Received: 1 May 2018 Revised: 27 June 2018 Accepted: 12 September 2018

DOI: 10.1002/suco.201800127

TECHNICAL PAPER

A comparative study between ASTM C1567 and ASTM C227

to mitigate alkali-silica reaction
Ashish K. Saha

Department of Civil Engineering, Curtin

University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
Correspondence
Ashish K. Saha, Department of Civil Engineering,
Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA
6845, Australia.
Email: a.saha@postgrad.curtin.edu.au
Funding information
SLN New Caledonia, Grant/Award Number:
ERAMET scholarship
The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the two different widely
adopted test methods such as american society for testing and materials (ASTM)
C1567 “accelerated mortar bar method” and ASTM C227 “mortar bar method” to
identify the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) of ferronickel slag fine aggregates. The
ASR mitigation measure was assessed by the application of supplementary cement-
ing material such as fly ash. During the experimental investigation visual inspec-
tion, mortar bar expansion and tensile strength measurements were evaluated. The
test results point out that mortar bar method was unsuccessful to identify the ASR
due to significant alkali leaching during the experiment. On the other hand, acceler-
ated mortar bar method was successful to identify ASR and able to determine the
safe dosage of fly ash to mitigate this deleterious expansion.

KEYWORDS

accelerated mortar bar method, alkali-silica reaction, ASTM C1567, ASTM

C227, ferronickel slag, fly ash, pozzolanic reaction, tensile strength

1 | INTRODUCTION Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is one of the most severe

Concrete is the most highly consumed construction material
around the world due to high resistance against weathering
action and freedom of casting into any shape. The demand
of concrete is increasing every year due to rapid infrastruc-
ture development of countries like China and India.1 Con-
crete composed of cement, sand, stone, and water. Sand is
an integral part of concrete, which occupies not only the
voids but also provides the rigidity to the concrete and con-
tribute to its density and strength. Thus, good quality sand is
essential for concrete production. In order to find quality
sand, excessive sand dredging has been observed in different
parts of the world.2 It has been well established that uncon-
trolled river dredging can cause severe damage to the aquatic
life.3 Thus, application of industrial waste as a replacement
of sand can be a viable option to reduce the waste
disposal cost.
Discussion on this paper must be submitted within two months of the print
publication. The discussion will then be published in print, along with the
authors' closure, if any, approximately nine months after the print publication.
durability issues. It causes expansion and crack in concrete,
which accelerates the moisture and chloride ingress. As a
result, reinforced cement concrete may suffer from corrosion
and strength reduction. Stanton4 initially identified this dele-
terious phenomenon in concrete and since then extensive
research has been conducted in this field. This deleterious
expansion occurs due to combination of following reasons;
first, presence of reactive silica in concrete; second, high
alkalinity in pore solution; and third, availability of sufficient
moisture in the surrounding environment. Different kind of
reactive aggregates can be found in our nature such as opal-
ine silica, volcanic glasses, cryptocrystalline quartz, strained
quartz, chalcedony, and spratt.5–7 Thus, avoiding reactive
aggregates can be useful to eliminate the risk of ASR in con-
crete structures. However, this may not be possible for all
cases, because of the limited availability of good quality
aggregates. In addition, high alkalinity of pore solution is
essential to maintain the binding capacity of cement. Fur-
thermore, there are some cases where exposure to external
moisture is unavoidable such as waterfront structures,

Structural Concrete. 2018;1–8. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/suco © 2018 fib. International Federation for Structural Concrete 1
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coastal structures, and dams. The mechanism of ASR can be TABLE 1 Chemical compositions of ordinary portland cement (OPC),

divided into three main steps. At the initial stage, alkali ions class F fly ash and FNS (mass %)

in pore solution attack metastable silica phases in reactive Element OPC FNS Fly ash
aggregates and generate alkali silicate gel and silicic acid. SiO2 20.29 53.29 76.34
Later, silicic acid further reacts with alkali and generates Al2O3 5.48 2.67 14.72
more alkali silicate gel. Finally, this gel accumulates in the Fe2O3 2.85 11.9 3.69

void of concrete microstructure, absorbs moisture, and MgO 1.24 31.6 0.54

expands. As a result, ASR gel induces swelling pressure and SO3 2.49 — 0.11

causes internal cracking.8 CaO 63.11 0.42 0.60

Application of supplementary cementing material (SCM) Na2O 0.29 0.11 0.19

has been one of the most widely adopted techniques to miti- K2 O 0.45 — 0.96

gate ASR.9 The application of SCM reduces the portlandite Cr2O3 0.02 1.08 —

content due to the pozzolanic reaction, as well as minimizes P2O5 0.17 — 0.10

the overall volume of calcium oxide from concrete. As a SrO 0.05 — —

result, significant alkalinity reduction can be observed in TiO2 0.27 — 0.61

concrete pore solution, which is one of the key factors to ini- Mn2O3 0.08 — 0.07

tiate ASR.10,11 Furthermore, alkali fixation of calcium sili- ZnO 0.04 — —

cate hydrate (C-S-H) by the SCM plays a crucial role to NiO — 0.1 —

reduce the alkalinity of pore solution.12 In addition, alumina Co3O4 — 0.01 —

Loss on ignition 3.39 0.83 0.53
presents in SCM absorbed by silicate surface, hence prevents
further deterioration of the reactive silica and prevent Note. FNS, ferronickel slag.
ASR.13
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the two TABLE 2 Physical properties of aggregates
standards such as ASTM C1567 “accelerated mortar bar Property Sand FNS
method” and ASTM C227 “mortar bar method” to detect 3
Bulk density (kg/m ) 2,160 2,780
ASR of ferronickel slag (FNS) aggregate. Another objective Apparent particle density (kg/m3) 2,320 2,850
was to identify the most suitable method to evaluate ASR of Fineness modulus 1.95 4.07
FNS aggregate and point out a possible mitigation measure, Uncompacted voids ratio (%) 32.42 44.39
because petrographic analysis confirmed the presence of
Note. FNS, ferronickel slag.
glassy phase in this slag aggregate. During this experimental
program visual inspection, mortar bar expansion, and tensile
durability.15–17 Therefore, this aggregate combination was
strength measurement were carried out to evaluate the alkali-
used in the present study.
silica reactivity of the samples.
The microstructural images of the binders are presented
in Figure 1. It can be seen that the OPC consist of angular
2 | EX PER IM ENT AL WOR K S shaped particles and fly ash consist of spherically shaped
particles. Furthermore, specific gravity of OPC and fly ash
were respectively 3.15 and 2.20, while specific surface areas
2.1 | Materials
were 337 and 330 m2/kg, respectively.
Commercially available ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
was used in this experimental investigation as a primary
2.2 | Methods
binder. In addition, class F fly ash and FNS were sourced
from SLN New Caledonia. This nickel slag generates during Mortar mix proportions are shown in Table 3. Control mix-
the production of nickel alloy and cooled by water flow. ture (OPC100) consists of only cement as a binder. While
Due to the rapid cooling process, this slag consists of crys- other mortar mixtures consist of 10, 20 and 30% fly ash are
talline defects and found to be alkali-silica reactive accord- designated as FA10, FA20 and FA30, respectively. After
ing to previous studies and petrographic examination.14 The mixing the fresh mortar, they were cast in 25 × 25
chemical analysis of the materials was done by X-ray fluo- × 285 mm molds inserting steel studs at both ends to facili-
rescence and presented in Table 1. Furthermore, the physical tate length measurements. Similar samples were cast for both
properties of the aggregates are presented in Table 2. It can the experiments.
be seen that this FNS aggregate have high-density, fineness During the ASTM C1567 (accelerated mortar bar
modulus and higher void ratio compared to sand. Due to method), after demolding the samples were kept at 80 C
high fineness and aggregate angularity, the combination of water bath then initial lengths were measured. Later, they
50% FNS and 50% sand as a fine aggregate exhibited opti- were kept in 1 M NaOH solution at 80 C for a period of
mum performance considering the strength and 16 days and the length changes were measured at an interval
SAHA 3

FIGURE 1 Microstructural image of binders. (a) OPC; (b) Fly ash

TABLE 3 Mortar mixture proportions was used to separate the samples. After taking the initial
Binder (kg/m )3 3
Fine aggregate (kg/m ) reading, samples were kept in the container, sealed properly,
Mix ID OPC Fly ash Sand FNS W/C and stored at 38 C. The subsequent readings were taken
OPC100 602 — 678 678 0.47 after 14 days, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 months. The samples were
FA10 541.8 60.2 678 678 taken out from the storage and left for 16 hours to cool
FA20 481.6 120.4 678 678 down, afterwards expansions were recorded. According to
FA30 421 181 678 678 Farny & Kosmatka19 expansion above 0.10% after 6 months
can be classified as reactive. Tensile strength was recorded
Note. FNS, ferronickel slag; W/C, water-cement ratio.
at an interval of 14 days, 1, 3, and 6 months and the samples
of 3, 7, 10, 14, and 16 days. A digital length comparator were cured by a similar curing condition suggested by
was used to measure the readings. The measurement was ASTM C227.
taken within 10 seconds, while a sample was removed from During the experimental investigations, all the readings
solution. According to the standard, expansion above 0.10% were measured from three identical specimens and the mean
can be classified as alkali-silica reactive and unsuitable for values are presented in the following sections.
construction purpose. In addition, similar samples were kept
in accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT) curing condition and
3 | R E S U L T S AN D D IS C US S IO N
tensile strengths were measured by three-point bending test
at an interval of 3, 7, and 16 days. This test was conducted
3.1 | Visual inspections
by a displacement-controlled method with a deformation of
5 μm/s until failure.18 Furthermore, a visual inspection was After completion of the ASTM C1567, images of the sam-
carried out during each expansion reading. ples were taken to observe any sign of damage due to ASR.
On the other hand, during the ASTM C227 (mortar bar The closely taken photographs are shown in Figure 2. It can
method), similar mix proportions were used because the be seen that OPC100 samples exhibited noticeable cracking,
flow value of all the mortar mixtures was varied between which is clearly visible in Figure 2a. These cracks indicate
110 and 120 mm, which is within the allowable limit as per that samples suffered from a deleterious expansion that
this standard. The samples were demolded after 24 h of cast- caused internal cracking, which were propagated through the
ing. Later, samples were stored in a plastic container with a sample surface. Furthermore, Figure 2b points out the FA10
thickness around 5 mm. The inner side of the container was sample, which consists of 10% fly ash as an SCM. Very fine
lined with blotting paper. A supporting rack of brass wire cracks were noticeable that on the sample surface, but the
4 SAHA

FIGURE 2 Visual inspection after ASTM C1567. (a) OPC100; (b) FA10; (c) FA20; (d) FA30

mean crack width was significantly lower compared to
OPC100 sample. Thus, it provides a clear indication that
alkali silicate gel formed in the pore solution of these sam-
ples caused expansion and cracking. Therefore, inclusion of
10% fly ash was unable to prevent this deleterious expan-
sion. Furthermore, FA20 and FA30 samples in Figure 2c,d
did not exhibit any signs of surficial cracking or damage.
Therefore, preliminary visual observations suggest that these
samples might not suffer from ASR.
After completion of ASTM C227, visual inspections
were carried out on the samples and presented in Figure 3. It
can be seen that there was no surficial cracks or damages in
any of these samples including OPC100, which exhibited
noticeable cracking after AMBT. Therefore, visual inspec-
tion was unable to identify any potential ASR occurred in
these four set of samples such as OPC100, FA10, FA20, and
FA30. In addition, visual observation of the samples also
pointed out a noticeable amount of alkali leaching, which
was confirmed by inductively coupled plasma mass spec-
trometry (ICP-MS) analysis. This alkali leaching was pre-
dominant in OPC100 following by FA10, FA20, and FA30
because the chemical analysis of the binders point out that
OPC100 series had higher alkali content and replacement of
OPC by fly ash reduced the total alkali content gradually.
The alkali from the pore solution was leached out through
the interconnecting voids of the specimen. On the other
hand, the samples after completion of AMBT did not exhibit
any signs of alkali leaching in Figure 2. These differences in
alkali leaching were associated with the curing condition of
both the experiments. During AMBT the samples were sub-
merged in an alkaline solution, which prevented the alkali
leaching from the pore solution by maintaining an
SAHA
FIGURE 3 Visual inspection after ASTM C227. (a) OPC100; (b) FA10; (c) FA20; (d) FA30
equilibrium with external and internal alkali. However, dur-
ing mortar bar method the low thickness of the samples
facilitate the alkali leaching from the pore solution towards
the sample surface.
3.2 | Expansion measurement
Expansion of the mortar bar samples was determined after a
definite interval during the AMBT. The percentage expan-
sions during the experimental program are shown in Figure 4,
along with the allowable limit as per the ASTM C1567. It can
be seen that OPC100 sample exhibited a significant expansion
from 3 to 16 days and exceeded the allowable limit suggested
by the standard. After 16 days of exposure, the expansion
was 0.62%, which is over six times the allowable limit. Thus,
the expansion measurement suggests that the samples suffered
5
from ASR, which is consistent with the visual observation in
Figure 2a. Furthermore, FA10 exhibited a progressive expan-
sion from 7 to 16 days. At the end of the test, the expansion
was 0.33%, which is noticeably above the allowable limit.
Despite application of fly ash reduced the expansion by 46%
compared to control sample, still classified as reactive accord-
ing to the standard. The visual inspection consistent with the
findings as these samples showed fine cracks on the surface
in Figure 2b. In addition, FA20 samples exhibited a gradual
expansion increment during the 16 days test period and the
final expansion was 0.13%. According to the standard, this
expansion can be classified as alkali-silica reactive even
though the addition of 20% fly ash reduced the expansion by
79% compared to control sample. Finally, FA30 samples
exhibited a steady expansion throughout the test period and
after 16 days, the expansion was only 0.05%, which is well
6 SAHA
FIGURE 4 Expansion test results according to ASTM C1567
within the allowable limit of 0.1%. The expansion results are
also consistent with the visual inspections as shown in
Figure 2d because these samples did not exhibit any signs of
cracking or damage. Therefore, application of 30% fly ash
found to be a suitable ASR mitigation measure according to
ASTM C1567. The application of 30% fly ash reduces the
ASR in AMBT by alkali binding, portlandite consumption,
pozzolanic reaction, and reducing the interconnected voids,
which has been shown in another study.14
On the other hand, the expansion test results of mortar
bar test according to ASTM C227 are shown in Figure 5. It
can be seen that expansion of OPC100 gradually increased
from 14 to 90 days and reached 0.06% afterwards became
steady. After the test completion of 180 days, the expansion
was 0.08%, this expansion was well within the allowable
FIGURE 5 Expansion test results according to ASTM C227
limit, and the expansion is consistent with the visual inspec-
tion presented in Figure 3a. The progressive alkali leaching
from the test samples minimized the pore solution alkali,
thus prevented the initial step of ASR, which is aggregate
dissolution due to high alkali concentration in pore solution.
Furthermore, FA10 samples exhibited a steady expansion
after 60 days and at the end of the test, the expansion was
0.058%. Similarly, FA20 and FA30 samples had a steady
expansion growth and at the end of the test they were 0.031
and 0.024%, respectively, the expansion results also coincide
with the visual inspection in Figure 3, that these samples did
not suffer from alkali-silica reaction. Therefore, the expan-
sion measurements during mortar bar test were unable to
identify the ASR of the FNS aggregate. The significant
alkali leaching during the test minimized the growth of alkali
silicate gel and kept the expansion below the regulatory
limit.
3.3 | Tensile strength
The tensile strengths were measured during the AMBT after
3, 7, and 16 days of exposure and the results are shown in
Figure 6 with error bars at one SD. After 3 days of exposure,
the average tensile strength was 4.8 MPa. However, the ten-
sile strength gradually declined after 7 and 16 days exposure
to 4.08 and 3.06 MPa, respectively. This reduction of tensile
strength was expected due to high expansion and visible
crack formation on the samples after the completion of the
AMBT. Similarly, FA10 samples exhibited a similar trend
of strength reduction and after 7 and 16 days exposures, the
relative strength reduction from 3 days tensile strength were
9 and 18%, respectively. These results correlate with the
high expansion and formation of fine cracks within the sam-
ple surface. Furthermore, FA20 sample exhibited a tensile
strength of 5.31, 5.40, and 5.25 MPa after 3, 7, and 16 days
FIGURE 6 Tensile strength results during ASTM C1567
SAHA
of exposure. This marginal growth of strength from 3 to
7 days was associated with the accelerated pozzolanic reac-
tion of fly ash in AMBT. However, after test completion,
there was a negligible strength reduction although the sam-
ples were classified as reactive. This indicates that the ASR
gel formation was not extensive to cause major strength loss.
Finally, FA30 samples exhibited gradual strength increment
from 5.48 MPa after 3 days of exposure to 5.89 MPa after
16 days of exposure. This strength growth was associated
with the pozzolanic reaction and indicated that the samples
were free from the expansive ASR gel. Besides, it has been
well established that replacement of OPC with fly ash
reduces early age strength.20 Interestingly, the present study
showed that after 3 days of exposure the average tensile
strength of mortar bars were gradually increased with the
increment of fly ash. The 3 days tensile strength were 4.8,
5.09, 5.31, and 5.48 MPa for OPC100, FA10, FA20, and
FA30 samples, which are about 6, 10, and 14% strength
increment due to the addition of 10, 20, and 30% fly ash in
the mixtures. This strength increment is also statistically sig-
nificant with a p-value of 0.007. This tensile strength incre-
ment of fly samples was attributed to two primary reasons.
First, high temperature and humidity exposure during
AMBT accelerated the rate of hydration and pozzolanic
reaction of fly ash. Second, spherical shape of the fly ash
reduced pore size by a ball bearing effect.
On the other hand, tensile strength measurements during
ASTM C227 are shown in Figure 7. It can be seen that the
OPC100 samples exhibited a gradual strength development
throughout the testing period and the tensile strength
increased from 4.1 to 4.62 MPa from 14 days to 6 months
of testing period. This gradual strength increment points out
that the sample did not effect from alkali-silica reaction,
which supports the expansion test and visual observation of
the samples after the test completion. Therefore, due to the
alkali leaching during the mortar bar test the samples did not
FIGURE 7 Tensile strength results during ASTM C227
7
exhibit any signs of ASR, which has been confirmed by
visual inspection, expansion, and strength measurements.
Similarly, FA10 sample exhibited gradual strength develop-
ment from 14 days to 6 months from 3.64 to 4.60 MPa.
Besides, FA20 and FA30 samples exhibited low early tensile
strength of 3.25 and 3.14 MPa, respectively. However, from
1 to 6 months, these samples exhibited sharp strength devel-
opment due to the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash and the ten-
sile strength increased from 4.75 to 4.90 MPa.
4 | C O NC L U S IO N
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present
study.
1. Ferronickel slag exhibited deleterious ASR expansion,
which was confirmed by AMBT.
2. Application of 30% fly ash mitigates the ASR of FNS
aggregate during AMBT, the ASR mitigation was con-
firmed by visual inspection, mortar bar expansion and
tensile strength measurements.
3. Mortar bar method according to ASTM C227 was
unable to identify ASR associated with FNS aggregate.
4. The primary reason behind the failure of ASTM C227
was significant alkali leaching, which minimized the
aggregate dissolution and reduced ASR gel formation.
5. ASTM C1567 found to be more reliable compared to
ASTM C227 for ASR determination of reactive aggre-
gates and evaluating ASR mitigation measures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge SLN New Caledonia
and Curtin University, WA for their continuous support and
funding to the study.
OR CID
Ashish K. Saha http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2307-7452
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