electronics
Article
Design and Implementation of a Smart Energy Meter Using a
LoRa Network in Real Time
Francisco Sánchez-Sutil * , Antonio Cano-Ortega






Citation: Sánchez-Sutil, F.;
Cano-Ortega, A.; Hernández, J.C.
Design and Implementation of a
Smart Energy Meter Using a LoRa
Network in Real Time. Electronics
2021, 10, 3152. https://doi.org/
10.3390/electronics10243152
Academic Editors: Fushuan Wen,
Gabriele Grandi, José Matas and
Carlos E. Ugalde-Loo
Received: 22 November 2021
Accepted: 15 December 2021
Published: 17 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10243152
and Jesús C. Hernández
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaen, Campus Lagunillas s/n, Edificio A3, 23071 Jaén, Spain;
acano@ujaen.es (A.C.-O.); jcasa@ujaen.es (J.C.H.)
* Correspondence: fssutil@ujaen.es; Tel.: +34-953-212466
Abstract: Nowadays, the development, implementation and deployment of smart meters (SMs) is
increasing in importance, and its expansion is exponential. The use of SMs in electrical engineering
covers a multitude of applications ranging from real-time monitoring to the study of load profiles
in homes. The use of wireless technologies has helped this development. Various problems arise
in the implementation of SMs, such as coverage, locations without Internet access, etc. LoRa (long
range) technology has great coverage and equipment with low power consumption that allows the
installation of SMs in all types of locations, including those without Internet access. The objective
of this research is to create an SM network under the LoRa specification that solves the problems
presented by other wireless networks. For this purpose, a gateway for residential electricity metering
networks using LoRa (GREMNL) and an electrical variable measuring device for households using
LoRa (EVMDHL) have been created, which allow the development of SM networks with large
coverage and low consumption.
Keywords: smart meter; LoRa; GREMNL; EVMDHL
1. Introduction
The use of smart meters (SMs) is currently fundamental for the development of the
electricity sector. SMs have a wide range of applications, including monitoring consump-
tion in homes and industries, characterising consumption profiles in homes, forecasting
demand in the electricity systems of countries, studying the quality of electrical energy,
defining and characterising energy consumption, etc.
IoT (Internet of Things) systems and cloud computing are ideal systems for developing
SM networks with real-time data. There are a multitude of cloud service providers that
make this type of system a reality.
On the other hand, wireless technologies help to create SMs with great communica-
tions capacity. Wireless networks such as ZigBee, Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), Narrowband
Internet of Things (NB-IoT), SigFox or Long Range (LoRa) offer great development pos-
sibilities for this type of system. Among them, networks with low power consumption
and long communication distances, as in the case of LoRa, help to overcome coverage and
Internet access problems at distant points where networks such as Wi-Fi do not reach.
In this paper, a LoRa network is used to develop an SM network that is as transparent
as possible for the user to whom a meter is installed. Two prototypes were developed and
built to create such networks.
2. Related Works
Rodriguez-Pajaron et al. [1] studied total harmonic distortion (THD) in residential
distribution networks using a limited number of SMs. Ashok-Kumar et al. [2] designed a
SM that monitors non-linear loads. The SM controls and calculates energy consumption
using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
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Liu et al. [3] proposed the solution of super-resolution perception in SMs, thus improv-
ing the accuracy of the obtained data. Rodrigues-Junior et al. [4] used SMs to measure the
power quality, thereby detecting disturbances in smart grids. Oh et al. [5] studied analysis
methods to characterise energy savings in smart homes by analysing the behaviour of elec-
trical devices. Muralidhara et al. [6] developed an SM to monitor the energy consumption
of electrical devices and displayed the results in the cloud using the ThingSpeak platform.
Andersen et al. [7] used SMs to study electricity consumption in Denmark and plan
electricity production, as well as create capacity policies and grid design. Tureczek et al. [8]
examined the consumption of grid-connected heat generating equipment in Denmark by
analysing the correlation of data obtained by SMs. Wang et al. [9] used SM data to analyse
energy consumption in the UK.
Donaldson et al. [10] proposed a novel method to identify utility customers with Pho-
tovoltaic (PV) production through consumption measured with SMs. England et al. [11]
used SMs to provide the parameters of the Thevenin equivalent. Kablaci et al. [12] de-
signed and implemented an SM network for low-voltage grids using Wi-Fi technology.
Abate et al. [13] developed a low-cost IoT-connected SM that adapts to network variability
while maintaining a high level of measurement accuracy.
Westermann et al. [14] identified the type of air conditioning and building by using
data recorded by SMs. Zhan et al. [15] performed a method that uses time-series energy
consumption data to categorise buildings and frame them within each energy category.
Cano-Ortega et al. [16] developed an algorithm to optimise the configuration of the pa-
rameters of a LoRaWAN (long-range wide-area network) applied to the measurement of
electrical variables in dwellings by using SMs.
Mbungu et al. [17] presented a model of an energy control system for a connected
microgrid for residential applications with the data measured by SMs. Kong et al. [18] pro-
posed a method for estimating errors in SMs based on an estimation model for dimension
reduction. Razavi et al. [19] analysed the consumption of 5000 households for 18 months
using SMs and artificial intelligence to predict the occupancy of households.
Roach et al. [20] used SMs in 129 commercial buildings to understand the impact
of load profiles on building characteristics. Kumatsu et al. [21] developed a method to
parametrise the demand that controls the accuracy of alerts. Czétány et al. [22] evaluated
the database obtained from the use of SMs to determine electricity consumption profiles
from time series and annual electricity load. Sánchez-Sutil et al. [23] built a device to
monitor and control the functions of a power quality analyser.
Wang et al. [24] proposed a methodology using data collected from a three-phase
low-voltage feeder for 40 customers with a single-phase power supply. Lui et al. [25]
explored the combination of differential privacy with cost savings to address the impact of
inherent battery constraints on noise generation in differential privacy. Sánchez-Sutil et al. [26]
implemented a control system for street lighting using SMs and a LoRaWAN network.
Sánchez-Sutil et al. [27] built a street lighting system for energy efficiency with LoRaWAN
and SM network uses.
Venkatraman et al. [28] developed a model based on data collected by SMs that
recover loads related to distribution networks. Hemanth et al. [29] proposed a method
to recover missing data from SM measurements by using a particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm. Al Khafaf et al. [30] studied the impact of using electrical energy storage
in residential environments based on the use of SMs. Funde et al. [31] studied data mining
applied to the use of clustering to determine electricity usage patterns with SMs.
Stegner et al. [32] compared load profiles obtained with SMs with standard load
profiles. Smajla et al. [33] investigated the optimal number of SMs using an adjusted data
distribution to obtain sufficient accuracy. Mokhtar et al. [34] proposed an architecture
based on a deep-learning neural network to predict the voltage distribution in the coverage
of a low-voltage grid operator. Cano-Ortega et al. [35] developed a system for monitoring
the operating conditions of induction motors using SMs.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 3 of 26

Morello et al. [36] investigated the role that SMs should play in the smart grids of the
future, studying the potential of collection systems of electrical energy data in IoT systems.
Koutroumpina et al. [37] evaluated a set of characteristics that SMs should possess. Ünal
et al. [38] developed an advanced pre-processing technique together with a sequential
hybrid technique based on artificial intelligence to improve the power consumption predic-
tion pressure. Sánchez-Sutil et al. [39] developed a system for controlling and managing
energy efficiency in irrigation systems using SMs and a LoRaWAN network.
Alkawsi et al. [40] studied an acceptance model to evaluate user experience and
innovation factors for application with residential consumers. Yang et al. [41] investigated
the cost-effective design and privacy control of SMs in energy systems using rechargeable
batteries. Nainar et al. [42] created an SM for monitoring low-voltage networks, applying a
measurement estimation algorithm. Bañales et al. [43] proposed a clustering method based
on two-stage K-medoids clustering with normalised load profiles organised in time series.
Zhao et al. [44] addressed the problem of improving the efficiency of malfunction detection
in SMs using deep learning techniques.
Rajkumar et al. [45] developed a low-cost smart PQ meter with a simple and
user-friendly interface that implements an algorithm for electricity tariff control.
Shaukat et al. [46] proposed a time series analysis for load profile prediction through
mathematical statistical modelling.

3. Background
The authors have developed a line of research on SMs with several published research
papers. In [47], the authors developed an SM, and in [48], they highlight the importance of
granularity in the accuracy of electrical measurements.
The first work deals with the development of an SM for homes with the capacity to
take measurements with a granularity of 0.5 s or less. The SM uploaded the data to the
cloud at that time rate. On the other hand, it also had a memory card to store the data,
which served a dual function: (i) backup of the information and (ii) logging of all the data
in case the network connection was lost.
The capacities of the SM were at 230 V with 30 A or 100 A of current depending on
the current sensor used, which raised the power that could be measured to 22 kW. The
complete hardware and software design of the equipment was performed so that a fully
functional, operational and low-cost prototype was built.
The current regulations on calibration tests for electrical measuring equipment were
dealt with in depth, and the tests were designed. The calculation of errors was also defined
to characterise the device. Finally, a complete study of the uncertainty in the electrical
measurements that led to the complete characterisation of the SM was performed. To
complete the study, all the calibration and uncertainty tests were carried out on the SM,
and the result graphs were obtained, obtaining an accuracy with an error of less than 1%.
The second paper deals with the influence of the granularity of electrical measure-
ments on the accuracy of the obtained results. A wide range of electrical measurement
databases were studied, looking at the granularity used in the measurements and the data
available for download.
This was followed by a study of time series theory, covering seasonality, metrics for
statistics and probability, correlation and spectrum analysis. Temporality at granularity
was also addressed. In addition, a plan of the data collection and analysis framework in
households was created.
The time horizon of the study was extended to one year, studying four houses with
different typologies and electrical equipment. An analysis of the reliability of the data
upload to the cloud was performed. Subsequently, time studies were performed with
sub-hourly, daily, weekly and yearly time stress with granularities between 0.5 s and
30 min. On the other hand, a complete annual statistical study was performed showing the
probability density function, statistical moments, periodogram, autocorrelation and partial
autocorrelation functions.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 4 of 26

The installation of the prototypes in homes encountered some difficulties. These

included the reluctance of users to provide their Wi-Fi key and installing the equipment
inside the home, which means that the installation had to be performed outside. This
option led to many cases in which the coverage was not good and involved the loss of
real-time information, although it was saved on the microSD memory card fitted in the
equipment. In view of these problems, the researchers are trying to find solutions that will
allow the installation of more SMs to extend the observation network in order to make
progress in future research.
The use of long-range wireless technologies makes it possible to avoid having to use
the Wi-Fi connection of the monitored homes. LPWAN (low-power wide-area network)
technologies make it possible to extend coverage over longer distances. These technologies
include the following: (i) SigFox, (ii) NB-IoT and (iii) LoRa. The SigFox system is proprietary
and requires a contract with the company to be implemented. NB-IoT works with SIM
cards that need a data contract, which logically increases the cost of implementation.
LoRa, therefore, offers an ideal system for deployments of this type. The LoRaWAN
specification is limited by the 1% duty cycle rule, which means that messages with the
required granularity of 0.5 s cannot be sent. However, LoRa systems can be configured
under the specification defined by RadioHead, which allows LoRa equipment to be used
without the LoRaWAN limitations on the duty cycle or network configuration. Therefore,
the target granularity of 0.5 s or lower can be achieved.
LoRa systems have a range of up to 5 km, making them ideal for such deployments.
This research creates a gateway for residential electricity metering networks using LoRa
(GREMNL) as a concentrator for up to 255 electrical variable measuring devices for house-
holds using LoRa (EVMDHLs). The use of LoRa solves the problems encountered with
Wi-Fi systems. As no user key is needed, coverage problems are solved, and the location
becomes unimportant due to the increased coverage of the LoRa networks.
The authors present a number of new contributions to previous work and work
observed in the state of the art such as the following:
• Solution of Wi-Fi coverage problems;
• Possibility of placing equipment in remote locations where Internet access is not available;
• Equipment with reduced consumption that has the least possible impact on the
locations where it will be installed;
• Creation of the GREMNL that allows the concentration of a large number of associated devices;
• Creation of the EVMDHL with LoRa communication to extend wireless coverage to
distances of up to 5 km;
• Measurement granularities of 0.5 s or less.

4. Methodology and Design

4.1. Network scheme
The proposed network is a mix of two sub-networks: (i) LoRa network and (ii) WAN
(wide area network). The LoRa network is controlled by the GREMNL, which can monitor
up to 255 EVMDHLs that can be part of its network. If the system to be built has more
than 255 devices, more GREMNL units will be available to cover the number of devices
required in the system. On the other hand, the WAN can use an Ethernet or Wi-Fi protocol
depending on the availability at the connection point. This network connects directly to
the cloud storage and provides subsequent data access from mobile devices or computers.
The communication between GREMNL and the cloud, as well as with the EVMDHLs,
is bidirectional. GREMNL sends the data received from the LoRa network to the cloud and
receives orders from the cloud, which it passes on to the EVMDHLs. On the other hand,
with EVMSDLs, in addition to sending commands from the cloud, it receives measurement
information from each one.
The information in the cloud can be sent to different services available to the user. The
selection of one or the other will depend on the needs of each implementation. These ser-
vices include the following: (i) AWS IoT [49], (ii) Akenza core [50], (iii) Datacake [51],
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 5 of 26

(iv) deZem [52], (v) InfluxDB Cloud 2. 0 [53], (vi) Microsoft Azure [54], (vii) Qubi-
tro [55], TagoIO [56], (ix) thethings.iO [57], (x) ThingsBoard [58], (xi) ThingSpeak [59],
(xii) Ubidots [60] and (xiii) UIB [61].
In addition, more popular services used by the cloud developer community can be
found. These services are the following: (i) MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Trans-
port) [62], (ii) LoRa cloud [63], (iii) Node-RED [64], IFTTT (IF This, Then That) [65], (iv)
Google Sheets [66] and (v) Google Firebase [67]. Figure 1 shows the proposed
network scheme.

Figure 1. Proposed network scheme.

4.2. Hardware Design

4.2.1. Design Challenges and Objectives
This research aims to design fully functional devices that offer the user full functional-
ity under the required design objectives. The correct definition of the objectives to be met
by the devices has a decisive influence on the components and technologies used in their
construction. The correct choice of components also determines the software and the length
of the programmes that are implemented. In order to meet the required functionality of the
devices, the following objectives are set for the hardware part:
• Low consumption. Low consumption means high efficiency. On the other hand, it will
be much less costly for the user to install these metering devices on the final electricity
bill. High consumption could also imply distortion of the measurements made due to
the inclusion of the high consumption of the meter.
• Operational security. The devices monitor the installations constantly on a 24/7 basis.
This implies that the hardware design must be as reliable as possible to minimise the
possibility of malfunctions.
• Fault response, modular design and component integration. It is essential that com-
ponents can be replaced by other components without affecting the performance of
the system. In this sense, the device has to maintain all its functional characteristics
while the damaged component is being replaced. This feature gives the device a high
degree of operational reliability.
• Reduced price. As a final objective, a reduced price will make the construction and
mass production of the designed devices feasible. This objective makes it accessible to
the majority of potential users who wish to install a device of these characteristics to
monitor their electrical installations.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 6 of 26

Achieving the proposed hardware design objectives involves a component search

and selection tasks. For this, it is necessary to perform tasks that entail great difficulties
and challenges that lead to final devices that are as optimal as possible. Among them are
the following:
• Estimation of alternatives. This is fundamental to achieve an optimal design. In this
sense, a search of the different techniques and implementations available must be
conducted, leading to an adequate selection of the components and techniques to
be used.
• Modular design. It must be related to the rest of the proposed objectives and must
offer a safe and robust design of the device. In this way, the device cannot be put
out of service if one of the components fails. To this end, the modular design al-
lows the device to continue to function in the event of the failure of one of the
components used.
• Component selection. Component selection is critical to achieving the proposed design
objectives. If it is not performed correctly, the device may malfunction or not perform
the functions assigned to it correctly.
• Printed circuit board (PCB) design. The electronic board must integrate all the selected
components in the smallest possible space. The use of PCB boards gives the dissipative
devices an ideal robustness so that the final assembly is as robust as possible. Two
boards have been designed, one for GREMNL and one for EVMDHL.
• Software implementation. The programmes have been created in the GERMNL and
EVMDHL devices to provide the devices with the functionalities required in the
definition of objectives so that these devices fully comply with the functions they must
perform at all moments.

4.2.2. Components
Microcontroller
The microcontroller must be the core of the device’s operations and be able to perform
all the tasks assigned to the device. This component must allow dialogue and commu-
nication between the other components installed in the device. For this purpose, the
microcontroller has to integrate elements such as memories, digital and analogue inputs
and outputs, communication ports, etc. A fundamental characteristic of microprocessors is
the ability to modify their functions in relation to the applications that need to be obtained.
This allows it to be used in industrial and domestic applications, thus covering a wide
range of possibilities.
There are different families of microcontrollers on the market that can meet the pro-
posed design objectives. Each of them offers different possibilities of computing power and
component integration with different price ranges. In this research, the Arduino family
has been chosen. This platform offers a high degree of integration with components of
a different nature. At the same time, it has plenty of computing power for this type of
application. It is also worth noting the low price, small size and open-source platform. A
large amount of code is available for developers to use as a basis for the development of
their specific applications.
Table 1 shows the characteristics of the microcontrollers of the Arduino family anal-
ysed. All of them have sufficient features in terms of processing capacity, memory, in-
puts/outputs and communication ports. Therefore, there are other criteria that lead to the
choice of one of the microprocessors in the family, such as power consumption and small
size. For the above reasons, Arduino Nano (AN) [68] was the one chosen for implementa-
tion in the GREMNL and EVMDHL.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 7 of 26

Table 1. Arduino family comparison.

Current
Flash Clock Speed Unit Price
Component Surface (mm2 ) Microcontroller Consumption
Memory (kB) (MHz) (€)
(mA)
Arduino Uno [69] 3663.24 ATmega328P 46 32 16 20.00
Arduino Mega [70] 5421.17 ATmega2560 93 256 16 35.00
Arduino Nano [68] 810.00 ATmega328 15 32 16 20.00
Arduino Micro [71] 864.00 ATmega32U4 15 32 16 18.00

Wi-Fi System
The Arduino family also has microcontrollers with wireless communication capabil-
ities via Wi-Fi protocol. This access can be achieved through external boards connected
to the central microcontroller, or there are also microcontrollers with integrated Wi-Fi
capabilities. The second option seems more interesting to us and was the option used.
There are basically two Wi-Fi access platforms, ESP32 and ESP8266. The latter is the
one chosen for GREMNL. ESP8266 has the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA/WAP2) communication security protocols, which provides great
power to the system. In addition, it works with the 801.11 b/g/n specifications supported
by almost all routers available on the market.
Looking at the data in Table 2, it can be concluded that several microcontrollers
have similar memory, power and processor characteristics. Therefore, the size and price
options defined the component to be used. In this case, we decided to use Wemos d1 mini
(Wd1M) [72].

Table 2. Arduino Wi-Fi family comparison.

Current
Flash Memory Clock Speed Unit Price
Component Surface (mm2 ) Microcontroller Consumption
(MB) (MHz) (€)
(mA)
Wemos D1R1 [73] 3663.24 ESP-8266EX 170 4 80/160 3.99
Wemos d1 mini [72] 875.52 ESP-8266EX 170 4 80/160 3.91
Wemos d1 mini lite [74] 875.52 ESP-8285 170 1 80/160 2.84
Wemos di mini pro [75] 1219.20 ESP-8266EX 170 16 80/160 5.29
Tensilica 32-bit
NodeMCU [76] 1856.00 RISC CPU 170 4 80 2.19
Xtensa LX106

LoRa Wireless System

In addition to the Wi-Fi system ultimately responsible for uploading data to the
Internet, the proposed network uses a LoRa protocol network for communication between
the EVMDHLs and the GREMNL. Both devices have to be embedded with a LoRa chip to
create such a network.
Table 3 illustrates the result of the comparison of the analysed LoRa equipment
models. There are the following five models: (i) Arduino MKRWAN 1310 (Arduino AG,
Ivrea, Italy) [77]; (ii) Monteino (LowPow-erLab, Canton-Michigan, USA) [78]; (iii) Libelium
(Libe-lium, Zaragoza, Spain) [79]; (iv) Lopy4 (Pycom, Bucharest, Romania) [80]; and (v)
Dragino LoRa Bee (DLB) (Dragino Technology Co., LTD., Shenzhen, China) [81].
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 8 of 26

Table 3. LoRa end-devices comparison.

Current
Surface RSSI Range Sensitivity Blocking Unit Price
Component Consumption
(mm2 ) (dBm) (dBm) Immunity (€)
(A)
Rx 12 mA—0.2 µA
Lopy4 [80] 1100.00 −126 −148 High 33.06
register retention
RX 10.3 mA—200 nA
Monteino [78] 240.05 −127 −148 Excellent 22.95
register retention
RX 10.3 mA—200 nA
Libelium [79] 775.00 −127 −148 Excellent 32.35
register retention
MKR WAN 1310 [77] 1693.75 Rx 23.5 mA −117.5 −133.5 High 33.00
RX 10.3 mA—200 nA
Dragino LoRa Bee [81] 775.00 −127 Down −148 Excellent 14.50
register retention

The models analysed use the following different chips: (i) Semtech (Semtech Cor-
poration, Camarillo, CA, USA) SX1308 [82], SX1301 [83], SX1276 [84], SX1278 [84] and
SX1257 [85]; (ii) HOPERF chip RFM95/96/97/98 [86] (HOPERF, Shenzhen, China); and
(iii) Murata CMWX1ZZABZ (Murata Manufacturing, Nagaokakyo, Japan) [87]. The chips
contained in each of the models are as follows: (i) Murata CMWX1ZZABZ for the Arduino
MKR WAN 1310; (ii) HOPERF chip RFM95/96/97/98 for the Monteino; (iii) SX1276 and
SX1278 for the Lopy4 and DLB, respectively; and (iv) Semtech SX1272 for the Libelium.
The several models analysed have similar characteristics; therefore, the choice was
made on the basis of cost. The DLB of the Dragino brand was chosen.

Electrical Variables Meter

To obtain the derived electrical variables, it was necessary to measure the two fun-
damental variables, voltage and current. As for the current, there are the following two
basic procedures: intrusive and non-intrusive (NLIM). The former needs to modify the
installation it monitors, and the latter does not modify the installation it monitors. An ex-
ample is the ACS7xx family and its version ACS712 [88] (Allegro MicroSystems, Worcester,
Massachusett, USA), available in 5, 20 and 30 A versions. In terms of an NLIM sensor, the
STC-013 [89] from YHDC (YHDC, Hebei, China) is worth mentioning.
Different techniques are also available for voltage measurement. The nominal AC
mains voltage must be reduced to the voltage of the analogue inputs of AN, which is
5 V DC. Several alternatives have been evaluated, among which the following are worth
mentioning: (i) 230/12 or 24 V transformer, AC/DC rectifier and voltage divider;
(ii) 230/24 V transformer, AC/DC rectifier and FZ0430 [90] meter; and (iii) ZMPT101b [91]
voltage transformer from 230 to 5 V.
Once the voltage and current have been obtained by one of the above methods, the
necessary calculations must be carried out to obtain the derived variables, such as active
and reactive power, etc. In addition, it is necessary to use optocouplers to capture the
zero crossing of the voltage and current signals. Subsequently, the root mean square
(RMS) values must be obtained by calculation. All this leads to the consumption of extra
computational time by the microprocessor.
The above paragraph makes it clear that using individual meters increases the com-
plexity of the system. The PZEM-004t (PZEM) sensor (Ningbo Peacefair Electronic Tech-
nology, Zhejiang, China) can be used [92]. This sensor is equipped with optocouplers and
can measure and calculate voltage, current, active power, power factor (PF) and energy
independently of the system microcontroller. In this way, the meter provides the RMS
values with only one software call. Therefore, we implemented in it the EVMDHL. Table 4
shows the characteristics of the tested devices.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 9 of 26

Table 4. Electrical sensors comparison.

Sizes Price
Component Measured Variable Return Value
Long (mm) Wide (mm) Surface (mm2 ) (€)
Transformer + Rectifier Voltage Instantaneous 105 40 4200 50.76
Transformer + Rectifier
Voltage Instantaneous 120 40 4800 52.47
+ FZ0430 [90]
ZMPT101b [91] Voltage Instantaneous 50 20 1000 2.76
STC013 [89] Current Instantaneous 20 20 400 3.11
ACS712 [88] Current Instantaneous 30 14 420 1.28
Voltage, current, PF,
PZEM-004t [92] active power, RMS 73.7 30 2211 7.17
apparent power

4.2.3. Hardware Implementation for the GREMNL

Two microcontrollers were used in the construction of GREMNL. AN is responsible
for the LoRa network communications. Wd1M is responsible for the Wi-Fi system and
the uploading of data to the Internet. Both microcontrollers communicate via the serial
port using bidirectional communication. When measurement data are received from any
EVMDHL, they are sent through the serial port to Wd1M, which uploads it to the Internet.
On the other hand, when any command is received from the Internet by Wd1M, it is sent
to AN to be executed.
The system is powered by a power supply with a 5 V DC output. This voltage is
required by AN. However, Wd1M works at 3.3 V DC; therefore, a level converter is needed
to switch from the 5 V DC output of the power supply to the 3.3 V DC input of Wd1M.
It is important to define the maximum number of LoRa devices (EVMDHLs) that can
be controlled by the GREMNL. There is a maximum of 255 EVMDHLs. To do this, in the
programming of each of the devices, an identifier is assigned to them, which is used to
store the data in the cloud for each of the devices used. Figure 2 shows the block diagram
of the GREMNL.

Figure 2. Block diagram of the GREMNL.

Figure 3 shows the wiring diagram of the GREMNL. The wiring diagram serves as a
complement to the block diagram. Both are intended to enable interested researchers to
replicate the GREMNL. The electrical connections are represented in the wiring diagram.
These connections provide insight into the relationships between components.
The PCB board for the GREMNL was designed and built. The board allows the
connection of all the components used in the GREMNL, which are soldered and, therefore,
it is a solid and resistant final system. The dimensions of the PCB board are 88 × 55 mm.
Figure 4 shows the design of the two sides of the GREMNL PCB board.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 10 of 26

Figure 3. Wiring diagram of the GREMNL.

Figure 4. Printed circuit board (PCB) of the GREMNL with battery power supply: (a) front side,
(b) back side and (c) assembled with real components.

In order to know whether the GREMNL is capable of mass production, it is necessary

to make an economic assessment of the cost of the materials used. The budget also
serves to validate the low-cost objective proposed earlier. The prices shown are from
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 11 of 26

the manufacturers’ official shops. As these are open-source components, compatible

components can be found to further reduce the price. Table 5 shows the cost of the different
components used.

Table 5. Cost of the components for a GREMNL with a battery power supply.

Description Number Unit Price (€) Total (€)

Microcontroller Arduino Nano 1 20.00 20.00
Dragino LoRa Bee 1 14.50 14.50
Wemos D1 Mini 1 3.91 3.91
Level converter 1 1.66 1.66
Printed circuit board 1 0.40 0.40
Power supply unit 1 1.78 1.78
Box container 1 2.54 2.54
Auxiliary material and wiring —- 1.05 1.05
Total cost 45.84

4.2.4. Hardware Implementation for the EVMDHL

The EVMDHL designed uses two ANs. This is because both DLB and the data
logger implemented use AN’s ISP connections and are, therefore, incompatible. AN1 is
responsible for communication with the LoRa network, sending measurement commands
and receiving measurement data from AN2. Measurements are performed every 0.5 s. This
time can be varied depending on the granularity assigned to the system.
AN2 receives the measurement command via the serial port. It then sends the mea-
surement command to PZEM. Next, it saves the measurement data together with the
measurement time on the data logger’s microSD card, thus ensuring that no data is lost.
The use of the microSD card is justified because wireless communication is not 100% reli-
able and some packets are lost. However, the rate of packet loss is very low. The memory
card can be up to 32 GB, which ensures about 14 years of data storage. It also sends the
date and time together with the measured data to AN1 via the serial port.
Finally, AN1 adds the assigned EVMDHL number and sends it over the LoRa network
to the GREMNL, which uploads it to the Internet, in this case, to Google’s Firebase service.
The components are powered by a power supply with a 5 V DC output. Figure 5 shows
the block diagram of the EVMDHL.

Figure 5. Block diagram of the EVMDHL.

As in the case of the GREMNL, the wiring diagram is included as a complement to

the EVMDHL block diagram. With all this information, it is possible for any interested
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 12 of 26

researcher to reproduce EVMDHL. Figure 6 shows the wiring diagram with the electrical
connections between the components used in the EVMDHL.

Figure 6. Wiring diagram of the EVMDHL.

Finally, the PCB boards designed for the EVMDHL are shown in Figure 7. In this case,
the board dimensions are 77 × 131 mm.

Figure 7. Cont.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 13 of 26

Figure 7. PCB of the EVMDHL with battery power supply: (a) front side, (b) back side and
(c) assembled with real components.

Table 6 shows the economic valuation of the components used in the EVMDHL. It can
be seen that the price reduction target is achieved. As with the GREMNL, these are prices
from official manufacturers, which can be reduced by using compatible devices.

Table 6. Cost of the components for an EVMDHL with a battery power supply.

Description Number Unit Price (€) Total (€)

Microcontroller Arduino Nano 2 20.00 40.00
Dragino LoRa Bee 1 14.50 14.50
PZEM-004 t v3.0 1 7.17 7.17
Data logger 1 3.31 3.31
MicroSD 32 GB 1 9.38 9.38
Battery CR1220 1 1.15 1.15
Printed circuit board 1 0.40 0.40
Power supply unit 1 1.78 1.78
Box container 1 2.54 2.54
Auxiliary material and wiring —- 1.05 1.05
Total cost 76.32

4.3. Software Design

4.3.1. Software Implementation for the GREMNL
The GREMNL program consists of the following three routines: (i) initialisation,
(ii) command control and (iii) reading data. The first initialisation routine is only performed
when the GREMNL is powered on or when the device is reset. The remaining routines are
performed continuously as long as GREMNL is energised.
The command control routine reads the Wi-Fi network and checks for any incoming
system messages to change the network configuration. Messages received can be of the
following two types: (i) modification of LoRa network parameters or (ii) modification of the
granularity of the measurement being performed. The LoRa parameter modification should
be sent to all the EVMDHLs to improve the efficiency of the network communication and
minimise the rate of lost information packets. This message is the most common message
received. As for the change of the granularity message, it implies a change in the temporal
resolution at which the electrical variable data is read. Therefore, it also has to be sent to all
the EVMDHLs that are part of the network. When the changed messages have been sent to
the associated devices, a confirmation message is sent to the system.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 14 of 26

The data reading routine monitors the LoRa network. If a message arrives, the sending
EVMDHL is identified, and the data are uploaded to the cloud via Wi-Fi to the Firebase,
where it is stored. A confirmation message is sent to allow the EVMDHL to continue its
measurement activity. Figure 8 shows the GREMNL flowchart.

Figure 8. Flowchart of the main program for the GREMNL.

4.3.2. Software Implementation for the EVMDHL

Similar to the GREMNL, the EVMDHL programme is structured in the following
three main routines: (i) initialisation, (ii) measurement and (iii) command control. As in
the previous case, initialisation is only performed when the equipment is switched on or
when the equipment is reset.
The measurement routine is executed at the required granularity time. For this, it
checks whether PZEM is available, in which case it performs the measurement. Subse-
quently, the data are saved to the microSD memory and assigned a date and time. Then,
the data together with the date and time plus the device identifier are sent over the LoRa
network to the GREMNL, which uploads them to Firebase. The routine has implemented a
message control system with a predefined timeout that resends the message in case of no
confirmation from the GREMNL.
The received command messages are handled by the command control routine. For
this purpose, once the measurement has been performed, the LoRa network is scanned for
any incoming message and the action is executed. The messages can be of two types, a
change of LoRa parameters and a change of measurement granularity. Figure 9 shows the
flowchart of the main EVMDHL routine.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 15 of 26
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 16 of 28

EVMDHL main program

Initialisation
routine Initialise the components:
• Serial
• LoRa Bee
• PZEM
• Data Logger

Send measurement message to PZEM

Scan LoRa network

No PZEM No Message

Command control routine

reply? incoming
Yes Yes
Masurement routine

Send measurement data to LoRa

Change LoRa Change LoRa
network & store in Data Logger Yes
parameters network
message? parameters
Scan the LoRaWAN to receive
confirmation of data transmission No
Granularity Change
Yes
Wait Yes change granularity
Yes message? resolution
time>Limit
? No
No
No Confirmation
message?

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Flowchart
Flowchart of
of the
the main
main program
program for
for the
the EVMDHL.
EVMDHL.

The
The effective
effective voltage
voltage is
is defined
defined by
by the square root of the mean value. Equation Equation (1)(1)
allows
allows the calculation of the RMS voltage,
voltage, where
where V VRMS RMS represents
represents the
the value
value of
of the
the effective
effective
voltage, N is the number of samples and vjj isis the
the jjththmeasurement
measurementof ofthe
thevoltage
voltagesignal.
signal.

N-1
v
11 N−12 2
u
(1)
− 1 j=0j∑
u
VRMSV=
RMS
t = vjvj (1)
NN-1 =0

The
The effective
effective current
current is is obtained
obtained in the same way as the voltage. For For this
this purpose,
purpose,
Equation
Equation (2)
(2) has
has been
beenused,
used,wherewhereIRMS IRMSrepresents the
represents value
the ofof
value the effective
the effective current,
current, NN is
is the
the number
number of samples, ij is ithe
of samples, j is the
jth j measurement
measurement
th of of
the the current
current signal
signal and ijand
is i
the j is
jth the j
meas- th
measurement
urement of theofcurrent
the current
signal. signal.
v
u 11 N-1N−1
u
RMS N − 1 ∑ij j
IRMS I= 2 i2
t= (2)
N-1 j=0
j=0

To obtain
To obtain the
the active
active power,
power, Equation
Equation (3) is used,
(3) is used, which
which is
is calculated
calculated from
from the
the voltage
voltage
and current
and current in
in each
each sample,
sample, where P is
where P is the
the active
active power.
power.
N-1
N− 1v
vj j··iijj
P =P=∑ (3)
(3)
j=0
N
N
j=0

The apparent power is obtained from Equation (4), where S is the apparent power.
The apparent power.

S =S=V RMS··I
VRMS IRMS
RMS (4)
(4)
The power factor can be calculated from the ratio of active to apparent power as de-
The power factor can be calculated from the ratio of active to apparent power as
fined in Equation (5), where PF is the power factor.
defined in Equation (5), where PF is the power factor.
P
PF =P (5)
PF = S (5)
S
5.
5. Results
Results
This section shows
This section showsthe
theresults
results obtained
obtained with
with thethe equipment
equipment developed
developed inresearch.
in this this re-
search. The data obtained in five houses, with one house equipped with photovoltaic
The data obtained in five houses, with one house equipped with photovoltaic generation,gen-
eration, are illustrated. The results are shown at various granularities that highlight the
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 16 of 26

are illustrated. The results are shown at various granularities that highlight the importance
of high resolutions to achieve high precision measurements. Furthermore, the results from
the measurements on the LoRa are presented.

5.1. Case Study

Several real installations in Jaén, Andalusia, Spain were selected to study the devices
that are the object of this research. This study is focused on the measurement of electrical
variables in residential environments. In order to test the operation of the GREMNL and
EVMDHL, installations of different natures were selected to obtain results. Thus, the peaks,
loads and fluctuations are different, reflecting the different load profiles that can be found
in real installations.
For the selection of installations different criteria were followed such as (i) contracted
power, (ii) number of phases and (iii) mains voltage. Households #3 and #5 have a three-
phase supply, and the remaining ones have a single-phase supply. In terms of contracted
power, there are different levels according to Spanish legislation, with a range between 2.3
and 6.9 kW. Household #6 has a 2 kWp photovoltaic power generation installation that
feeds the house and sends the excess energy generated to the grid. It also receives the
necessary power consumption from the grid when there is no photovoltaic generation, or
it is not enough to cover the household’s consumption.
It can be seen that all the households have some type of electric air conditioning
installed. All of them have air conditioning due to the hot summers in Jaén. Additionally,
houses #3 and #5 have electric heating, as they have cold winters with hot summers.
The Department of Electrical Engineering of the University of Jaén has a 2.97 kWp
PV generation installation that is used for laboratory practice with students and research.
This installation was monitored by the authors, and the results are shown in the following
sections. On the other hand, an EVMDHL unit was also installed to monitor a plug-in
hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), specifically a BMW 2 series model.
Table 7 shows the main characteristics and configuration of each of the houses studied.

Table 7. Configuration of the five households monitored.

Household #1 Household #2 Household #3 Household #4 Household #5 Household #6

Total surface (m2 ) 100 92 190 135 230 125
Number of
4 3 5 2 3 3
family members
Electric heating No No Yes No Yes No
Electric air
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
conditioning
Semi-detached Detached Detached
Building type Flat Flat Town house
house house house
Contracted
2.3 3.45 5.75 4.6 6.9 3.45
power (kW)
Number of phases 1-phase 1-phase 3-phase 1-phase 3-phase 1-phase
PV generation No No No No No Yes

5.2. Measurement Results

The period analysed was one week from 12 to 18 July 2021. The study shows the
granularities of 0.5 s, 1 min and 15 min to study the influence of granularity on the accuracy
of the results obtained.

5.2.1. Households #1 to #5
The first five houses were studied in this section because none of them have PV
generation; therefore, household #6 will be studied separately.
The maximum peaks at a granularity of 0.5 s were 5.59, 2.65, 6.52, 7.53 and 6.76 kW
for each of the households, respectively. At the 1 min granularity, the peaks were 3.96, 2.62,
 5.2.1. Households #1 to #5
The first five houses were studied in this section because none of them have PV gen-
eration; therefore, household #6 will be studied separately.
Electronics 2021, 10, The
3152 maximum peaks at a granularity of 0.5 s were 5.59, 2.65, 6.52, 7.53 and 6.76 kW 17 of 26
for each of the households, respectively. At the 1 min granularity, the peaks were 3.96,
2.62, 6.01, 2.85 and 6.61 kW, respectively. Finally, the 15 min granularity gave peaks of
2.94, 1.88, 5.93, 0.77 and 6.58 kW, respectively. The peak reduction for 1 min and 15 min
6.01, 2.85 and 6.61 kW, respectively. Finally, the 15 min granularity gave peaks of 2.94, 1.88,
were 29.15 and 47.40%, 1.14
5.93, 0.77 andand
6.5829.05%, 7.82 and 9.04%,
kW, respectively. The peak62.15 and 89.77%
reduction and
for 1 min 2.21
and andwere 29.15
15 min
2.66% for each of the andhouseholds,
47.40%, 1.14 andrespectively. Figure
29.05%, 7.82 10 shows
and 9.04%, 62.15the power
and 89.77%data
andobtained
2.21 and 2.66% for
during the measurement period.
each of the households, respectively. Figure 10 shows the power data obtained during the
measurement period.

Load (kW)
Load (kW)

(a) (b)
Load (kW)
Load (kW)

(c) (d)
Load (kW)

(e)
FigureFigure 10. Weekly
10. Weekly consumption
consumption profile:
profile: (a) (a) Household
Household #1, (b) #2,
#1, (b) Household Household #2, (c)
(c) Household #3,Household #3, #4
(d) Household (d)and (e)
Household
Household #5. #4 and (e) Household #5.

Table 8 shows the Table 8 shows

statistics the statistics
of the power data of theobtained
power data
forobtained
the fivefor the five households
households stud- studied.
It can be seen that the mean data are similar, but there are differences in different values.
ied. It can be seen that the mean data are similar, but there are differences in different
For the maximum values, there are differences of 36.49, 30.22, 9.20, 35.32 and 0.07% for
values. For the maximum values, there are differences of 36.49, 30.22, 9.20, 35.32 and 0.07%
each household, respectively, which shows the importance of the granularity of 0.5 s. This
for each household, respectively,
granularity which
is more shows the
appropriate for importance of theresults
obtaining precise granularity of 0.5 s.
since measurements with
This granularity is more appropriate for obtaining precise results since measurements
a lower granularity can miss areas of maximum consumption that are not reflected in
with a lower granularity can miss areas of maximum consumption that are not reflected
the measurements.
in the measurements. The analysis of the symmetry indicates that, as it is positive in all cases, the concentra-
tion of consumption extends the distribution to the right with values above the mean. The
study of the kurtosis indicates a leptokurtic distribution (kurtosis greater than three) with a
high kurtosis and the data concentrated around the mean for all the households analysed.
use- Sample Mean Sample Variance Sample skewness Sample Kurtosis
Granular- Value Value
old (kW) (kW2) (kW3) (kW4)
ity (kW) (kW)
0.5 s 0.68 0.07 5.59 0.59 2.01 7.22
1 1 min 0.68 0.08 4.35 0.59 2.01 7.25
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 18 of 26
15 min 0.67 0.08 3.55 0.58 2.06 7.38
0.5 s 0.44 0 2.65 0.22 3.02 15.24
2 1 min 0.44 0 2.63 0.22 3.06 15.48
15 min 0.44 Table 8.0Descriptive statistics
1.87 of the consumption
0.22 load profile throughout the year.
2.80 12.32
0.5 s 1.05 0.23 6.52 0.71 1.46
Sample 6.47
Sample Sample
Data Sample Minimum Maximum
3 1 min
Household 1.05 Granularity 0.23
Mean (kW) 5.99
Value (kW) 0.71
Value (kW) 1.45
Variance 6.37
skewness Kurtosis
(kW ) 2 (kW )3 (kW4 )
15 min 1.06 0.24 5.92 0.71 1.47 6.71
0.5 s 0.68 0.07 5.59 0.59 2.01 7.22
0.5 s #1 0.951 min 0.190.68 7.530.08 0.66
4.35 2.13
0.59 8.49
2.01 7.25
4 1 min 0.95
15 min 0.200.67 5.870.08 0.67
3.55 2.12
0.58 8.30
2.06 7.38
15 min 0.94 0.5 s 0.290.44 4.87 0 0.64
2.65 2.15
0.22 8.51
3.02 15.24
1 min 0.44 0 2.63 0.22 3.06 15.48
0.5 s #2 0.50
15 min 0.130.44 6.77 0 0.43
1.87 4.55
0.22 28.73
2.80 12.32
5 1 min 0.500.5 s 0.131.05 6.720.23 0.44
6.52 4.62
0.71 30.04
1.46 6.47
15 min#3 0.501 min 0.141.05 6.720.23 5.99
0.46 0.71
6.20 1.45
58.75 6.37
15 min 1.06 0.24 5.92 0.71 1.47 6.71
0.5 s The analysis
0.95 of the symmetry
0.19 indicates7.53
that, as it is positive
0.66 in all cases,2.13
the concen- 8.49
#4 1tration
min of consumption
0.95 0.20the distribution
extends 5.87 to the right0.67 2.12the mean.
with values above 8.30
15 min 0.94 0.29 4.87 0.64 2.15 8.51
The study of the kurtosis indicates a leptokurtic distribution (kurtosis greater than three)
0.5 s 0.50 0.13 6.77 0.43 4.55 28.73
#5 1with
min a high kurtosis
0.50 and the0.13
data concentrated
6.72 around the0.44
mean for all the4.62
households 30.04
15analysed.
min 0.50 0.14 6.72 0.46 6.20 58.75
In addition to the graphs for power, the graphs for the measured voltage, current and
power factor data are shown, which
In addition to thereinforce thepower,
graphs for importance of the accuracy
the graphs of the meas-
for the measured voltage, current
urements made andinpower
relationfactor
to thedata
granularity chosen.
are shown, which It should be the
reinforce noted that the granular-
importance of the accuracy of the
ity of 0.5 s reflects the changes
measurements in the
made in evolution
relation toofthe
electricity consumption
granularity chosen. Itinshould
the house-
be noted that the
holds analysed much more accurately. Figure 11 shows the measured voltages. Figure
granularity of 0.5 s reflects the changes in the evolution of electricity consumption 12 in
shows the data collected for current, and Figure 13 shows the power factor data.
the households analysed much more accurately. Figure 11 shows the measured voltages.
Figure 12 shows the data collected for current, and Figure 13 shows the power factor data.
Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

(a) (b)
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)

nics 2021, 10, 3152 20 of 28

(c) (d)
Voltage (V)

(e)
Figure voltage
Figure 11. Weekly 11. Weekly voltage distribution:
distribution: (a) Household
(a) Household #1, (b) Household
#1, (b) Household #2, (c) Household
#2, (c) Household #3, (d) #4 and
#3, (d) Household
Household
(e) Household #5. #4 and (e) Household #5.
rrent (A)
rrent (A)
 (e)
(e)
Figure 11. Weekly voltage distribution: (a) Household #1, (b) Household #2, (c) Household #3, (d)
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 Figure 11. #4
Weekly voltage distribution: (a) Household #1, (b) Household #2, (c) Household #3, (d) 19 of 26
Household and (e) Household #5.
Household #4 and (e) Household #5.

Current (A)
Current (A)

Current (A)
Current (A)

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Current (A)

Current (A)
Current (A)

Current (A)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Current (A)
Current (A)

(e)
(e)
Figure 12. Weekly current distribution: (a) Household #1, (b) Household #2, (c) Household #3, (d)
Figure 12. Weekly Figure 12. distribution:
current Weekly current(a)
distribution:
Household (a)#1,
Household #1, (b) Household
(b) Household #2, (c) Household
#2, (c) Household #3, (d) #3, (d)
Household #4 and
Household #4 and (e) Household #5.
Household #4 and (e) Household #5.
(e) Household #5.
Power factor (pu)
Power factor (pu)

Power factor (pu)

Power factor (pu)

Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 21 of 28

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Power factor (pu)

Power factor (pu)

(c) (d)
Power factor (pu)

(e)

Figure 13. Weekly Figure 13. Weekly

current current(a)
distribution: distribution:
Household (a) #1,
Household #1, (b) Household
(b) Household #2, (c) Household
#2, (c) Household #3, (d)#3, (d)
Household #4 and
Household #4 and (e) Household #5.
(e) Household #5.
5.2.2. Household #6
This household was analysed separately because it has photovoltaic generation. The
installed power is 2 kWp, which helps the consumption of the house. For the construction
of the graphs, consumption has been taken as positive and generation as negative.
 Figure 13. Weekly current distribution: (a) Household #1, (b) Household #2, (c) Household #3, (d)
Household #4 and (e) Household #5.

5.2.2.
Electronics 2021, Household
10, 3152 #6 20 of 26

This household was analysed separately because it has photovoltaic generation. The
installed power is 2 kWp, which helps the consumption of the house. For the construction
5.2.2. Household #6
of the graphs, consumption has been taken as positive and generation as negative.
This household was analysed separately because it has photovoltaic generation. The
Figure 14a shows the consumption and generation produced, as well as the ex-
installed power is 2 kWp, which helps the consumption of the house. For the construction
changes with theofelectricity
the graphs, grid. It can has
consumption be been
clearly
takenseen that the
as positive andPV generation
generation covers a
as negative.
large part of the consumption during
Figure 14a shows thethe generation
consumption andhours, andproduced,
generation even excess
as wellenergy is fed
as the exchanges
with the electricity grid. It can be clearly seen that the PV generation
into the grid. The differences in readings obtained with the lower granularity, which covers a large part
is of
the consumption during the generation hours, and even excess energy is fed into the grid.
more accurate than the others, can also be observed.
The differences in readings obtained with the lower granularity, which is more accurate
than the others, can also be observed.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure14.
Figure Weekly electrical
14. Weekly electricaldata for Household
data #6: (a) power,
for Household #6: (a)(b) voltage,
power, (b)(c)voltage,
current and
(c) (d) powerand
current factor.
(d) power
factor.
The distribution of generation and consumption currents is similar to that of power,
with these two variables being linked. The voltages have a very similar distribution as they
are connected to the same electrical network. Finally, Figure 14c shows the power factor
distribution obtained in the measurement.

5.2.3. PV generation
It is also interesting to check the performance of the equipment used in this research.
The monitored installation is a 2.97 kWp installation belonging to the Electrical Engineering
Department of the University of Jaén.
As in previous cases, the meter has been used with different granularities, as can be
seen in Figure 15. It can be clearly seen that the 0.5 s granularity reflects the rapid changes
produced in the generation. As in the case of households, it is particularly interesting
to know the rapid changes in generation that may occur, e.g., due to a decrease in solar
radiation in the presence of clouds.
 withofthese
ing Department two variables
the University being linked. The voltages have a very similar distribution as
of Jaén.
As in previous cases, the meter hassame
they are connected to the beenelectrical
used withnetwork.
differentFinally, Figure as
granularities, 14ccan
shows
be the power
factor distribution obtained in the measurement.
seen in Figure 15. It can be clearly seen that the 0.5 s granularity reflects the rapid changes
produced in the generation. As in the case of households, it is particularly interesting to
5.2.3.
know the rapid PV generation
changes in generation that may occur, e.g., due to a decrease in solar ra-
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 21 of 26
It is also
diation in the presence interesting to check the performance of the equipment used in this research.
of clouds.
The monitored installation is a 2.97 kWp installation belonging to the Electrical Engineer-
ing Department of the University of Jaén.
As in previous cases, the meter has been used with different granularities, as can be
seen in Figure 15. It can be clearly seen that the 0.5 s granularity reflects the rapid changes
produced in the generation. As in the case of households, it is particularly interesting to

Voltage (V)
Load (kW)

know the rapid changes in generation that may occur, e.g., due to a decrease in solar ra-
diation in the presence of clouds.

(a) (b)

Voltage (V)
Load (kW)

Power factor (pu)

Current (A)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 15. Weekly electrical data for PV:
PV: (a)
(a) power,
power,(b)
(b)voltage,
voltage,(c)
(c)current
currentand
and(d)
(d)power
powerfactor.
factor.

Power factor (pu)

Current (A)

5.2.4. PHEV Measurement

This section shows the monitoring of a PHEV, specifically the BMW 2-series model.
The battery has a capacity of 7.6 kWh. It can be seen from the graphs that the vehicle’s
Voltage (V)

battery is switched on every day because the owner uses the vehicle in the city with almost
Load (kW)

(c) (d)
electric mode consumption on the journeys made. It can also be seen that the same charging
Figure 15. Weekly
does not electrical
take place everydata
dayfor
duePV:
to(a)
thepower, (b)or
shorter voltage,
longer(c)distance
current and (d) power factor.
travelled.
Figure 16 shows the results of the measurements made.

(a) (b)
Voltage (V)
Load (kW)

Power factor (pu)

Current (A)

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 16. Weekly electrical data for PHEV: (a) power, (b) voltage, (c) current and (d) power factor.
Power factor (pu)
Current (A)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure16.
16.Weekly
Weeklyelectrical
electricaldata
datafor
forPHEV:
PHEV:(a)
(a) power,
power, (b)
(b) voltage,
voltage, (c)
(c) current
current and
and (d)
(d) power
power factor.
factor.

5.3. LoRa Network Measurements

In order to test the LoRa network, the study was extended to 10 days, with packets
sent every 0.5 s on four EVMDHLs. The aim was to obtain a sufficiently long-time horizon
to be able to draw conclusions about the quality of the implemented system.
It can be seen in Figure 17b that the loss of information packets is below 17%, with
averages below 11% for EVMDHL #2 and a maximum standard deviation of 5.1865% for
EVMDHL #3. These are very acceptable values and make the proposed network very
efficient in terms of information loss.
 sent every 0.5 s on four EVMDHLs. The aim was to obtain a sufficiently long-time horizon
to be able to draw conclusions about the quality of the implemented system.
It can be seen in Figure 17b that the loss of information packets is below 17%, with
averages below 11% for EVMDHL #2 and a maximum standard deviation of 5.1865% for
EVMDHL #3. These are very acceptable values and make the proposed network very ef-
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 22 of 26
ficient in terms of information loss.

Packet Loss Rate (%)

Number of packets

(a)
RSSI (dBm) (b)

(c)
Figure Figure
17. LoRa17.network
LoRa network measurements:
measurements: (a) packets
(a) packets sent andsent and received,
received, (b) packet(b) packet
loss loss rate
rate (PLR) and(PLR)
(c) RSSI.
and (c) RSSI.
As for the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), the analysed EVMDHLs are
As for the −68.8131
Received −83.9871
andSignal Strength Indicator
dBm for EVMDHL (RSSI),
#1 and the#4,
analysed EVMDHLs
respectively. are the standard
Moreover,
deviations
−68.8131 and −83.9871 dBmare for
2.4463 and 4.0688
EVMDHL #1 andfor #4,
EVMDHL #3 and
respectively. #4, respectively.
Moreover, the standard
Figure
deviations are 2.4463 and17 shows
4.0688 forthe measurements
EVMDHL performed.
#3 and #4, respectively.Part (a) shows the packets sent and
Figure 17received,
shows the(b) measurements
the packet loss performed.
rate (PLR) and Part(c)(a)the RSSI.the
shows On packets
the other hand,
sent andTable 9 shows
thepacket
received, (b) the statistics obtained
loss from
rate (PLR) the(c)transmission.
and the RSSI. On the other hand, Table 9 shows
the statistics obtained from the transmission.
Table 9. Transmission statistics.

PLR RSSI (dBm)

EVMDHL. Number
µ σ µ σ
#1 7.4496 3.9465 −68.8131 2.4761
#2 10.9909 4.0321 −85.8404 3.8015
#3 5.1907 5.1865 −73.1181 2.4463
#4 4.6447 1.6698 −83.9871 4.0688

6. Conclusions
This research successfully designed and implemented a GREMNL and an EVMDHL
from scratch to create fully functional prototypes. These devices enable the construction of
SM networks that make it possible to collect data in homes in 0.5 s or less.
The results section clearly shows the efficiency of the solutions developed in this
research. In this sense, the monitoring of different electricity consumption profiles is
performed. The measured information is obtaining efficiently and in real time in the cloud.
On the other hand, the usefulness of the devices was also demonstrated in the monitoring of
houses with photovoltaic generation, where the generation, consumption and contribution
or discharge to the electricity grid can be observed. A grid-connected photovoltaic power
generation installation was also monitored, which confirms the use of the devices in the
monitoring of renewable generation installations. Electric vehicles can also be monitored
using the devices created in this research.
All this demonstrates the usefulness of the equipment in a wide range of applications
in low-voltage electrical installations that can be included in smart grids and distributed
generation installations through the use of IoT technology and cloud computing.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 23 of 26

On the other hand, the design objectives such as reduced power consumption, opera-
tional safety, fault response and reduced price were achieved. The estimation of alternatives
has allowed the use of highly efficient components, which, combined with the open-source
option, opens up a wide range of programming possibilities and adaptations for the needs
of each implementation to be carried out. The modular design offers robustness to the
equipment and allows the equipment to continue working in the event of a failure of any
of its components. A PCB board that integrates all the components of the GREMNL and
EVMDHL was created.
As for the results that the authors proposed as novelties of this research, they have
been fully achieved, as the coverage of the LoRa network is much greater than that of
Wi-Fi or similar networks, which allows the range of the equipment to be extended. In
addition, there is no need to use the Internet, as the data uploaded to the cloud are
concentrated in the GREMNL, which is the only device that needs Internet access. This
avoids needing the user’s Wi-Fi key and the problem of locating an EVMDHL. The reduced
power consumption also makes the device more transparent in terms of the data obtained
and the additional power consumption for the user. This low power consumption feature
is especially interesting in locations where there is no mains power supply, such as where
the device would have to be provided with a battery to keep it running. Thus, the reduced
power consumption would extend the battery discharge time.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.S.-S. and A.C.-O.; methodology, F.S.-S. and A.C.-O.;
software, F.S.-S. and A.C.-O.; validation, J.C.H.; formal analysis, F.S.-S.; investigation, A.C.-O.;
writing—original draft preparation, F.S.-S. and A.C.-O.; writing—review and editing, J.C.H. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Department of Electrical Engineering of
the University of Jaen for allowing the use of their laboratories and materials in the development of
this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript.
AN Arduino Nano
BW Bandwidth
DLB Dragino LoRa Bee
EVMDHL Electrical variable measuring device for households using LoRa
GREMNL Gateway for residential electricity metering networks using LoRa
IFTTT If This, Then That
IoT Internet of Things
LoRa Long range
LoRaWAN Long-range wide-area network
LPWAN Low-power wide-area network
MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
NB-IoT Narrowband Internet of Things
PCB Printed circuit board
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PLR Packet loss rate
PZEM PZEM-004t
RSSI Receive Signal Strength Indicator
SM Smart meter
WAN Wide area network
Wd1M Wemos d1 mini
Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity
Electronics 2021, 10, 3152 24 of 26

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