superficial
deposit overlying the plain aquifer is the wadi alluvium compris-
ing conglomerates, gravely clays and coastal Calcarenite deposits.
The presence of coarse alluvium gives the soil a highly permeable
and well-drained texture. Some springs exist along the foot of the
Jabal Al-Qara on the fault lines. The most notable are Garziz and
Sahalnawt springs.
Generally, the groundwater in the Salalah plain is considered
unconfined aquifer although it is partially confined in some loca-
tions. The saturated thickness is ranging from 60 to 70 m (D&MI,
1992). The storage coefficient of this aquifer is of 3% and poten-
tial water resources are about 874 Mm3 (MAF-ICBA, 2012). The
groundwater aquifer has a flat hydraulic gradient and a very high
transmissivity that ranges from 1000 to 200,000 m2 /day. Ground-
water levels are varying from 10 m (a.m.s.l.) near the Jabal front to
about sea level near the coast (Fig. 3). The flat hydraulic gradient of
the groundwater can be explained by its high transmissivity and its
direct hydraulic connection to the sea. In this case, the unlimited
inflows from the sea rapidly compensate for any depletion in fresh
water storage.
2.4. Agricultural activities
Along with the Batinah coastal region, the Salalah plain is con-
sidered as one of the best agricultural areas in Sultanate of Oman.
During the monsoon season, fruits such as coconut palms, bananas,
carica papaya, vegetables and grass for fodder are grown in a tradi-
tional manner, using infiltration water near the land surface. During
last two decades, large-scale modern farms (e.g., Sahalnawt Farm
and Garziz Farm) have been developed inland and these use water
from boreholes tapping both the fresh and brackish water zones.
245
2.5. Water budget of the aquifer
The Salalah plain aquifer constitutes an important water
resource used for agricultural, industrial and municipal needs. Nat-
ural recharge to this aquifer is derived primarily from precipitation
falling onto the Jabal Al-Qara during monsoon. The underflow from
the Jabal to the plain aquifer was estimated based on the Darcy low
and using a constant hydraulic conductivity of 100 m/day, hydraulic
gradient of 1 m/km, and saturated thickness of 60 m. This flow
was set at 37.2 Mm3 /year. Direct recharge from rainfall over the
study area was assumed 10% of mean annual rainfall and was set
at 2.2 Mm3 /year. The infiltration of floodwater through the beds
of wadis was estimated at about 4.2 Mm3 /year (MAF-ICBA, 2012).
The Sahalnawt dam has a storage capacity of 6.4 Mm3 , of which
the recharge to the aquifer was evaluated at 2.56 Mm3 . The injec-
tion of treated wastewater to the plain aquifer provides a total
volume of recharge estimated at 5.8 Mm3 /year (MAF-ICBA, 2012).
The total groundwater outflow to the Arabian Sea was evaluated
at 2.0 Mm3 /year. The Salalah plain aquifer is exploited by wells
(more than 1500) and boreholes (17). The groundwater abstraction
from this aquifer was estimated at 69 Mm3 for the year 2010. The
total recharge into the plain aquifer was evaluated at 51.96 Mm3 ,
of which 72% is the underflow from the Jabal Al-Qara plus 12%,
which is the injection of treated wastewater. Hence, the deficit in
the aquifer balance of the study area was estimated in 2010 at about
19.04 Mm3 .
2.6. Data collection and analysis
The present study has utilised two sets of data. Database of
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), major
anions (Cl, HCO3 , SO4 and NO3 ) and cations (Na, Mg, Ca and K) for
a set of 40 groundwater samples collected in the study area dur-
ing pre-monsoon season (April to May 2004) was available in the
Department of Monitoring of Water Resources, Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources, Sultanate of Oman. Eleven
groundwater samples and a seawater sample were collected in the
study area in October 2015. The groundwater samples were taken
by pumping from irrigation wells. The seawater sample was col-
246 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Fig. 3. Water table height contour and groundwater flow direction in the study area during pre-monsoon 2004.
lected at a very shallow depth of about 1 m very close to shoreline.
These samples were stored at 4 ◦ C in HDPE bottles for hydrochemi-
cal and isotopic analyses. Hydrochemical analyses of Cl and Br were
performed at the Central Analytical and Applied Research Unit, Sul-
tane Qaboos University (SQU), Sultanate of Oman, using a High
Performance Ion Chromatograph. The analyses of stable isotopes
of water (␦18 O and ␦2 H) were carried out using Liquid Water Iso-
tope Analyser (Los Gatos Research (LGR)) at the Laboratory of Water
Research Center, SQU. The ␦18 O and ␦2 H values were measured rel-
ative to internal standards and calibrated using the Vienna Standard
Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW).
The Piper diagram was used to understand the groundwater
chemistry in the study area during pre-monsoon 2004. Satura-
tion indices (SI) were calculated using the modelling program
PHREEQC to investigate the influence of rock-water interaction
on the groundwater mineralisation (Parkhurst and Appelo, 1999).
Because the study area is located in a region dominated by carbon-
ate and silicate minerals, Mg, Ca, HCO3 and SO4 can be derived from
dissolution of these minerals. Hence, specific calculations were per-
formed for carbonate minerals (dolomite, calcite, and aragonite),
and additionally for halite to understand the effect of saline sources
on groundwater chemistry. The processes of mineral dissolution-
precipitation were also analysed using Na/Cl, (Ca + Mg)/HCO3 and
Ca/HCO3 molar ratios.
The groundwater salinisation processes in the study area were
investigated using three different methods. The first method is
based on the calculation of Na/Cl, Ca/Mg, Ca/(HCO3 + SO4 ), HCO3 /Cl
and Cl/Br molar ratios (Arslan, 2013; Mondal et al., 2010; Leboeuf
et al., 2003). The second was based on the analysis of stable isotope
values of ␦18 O and ␦2 H (Murad and Krishnamurthy, 2008; Strauch
et al., 2014). The third was based on the calculation of the ionic
delta () to differentiate the saline sources and other geochemical
processes on groundwater mineralisation. It represents the differ-
ence between the actual concentration of each constituent and its
theoretical concentration for a freshwater-seawater mix calculated
from the Cl concentration of the sample (Appelo and Postma, 1994):
Ci = Ci(sample) − Ci(mix) (1)
where Ci is the ionic delta of the ion i; Ci(sample) is the measured
concentration of the ion i; and Ci(mix) is the theoretical concentra-
tion of the ion i for the conservative mix of freshwater and seawater.
The last concentration is given by:
Ci(mix) = f sea × Ci(seawater) + (1 − fsea ) × Ci(freshwater) (2)
where Ci(seawater) and Ci(freshwater) are the measured concentrations
of the ion i for the seawater and fresh water, respectively; fsea is
the seawater fraction estimated from the concentration of chloride
(CCl ) (in meq/l) as follow (Appelo and Postma, 2005):
CCl(sample) − CCl(freshwater)
fsea = (3)
CCl(seawater) − CCl(freshwater)
A positive Ci indicates the groundwater to be enriched for
species i, and a negative Ci indicates depletion compared to the
theoretical mixing. In this case, chloride was assumed to be a con-
servative element.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Water chemistry
The pH of the groundwater in the study area varied during pre-
monsoon 2004 from 6.85 to 8.64 (Table 1). Only one sample S-10
located in the Awqad region has pH value less than 7, indicating
alkaline nature of the samples. In this case, the alkalinity of the
groundwater was derived from the dissolution of carbonate miner-
als and dissolved bicarbonate (HCO3 ) was the dominant carbonate
species.
The groundwater was classified into three types based on salin-
ity criterion: fresh, brackish and saline, with EC of <1500 ␮S/cm,
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255 247

Table 1
Statistical summary of hydrochemical constituents.

Mean Min. Max. Max allowable limit WHO (2004) Seawater Freshwater

pH 7.35 ± 0.26 6.85 8.64 6.5–9.2

TDS 1693 ± 1264 414 5319 1000 35,000 418
EC 3272 ± 2421 794 10,250 1300 794
Ca 169 ± 92 67 446 200 410 102
Mg 61 ± 46 14 215 150 1290 16
Na 356 ± 316 38 1186 200 10,770 38
K 19 ± 21 1.3 85 200 400 1.3
SiO2 8±4 0 20 6.4 7.16
HCO3 262 ± 51.4 103 427 240 200 234
Cl 706 ± 610 90 2428 250 19,350 90
SO4 217 ± 253 27 1185 250 2710 27
NO3 35 ± 11 11 56 50 0.67 23.9

Seawater after Taher et al. (2012), Fresh water unpolluted low EC groundwater existed in the upstream region of Salalah plain (Well S-29).

Fig. 4. Distribution of different hydrochemical types, chloride and sulfate of groundwater in the study area.

1500–3000 ␮S/cm and >3000 ␮S/cm, respectively (Mondal et al.,
2010). The percentages of water samples in each group show
that 40% of waters were fresh, 12.5% were brackish and 47.5%
were saline. During pre-monsoon 2004, groundwater salinity and
hydrochemistry showed regular zonation from north to south with
different groundwater types distributed according to the ground-
water path (Fig. 4a). EC of the groundwater varied from 794 ␮S/cm
in the north to 10,250 ␮S/cm in the south, with brackish water
between the fresh and saline zones. The relatively low EC values
recorded in the foot of Jabal Al-Qara indicates the availability of
fresh groundwater in the upstream region of the study area. Hydro-
chemistry in this region may be influenced by lateral recharge from
Jabal Al-Qara and vertical recharges from Sahalnawt earth dam and
through the beds of wadis. Relatively low Cl concentrations in this
region confirm this finding (Fig. 4b). Saline waters were observed
mainly in two distinct regions: one situated in southwestern the
study area between the Awqad region and Salalah city (S-8 and S-
10), another in southeastern the study area and near the Sahalnawt
Farm (S-9 and S-25). The first region is located near the shoreline
and the higher EC values would be attributed to the high rate of sea-
248 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
water intrusion, which has been probably favorite by overpumping.
The higher Cl concentrations recorded in this regions confirm this
finding. Sheidleder (2003) stated that the main cause of high Cl
concentration in coastal aquifers is most likely attributed to sea-
water intrusion. Sahalnawt Farm is located about 5 km inland from
the shoreline and the high EC values and the high Cl concentra-
tions recorded near this farm may be explained by the dissolution
of halite mineral. Dissolution of small volumes of halite from the
unsaturated zone during rainfall events may be the mechanism that
increases the Cl concentrations.
TDS also show a wide variation from 414 to 5319 mg/l. About
58% of the water samples had salinity beyond the maximum per-
missible limit for drinking water as per WHO (2004) standard,
i.e., 1,000 mg/l. Na increased from 33% of total cations in the fresh
waters to 42% in the brackish waters, and up to 58% in saline waters.
Similarly, Cl increased from 45% of total anions in fresh waters to
72% in saline waters. Increasing salinities and the changing pro-
portions of Na and Cl show halite dissolution as a major source of
elevated TDS values (Han et al., 2011). Calcium had an opposite
trend as it decreased from 50% of total cations in fresh waters to
37% in brackish waters and down to 23% in saline waters.
In general, SO4 concentrations were higher in the coastal region
than in the inland (Fig. 4). The absence of geological formations
containing these minerals in the study area suggests a possible sea-
water intrusion, which has comparatively higher SO4 concentration
(Table 1). In addition, this anion may be derived from anthropogenic
sources such as specific tank effluents and domestic sewage in res-
idential strip. The HCO3 can come from dissolution of carbonate
minerals, soil CO2 or bacterial degradation of the organic contami-
nation (Bahar and Reza, 2010).
3.2. Major ion geochemistry
Trilinear analysis using Piper diagram indicates that most of the
water samples were chemically dominated by Na and Cl ions. The
Cl concentrations exceeded 50% of the sum of major anions in 32
groundwater samples. In contrast, only three samples located in
intermediate and upstream of the plain were chemically dominated
by HCO3 . Four water types were found in the study area: (1) Na-Cl,
(2) Mixed Ca-Mg-Cl, (3) Ca-Cl and (4) Ca-HCO3 .
Ca-HCO3 -type freshwater was found in two wells S-36 and S-37
located in Salalah well field and one well S-29 located in the foot
of Jabal Al-Qara. Ca and HCO3 were the dominant cation and anion,
respectively. TDS values varied from 418 to 429 mg/l. This water
type resulted probably from the dissolution of carbonate minerals.
Mixed Ca-Mg-Cl-type freshwater and brackish water was identi-
fied in 18 wells located in Salalah well field. Cl was the dominant
anion and Ca and Mg were the main cations. TDS values varied
from 414 to 2,119 mg/l with average of 860 mg/l. This water type
characterises mixed water. One well S-19 located near the Garziz
farm represents the Ca-Cl-type. This well was characterised by high
TDS value of 3,646 mg/l, indicating salinisation and exchange of Na
for Ca desorbed from the mineral surfaces. Saline water of the Na-
Cl-type with TDS from 1,255 to 5,319 mg/l was found in 18 wells
located mainly along the coastal region. Na and Cl were the dom-
inant anion and cation, respectively. This water type may indicate
a strong seawater intrusion to the aquifer.
It is evident from Fig. 5 that alkaline elements (Na and K) signif-
icantly exceed the alkaline earth elements (Ca and Mg) and that
strong acids (Cl and SO4 ) dominate the weak acids (HCO3 and
CO3 ). The concentrations of alkaline earth elements were gener-
ally higher than bicarbonate, indicating the exchange of sodium for
calcium.
3.3. Correlation analysis
Inter-element correlation was made to understand the relation
between different ionic species. The spearman correlation matrix
for 11 variables (pH, EC, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Cl, HCO3 , SO4 , NO3 and SiO2 )
is shown in Table 2. The results indicate high correlations (r > 0.7)
between some pairs of parameters. EC was related to Na, Ca, Mg,
K, Cl and SO4 with a correlation coefficient of 0.97, 0.80, 0.89, 0.84,
0.98, 0.81 and 0.73, respectively. The high correlation implies that
these ions participated in groundwater mineralisation. The cor-
relation between Cl and the major components of seawater (Na
and SO4 ) was high (Cl-Na, r = 0.98) and (Cl-SO4 , r = 0.70) indicat-
ing that seawater influenced the groundwater mineralisation. The
high correlation between K and Cl (r = 0.87) and the moderate cor-
relation between K and SO4 (r = 0.61) may be explained in the light
of seawater intrusion as well. The high correlation between Mg
and Ca (r = 0.85) can be attributed to the dissolution of calcite and
dolomite minerals. Na was highly correlated to both Mg (r = 0.88)
and Ca (r = 0.71). This result would be attributed to the ion exchange
reactions. SO4 has high correlation with Ca (r = 0.77) and moderate
correlation with Mg (r = 0.68). The positive correlation between EC
and NO3 (r = 0.25) shows the effect of nitrogen fertilizers on ground-
water quality. The results show weak correlations of pH, HCO3 and
SiO2 with all the variables. The weak correlation between HCO3
with all the variables indicates that the seawater had insignificant
impact on the chemistry and behavior of HCO3 in the study area.
3.4. Effects of mineral dissolution
3.4.1. Saturation index (dissolution and precipitation)
The calculated values of SI for calcite, dolomite, aragonite and
halite of the groundwater samples collected during pre-monsoon
2004 shows that the first three minerals fall near saturated to over
saturated states, while the forth mineral fall on the under saturated
state. Oversaturation of calcite in 93% of samples indicates the pos-
sibility of calcite precipitation, whereas undersaturation of halite
in all samples shows the possibility of halite dissolution (Fig. 6).
Dolomite and aragonite reached saturation and the possibility of
precipitation mainly in brackish and saline groundwater samples.
Precipitation of the first three minerals takes place during the cation
exchange process, which is the later effect from the seawater intru-
sion into the aquifer (Mtoni et al., 2012).
3.4.2. Geochemical evolution
The Na-Cl relationship has often been used to identify the mech-
anisms to acquire salinity and saline intrusions in semi-arid/arid
regions (Sami, 1992). Because Na and Cl ions enter solution in equal
quantity during the dissolution of halite, an approximately linear
relationship may be observed between these ions (Hem, 1985).
Fig. 7 shows a clear linear relationship between Na and Cl concen-
trations in the groundwater samples collected during pre-monsoon
2004. This suggests that the concentrations of these two ions in the
Salalah plain aquifer were heavily influenced by the dissolution of
halite. Some saline groundwater samples were plotted away from
the 1:1 equiline suggesting that the reduction of Na concentration
may be due to reverse ion exchange reactions.
The sources of Ca and Mg in groundwater can be determined
from the (Ca + Mg)/HCO3 molar ratio (Sami, 1992). If this ratio is
equal to 0.5, then these two cations only originate from the disso-
lution of carbonate minerals. In the study area, the (Ca + Mg)/HCO3
ratio was higher than 0.5 suggesting that an excess of alkalinity in
the groundwater was balanced by the alkalis Na and K.
The geochemical processes of groundwater mineralisation can
also be identified using the (Ca + Mg) vs (HCO3 + SO4 ) scatter dia-
gram (Datta and Tyagi 1996). Data points along or close to 1:1
equiline resulted from weathering of silicate and carbonate miner-
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255 249

Fig. 5. Piper plot of groundwater hydrochemical data in the study area.

Table 2
Speraman correlation.

pH EC Ca Mg Na K SiO2 HCO3 Cl SO4 NO3

pH 1.00
EC −0.23 1.00
Ca −0.47 0.80 1.00
Mg −0.29 0.89 0.85 1.00
Na −0.11 0.97 0.71 0.88 1.00
K −0.09 0.84 0.58 0.82 0.88 1.00
SiO2 −0.03 0.04 0.16 0.11 0.00 0.06 1.00
HCO3 −0.41 0.40 0.36 0.48 0.41 0.31 0.39 1.00
Cl −0.22 0.98 0.80 0.92 0.98 0.87 0.10 0.45 1.00
SO4 −0.12 0.73 0.77 0.68 0.72 0.61 −0.17 0.11 0.70 1.00
NO3 −0.48 0.25 0.43 0.25 0.15 0.26 0.16 0.17 0.21 0.21 1.00

als (Hamzaoui-Azaza et al., 2011). The ionic concentrations falling
above the 1:1 equiline resulted from carbonate weathering and
reverse ion exchange, while those falling below the 1:1 equiline are
due to silicate weathering and direct ion exchange. In Fig. 8, four
points fall around or below the 1:1 equiline, indicating the con-
tribution of silicate minerals dissolution and direct ion exchange.
About 90% of all the points fall above the 1:1 equiline, highlighting
the effects of carbonate weathering and reverse ion exchange reac-
tions on the groundwater mineralisation. The occurrence of these
reactions was also analysed using the two indices of Base Exchange,
namely the Chloro Alkaline Indices (CAI1 and CAI2) (Garcia et al.,
2004):
If there is exchange between Na or K from water with Ca or Mg
in the aquifer minerals, both of the indices are positive, highlighting
reverse ion exchange reactions. If the later values are negative, then
there is direct ion exchange and therefore, there is exchange reac-
tions between the Ca or Mg in water with Na or K in aquifer material.
In the study area, these indices were positive indicating the reverse
ion exchange reactions (Fig. 9). Appelo and Postma (1994) indicated
that, in coastal aquifer, direct ion exchange is indicative of flushing,
while reverse ion exchange is the evidence for active marine intru-
sion. These results explain the active marine intrusion followed by
reverse ion exchange reactions in the study area.

(Na + K) 3.5. Cluster analysis

CAI1 = Cl − (4)
Cl
Cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA)
(Na + K) were performed by STATISTICA software to classify the ground-
CAI2 = Cl − + HCO3 + CO3 + NO3 (5)
SO4 water samples collected during pre-monsoon 2004 into distinct
groups based on their hydrochemical characteristics. The hydro-
all values are expressed in meq/l. chemical data were classified by cluster analysis (Q-mode) in
250 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255

Fig. 6. Saturation indices of calcite, dolomite and halite of Salalah groundwater.

Fig. 7. Plot of Na versus Cl (mmol/l).

11-dimentional spaces (pH, EC, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO3 , SO4 , SiO2
and NO3 ), and the results were illustrated as a dendogram (Fig. 10).
Three groups (A, B and C) and seven subgroups were identified
based on visual examination of the dendrogram.
Group A is represented by the wells S-5, S-8, S-10 and S-25. The
first three wells are located in the Awqad region and the fourth
one is situated near the Sahalnawt Farm. This group was char-
acterised by a high mean EC of 8,822 ␮S/cm. Na and Cl were the
dominant cation and anion, respectively. In this case, the ground-
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Fig. 8. Scatter diagram of (Ca + Mg) versus (SO4 + HCO3 ).
water salinisation may be induced by seawater intrusion and/or
halite dissolution.
Group B contains the well S-19, which is characterised by a high
EC of 5790 ␮S/cm and high SO4 2− and NO3 − concentrations close to
1185 and 50 mg/l, respectively. In this case, the groundwater salin-
isation may be induced by halite dissolution and use of fertilizers.
Indeed the use of fertilizers may contribute in higher salinity espe-
cially in areas where there is development of agricultural activities.
Group C contains 35 sampling wells affected by seawater intru-
sion of different levels. The wells in group C-1 (S-9, S-11, S-12,
S-15, S-16, S-17, S-20 and S-24) are located mainly in Hafah agri-
cultural area. They were presenting a Na-Cl and Mixed Ca-Mg-Cl
facies. Despite their proximity to the coastline, these wells were
moderately affected by seawater intrusion as their EC was varying
from 2,920 to 3,810 ␮S/cm. Concentrations of Cl and K were high,
whereas the Mg concentrations of were low. Group C-2 contains
three sampling wells S-4, S-14 and S-23 located in the northern
part of Hafah agricultural area. They are presenting a Mixed Ca-
Mg-Cl facies. These wells were moderately affected by seawater
intrusion as their EC was ranging from 2,030 to 2,325 ␮S/cm. Con-
centrations of Mg, K and Cl were low, whereas the concentrations
of HCO3 and SiO2 were high. Wells in group C-3 (S-22, S-26, S-27,
S-28, S-29, S-30, S-31, S-32, S-33, S-34, S-35, S-36, S-37, S-38, S-39
and S-40) are located mainly in the Salalah well field. They are pre-
Fig. 10. Dendogram of cluster analysis.
251
Fig. 9. CAI 1 and CAI 2 of groundwater samples.
senting a Mixed Ca-Mg-Cl and Ca-HCO3 facies. These wells were
less affected by seawater intrusion as their EC was varying from
794 to 1,498 ␮S/cm. The concentrations of Mg, Na, Cl and SO4 were
relatively low. Group C-4 is represented by the well S-3, which is
located in the eastern boundary of the Hafah agricultural area. This
well was characterised by a moderate EC close to 1752 ␮S/cm and
a high NO3 concentration close to 42 mg/l. In this case, the ground-
water salinisation may be induced buy the use of fertilizers. Wells
in group C-5 (S-1, S-2, S-6, S-7, S-13, S-18 and S-21) are located
in the southern boundary of Hafah agricultural area and near the
coastline. They are presenting a Na-Cl facies. These wells may be
affected by high rate of seawater intrusion as their EC varied from
4440 to 5840 ␮S/cm. The concentrations of Mg, Na, Cl were also
high.
3.6. Principle component analysis
To obtain correlations among the hydrochemical constituents of
the groundwater samples, R-mode factor analysis was performed
on 11 physico-chemical parameters (pH, EC, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl,
HCO3 , SO4 , SiO2 and NO3 ). It generates three main factors, which
explained 82.58% of the total variance (Table 3). The eigenvalue
and variance explanations were 6.25 and 56.84% for factor 1, 1.65
and 15.02% for factor 2, and 1.18 and 10.72% for factor 3. Variables
EC, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Cl and SO4 had a high positive loading for factor
252 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255

Table 3
Summarized the PCA results.

PC1 PC2 PC3

pH −0.336 −0.679 0.449

EC 0.962 −0.136 0.037
Ca 0.878 0.166 −0.201
Mg 0.949 −0.019 0.072
Na 0.941 −0.242 0.126
K 0.861 −0.195 0.116
SiO2 0.106 0.575 0.642
HCO3 0.489 0.538 0.415
Cl 0.973 −0.115 0.118
SO4 0.771 −0.308 −0.278
NO3 0.350 0.565 −0.474
Eigenvalues 6.25 1.65 1.18
% Variance explained 56.84 15.02 10.72
% Cumulative variance 56.84 71.86 82.58

Fig. 11. Representation of the parameters in the first and second factorial plane.

1, whereas pH with a moderate negative loading and SiO2 , HCO3

and NO3 with moderate positive loadings for factor 2, while SiO2
showed a moderate positive loading for factor 3.
The factor 1 group consisting of EC, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Cl and SO4 was
largely influenced by natural processes. Higher loading of EC, Mg,
Na, K and Cl over all other variables in this factor indicates the sea-
water intrusion phenomenon. The high positive loading for SO4 in
this factor should also be noted, and it may be attributed to seawater
intrusion as well. The high positive loading of Ca in this factor would
be attributed to ion exchange reactions. The second factor, with
Fig. 12. Molar ratios of (a) HCO3 /Cl, (b) Na/Cl, (c) Ca/Mg and (d) Ca/(HCO3 + SO4 ).
moderate negative loading for pH, may be because of the biogenic
or organic control from marine sediment of the pH value (Mondal
et al., 2010). This factor, with moderate positive loading for NO3 1. Geological effects due to dissolution/precipitation of carbonate,
shows the existence of various anthropogenic pollutants. The third silicate minerals and halite minerals
factor was associated with moderate loading of SiO2 . Its shows the 2. Agricultural sources (fertilizers and animal manure)
importance of weathering reactions involving silicate minerals. 3. Biogenic or organic sources from marine sediment
The two factors 1 and 2 were plotted against each other. Fig. 11
shows grouping and relationships between variables. The group of 3.7. Seawater intrusion phenomenon
EC, Mg, Na, K, Cl and SO4 and their close relation is visible in the
first quadrant of the loading plot. Such type of grouping reflects the 3.7.1. Molar ratio
strength of their mutual relation. This result was already confirmed The groundwater salinisation was also analysed using HCO3 /Cl
by the correlation analysis. Overlapping of samples may be due molar ratio, which includes >2.0 for unaffected, 0.15–2.0 for slightly
to seawater intrusion. In addition to this phenomenon, the load- and moderately affected, and <0.15 for strongly affected (Todd,
ing plot shows three different processes that may influence the 1959; Arslan, 2013). The HCO3 /Cl ratio was less than 0.15 in 27.5%
groundwater mineralisation in the study area: of groundwater samples (Fig. 12a). The remaining samples were
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255 253

Fig. 13. Plots of Cl/Br vs. Cl of various groundwater samples from the study area.

slightly to moderately affected by saline water. According to this

criterion, all the fresh and brackish groudwaters were slightly
and moderately affected by salinisation, while the most of saline
groundwaters were strongly affected by the same problem.
Several geochemical criteria can be used to identify the origin
of groundwater salinisation, especially the detection of seawater
intrusion phenomenon. Vengosh et al. (1997) found that saline
groundwater associated with seawater intrusion is characterised
by a relatively low Na/Cl molar ratio (<0.86) and high Ca/Mg and
Ca/(HCO3 + SO4 ) (>1) ratios relative to seawater ratios. The Na/Cl
ratios in most groundwater samples (72.5%) were less than 0.86
(Fig. 12b). Calcium dominates over magnesium and Ca/Mg ratios
were higher than unity in 92.5% of samples (Fig. 12c). The brack-
ish and saline groundwater samples extracted from wells located
at adjacent to 2 km or less from the shoreline have Na/Cl ratios
less than 0.86 and Ca/Mg ratios greater than unity. The chem-
istry of these samples maybe influenced by seawater intrusion. The
Ca/(HCO3 + SO4 ) ratios were higher than unity in 52.5% of ground-
water samples (Fig. 12d).
The Cl/Br molar ratio was used in several studies as a tracer
to determine the origin of groundwater salinisation (Alcala and
Custodio, 2008). For the Arabian Sea, this ratio was found 636
Fig. 14. The variation in Na, Ca and SO4 in the groundwater flow direction in
(Cl = 545 mmol/l, Br = 0.86 mmol/l). The Cl/Br molar ratio of the the study area.
groundwater in the study area varied from 205 in saline waters
to 1140 in fresh waters (Fig. 13). Waters with TDS below 2000 mg/l
had a large range of Cl/Br ratios, mostly above seawater. This group and potassium in groundwater were probably attributed to reverse
has evolved most probably by reaction with halite, which is Br- ion exchange reactions. Under the conditions of saline intrusion, Na
depleted. Dissolution of small volumes of this mineral may increase or K in seawater may replace Ca or Mg adsorbed onto the surface
Cl/Br ratios. Three brackish water samples are plotted close to of clays, and this caused a relative depletion of Na in groundwa-
seawater, suggesting that seawater intrusion is important source ter (Mtoni et al., 2012). On the other hand, Mg and Ca behave
of groundwater salinisation rather than halite dissolution. Saline analogues trend, and reveal opposite trend to Na and K. The
waters (TDS from 2073 to 6051 mg/l) have Cl/Br ratios of 205–501 large excess of Mg and Ca may originate from the dissolution
with a mean value of 374 that is lower than the seawater ratio. This of carbonate minerals and/or reverse ion exchange reactions. To
is probably related to anthropogenic input of Br from agriculture. understand the negative trends of Na and K and positive trends
of Mg and Ca, the Ca + Mg was plotted against Na + K.
3.7.2. Ionic exchanges Fig. 15 shows quite evident negative relationship (R2 = 0.706) and
Ionic delta () of Na, Ca, Mg, K, HCO3 and SO4 were calculated for highlights the effect of reverse ion exchange reactions. This result
all observation wells using geochemical data available during pre- implies that reverse ion exchange is the dominating process for
monsoon 2004. Fig. 14 shows plots of Na, Ca and SO4 along the the enrichment of calcium and magnesium in the study area. These
transect opposite to the groundwater flow direction (from south to results explain the active marine intrusion followed by reverse ion
north) in the study area. Enrichment for Na was found mainly in exchange reactions. The values of HCO3 and SO4 were gener-
the intermediate region (Salalah well field), since fresh groundwa- ally positive. They indicate enrichment and suggest the dissolution
ter contains only a small amount of this cation. However, the Na of carbonate minerals for bicarbonate and seawater intrusion for
was usually negative (58% of samples), especially near the coastline sulfate.
and similar trends was observed on K (68% of samples). The nega-
tive values of Na show that groundwater was subjected to simple 3.7.3. ı18 O and ı2 H compositions
mixing with seawater, as indicated by the high EC values recorded The relationship between the stable isotopes of ␦2 H and ␦18 O
in the downstream regions. In this case, the depletions of sodium recorded in groundwater samples collected in October 2015 are
254 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Fig. 15. The relation between Na + NK and Ca + Mg in the study area.
Fig. 16. Relationship between ␦18 O and ␦2 H of water samples in the stady area. The
global meteoric line (GMWL) corresponds to Craig (1961), thee local meteroric line
corresponds to Al-Mashaikhi et al. (2012). The rainfall data were taken from Strauch
et al. (2014).
shown in Fig. 16, along with the Global Meteoric Water Line
(GMWL: ␦2 H = 8 × ␦18 O + 10) and Local Meteric Water Line (LMWL:
␦2 H = 7.75 × ␦18 O + 5.41). Also depicted on the graph are the stable
isotope values of Arabian Sea, Salalah groundwater samples taken
in 1987 (Clark et al., 1987) and monsoon precipitation collected in
the Salalah plain in August 2011 (Strauch et al., 2014).
Groundwater samples collected in October 2015 have ␦18 O val-
ues of −2.38‰ to −1.18‰ and ␦2 H values of −1.47‰ to 0.39‰
(Fig. 16). All samples are plotting above the LMWL but very close to
the GMWL. They show relatively depleted isotopic signatures com-
pared to seawater (␦18 O value of 1.28‰ and ␦2 H value of 6.0‰),
to monsoon precipitation and to groundwater samples collected
during 1987. Here the depleted isotopic signature is assigned to
dilution of the groundwater that may occur by infiltration of iso-
topically depleted storm type. This finding is in agreement with
that reported by Clark et al. (1987) for three samples collected in
the study area during 1987. Several processes lead to the depletion
of 18 O in precipitation including condensation, temperature effects,
and rain-out effects (Dansgaard, 1964). As water condenses out of
the air mass, the heavier isotopes condense first, leaving isotope-
depleted moisture in the air mass. Groundwater samples plotted
on a line between seawater and freshwater show a mixing process
between these waters.
3.8. Anthropogenic pollution
During pre-monsoon 2004, the NO3 concentrations varied from
11 to 56 mg/l. About 12% of samples exceeded 50 mg/l (drink-
ing water standard for nitrate). Higher NO3 concentrations were
recorded in Hafah agricultural area and Garziz Farm (Fig. 4d). They
Fig. 17. Cl versus NO3 /Cl molar ratio.
are indicative of anthropogenic pollution introduced by agricul-
tural activities (use of nitrogen fertilizers, animal manure and crops
residue). In residential strip, nitrate may be introduced by leak-
age from septic tanks and sewage system. In addition to seawater
intrusion, the Salalah plain aquifer may be subject to contamina-
tion by nitrate. In this case, the NO3 /Cl molar ratio can be used as
an indicator to identify seawater mixing and anthropogenic pollu-
tion (Park et al., 2005). Saline water presents a low NO3 /Cl ratios
because the majority of groundwater samples have low NO3 con-
centrations with respect to Cl. In this case, the NO3 /Cl ratios were
close to zero showing high rate of seawater intrusion (Fig. 17). A
second group with low Cl concentrations shows a relatively high
NO3 /Cl ratios highlighting a strong anthropogenic contamination.
This relationship gives a measure of the contamination caused by
products rich in NO3 used in agriculture.
4. Conclusion
The salinisation processes in the Salalah coastal plain aquifer
were investigated using hydrochemical and isotopic evidence. The
study shows a variety of groundwater types and salinities. Spatial
distribution of electrical conductivity and major ions show large
variations and generally increased in southwestern and south-
eastern the study area. The origin of salinity was assessed by the
simultaneous evaluation of several hydrochemical and isotopic
parameters collected in the study area during pre-monsoon 2004
and October 2015.
The use of electrical conductivity data recorded in th study area
during pre-monsoon 2004 enabled three different water types to be
identified: freshwater, brackish water and saline water. Chloride/Br
molar ratios were applied to identify the seawater intrusion, halite
dissolution and use of fertilizers in agriculture as the main sources
producing groundwater salinisation in the study area. Nonetheless,
groundwater samples collected in October 2015 showed slightly
depleted isotopic signature compared to seawater, indicating that
isotopically depleted storm type was the main source of ground-
water recharge in this area. Hydrochemical analyses showed that
chloride and sodium were derived from the halite dissolution. Cal-
cium and magnesium were introduced to the groundwater mainly
by reverse ion exchange reactions, which are the consequence of
seawater intrusion. The results show that agricultural activities
may be the main sources of nitrate in the groundwater.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Department of Monitoring of
Water Resources, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources, Sultanate of Oman for providing necessary data. The
authors are also thankful to the anonymous reviewers for their
helpful comments. The authors are grateful to Dr. Osman Abdalla,
 B. Askri et al. / Chemie der Erde 76 (2016) 243–255
Director of the Water Research Center, Sultanae Qaboos University,
Sultanate of Oman, for his acceptance to perform isotopic analyses
in his laboratory.
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