The Student Phrase Book - Vocabulary For Writing at University, Second Edition (2020)

2nd edition
vocabulary for writing at university

The Student Phrase Book
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The Student Phrase Book
Vocabulary for Writing at University
Second Edition
Jeanne Godfrey
© Jeanne Godfrey, under exclusive licence to Macmillan Education Limited 2020
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted their rights to be identified as the author of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This edition published 2020 by
RED GLOBE PRESS
Previous edition published under the imprint PALGRAVE
Red Globe Press in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Education Limited,
registered in England, company number 01755588, of 4 Crinan Street,
London, N1 9XW.
Red Globe Press® is a registered trademark in the United States, the United
Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978-1-352-00833-3 paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Contents
Introductionix
Topic, aim and argument 1

1 Topic 1
2 Aim and scope 8
3 Proposition, argument and premise 17
Definitions and classification 25

4 Brief definitions 25
5 Classification and characteristics 31
Methodology, method and findings 41

6 Methodology, model and method 41
7 Data, findings, problems and anomalies 49
Amount, level and proportion 54

8 Amount, level, proportion and distribution 54
9 Adequate and inadequate amounts 63
Context, norms, risk and threat 68

10 Context, occurrence, norms and deviation 68
11 Advantage, disadvantage, risk and threat 73
Communication, understanding and position 78

12 Communication, expression and portrayal 78
13 Knowledge, understanding and ways of thinking 85
14 Position, point of view, impartiality and bias 92
v
Time, change and movement 102
15 Time, sequence, duration and frequency 102
16 Change, movement, trend and tendency 111
Encouragement, allowance and prevention 120

17 Encouragement and improvement, discouragement and deterioration 120
18 Allowance, prevention, exclusion and elimination 127
Origin, cause, effect and connections 132

19 Origin, cause and effect 132
20 Connection, compatibility, reciprocity and lack of relationship 138
Comparison, similarity and difference 145

21 Comparison, similarity, convergence, equivalence and balance 145
22 Difference, differentiation and diversity 154
Analysis of evidence and arguments 159

23 Analysis of evidence and identification of argument flaws 159
24 Grouping of authors’ ideas and identification of common themes 167
Evaluation of evidence and arguments 171

25 Authors’ evaluations of each other 171
26 Your positive evaluation of evidence and arguments 176
27 Your negative evaluation of evidence and arguments 184
28 Your agreement, disagreement and counterarguments 191
Importance and impact 195

29 Linking evidence to theory and practice 195
30 Importance, significance and dominance 199
31 Influence and impact 205
vi Contents
Conclusions, clarification and future action 211
32 Conclusions, implications and new ideas 211
33 Qualifying conclusions and degrees of certainty 219
34 Summary, clarification and restatement of position 224
35 Recommendations, solutions and future action 229
Appendices235
Latin abbreviations and phrases 235
Word class: a brief explanation 238
Word table 241
Index 251
Contents vii
Introduction
Why and how you should use The Student Phrase Book
To write successfully at university you need to communicate your ideas, arguments and research clearly
and effectively; using words and phrases imprecisely or incorrectly will lessen the clarity and credibility of
your work.
As examples of unclear writing, below are five essay sentences in which the writers have used either the
wrong word, the wrong word form, or the wrong word before or after the key word.
Essay sentences Corrections

As Collins (1994 p. 2) cites, ‘good ethics is synonymous with good management’. states
By 2050 the US population will be generally 390 million (Statista 2019). approximately
This essay examines the government’s rational for reintroducing capital punishment. rationale
DNA differentiates from RNA in that it is a double helix as opposed to a single- differs
chained structure.
Durrett (2019) gives a detailed account for probability theory, including many account of
useful examples.
Why you might use a word How The Student Phrase Book can help you
incorrectly or imprecisely
• You don’t know enough words. • This book gives you around 2,000 key academic words, with
definitions and important word information given for over
1,000 of these. The words presented are appropriate
for formal and clear writing at university level.
• You can’t learn new words using a • The words are presented within 35 common assignment
dictionary because you don’t know writing functions or contexts, and are listed under these
the words to look them up. sections in the word table at the back of the book. This
means that you can start by looking up what you want to
do and then find the words you need to do it.
ix
Why you might use a word How The Student Phrase Book can help you
incorrectly or imprecisely
• When trying to use your own words, • Using a thesaurus often leads to word mistakes because
you choose an incorrect synonym words rarely have exact, appropriate synonyms. The first part
from a thesaurus. of each section, ‘Words in action’, presents different word
choices in the context of real example sentences, e.g.:
Vaccines imitate / mimic / emulate the natural infection,
tricking the immune system into producing antibodies.
• You partially understand a word • The second part of each section, ‘Information to help you
when you read it but need a fuller use these words correctly’, gives you clear, simple
understanding to use it precisely definitions.
in your writing. There is also an alphabetical word index at the end of the
book, which you can use to find the definitions and other
important information about words you come across in
your reading.
• You get the main word right but • The ‘Information’ part of each section also tells you what
make a mistake with the words that words are commonly used with the key word, e.g.:
come before or after it. Widespread (s1.2)
A widespread occurrence // phenomenon // assumption
// belief // (mis)conception.
Stance (s14.2)
A tough // firm // ethical // moral stance on X.
• You sometimes confuse words that • The ‘Information’ part of each section also gives you useful
look similar but have different information about the difference between commonly
meanings, or confuse words that confused words, e.g.:
have a similar but not the same collate and compile (s6.2)
meaning.
methodology and method (s6.2)
• When you check your writing you • The third part of each section, ‘Nearly but not quite right’,
sometimes don’t spot your mistakes. gives you ten incorrect sentences containing common
errors, followed by the corrected sentences. You can use
these sentences to test your vocabulary knowledge,
improve your proofreading skills and to avoid making simi-
lar mistakes yourself.
x Introduction
To sum up, you can use The Student Phrase Book to:
●● find and use new words while you are preparing and writing assignments
●● check words you already partially know
●● check words you come across in your reading
●● develop your word knowledge and ability to use words correctly and precisely.
While helping you do the above, The Student Phrase Book also gives you:
●● an introduction to each section containing useful tips on key aspects of assignment writing
●● examples of good academic writing style
●● examples of how to incorporate and reference source material
●● real topics, issues and sources from a range of academic disciplines.
How The Student Phrase Book is structured

The book is divided into 14 main themes, such as ‘Topic, aim and argument’ and is then further divided
into 35 sections. Each section is divided into three parts.
Words in action
The first part of each section presents words within sentences from real academic writing. The key words
or phrases are underlined, with gaps in underlining to indicate different word groups.
●● words with similar meanings are separated by /
●● words that have different meanings are separated by //
●● round brackets () indicate either an optional word or a source reference.
Example sentences:
s25.1
●● Lupton (1998) challenges / questions Fox’s suggestion that doctors are no longer seen as the authori-
ties on medical issues.
s26.1
●● The first // next // penultimate // final step in the process was to …
s27.1
●● A (common) criticism of Dawkins’ position is that he overstates the role religion plays in human
conflict.
Introduction xi
Information to help you use these words correctly
This part of each section gives you short, simple definitions, concentrating on the words and word forms
(noun, adjective, verb, adverb) most useful for academic writing. Other useful information includes
common word combinations and the differences between commonly confused words.
Three symbols are used in the ‘Information to help you use these words correctly’ sections:
Words that are always or often used with the key word
Commonly confused words
Other important points to note
An asterisk * indicates that the word is given in its common British spelling but that there is also an
alternative British spelling (-ize, -ization) and/or a US spelling (-ize, -ization).
Nearly but not quite right

This final part of each section gives you ten incorrect and corrected sentences from real student
assignments. The incorrect sentences contain mistakes, either because the wrong word is used, the right
word is used but in the wrong way or form, or the wrong words are used before or after the key word.
You can compare the incorrect and correct sentences or try to correct the sentences in the left-hand
column before looking at the correct versions.
How The Student Phrase Book acknowledges source material

Source material used in The Student Phrase Book is acknowledged using a form of the Harvard referencing
system. Whenever a source used in an example sentence has more than two authors, et al. is used. Note
that in your own assignments you should list all the authors the first time you cite a source and only
use et al. for subsequent citations of the same source.
xii Introduction
Topic, aim and argument
1 Topic
The first few lines of your assignment should tell your reader why your topic, issue or question is important
and interesting. If you are doing higher level undergraduate or postgraduate work, you might also want
to tell your reader briefly why your research question is important; perhaps your investigation is needed
because of the lack of existing knowledge in the field. Whatever your level of study, don’t start discussing
your issue in detail – leave this until the main body of your text.
1.1 Words in action

Introducing your topic and establishing its importance
▸▸ Annual general meetings are a crucial / a vital / an essential / a key / a fundamental part of / aspect of /
element in corporate govenance.
▸▸ There is an urgent / a pressing need for more accessible mental health care for the elderly in Poland.
▸▸ Ethical issues are // have become // are becoming central to documentary filmmaking.
▸▸ International migration has emerged // is emerging as an important aspect of globalisation.
▸▸ A main consideration in government housing policy is neighbourhood dynamics.
▸▸ Obesity is now one of the leading causes of // the leading cause of preventable deaths in the US.
▸▸ Anti-viral drugs are now the most widely used therapeutic medicines.
▸▸ The study of cosmic reionisation has acquired / gained significance over / in the last few years.
▸▸ Recent medical advances have heightened public interest in human cloning.
▸▸ The fact that education is a key factor in / plays a key role in economic recovery is often // sometimes
overlooked.
1
▸▸ The concept of / idea of renewable energy is not as recent as is often thought.
▸▸ Blogs are relatively recent phenomena. / Blogging is a relatively recent phenomenon.
▸▸ Recent developments in ‘invisible technology’ have made its use in daily life more feasible.
Emphasising debate and controversy in relation to your topic

▸▸ One of the most widely publicised debates in Greek higher education is the level of student fees.
▸▸ There is widespread debate about / on the potential benefits of ID cards.
▸▸ Recent medical advances have increased people’s fears about the amount of // the level of debate on
human cloning.
▸▸ The question of whether to legalise all drugs is regularly debated in the media.
▸▸ The main / most important / most significant // most interesting political issue // question is election
reform.
▸▸ Issues around intellectual property and open source software are becoming increasingly important //
visible.
▸▸ The growth of private schools in France is // has been (very) contentious / controversial.
▸▸ The controversy over global warming has received a great deal of attention in the media.
▸▸ The question of whether to introduce ID cards is becoming increasingly complex // difficult //
problematic.
▸▸ Banks are finding it increasingly difficult to justify risk-taking practices to their European customers.
▸▸ Animal experimentation is an extremely emotive issue.
Highlighting a lack of research or discussion in relation to your topic

▸▸ Perhaps surprisingly, there has so far been little research on // debate about // discussion about //
attention given to the issue of ethnicity.
▸▸ There are insufficient studies / There is insufficient research on ethnic identity in adolescent girls.
▸▸ Previous research has // Previous studies have tended to focus on the ethnicity rather than the age of
offenders.
2 Topic, aim and argument

1.2 Information to help you use these words correctly
Words you probably already use correctly: central, complex, development, essential, fundamental, heighten,
overlook, pressing, problematic, publicise∗.
Words defined in other sections: insufficient s9.
∗
The US spelling is -ize.
acquire v v – To get, come to have, or develop.

acquisition n To acquire skill / expertise / a reputation / significance / importance.
aspect n (1) A particular quality, part or feature of something.
(2) Something’s appearance.
E.g. The premises have a run-down aspect.
Aspect and element
There is overlap but aspect is usually used for qualities or viewpoints, while
element is often used for concrete activities or parts of things.
E.g. This report looks at the legal elements ✘ aspects ✓ of the case.
We discuss the six key elements ✓ aspects ✘ needed to complete a project.
Political campaigning is an important aspect of environmentalism.

attention n Notice or consideration taken of someone or something.
Cloning has attracted / received a great deal of // received little attention.

concept n An abstract idea or plan.
The concept of personalised drugs is new to science.

Infinity is a complex mathematical concept.
1 Topic 3
consideration n n – (1) An issue, idea or action that needs thinking about.
consider v (2) Care and respect for others.
(3) In law or business, something of agreed financial value.
To take X into consideration. The proposal is under careful consideration.

Considerable (adj) means ‘large’ and considerably (adv) means ‘much/a lot’.
E.g. There are a considerable number of points the report does not examine.
controversy n n – Public disagreement or debate in which different people or groups hold
controversial adj opposing views.
here is a great deal of controversy surrounding / concerning / over the use of

T
methadone.
Changes to drug laws often cause / attract / create controversy.
crucial adj adj – Something necessary in order for something else to happen. Similar to
crucially adv essential.
Sharing information is crucial in / to solving the problem.

A crucial factor // aspect // component // element // ingredient // issue //
question // role.

debate n / v n – (1) A formal or informal discussion about a particular issue.
debatable adj (2) A formal event where people with different views try to persuade the
debatably adv majority or audience that theirs is the correct one.
adj – Open to challenge and/or debate. Similar to arguable.
adv – It may be challenged and/or debated. Similar to arguably.
– There is ongoing debate over / about / on pension schemes. A subject of
n
heated debate.
v – The projected rate of climate change is hotly debated.
Debate and discussion
Discussion is a much more general term. A discussion can end in either
agreement or disagreement on the issue.
Debate and argue
Use debate as a noun to refer to an issue, and the verb argue to propose a
position or viewpoint.
E.g. There is much academic debate over whether string theory is useful. ✓
I will argue that string theory is not useful. ✓
I will debate that string theory is not useful. ✘
element n One part of something that has multiple parts.
emerging adj adj – In the process of coming into existence and/or becoming noticeable.
emerge v
emotive adj Of a topic or issue, causing a strong emotional response.
Emotive and emotional
Emotional is a more general word describing personal feelings about life
experiences.
E.g. Funerals are usually emotive ✘ / emotional ✓ events.
1 Topic 5
factor n / v n – One of several things that causes or influences something else.
v – To include or exclude something as relevant when making a decision.
n – Age was a key factor in the types of responses given in the survey.
A(n) major / important // deciding / determining // causal // contributing
factor.
v – We should factor gender in to // out of our datasets.
issue n / v n – Something argued about that affects a lot of people. Usually used in a
political or social context.
v – To give out or to circulate.
phenomenon n Something that exists, usually used to refer to something interesting, unique or
difficult to understand.
Phenomenon is the singular form.
E.g. Social networking is a recent phenomenon.
Phenomena is the plural form.
E.g. Supernatural phenomena are difficult to define.
widespread adj Something specific that exists or happens (e.g. a belief, poverty, disease) over a
large area.
Widespread use of // support for // acceptance of // criticism of //
condemnation of // concern about // assumption that // belief that //
rejection of // speculation // consultation // concern // ignorance //
misunderstanding // corruption // disease // deprivation // suffering //
poverty // unemployment.
A widespread occurrence // phenomenon // assumption // belief // (mis)
conception // debate // problem.
idespread can be used to describe a debate or problem but not a question or
W
issue.
E.g. It is a widespread question. ✘
Wide spread and spread wide are both incorrect.

1.3 Nearly but not quite right
The sentences on the left contain the types of mistakes people make when trying to use words from this
section. The correct versions are given on the right.
Incorrect Correct
1 Genetically modified organisms and Genetically modified organisms and drug
drug development are two key factors in development are two key aspects of / areas in
biotechnology. biotechnology.
2 The question of whether to legalise drugs is The question of whether to legalise drugs is a
widespread across EU member states. common one across EU member states.
3 Issues have been raised on the reclassification Questions have been raised over the
of cannabis. reclassification of cannabis.
4 Cloning acquired a very small consideration Cloning received very little consideration /
until the birth of Dolly the sheep. attention until the birth of Dolly the sheep.
5 Recreational drug use continues to be a Recreational drug use continues to be a
controversy in the UK. controversial issue / topic in the UK.
6 The last decade has seen a rapid growth of the The last decade has seen a rapid growth in the
biotechnology industry. biotechnology industry.
7 This type of software program is a recent This type of software program is a recent
phenomena in information technology. phenomenon in information technology.
8 This is a questionable issue. This is a controversial / contentious / debatable
issue.
9 The use of pesticides forms an issue in the The use of pesticides is an issue in the local
local community. community.
10 There is a growing concern in immigration in There is a growing concern about immigration in
Europe. Europe.
1 Topic 7
2 Aim and scope
At the start of your essay or report you should state your aim and scope. In your aims be clear about
whether you are going to analyse, examine, provide data, evaluate, discuss, make recommendations and
so on, or do several of these things in sequence. If you are writing a discursive essay you will usually also
need to state what it is you will attempt to show or argue. Describing this is often referred to as your
proposition or thesis statement. You will find words and phrases for doing this in section 3.
Note that the use of I is increasingly acceptable in academic writing when stating your aim, scope and
argument, although you should check this with your tutor.
2.1 Words in action

Stating your aim
▸▸ The principal / primary purpose / objective / aim / goal of this report is to identify and describe what
measures / steps need to be taken to resolve this issue.
▸▸ This report aims // attempts to establish the most likely causes of low job satisfaction.
▸▸ This study focuses on / centres on / is concerned with investigating the specific causes of relative
poverty in the US.
▸▸ I will outline the criticisms of Maslow’s model and then elaborate on / expand on the particular claim
that it is ethnocentric.
▸▸ This report gives a brief overview of current research on nuclear transfer and then discusses problems
with this technique.
▸▸ This short essay reviews the literature on academic vocabulary acquisition studies.
▸▸ I will discuss two different aspects of business ethics; as an area of study and as a social practice.
▸▸ I give a short descriptive account of the 2008 financial collapse followed by an exploratory discussion of
possible causes.
▸▸ This article gives a critical account of current thinking on evolutionary theory.
▸▸ I will examine / investigate / look at / address the question of / issue of whether computer games are a
factor in youth violence.
▸▸ I aim to determine / ascertain the main causes of the sharp increase in rates of bowel cancer in the US
over the last decade.
▸▸ In this review we will contextualise // enumerate and then assess / appraise the different mechanisms
for somatic cell nuclear transfer.

▸▸ This project analyses the data and offers a tentative explanation for the high rate of elm disease in
southern England.
▸▸ This essay traces the development of PPP frameworks, critiques legislation and offers some solutions to
current problems.
▸▸ This report reflects on my trainee interactions with patients thus far.
▸▸ In our report we speculate on the extent to which a student’s personality determines their final level of
award.
Stating your scope
▸▸ I will discuss cloning within the wider context of genetic research.
▸▸ It is (not) appropriate / relevant / pertinent to cover all areas of / to cover all aspects of the debate in
this essay.
▸▸ It is beyond the scope of / not within the scope of this report to discuss all aspects of drug abuse. I will
therefore focus on …
▸▸ I will restrict / confine the discussion to the (narrow) context of employment tribunal law.
▸▸ It is not possible / not feasible here to discuss all the issues surrounding globalisation.
▸▸ I will examine here only the two most relevant points / most salient points, namely pollution and
biosphere degradation.
▸▸ This report will examine only (the) specific psychological problems attributed to cannabis.

Words you probably already use correctly: aim, appropriate, attempt, centre, examine, goal, identify, issue,
investigate, offer, outline, overview, purpose, question, review.
Words defined in other sections: analyse s23, appraise s7, aspect s1, assess s7, measure s6, primary s6,
step s6, tentative s33.
∗
The US spelling is -ize.
address v/n v – (1) To think about or try to resolve or answer a question or issue.
(2) To speak to.
(3) To write the recipient’s name and house details on an envelope, card etc.
ascertain v To find out for certain.
2 Aim and scope 9
concern v / n v – To be about or involve.
E.g. This essay concerns itself only with therapeutic cloning.
n – (1) An issue or problem of interest and importance.
(2) In business, a company or organisation.
n – To cause concern. A cause for concern. A growing // common concern.
Widespread concern.
o be concerned about means ‘to be worried about’ and is too informal to use in
T
academic writing.
context n n – The circumstances that form the setting of an event or idea and therefore
contextualise v ∗ help us to understand it.
v – To put or discuss in relation to a particular situation.
n – To see / view // place / put the crime in its wider // narrower context.
The social // political // historical context of a war.
∗
-ize is also acceptable in British spelling and is always used in US spelling.
critical adj adj – (1) Containing an evaluation of both the positive and negative aspects of
criticism n something. This is the most common use of critical in academic study,
e.g. critical thinking, a critical evaluation.
criticality n
criticise∗ v (2) Essential.
critically adv (3) At an extremely important point and/or a point of crisis.

o criticise usually means to find fault with something and is therefore less
T
commonly used in an academic context.
E.g. I will criticise Khan’s report. ✘ I will give a critical analysis of Khan’s report. ✓
∗

critique v / n v – To analyse and evaluate.
n – A critical commentary or review, usually in the fields of art, literature,
philosophy and political theory.
Critique (n) and critic
A critique is a written or spoken review of something and a critic is the person who
writes the review.
describe v v – To give an account of something without analysing, judging or explaining it.
descriptive adj
determine v (1) To examine in order to find out.
E.g. We will try to determine the cause of the crash.
(2) To decide or control what happens.
E.g. Bonuses are determined by productivity levels.
o determine what // how // why // when // whether // when // the reasons

T
for // the causes of X.
o be determined (adj) and determination (n) relate to the sense of being

T
committed and firm about doing something.
eterminism is the philosophy in which events and actions are absolutely

D
determined by the existing conditions.
2 Aim and scope 11
discuss v v – In academic study, to present an argument or issue and then to analyse and
discussion n evaluate it in a balanced way, revealing the strengths and weaknesses of both
sides.
The noun discussion is followed by about, of, on or over.

E.g. There has been much discussion about the crisis.
The verb to discuss is not followed by about, of, on or over.
E.g. I will discuss about censorship. ✘ I will discuss censorship. ✓
Discuss and debate

To discuss / A discussion involves people talking about an issue where the aim is
usually to reach agreement rather than to win the argument.
To debate / A debate is when people who hold different opinions present their
case, usually with the aim of persuading the listeners that the speaker’s view is the
best or correct one (see section 1).
elaborate v / adj v – To give more detailed information or to develop further.
adj – Very complicated and/or with many parts, e.g. an elaborate design.
enumerate v v – To count out, list, name or give details of.
enumeration n n – A list or count.
establish v (1) To find out. Similar to ascertain.
(2) To start an organisation or system.
(3) To become accepted in a particular environment or role.
expand v v – (1) To grow or make larger.
expansion n (2) To give a fuller or more detailed explanation or discussion.
Expand and expend

To expend means to spend or use money or resources.
E xpansive means (1) large and/or extensive or (2) of a person, extremely friendly
and communicative.

exploratory adj Involving open-minded investigation. In academic study, an exploratory
assignment is one that analyses and discusses evidence and different viewpoints
on a topic or issue.
Exploratory, explanatory and expository

Explanatory writing explains something. Examples are explanatory notes or an
explanatory paragraph.
Expository writing transmits information. Examples of expository writing are
directions, instructions and recipes.
feasible adj Something that is possible and capable of being done or being dealt with, usually
in the context of specific tasks and projects.
Feasible and likely

Likely is used to make predictions.
E.g. It is feasible that life on other planets will be discovered. ✘
It is likely / probable that life on other planets will be discovered. ✓
focus v / n n – The main object or area of attention.
v – To pay particular attention to.
n – A broad // narrow // specific focus.
The plural of focus (n) can be either focuses or foci.

objective n / adj n – An aim or goal.
adj – Based only on facts and not influenced by feelings or beliefs (see section 14).
pertinent adj Relevant or appropriate to a particular matter. Usually used when talking about
ideas, issues, viewpoints and argument rather than physical objects.
I will discuss the literature (that is) pertinent to Newton’s life.

I will discuss the pertinent literature.
2 Aim and scope 13
principal adj / n adj – The main or most important.
Principal and principle

A principle is a belief, idea, theory, rule or moral code.
E.g. Elections should be based on egalitarian principles.
reflect v v – (1) To think deeply about something. In academic writing, to write down your
reflective adj thoughts on how well you think you have done something and what you
have learnt from doing it. It also often involves writing about how theory
reflection n
relates to what you have done.
(2) To show or be a sign of.
E.g. The report reflects the government’s current position on housing.
(3) Of a surface, to throw back light, heat or sound.
To reflect on X.
Reflective and reflexive

Reflective writing is when you analyse how well you have done something.
Reflexive writing is when you analyse why you did it that way – what internal
mind structures and belief systems led you to your actions.
relevant adj Connected or appropriate to something being discussed.
Relevant and related

Related means that the two things have something in common.
review v / n V – (1) To assess something in an organised way.
In academic study, a literature review is a summary and grouping
of relevant research in order to describe the current overall state of
knowledge and show where further research needs to be done.
(2) To write a critical appraisal of a book, film, restaurant etc.

salient adj The most relevant or important.
Salient points // features // issues // facts // properties.

scope n (1) The range of activity, ability, opportunity or possibility.
(2) The opportunity or freedom to do something.
Within // beyond the scope of this essay.

There is unlimited // ample // limited / restricted scope.
To broaden / widen / increase / expand / extend // narrow / restrict the
scope.
speculate v v – (1) To form an idea on a subject without firm evidence.
speculation n (2) To buy in order to take advantage of market value fluctuations.
speculative adj
v – To speculate that + clause. To speculate on // over // about X.
n – Considerable // constant // intense // much // widespread speculation.
trace v / n v – (1) To find or describe the development / influence of something over time.
(2) To follow the course of something.
(3) To copy / mark the outline or pattern of something.
n – (1) A very small quantity.
(2) Something remaining that indicates a past event or action.
2 Aim and scope 15
Incorrect Correct
1 It is out of the scope of this essay to analyse all It is beyond the scope of this essay to analyse all
aspects of wealth distribution. aspects of wealth distribution.
2 This essay is a critic of current Labour Party This essay comprises a critique of current Labour
policy. Party policy.
3 I will discuss about Piaget’s theory. I will discuss Piaget’s theory.
4 My essay will consist of the similarities and My essay will examine / discuss the similarities
differences between automatic and conscious and differences between automatic and
ageism. conscious ageism.
5 This report focuses around the company BT. This report focuses on the company BT.
6 Gender is not directly relevant in this issue. Gender is not directly relevant to this issue.
7 The instruments used were pertinent to the The instruments used were appropriate for the
experiment. experiment.
8 This essay will be determined about the This essay will attempt to determine / ascertain
connections between wealth and happiness. the connections between wealth and happiness.
9 It can be asked how does one measure the The question is how one measures the quality of
quality of life? life.
10 This essay will discuss happiness and related This essay will discuss the relationship /
health. connection / link between happiness and health.
This essay will discuss to what extent / whether
happiness and health are related.

3 Proposition, argument and premise
In addition to stating your aim (see section 2) you will also probably need to state the position or idea that
you intend to support and/or argue. Such a statement is often referred to as a proposition or claim. Your
statement of topic, aim and proposition are together referred to as your thesis statement.
This section gives you words and phrases for stating your proposition and for talking about other
people’s propositions, assumptions and theories. Note that talking about propositions and arguments is
not the same thing as developing an argument yourself – doing this involves the whole process of analys-
ing and comparing viewpoints and ideas, evaluating the evidence and then drawing conclusions.
Note that the use of first person is increasingly acceptable when giving your thesis statement, although
you should check this with your tutor.
3.1 Words in action

Stating your proposition
▸▸ I will show / demonstrate // argue // suggest / propose that there is a causal link between number of
siblings and average adult earnings.
▸▸ This essay asserts / contends / maintains / claims that there is a link between low self-esteem and
externalising problems.
▸▸ We suggest // propose / posit / postulate a link between low self-esteem and externalising problems.
▸▸ My assertion / contention / proposition / claim is that there is a causal link between number of siblings
and average adult earnings.
▸▸ This essay challenges the view that / the idea that grammar should be taught explicitly in the classroom.
▸▸ I contest // refute / rebut // reject the theory that playing violent computer games contributes to
violent behaviour.
▸▸ Wilfred Owen was debatably / arguably the most influential poet of the First World War.
Talking about other people’s proposition, thesis, hypothesis or theory

▸▸ Dawkins’ assertion / contention / proposition / claim is that belief in a deity is a delusion (Dawkins 2006).
▸▸ The main thesis of Ritzer’s book is that fast-food chains are the most influential example of business
rationalisation.
▸▸ Wood’s hypothesis / conjecture is that business and society are interdependent and so jointly
responsible for how organisations behave.
▸▸ Smith is a key figure in biology, known chiefly for his work on the application of game theory to
evolutionary biology.

Talking about premise and assumption
▸▸ Creationism is predicated on / is based on / is founded on / rests on / is built on the belief that only an
intelligent force can explain the complexity of life.
▸▸ Corporate responsibility presupposes // assumes that ethics and the pursuit of profit are compatible.
▸▸ Democracy is based on the premise / presupposition / assumption that people want choice and
freedom.
▸▸ The underlying assumption of / The assumption that underlies biopsychology is that biological, mental
and social factors interact.
▸▸ We can no longer assume that daily newspapers are the most effective print medium for influencing
public opinion.

Words you probably already use correctly: base on, demonstrate, found on, rest on, show, suggest.
argue v v – (1) T

o use reasoning and evidence to support a statement. This is how argue
argument n is used in academic study.
arguably adv (2) To disagree with someone or something.
arguable adj n – (1) T
he process of using evidence and reasoning to support a proposition.
This is how argument is used in academic study.
(2) A quarrel or disagreement.
adv – ‘It can be argued’. Similar to debatably. Use arguably to show you are
aware that others may disagree.
adj – Open to argument or disagreement. Similar to debatable.
– A convincing / strong // cogent // coherent // plausible / reasonable //
n
reasoned / rational / logical / valid argument.
A weak // implausible // invalid / flawed / illogical / fallacious argument.
Argument and proposition
The word argument is sometimes used imprecisely to mean a proposition or
contention (see below). Strictly speaking however, an argument is the set and
sequence of reasons you use to support the proposition.

assertion n n – A statement of fact or belief.
assert v v – (1) To state a fact or belief.
(2) In reference to oneself/someone, to do something confidently or do
something that makes others recognise your authority or right(s).
E.g. She asserted herself in the interview.
Assertion, contention and proposition
These are often used interchangeably; however, the term proposition is more
formal and is often used in the context of logic and to give statements that are
to be tested.
assumption n n – A fact, idea or belief which is thought to be true but is not proven. An
assume v assumption can be explicitly stated but is more often used to refer to a hidden
fact or idea within an argument. An assumption can therefore be similar to an
unstated premise.
v – (1) To take for granted.
(2) To take on responsibility for, or control of, something.
Assumption / assume and presumption / presume
Presumption / presume are used in real-life situations rather than academic
contexts. They can also mean ‘to act without authority or in an overconfident
manner’.
E.g. People should be presumed innocent rather than guilty.
We presume she is dead.
They presumed to use my car without asking.
challenge v/n v – In academic study, to disagree with a claim and to try to prove that it is not
valid.
To challenge an assumption // a claim // an idea / a concept // a view.

claim v/n v – To state something clearly and confidently, with or without evidence. Similar
to assert, contend and maintain.
n – An assertion, demand or request.
v – To claim that …
n – To make a / the claim that …
conjecture n An opinion or explanation that has not yet been tested. Similar to hypothesis.
contention n n – A declaration of fact or belief to be argued. Similar to assertion.
contend v v – To state something to be argued, with or without evidence. Similar to assert,
claim and maintain.
contest v/n v – To oppose, challenge or argue against. Similar to challenge.
debatably adv It can be debated or argued. Similar to arguably (see also section 1).
hypothesis n n – A testable statement of how or why something happens that has not yet
hypothesise* v been tested.
hypothetical adj v – To state a testable explanation / proposition.
n – A working hypothesis.
Hypothesis, theory and thesis
These words are sometimes used interchangeably but do have different
meanings – see thesis and theory below.
∗
maintain v Maintain has several different meanings. In the context of evaluating sources,
maintain means to state something clearly and confidently (with or without
evidence) often in the face of criticism. Similar to assert, claim and contend.
posit v To put forward a proposition or theory. Similar to postulate but less commonly
used.

postulate v/n v – (1) T
o put forward a proposition or theory. Similar to posit and theorise.
(2) To assume / To take for granted.
n – (1) (In argument) An assumption.
(2) A premise / A necessary prerequisite.
predicate v/n v – To base a decision or action on the assumption that something else exists or
will happen.
E.g. Our approval is predicated on a linear model.
In logic and linguistics a predicate / to predicate have more specialised meanings.
premise n A statement or principle used as the basis for an action or argument
(the premises are said to imply or entail the conclusion).
E.g. All her friends are tall = major premise
Joss is one of her friends = minor premise
therefore, Joss is tall. = conclusion
The noun premises has the different meaning of an occupied building.

presuppose v v – To assume or need to be true as a precondition.
presupposition n n – A thing or statement assumed or needed to be true as a basis for something
else.
Presupposition / presuppose and assumption / assume
A presupposition is something that needs to exist before something else can
happen, whereas an assumption can be made at any stage of a process or
argument. See above for assumption.

proposition n n – (1) In an academic context, a statement that can be proved or disproved.
propose v The main proposition is sometimes called an assertion or contention (see
above). Propositions on which an argument is based are premises, and
the final proposition in an argument is the conclusion. If the proposition
involves a testable explanation of something, it is also a hypothesis.
(2) In more general contexts, a proposition is an offer or suggestion.
v – To suggest or put forward a plan or idea.
v – To propose a plan // a strategy // a solution // a measure // a policy //
reforms // an amendment // legislation.
Proposition and proposal
A proposal is a suggestion or plan.
E.g. There is a proposal for a new transport scheme.
rebut v v – To argue against a statement and to attempt to prove it is false. Similar to
rebuttal n refute but less commonly used.
refute v v – (1) To prove that a proposition is false. Similar to rebut.

refutation n (2) To argue against / oppose a proposition by proving that it is false.
To refute the claim // suggestion // accusation // idea // theory that …

reject v v – To say no to, oppose or dismiss.
rejection n Reject, refute and deny
Reject has the more general meaning.
To refute is a more formal word used only in the context of things that can be
disproved.
To deny often means to reject an accusation of wrongdoing and is not usually
appropriate in an academic context.

theory n n – A testable and often tested explanation of general principles of the natural
theorise* v world, accepted by experts as the best or one of the best explanations.
Theory, thesis and hypothesis
See below.
∗
thesis n (1) A statement of something to be argued or yet to be tested. Similar to
proposition or theory.
(2) A long written essay, article or book (usually at postgraduate level), which
presents an argument or tests a hypothesis. Similar to dissertation or
treatise.
Thesis, theory and hypothesis
There is overlap and interchange between these terms. The main differences
are that a thesis often refers to a written text, a theory usually refers to a widely
recognised and established concept and a hypothesis often refers to one
person’s ideas.
underlying adj adj – Something hidden and/or existing below the surface. Often used to refer
underlie v to the hidden causes of an action, event or belief.
An underlying assumption // belief // idea // concept // principle // cause.

Underlie and underpin
Something that underlies something else can be positive or negative, major or
minor.
Something that underpins is always an essential, supporting element of
something else (see section 31).
E.g. Strong government policy is needed to underpin the growth of Irish
exports.
For undermine see section 17.

Incorrect Correct
1 I want to put forward that major advances in I want to argue / suggest / propose that / My
technology require new legislation in order proposition is that major advances in technology
to … require new legislation in order to …
2 I will examine each argument on ID cards in I will examine each argument for / argument
turn. against ID cards in turn.
3 A presumption of the monopolistic An assumption of the monopolistic competition
competition model is that firms can enter or model is that firms can enter or exit the market
exit the market freely in response to profit or freely in response to profit or loss.
loss.
4 My analysis suggests that global central banks My analysis suggests that global central banks will
will underlie the country’s currency in order to underpin the country’s currency in order to avoid
avoid financial collapse. financial collapse.
5 My proposal is that using key performance My proposition is that using key performance
indicators harms the UK educational system. indicators harms the UK educational system.
6 Jones and Francis (1996) hypothesis a positive Jones and Francis (1996) hypothesise a positive
correlation between high self-esteem and a correlation between high self-esteem and a
positive attitude to Christianity. positive attitude to Christianity.
7 In Great Britain statehood is not predicated In Great Britain statehood is not predicated on the
with the myth of ethnic homogeneity. myth of ethnic homogeneity.
8 From an early stage in his career, Freud From an early stage in his career, Freud speculated
speculated on traumatic memories are often that traumatic memories are often repressed.
repressed.
9 Our theory is that the male students will tend Our hypothesis is that the male students will tend
to give more positive answers than female to give more positive answers than female
students. students.
10 Without quantum thesis many developments Without quantum theory many developments in
in modern electronics would not have been modern electronics would not have been possible.
possible.

Definitions and classification
4 Brief definitions
Tutors often want you to define things in your own words and/or to use other people’s definitions, and
phrases for doing both of these things are presented below. You may need to give just a brief definition,
or you might need to provide a longer (extended) definition that includes grouping or differentiating
between similar terms, giving examples and discussing alternative definitions. Indeed, some assignments
are composed entirely of developing and discussing a definition.
You will find other useful words and phrases in section 5.
4.1 Words in action

Key phrases
▸▸ X is a type of // a branch of // a system of // a style of // a mode of // the study of …
▸▸ X is a process // a phenomenon // an organisation // a mechanism // a substance // a material …
▸▸ X is a framework // a hierarchy // an infrastructure …
▸▸ X is a paradigm // a construct // a concept // an approach // a perspective // a school of thought // an
ideology …
▸▸ A wave function is when / is defined as / can be defined as / can be termed as / refers to …
▸▸ A broad // narrow definition of affirmative action is …
▸▸ Musical composition is generally / widely // loosely understood to mean / to refer to …
▸▸ A generally / widely accepted definition of bullying is …
▸▸ The term ‘postmodernism’ has been applied to / is used to describe / describes // has come to be used
as …
▸▸ Social anthropology is primarily concerned with // describes // deals with …
▸▸ Neoliberalism was originally associated with / originally meant … but has now acquired a (slightly //
very) different meaning.
25
Defining a term that does not have one clear definition
▸▸ One definition of corporate social responsibility is …
▸▸ There is no universally agreed / generally accepted definition of …
▸▸ There is no // little consensus / agreement on / over what is meant by interactivity.
▸▸ There are several // various definitions of quality.
▸▸ ‘Freedom of speech’ has been interpreted in various ways.
▸▸ ‘Function’ is an ambiguous term because it is used in so many different contexts.
▸▸ What constitutes a region is (to some extent) subjective because …
Referring to other people’s definitions

▸▸ In the literature justice is (usually // often) / tends to be defined as …
▸▸ Kline (2009) defines progress as …
▸▸ Progress has been defined as … (Kline 2009).
▸▸ The theory of reasoned action is (usually // often) attributed to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, 1980).
Stating your choice of definition explicitly

▸▸ There are several // various definitions of quality. In this essay I (will) define it as …
▸▸ ‘Freedom of speech’ has been interpreted in various ways. I define it here as …
▸▸ ‘Function’ is an ambiguous term because it is used in different contexts. I will define it here as …
▸▸ ‘Terrorism’ is a highly subjective word. I define it here as …
Defining by describing elements

▸▸ DNA is composed of / comprises / consists of …
▸▸ The United Kingdom and Ireland constitute the British Isles.
▸▸ Curcumin is a major constituent of / component of turmeric.
26 Definitions and classification

Words you probably already use correctly: acquire, branch, concept, definition, framework, generally,
hierarchy, infrastructure, literature, loosely, material, narrow, process, several, style, substance, system, type,
universal, widely.
Words defined in other sections: construct s13, ideology s13, interpretation s13, paradigm s13, perspec-
tive s14, phenomenon s1, school of thought s13, subjective s14, various s22.
ambiguous adj adj – Something that has more than one meaning and so may be interpreted
ambiguity n differently in different contexts.
Ambiguous and vague
Vague means ‘imprecise or unclear’ rather than having multiple meanings.
For ambivalent see section 14.
Ambiguity has more specialised meanings in linguistics, maths and philosophy.

apply v v – (1) To refer or relate to.
application n E.g. The legislation applies to anyone over 65.
(2) To use or bring into operation.
E.g. The review process should be applied after any serious accident.
(3) To make a formal request.
E.g. To apply for a visa.
(4) To put a substance onto a surface.
E.g. The next step was to apply gold to the surface of each particle.
associate v v – (1) To connect or link in the mind.
association n (2) (Of people) To meet with regularly.
attribute v / n v – To say who invented, discovered or first used something.
E.g. The idea of using the subconscious as a psychoanalytic tool is attributed to
Freud.
n – A quality, characteristic or feature.
E.g. Stamina is a key physical attribute needed for advanced yoga practices.
broad adj (1) General, not detailed.
(2) Wide or large.
component n – A part or element of something larger. Similar to constituent and element.
n / adj
compose v (1) ‘Is made up of’. Compose is used to describe something that has one or
more elements, usually in the context of substances and materials. Similar to
consists of.
(2) To create a piece of music.
For meaning (1), compose is used with the verb to be and of.
E.g. Ice is composed of frozen water. Steel is composed of iron and carbon.
comprise v ‘Is made up of’. Only used when more than one element makes up the whole.
E.g. Ice comprises frozen water. ✘
Great Britain comprises England, Scotland and Wales. ✓
Comprise does not use to be or of.

E.g. Great Britain is comprised of England, Scotland and Wales. ✘
Great Britain comprises England, Scotland and Wales. ✓
consensus n General agreement.
consist v ‘Is made of’. Similar to is composed of and comprises.
Consist uses only of.

E.g. Great Britain is consists of England, Scotland and Wales. ✘
Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. ✓

constituent n – (1) An element or component within a whole.
n / adj
(2) In politics, a member of a constituency.
adj – Being one part of a whole.
constitute v (1) ‘Makes up’. Indicates the reverse relationship to is composed of, comprises and
consists of.
E.g. England, Scotland and Wales constitute Great Britain.
(2) ‘Is’.
E.g. Racial abuse constitutes a criminal offence under UK law.
mechanism n A method or process for achieving something particular.
A mechanism for X / for doing X.
mode n A specific way something is done, is expressed or happens, often when a choice of
different methods or types exists.
mode of production // communication // interaction // expression //
A
thought // conduct // behaviour // transport.
refer v Refer has several meanings, but when used to give a definition, it means ‘is the
word / term used for’.
E.g. Scumbling refers to the technique of applying a thin covering of opaque
colour to a painting.
Refers to and relates to

Relates to means ‘is connected to’. These two phrases are sometimes used
interchangeably but for giving definitions you should use refers to.
Incorrect Correct
1 ‘Poverty’ is an ambivalent term. I will define it ‘Poverty’ is an ambiguous term. I will define it
here as … here as …
2 A law firm comprises of a group of lawyers A law firm comprises / is composed of / consists
working together under a specific name. of a group of lawyers working together under a
specific name.
3 Cognitive therapy is concerning challenging the Cognitive therapy concerns / is concerned with
client’s negative core beliefs and thought challenging the client’s negative core beliefs
patterns. and thought patterns.
4 Many people view the practice of animal testing Many people view the practice of animal
as consisting of many flaws. testing as having many flaws.
5 My essay consists of the similarities and My essay discusses / analyses / examines the
differences between the UK and American legal similarities and differences between the UK and
system. American legal system.
6 Cranial implants are one potential future model Cranial implants are one potential future mode
of communication. of communication.
7 The term ‘ethnic group’ relates to a group of The term ‘ethnic group’ refers to a group of
people who share (or believe they share) a people who share (or believe they share) a
common heritage. common heritage.
8 The first use of the term ‘psychology’ is The first use of the term ‘psychology’ is
attributed by Gockel. attributed to Gockel.
9 An intake of approximately 30% protein, 40% An intake of approximately 30% protein, 40%
carbohydrate and not more than 30% ‘good’ carbohydrate and not more than 30% ‘good’
fats consists of a healthy diet. fats constitutes a healthy diet.
10 A wide definition of competitive intelligence is A broad definition of competitive intelligence is
the sharing of information about customers, the sharing of information about customers,
products and competitors. products and competitors.

5 Classification and characteristics
Understanding and explaining what category something does or does not fit into is an important part of
describing and defining something, and this section contains words and phrases for doing this. You will
probably also need to use words and phrases from section 4 (e.g. consist, comprise and constituent) and
words for expressing similarity and difference, covered in sections 21 and 22.
5.1 Words in action

Categorising
▸▸ There are five categories of / classes of pigment.
▸▸ Economic models can be classified / can be categorised according to / on the basis of their intended
function.
▸▸ Economic models are classified as discrete or continuous, depending on whether all the variables are
quantitative.
▸▸ The journal deals with medicine and related / allied sciences.
▸▸ Latin falls into the group of / comes under the category of extinct Italic languages.
▸▸ The Italic languages form a subgroup within / subgroup of the Indo-European language family.
▸▸ The Indo-European languages can be further subdivided into twelve distinct branches.
▸▸ AO is one of the four blood subtypes.
▸▸ The students were interviewed in groups according to their respective disciplines.
▸▸ Education is an important sphere of economic activity in Western societies.
▸▸ WikiLeaks provides a way of bringing source material into the public domain anonymously.
▸▸ Tress et al. (1989) conflated physical and mental stress when looking at adult resiliency after stressful
childhood.
Using your own categories
▸▸ I have based my classification on / categorisation on three criteria: weight, cost and size.
▸▸ I suggest // I have adopted // I have devised a classification / a categorisation based on …
▸▸ We suggest that our model should be classified as quantitative because …
▸▸ I classified / categorised each metal according to weight.
Describing uniqueness and specificity
▸▸ When it first opened, the Body Shop represented a unique management style.
▸▸ Earth remains the sole example of a life-supporting planet.
▸▸ Polonium is the exception in group 16 of the periodic table.
▸▸ The gene is expressed specifically in stromal cells surrounding invasive breast tumours.
▸▸ In 2018 the Malaysian government merged five housing agencies into a single entity called the
National Affordable Housing Council.
Naming the members of a group or giving examples of them
▸▸ There are two main subspecies of chimpanzee, namely bonobos and the common chimpanzee.
▸▸ Toxic heavy metals used in industrial processes include aluminium and cadmium.
▸▸ There are many toxic heavy metals that are used in industrial processes, for example aluminium and
cadmium.
▸▸ The Gulf Coast Cenozoic sediments are an (excellent) example of / exemplify extracontinental
sedimentation.
Emphasising particular members of a group
▸▸ Flavonoids, especially / particularly // notably // chiefly / mainly those found in tea, are potent
antioxidants.
▸▸ Studies have shown that flavonoids are antioxidants. In particular, those found in tea are effective
oxidation inhibitors.
Specifying inclusions and exclusions
▸▸ Numerous safety features are now included / incorporated as standard.
▸▸ When compiling our datasets we decided to exclude those tests that scored less than 10 marks.
▸▸ All students, with the exception of / with the exclusion of / except (for) / apart from those on distance
courses, must sit the exam.
Describing overarching categories or systems
▸▸ ‘Agrochemical’ is a generic / an umbrella term for any chemical product used in agriculture.
▸▸ The SGC report gives overarching principles that are to be applied when sentencing offenders.
▸▸ The previously separate provinces have recently been subsumed under the new national state.
▸▸ The social sciences encompass a wide range of disciplines.

Describing range and variety
▸▸ The human body is designed to deal with only a narrow range of blood glucose levels.
▸▸ Since the 1950s an extensive / a wide range of research on leadership behaviour has been conducted.
▸▸ There is a seemingly infinite range of / variety of / number of wines currently available in supermarkets.
▸▸ Both government and voters are increasingly aware that water is a finite resource.
Classifying by emphasising difference (see also section 22)

▸▸ In traditional theology, the presence of a soul differentiates humans from animals.
▸▸ Previous research has distinguished atoms by their state of oxidisation.
▸▸ A distinction needs to be made / needs to be drawn between size and volume.
▸▸ There are two distinct / discrete categories of Bengali literature.
▸▸ The dichotomy / division between conscious and unconscious movement has been challenged in recent
studies.
Stating that something is a typical or non-typical example of a class
▸▸ Arianna Huffington and Caterina Fake are both excellent / model // typical / archetypal / quintessential
examples of risk-taking, creative entrepreneurs.
▸▸ This subspecies of black bear demonstrates several atypical features.
Describing characteristics
▸▸ Both theories share two key / fundamental / essential characteristics / traits / features / attributes / qualities.
▸▸ Plants have several defining external // internal characteristics, namely …
▸▸ For an organism to count as a bacterium it must satisfy / fit / meet / fulfil the criterion of being
unicellular.
▸▸ Cortisol is referred to as a stress hormone because it is secreted in greater amounts in response to
stress.
▸▸ A typical characteristic of cluster headaches is that they occur during seasonal change.
▸▸ Strong leaders tend to have certain intrinsic qualities in common.
▸▸ In Christian theology, original sin is the inherent / innate state of imperfection with which humans are born.
▸▸ Research shows that it is not urinary tract infection per se that causes kidney disease, but other
underlying abnormalities.
▸▸ Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources such as a reward, coercion or fear of punishment.
▸▸ String theory is a highly abstract mathematical model.
Words you probably already use correctly: atypical, basis, category, chiefly, division, external, finite, fulfil,
fundamental, include, infinite, internal, narrow, notably, satisfy, subgroup, subdivide, typical, umbrella.
Words defined in other sections: attribute s4, devise s19, dichotomy s22, differentiate s22, discrete s22,
distinct, s22, exclude s18, extensive s26, refer to s4, variety s22.
abstract adj / n / v adj – Based on ideas or feelings, rather than concrete, physical things.
n – A summary written by the author(s) at the start of an academic article or
report.
v – (1) To remove or take something out of something else. Similar to extract.
(2) To think about something in a theoretical or abstract way.
adj – An abstract concept / idea // theory // model // principle.

adopt v v – (1) T
o choose to take or follow a particular idea, approach or course of
adoption n action.
(2) To become the legal parent of a child.
The policy has been widely // generally adopted.
To adopt a plan // policy // strategy // practice // principle // position /
stance / approach // attitude // method.
allied adj (1) Of a similar type or nature.
(2) Joined or closely related.
(3) Relating to people engaged in war who have a common cause.
archetype n n – (1) An excellent, typical example.
archetypal adj (2) The first, original.
basis n The underlying foundation or support of a process, action or idea.
n the basis of X // X has no basis in fact // X forms the basis of Y // To do

O
X on a regular basis.

categorise∗ v v – To group elements according to shared characteristics or to put an element
category n 1 into a particular group. Similar to classify.
categorisation∗ n 2 n 1 – A group or class based on shared features or functions.
n 2 – The action of putting things into groups of shared features or functions.
v – Businesses are usually categorised into / according to three groups.
Marx should not be categorised as simply a socialist.
∗
-ize/-ization are also acceptable in British spelling and are always used in US
spelling.
classify v v – To group elements according to shared characteristics or to put an element
class n 1 into a particular group. Similar to categorise.
classification n 2 n 1 – A group or category based on shared characteristics.
classified adj n 2 – The action of putting things into categories.
E.g. This report will examine controlled drug classification in Brazil.
Class, category and type
Type is the most general term. Class can be used to name categories.
E.g. Class A shares are stocks that provide enhanced benefits.
he adjective classified has the additional meanings of (1) being officially secret
T
or (2) relating to newspaper advertisements.
conflate v To combine two or more things (usually ideas, arguments, issues or pieces of
information).
criterion n (1) A principle or standard by which things are judged or measured.
(2) A key characteristic.
Criterion is the singular form.
E.g. The key criterion for a fungus is that it does not contain chlorophyll.
Criteria is the plural form.
E.g. There are three key criteria.
domain n A specific area of activity. Similar to sphere.
The / A political // social // public // private // male // female domain.

Domain and realm
Realm has a similar meaning to domain and sphere but is less common. Realm
is usually used when talking about knowledge, experience or imagination, e.g.
outside / within the realms of possibility.
encompass v To include a large number or wide range of different things.
E.g. Our study encompassed students from all the different disciplines at the
institution.
entity n Something that exists as distinct from everything else.
especially adv (1) Particularly, or above all.
E.g. Childhood traumas, especially those involving death, affect behaviour in
adulthood.
(2) Very.
E.g. The government is especially keen to reduce income tax. The chemical
has an especially strong smell.
Especially and specially
Special and specially have the meaning of unique or ‘only for this purpose’.
E.g. The designer uses a special design. The software is specially designed for
students.
For specifically see below.
exception n Something that is different in some way from all the other things mentioned.
A notable // rare // odd // obvious exception. The only / sole exception.
Exception and exemption

An exemption is something that means you are freed from a (legal) obligation,
as in a tax exemption.

extrinsic adj Coming from outside, or an external element.
An extrinsic force // influence // value // motivation // reward.
generic adj Non-specific, general.
incorporate v v – To add or include something as part of something else.
incorporation n E.g. After the trial period we decided to incorporate face-to-face interviews into
our study.
inherent adj Being an unremovable part or aspect of something. Similar to intrinsic.
There are inherent risks in operating.

There are certain risks inherent in the operation.
(An) inherent bias // ambiguity // contradiction // flaw // limitation //
tension // weakness // uncertainty // danger // risk // problem // difficulty
// quality // tendency // ability // strength.
innate adj Natural, something with which you are born. Used to describe the nature and
characteristics of things.
Innate talent // knowledge // behaviour // response // wisdom.
Innate, inherent and intrinsic
There is some overlap between all three words; however, inherent and intrinsic are
closer synonyms, with innate being used to emphasise inborn, natural qualities.
intrinsic adj Being an unremovable part or aspect of something. Similar to inherent.
Money has no intrinsic value.

Beauty is intrinsic to art.
Intrinsic value / worth // motivation // property // function.
namely adv ‘That is’. Similar to the abbreviation i.e.
Namely and for example
These mean different things. If you use namely, you must list all the items in the
set or group, not just a few examples.
overarching adj Covering or including all the others. All-encompassing.
particular adj adj – (1) Denoting an individual member of a group.
particularly adv E.g. We have identified the particular gene responsible for the disease.
(2) Great, to a great degree, worthy of note.
E.g. We need to take particular care in how we define morality.
(3) (Of people) Fussy.
E.g. He is very particular about where he sits.
adv – (1) Very, especially.
E.g. I am particularly interested in why and how people lie.
(2) Especially, above all.
E.g. Children, particularly those between 10 and 16, need peer groups.
In particular also means ‘especially’.
E.g. Children need peer groups, in particular children between 10 and 16.
per se adv Considered by, of, or in itself.
Per se is often used with an initial concession.
E.g. I am not opposed to guns per se, but I am against private gun ownership.
quintessential adj The best / most typical example of something. Similar to archetypal.
respective adj adj – Different or separate. Emphasises the separateness of the things
respectively adv mentioned.
E.g. After the interviews, the management team discussed the respective merits
of each candidate.
adv – In the same order as the items just mentioned.
E.g. I will refer to the Fisher-Race and the Wiener systems as FR and W
respectively.

sole adj (1) The only (one).
(2) Belonging to only one, not shared.
he sole exception // aim // objective // purpose // cause // intention //

T
reason // justification // exception // means.
Sole control // authority // charge.
specifically adv adv – Precisely, exactly done only for one reason.
specific adj E.g. The software program was designed specifically for use by children under
specificity n ten.
Specifically and particularly
As shown here and above, these words have different meanings.
E.g. The government is particularly keen to reduce tax.
= The government is very / especially keen to reduce tax.
The report looks specifically at ways of reducing income tax.
= The report looks only at ways of reducing tax.
sphere n An area of activity, interest or influence. Similar to domain.
The private // public // political // social // economic sphere.
subsume v When something is put into or absorbed into a larger group, often losing its
individual status.
E.g. The small college was subsumed into / within the university in 1889.
trait n A characteristic or quality, usually of a person.
A genetic / inherited // personality // behavioural trait.
unique adj The only one that exists. Unique often emphasises that something is special
and/or unusual.
A unique opportunity // viewpoint // collection // situation.
Incorrect Correct
1 It is not always helpful to categorise people It is not always helpful to categorise / classify
into ethnic groups. people by / according to / in terms of ethnic
groups.
2 The heavy metals in chemistry encompass The heavy metals in chemistry include plutonium.
plutonium.
3 There is one overriding criteria a defendant There is one overriding criterion a defendant must
must meet before being granted an appeal. meet before being granted an appeal.
4 Fuels can contain heavy metals, specially those Fuels can contain heavy metals, especially /
derived from waste. particularly those derived from waste.
5 Stem cells can grow into any other cell in the Stem cells can grow into any other type of cell /
body. cell type in the body.
6 Aristotle distinguished five different types of Aristotle distinguished five different types of
democracy but in modern times they are often democracy but in modern times they are often
subsumed into one overarching category. subsumed under one overarching category.
7 The client claimed there were outside factors The client claimed there were extrinsic / external
that made it difficult to fulfil the contract. factors that made it difficult to fulfil the contract.
8 Most spheres in life involve the need to Most spheres of life involve the need to negotiate
negotiate in some way with others. in some way with others.
9 The classical view of the physical world The classical view of the physical world consisted
consisted of five elements, namely Earth and of five elements, for example Earth and Fire.
Fire.
10 This essay will discuss whether there is a valid This essay will discuss whether there is a valid basis
bases of the belief that poverty causes crime. for the belief that poverty causes crime.

Methodology, method and findings
6 Methodology, model and method

This section presents words commonly used to describe and discuss aspects of methodology and method.
When explaining your chosen methodology, the active verb form is sometimes acceptable; e.g. I decided
to take an exploratory approach. When describing method, the passive is more common; e.g. The samples
were weighed. The use of passive and active form also depends on your discipline and tutor preferences, so
check with them. Finally, when you are using the active form, use I to mean just you, and use we to refer
to a group. You will find other useful words and phrases in section 7.
6.1 Words in action

Discussing methodology and models
▸▸ This report employs / uses a mixed methods methodology / takes a mixed methods approach.
▸▸ As I am investigating my own teaching, my methodology / research design comprises practice-based research.
▸▸ I decided that an exploratory methodology / approach would be an effective way of assessing the
scope of research needed.
▸▸ This paper uses / adopts the common research model of using informal observations and a pilot study
to refine the research question and then conducting an empirical study and data analysis.
▸▸ We devised / constructed / formulated our own research model / design that …
▸▸ We chose to use case studies to address our research question in order to …
▸▸ Our rationale / reasons for using anonymous questionnaires were twofold. First, …
▸▸ The most appropriate research design was to first gather empirical data and then use qualitative
methods to gain additional information on individuals.
▸▸ Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to determine the effects of the programme.
▸▸ I used the company’s annual accounts as primary data, and recent reports on life assurance as secondary
sources.
41
Describing method
▸▸ The intervention took the form of two half-day visits each term.
▸▸ The format of the experiment was agreed by both teams beforehand.
▸▸ Systematic sampling was used to select participants.
▸▸ The participants were allocated / assigned randomly to one of five groups.
▸▸ Each participant was subjected to / underwent a series of four tests.
▸▸ The experiment was repeated by other teams to see whether our results could be replicated / reproduced.
▸▸ The sets of figures were collated at the end of each week.
▸▸ A database was compiled and used to look for significant correlations.
▸▸ We collaborated with a team of researchers from Glasgow.
▸▸ The study involved interviewing participants after each intervention.
▸▸ The experiment was conducted using predetermined / prescribed protocols.
▸▸ We configured the server so that we could add the operating features listed below.
▸▸ The test had the rigorous / thorough safeguard against bias of being reviewed by three external experts.
▸▸ The steps / measures taken to guard against bias are listed below.
Describing steps in the method

▸▸ Prior to / Before measuring the solution we extracted the blood cells.
▸▸ Once a patch of pink begins to appear in the solution, the tap will be stopped.
▸▸ The first // next // penultimate // final step in the process was to …
▸▸ At // During the initial // intermediate // final stage / phase we …
▸▸ At each stage we monitored // observed the behaviour of the animals.
▸▸ This complex sequence of experiments was completed in 28 hours.
Describing method limits and limitations

▸▸ We followed closely the instructions stipulated / specified in the written protocol.
▸▸ Owing to time constraints we were only able to repeat the test once.
▸▸ My aim was to find the lower limit detection value for the drug.
▸▸ Both sexes showed a lower pain threshold in the third session.
▸▸ We were limited as to how much we could achieve in the time given.
▸▸ The employer put limitations on where we could conduct the interviews.
▸▸ We ensured that all values were within the specific / the specified parameters.
42 Methodology, method and findings

Words you probably already use correctly: method, observation, pilot study, research design, sequence.
Words defined in other sections: address s2, adopt s5, analyse∗ s23, construct s13, data s7, devise s19,
exploratory s2, rigorous s26, scope s2.
∗
The US spelling is analyze.
allocate v v – To reserve or assign. Usually used in the context of resources and tasks.
allocated adj To allocate funds / funding // money // resources.
collate v v – To gather and put together information for comparison and analysis.
collation n
compile v v – To produce something from the data that you didn’t have before.
compilation n Compile and collate
As shown above, the two terms have different meanings. The normal stages
in data analysis are to collate and to then compile a list or collection of
information.
E.g. I collated the data and compiled a list of all students who attended the
meetings.
configure v v – To arrange or structure something so that it can function for a particular
configuration n purpose.
To configure (a) system // program // hardware // software // data.

constraint n Something that puts limits on something else. Similar to limitation.
To work within financial // economic // legal // time // budgetary constraints.

effective adj Having the desired outcome / effect.
Effective and efficient
Efficient means making the best possible use of time, effort, energy, money
etc. Something can therefore be effective (successful) but not use resources
well and so be inefficient. Equally, something might use resources well (be
efficient) but ultimately fail to have the desired result and so be ineffective.
empirical adj Coming from or based on evidence and observation rather than theory.
extract v / n v – To take or remove something out of something else, often using force.
E.g. The proteins were extracted from the liquid.
n – A section of a book, film, piece of music etc.
E.g. He read an extract from the novel.
formulate v v – To create, prepare or express in a planned and careful way.
formulation n
limit n / v n – The furthest extent or boundary that is allowed or is possible.
v – To restrict.
limitation n (1) A rule, restriction or situation that restricts something.
(2) A failing or deficiency.
E.g. The novels are important but they have limitations.
limited adj (1) Restricted in some way.
(2) (Of people) Narrow-minded or lacking in ability.
measure n / v n – Action(s) taken to achieve a particular purpose.
To take measures.

methodology n n – The overall approach and way of thinking behind the research. A
methodological adj methodology section usually includes an explanation and discussion of the
research approach and method(s) used.
Methodology and method
The method(s) is/are the specific procedures used to conduct the research.
The two words are sometimes used interchangeably in business and
management.
Methodological and methodical
Methodological is the adjective related to methodology.
E.g. This essay will examine the methodological foundations of market
research.
The adjective methodical means ‘thorough and organised’.
E.g. The job requires someone who can work in a methodical manner.
model n / adj / v n – A way of doing something or a representation of how something works
or behaves.
adj – A good and typical example, e.g. a model essay, a model parent.
v – To form, shape, base or use as an example.
– A basic // conventional / traditional // common // dominant //
n
standard // excellent // positive // successful // business model.
A model of best practice // of excellence // of good behaviour.
To follow / adopt / use / apply a model.

parameter n (1) A measurable variable, quality or value.
(2) The limits or boundaries that shape how something operates.
Often used in the plural and often with the.
To set // define // establish // determine the parameters.
To change / adjust / modify // vary the parameters.
To fall // operate / work within the (specified) parameters.
Certain / specific // specified // broad // strict parameters.
Parameter and perimeter
A perimeter is the outer edge of a prison, field or other delineated area.
penultimate adj The one before last in a series.
phase n A distinct time period or stage.
predetermined adj Specified or decided in advance.
primary adj (1) The original, first-hand information or data.
(2) The most important.
protocol n An established set of rules, procedures or formal situations.
qualitative adj Any research method that gathers information that cannot be expressed in,
or reduced to, numerical values, such as attitudes or feelings. Examples of
qualitative methods are participant observation and interviews.
quantitative adj Any research method that collects empirical (observable), numerical or
statistical data. A quantitative approach is part of what is sometimes referred
to as the scientific method.
rationale n The reasoning or logic for a belief or action.
Rationale and rational
Rational is an adjective meaning ‘based on reason’.
E.g. This is a rational approach. She is a rational person.

refine v (1) To make improvements to a plan, idea, process or system.
(2) To remove impurities from products such as oil, sugar, wheat and rice.
replicate v To copy or reproduce exactly. In the scientific method, results are verified by
others performing the same experiment and being able to get similar results.
secondary adj (1) In research, data gathered, reported or used by someone other than the
originator of that data.
(2) Not the most important.
stage n / v n – A particular point within a process.
step n / v n – A specific action within a process.
stipulate v v – To specify, require, demand or necessitate.
stipulation n The model // regulations // rules // law // contract // instructions //
standards // doctrine // policy stipulate(s) that ...
systematic adj According to a particular system, method or plan.
A systematic approach // classification // course.
Systematic and systemic
Systemic means relating to, or spread throughout, a whole system or
organism, e.g. a systemic disease, effect, risk, problem or failure (see section
10).
undergo v To experience something (often bad or unpleasant) or to go through a
process of change.
o undergo surgery // treatment // testing // pain // hardship //
T
suffering.
To undergo transformation // revision / modification // repair //
restructuring.

Incorrect Correct
1 This essay examines the government’s rational This essay examines the government’s rationale for
for reintroducing capital punishment. reintroducing capital punishment.
2 Logan (2017) suggests the stages that need to Logan (2017) suggests the steps / measures /
be taken to resolve the dispute. actions that need to be taken to resolve the
dispute.
3 Researchers are undergoing studies about the Researchers are conducting studies on the possible
possible effects of the drug. effects of the drug.
4 The survey was done in six cities. The survey was conducted in six cities.
5 The method section explains the ideology and The methodology section explains the ideology
rationale leading to the range of methods and rationale leading to the range of methods
chosen for our study. chosen for our study.
6 The experiment was conducted The experiment was conducted methodically in
methodologically in order to minimise errors. order to minimise errors.
7 The removal of waste products from the blood The removal of waste products from the blood is a
is a vital sequence. vital process.
8 Adams (2018) argues that animals should not Adams (2018) argues that animals should not be
take part in such experiments. subjected to / undergo such experiments.
9 We then compiled the answers from the We then collated the answers from the
questionnaires. questionnaires.
10 We were careful not to exceed the agreed We were careful not to exceed the agreed time
time limitation. limit.

7 Data, findings, problems and anomalies
This section gives you vocabulary for making statements about the main findings from a piece of research
and for describing the main problems and anomalies found in the data. Note that these types of general
statements are not enough on their own and should be accompanied and supported by a more detailed
data presentation and analysis.
7.1 Words in action

Discussing data and findings
▸▸ Although the table presents only our initial // preliminary / provisional findings, it seems that no
significant change // rise // fall was detected // was observed.
▸▸ The data obtained show(s) a statistically significant cluster of birth defects in the region.
▸▸ We discerned differences in patterns of behaviour between the two groups.
▸▸ The participants exhibited signs of nervousness such as coughing.
▸▸ We found that male–female wage disparity varies with age.
▸▸ The excavation has yielded important new evidence of habitation.
▸▸ The data accord(s) / agree(s) / is (are) consistent with earlier observations.
▸▸ The distribution pattern of the virus conforms to that expected for this type of disease.
▸▸ At this preliminary stage of analysis the findings are inconclusive / not conclusive.
Discussing problems
▸▸ We encountered a problem with the software and so had to do the calculations manually.
▸▸ We were unable to replicate our results, despite the fact that we repeated the experiment six times.
▸▸ We could not (accurately) gauge / assess / appraise // measure / determine how employees felt about
the new system.
▸▸ The small dataset meant that the cause cannot be established / be ascertained with certainty.
▸▸ The sample was too small to produce a measurable outcome.
▸▸ The effect of happiness on unemployment was found to have been overestimated // underestimated.
▸▸ The procedure was more fallible than expected and so the experiment had to be abandoned.
Discussing anomalies and surprises

▸▸ There are several anomalies in the data, which means that the experiment needs to be repeated.
▸▸ There is an unexplained discrepancy between the expected and actual totals.

▸▸ The discrepancy exceeds an acceptable margin of error.
▸▸ Our results are not consistent with / inconsistent with the predicted outcomes.
▸▸ A notable exception to rising export prices is Mexico.
▸▸ The standard of answers was higher // lower than we had anticipated / expected // predicted.
▸▸ The data do (does) not accord with / not agree with earlier observations.
▸▸ Contrary to (our / my) expectations, the most effective type of bulb was also the cheapest.

Words you probably already use correctly: effect, expectation, initial, measurable, observe, obtain, outcome,
overestimate, problem, statistical, unexplained, underestimate.
Words defined in other sections: analysis s23, conform s10, determine s2, establish s2, exceed s9,
exception s5, notable s21, replicate s6, significant s30.
accord v / n v – (1) To be consistent with or the same as.

accordance n (2) To give or grant status or respect to someone.
v – X accords with Y.
n – X is in accordance with Y.
anomaly n n – Something different from what is usual, expected or normal.
anomalous adj
appraise v v – (1) To judge the quality or ability of something. Similar to assess and gauge.
appraisal n (2) To estimate the numerical value of something.
(3) To formally test someone.
assess v v – (1) T
o judge the quality or ability of something. Similar to appraise and
assessment n gauge.
(2) To estimate the numerical value of something.
(3) To formally test someone.

cluster n / v n – A group of (similar) things that are all close together.
conclusive adj Providing strong evidence or proof. The opposite of inconclusive (see below).
consistent adj (1) Does not contradict.
(2) Unchanging over time.
X is consistent with Y. X is broadly // wholly consistent with Y.
A consistent approach // standard // level.
X is consistent with the aim // data // evidence // findings // objective //
principle // view of Y.
contrary n (1) The opposite.
(2) When two propositions cannot both be true.
data n Statistics, facts or other information to be analysed.
In formal, scientific writing, datum is the singular noun and data the plural.
E.g. This item is important datum. The data are from three different sources.
However, using data as a singular, uncountable noun is now common.
E.g. The data is from three different sources.
detect v To discover the presence of something.
Detect and discern
Can sometimes be interchanged but detect is the more general term – see
discern below.
discern v To recognise, find or understand something. People discern things, usually in
the context of something visual or intellectual.
o discern a (an) difference // change // shift // link // trend // relationship
T
// pattern // theme // impact // effect // influence // benefit.
For discernible see section 8.
discrepancy n A difference between things that are expected to be the same.

effect n A change resulting from an action, event or process.
encounter v / n v – To meet or experience unexpectedly.
To encounter a problem / an obstacle / opposition / hostility.

exhibit v / n v – (1) To show signs of a particular behaviour or feature
(2) To show publicly.
fallible adj Capable of making mistakes or of containing errors.
findings n Information or conclusion reached by investigation or experiment.
Findings, data and results
Findings is the most general term, used to refer to both data and results.
Data is information (particularly numerical) collected for calculation, analysis and
decision making.
Results is sometimes used to refer to data itself but should really be used to refer
to the observations and conclusions drawn from the data.
gauge v / n v – To estimate or determine the amount or level of something.
inconclusive adj Not giving definite proof. The opposite word is conclusive (see above).
margin of error n The amount by which a set of data might be inaccurate.
preliminary adj / n adj – Done first in preparation for something more important or final.
provisional adj (1) Not finalised because further analysis is needed.
(2) Incomplete.
yield v / n v – To produce, deliver or give.
v – To yield a profit // an income // a return of X. To yield results //
outcomes // benefits // information.
n – A yield of X. A yield spread between X and Y.

Incorrect Correct
1 We have to analysis the results. We have to analyse the results.
2 We were encountering more problems with We encountered more problems with the software
the software than expected. than expected.
3 The participants’ scores were of higher The participants’ scores were higher than expected.
expectations.
4 A larger sample will result in a lower margin A larger sample will result in a lower margin of error.
for error.
5 Our results accorded to those of the other Our results accorded with those of the other
research teams. research teams.
6 The findings ran contrary with those of The findings ran contrary to those of similar studies.
similar studies.
7 The database complied from the statistics is The database compiled from the statistics is shown
shown in Table 2. in Table 2.
8 There are several disparities between the There are several discrepancies between the original
original report and the summary given in report and the summary given in the journal.
the journal.
9 Minority groups have been overestimated The proportion / number / percentage of people
when concerning gun crime. from minority groups involved in gun crime has
been overestimated.
10 With one exemption, the participants chose With one exception, the participants chose the most
the most expensive item. expensive item.

Amount, level and proportion
8 Amount, level, proportion and distribution

This section gives words and phrases for discussing the above in a general and/or approximate manner
(e.g. a large number). Note that in your written piece you will usually also need to make more precise
statements and give exact numerical values. See also section 9 for other useful words and phrases related
to amount, presence and absence, and section 10 for words related to occurrence such as pervade and
permeate.
Note that in the first sentence below the amounts run from smallest (minimal) to largest (major).
8.1 Words in action

Discussing amount, number and measurement
▸▸ The pay increase had a minimal / negligible // small // discernible // noticeable // appreciable /
significant / substantial / marked / considerable / pronounced // major effect on output.
▸▸ There are few studies on the impact of age and gender on peptide levels.
▸▸ There were a number of / several options the government could have taken.
▸▸ There are numerous planets as yet undetected in the galaxy.
▸▸ A large // small number of students returned the questionnaire.
▸▸ There was a large // small amount of CO2 in the chamber.
▸▸ On reflection our team did not realise the magnitude of the task and so greatly underestimated the
time it would take.
▸▸ Over the last decade there has been a profound change in the way charities advertise.
▸▸ The scale // extent of the problem was not recognised until half-way through the build.
▸▸ The experiment was designed to quantify / measure the relative levels of male and female participation.
▸▸ The diagram gives the approximate dimensions of the fan (i.e. to the nearest centimetre).
▸▸ A total of 305 questionnaires were completed.
54
Discussing level, degree and capacity
▸▸ Supernovas of type 1a are considered to have maximum brightness.
▸▸ Harmonised minimum safety levels / minimum levels of safety are essential for European transport
networks.
▸▸ We used electronic scales to ensure a high level of / degree of accuracy.
▸▸ Scores above 110 indicate a higher than average / an above-average IQ, and scores under 90 indicate a
lower than average / a below-average level of intelligence.
▸▸ This type of cartridge has a maximum capacity of 800 GB.
▸▸ The maximum capacity of this type of cartridge is 800 GB.
Discussing proportion, fraction and ratio

▸▸ Average propensity to save is the proportion of income saved rather than spent.
▸▸ The UK Sentencing Council states that a sentence should be in proportion to / proportionate to the crime.
▸▸ Proportional representation ensures that the election outcome more accurately reflects people’s
political wishes.
▸▸ A disproportionate number of jobs come from new businesses, according to the NBER (2016).
▸▸ The (vast) majority of fat digestion and absorption occurs in the ileum.
▸▸ This particular gene is expressed predominantly in females.
▸▸ In a civil case the person bringing the lawsuit must produce a preponderance of evidence in their favour.
▸▸ The government’s strategy has been only partially successful.
▸▸ Class A drug users represent only a (small) minority of people who use drugs.
▸▸ According to government statistics, 63 per cent of girls passed five or more examined subjects last year.
▸▸ Hong and Slatick (1994) show that only a small percentage of carbon in coal is not oxidised on burning.
▸▸ Of the 85 students, just under // over a third // a half // a quarter said they were unhappy.
▸▸ The top 10 per cent scored 20 or above, and the bottom 10 per cent scored 5 or below.
▸▸ The sex ratio in Japan is 0.95 (JPC 2019).
Discussing distribution
▸▸ The table presents the spatial and temporal distribution of major tremors along the fault line.
▸▸ The data show an even / uniform // uneven distribution.
▸▸ Poverty is often concentrated in neighbourhoods rather than spread (uniformly / in a uniform way)
across a city (Jargowsky 2009).

▸▸ The practice of horizontal oil drilling has become increasingly common (Sugiura and Jones 2010).
▸▸ A study by Barker et al. (2014) has revealed widespread misunderstanding about the causes of arthritis.
▸▸ Virtual conferencing is a boon for geographically dispersed organisations.
▸▸ Australia has a sparse population overall but relatively dense pockets of urban habitation (WPR 2019).
▸▸ Freeman et al. (2007) state that it is increasingly rare to see large flocks of starlings in Northern Europe.

Words you probably already use correctly: amount, even, few, majority, maximum, measure, minimal,
minimum, noticeable, number, percentage, uneven, uniform.
Words defined in other sections: significant s30.
appreciable adj A noticeable or significant amount or degree. Similar to substantial and

considerable.
approximate adj adj – Close but not completely accurate or precise.
approximately adv Approximately, roughly and generally
Approximately and roughly have similar meanings but roughly is more
informal. Generally means ‘most of the time’ or ‘in most cases’ and should
not be used to refer to numerical values or amounts.
average n / v n – (1) T
he result of adding different amounts and then dividing by the
number of amounts. Similar to arithmetic mean.
(2) The usual, normal or typical amount.
capacity n (1) The maximum amount something can contain or produce.
(2) Ability.
considerable adj Large and/or important.
56 Amount, level and proportion

degree n (1) A unit of measurement for temperature and angle.
(2) The extent, size or level of things connected to quality, feelings or
impact.
E.g. The components were produced to a high degree of accuracy.
To a large degree / extent, people are not interested in political action.
(3) An educational award.
o a high // large // considerable // remarkable // surprising // small
T
// limited degree.
dense adj Crowded or closely compacted.
dimension n (1) The scope or physical measurements of something.
(2) An aspect or part of something.
E.g. The debate had an educational dimension.
An added / additional // different // extra // further // new dimension.
A political // social // educational dimension.
discernible adj adj – Noticeable, able to be seen.
discern v v – To see or notice something, particularly if it is small or hard to see.
See section 7.
a dj – A discernible difference // impact // effect // change // influence
// improvement // shift // pattern // theme // trend // link // benefit.
disperse v v – To spread out or break up.
dispersal n The sales team are geographically // widely dispersed.
To disperse rioters // crowds // groups // demonstrators.
disproportionate adj Not in the appropriate or corresponding amount, size or ratio to something
else.
extent n Area, range, scope or degree.

level n / v n – (1) A
n amount, e.g. a high level, the maximum level, at its lowest level.
Similar to meaning (2) of degree above.
(2) A particular standard or status, e.g. at a national level, to study at
university level.
(3) A way of understanding something.
E.g. This idea can be understood on two levels.
magnitude n Great size or extent.
In mathematics, an order of magnitude is a tenfold (x 10) increase. Used
more generally, the phrase several orders of magnitude means ‘a very large
extent / amount’.
marked adj Very noticeable.
marked difference // contrast // discrepancy // increase // decrease
A
// impact.
negligible adj Very small and/or unimportant.
numerous adj Many.
Numerous is used only with countable nouns.
E.g. There is numerous research in this area. ✘
There are numerous research studies in this area. ✓

partially adv adv – Not completely or only to some extent.
partial adj adj – (1) Incomplete or only in parts.
(2) Biased.
(3) ‘Having a liking for’.
Take note of the three different meanings of partial.
Partially and partly
There is some overlap but also some difference in meaning.
Partially emphasises that something has not happened to completion.
E.g. The advertising campaign was partially successful.
Partly emphasises the idea of different parts or elements.
E.g. The house is built partly of concrete and partly of wood.
For impartial see section 14.
predominantly adv adv – Mainly.
predominant adj adj – (1) The main, largest or most common.
predominance n E.g. The predominant colour in the room was red.
predominate v
(2) The most common and therefore most powerful. (For dominant
see section 30.)
E.g. The predominant opinion was that the treaty should be
signed.
preponderance n Superiority in power, importance or amount.
profound adj adj – Very great, deep and/or significant.
profundity n A profound effect / impact // consequence // implication // influence.
Profound repercussions // shock // sadness.
A profound change // shift // transformation // problem //
understanding // knowledge.

pronounced adj Very noticeable.
proportion n n – A share, number or ratio in relation to the whole.
proportional adj 1 adj 1 – Corresponding in amount, size or ratio to something else. Similar to
proportionate adj 2 proportionate and in proportion.
E.g. The team size should be proportional / in proportion / proportionate to
the amount of work involved.
n – X is in // out of proportion to Y.
We need to keep a sense of proportion.
In maths, proportional and proportionality have the more precise meaning of
two things that have equal ratios and always increase and/or decrease by a
constant ratio.
quantify v v – To measure the amount of something.
quantifiable adj adj – Capable of being measured.
rare adj adj – Not happening or found often, and so of value and/or interest.
rarity n Increasingly // surprisingly // extremely rare.
A rare commodity // chance / opportunity // skill // talent // event //
occasion // example // exception.
For scarce see section 9.
scale n / v n – (1) Size or level.
(2) Set of numbers used as a measure.
sparse adj (1) Thinly spread over an area.
(2) In short supply.
A sparse population.
substantial adj Of significant size. For substantive see section 26.

widespread adj Something that exists or happens (e.g. a belief, poverty, disease) over a
large area.
Widespread use of // support for // acceptance of // criticism of //

condemnation of // concern about // assumption that // belief that //
rejection of // speculation // consultation // concern // ignorance //
misunderstanding // corruption // disease / deprivation // suffering //
poverty // unemployment.
A widespread occurrence // phenomenon // assumption // belief //
(mis)conception // problem // debate.
idespread can be used to describe a debate or problem but not a question

W
or issue.
E.g. It is a widespread question. ✘ It is a widespread problem. ✓
Wide spread and spread wide are both incorrect.

Incorrect Correct
1 Evidence shows that a significant amount Evidence shows that a significant number of
of teenagers have tried drugs. teenagers have tried drugs.
2 By 2050 the US population will be By 2050 the US population will be approximately 390
generally 390 million (Statista 2019). million (Statista 2019).
3 Enormous amounts of pressure was applied Enormous amounts of pressure were applied onto the
onto the heart. heart.
4 Twelve per cent of people in the study is Twelve per cent of people in the study are from
from mixed ethnic backgrounds. mixed ethnic backgrounds.
5 There is a large possibility that the There is a strong possibility that the experiment was
experiment was flawed. flawed.
6 The population rose by three percentage a The population rose by three per cent a year.
year.
7 The board deny the claim that the The board deny the claim that the company director’s
company director’s salary is not in salary is not in proportion to / disproportionate to her
proportion for her worth. worth.
8 This debate can be interpreted in two This debate can be interpreted on two levels.
levels.
9 The company’s wireless security needs to The company’s wireless security needs to be set to
be set to the strongest level. the highest level.
10 The degrees for job satisfaction have an The degree of / level of job satisfaction has an impact
impact on general happiness. on general happiness.

9 Adequate and inadequate amounts
This section gives you vocabulary for talking about whether amounts are adequate or not. When discussing
adequacy or inadequacy, you should also give your reasons for why you think these amounts are enough
or not enough and what would be needed to remedy the situation. You will find other related words and
phrases in section 8.
9.1 Words in action

Discussing adequate amounts
▸▸ The right to adequate housing is enshrined in the International Covenant on ESC Rights.
▸▸ We now have sufficient / enough data to determine the exact source of the radiation.
▸▸ Hagenaars (2017) questions the validity of asking people what they think is an appropriate / the right
amount of money to give a homeless person on the street.
▸▸ There is no firm evidence for twelve being the ideal / optimal number of students in class.
Discussing inadequate amounts

▸▸ Inadequate legal representation is thought to be a factor in US death penalty cases.
▸▸ We do not have sufficient / do not have enough / have insufficient funding to continue our research.
▸▸ Young et al. (2008) argue that there is a scarcity / lack of available outlets for scientific research.
▸▸ This report reviews the literature on skills shortages.
▸▸ Our report had identified a significant revenue shortfall / deficit.
▸▸ Research points to child-raising as a factor in the dearth of / lack of / paucity of // small number of
women in science (Ceci et al. 2011).
▸▸ Depletion of fossil fuel resources is now a major global concern.
▸▸ Severe magnesium deficiency can lead to diabetes and heart failure.
▸▸ Gosney (2017) asks whether mental health tribunals present only ‘a nominal challenge’ to the problem
of lack of patients’ rights.

Stating that there is more than enough
▸▸ There is an abundance of literature on this issue.
▸▸ Surprisingly, there are still prolific / plentiful / abundant quantities of gold yet to be mined (Visual
Capitalist 2018).
▸▸ Beeche’s report provides much / ample evidence of coastal water flow input.
▸▸ Toran-Allerand (2004) reviews the plethora of oestrogen receptors in the brain.
Stating that there is too much

▸▸ Wallace and Wallace (1998) argue that the costs of student evaluations exceed their value.
▸▸ The investigation found that the police had used excessive force during the riot.
▸▸ The excess of / surplus of / surfeit of / glut of / oversupply of sugar is driving down market prices.
▸▸ People with an overdeveloped sense of competitiveness have a higher incidence of chest pain.

Words you probably use correctly already: adequate, appropriate, depletion, ideal, lack, much, over-,
plentiful, shortage, shortfall, surplus, supply.
abundance n n – More than enough. Similar to plentifulness.

abundant adj
ample adj More than enough. Similar to abundant.
Ample evidence of // proof of // research on // justification for // scope for
// supply of // quantity of // space for // capacity.
dearth n A severe or total lack of.
deficiency n n – (1) A fault or inadequate standard.
deficient adj E.g. The report highlighted the company’s deficiencies.
(2) A lack of something in the body, e.g. a vitamin deficiency.
adj – X is deficient in Y.
deficit n (The amount by which there is) not as much as predicted or expected. Similar to
shortfall.

excess n / adj n – Of amounts, more than is needed.
excessive adj n – An excess of Y. The excess is Y. To pay the excess on X.
exceed v adj – Excess amounts // cash // capacity // cost // demand // fare // supply.
Excessive amounts of // fees // prices.
glut n Too much. Usually used in the context of food and other market commodities.
Similar to excess, surplus and surfeit.
insufficient adj Not enough.
Insufficient and inadequate
These can be interchanged but inadequate usually means ‘not good enough’
rather than ‘not enough’.
nominal adj (1) A very small amount and/or much less than expected.
(2) A given title or role that is ‘in name only’.
A nominal amount // fee // price // cost // salary // value // rent.
ominal account // capital // damages // interest rate // ledger all have different,
N
specialised meanings.
optimal adj Most favourable, most productive, best. Similar to ideal but usually used in the
context of industry, production, plans and solutions.
paucity n A small amount or number of something, or not enough of something in a
specific context.
E.g. Many Yugoslav names have a paucity of vowels.
plethora n An oversupply. Similar to excess and surfeit.
Plethora is also sometimes used to mean ‘a lot of’ rather than ‘too much’.
Plethora is a singular noun.
E.g. There is a plethora of books on the subject.
prolific adj Very productive and/or plentiful.

scarce adj adj – Not easy to get and/or existing in only small amounts. Not enough.
scarcity n adj – A scarce resource.
n – A scarcity of resources // food // land // money // water // material //
skilled labour.
Scarce and rare
There is overlap but as indicated above, rare is a ‘positive’ word, while scarce has
the negative meaning of ‘not enough’ and is usually used to refer to demand for
resources. For rare see section 8.
shortfall n (The amount by which there is) not as much as predicted or expected. Similar to
deficit.
sufficient adj Enough.
Sufficient and adequate
These can be interchanged, but whereas sufficient refers to quantity and has a
positive sense, adequate can also apply to ability and has the more negative sense
of ‘just good enough’.
surfeit n Too much of something, usually used in the context of food and other market
commodities. Similar to excess, surplus and glut.
There is a surfeit of X.

Incorrect Correct
1 These findings confirm our claim that the These findings confirm our claim that the
country’s skills shortfall mainly stems from years country’s skills shortage mainly stems from years
of underinvestment in … of underinvestment in …
2 The software program is not suitable for small The software program is not suitable for small
organisations because it lacks in input flexibility. organisations because it lacks / is lacking in input
flexibility.
3 There is in excess of galactic cosmic-ray There is an excess of galactic cosmic-ray
electrons at ∼ 33-800 GeV (Chang et al. 2008). electrons at ∼ 33-800 GeV (Chang et al. 2008).
4 I will argue that the police did not use excess I will argue that the police did not use excessive
amounts of force to control the demonstration. amounts of force to control the demonstration.
5 The drug was not developed further owing to The drug was not developed further owing to its
its abundant side-effects. many / numerous side-effects.
6 Exceeding internet use can interfere with Excessive internet use can interfere with normal
normal life. life.
7 The standard of the auditor’s work was The standard of the auditor’s work was
insufficient. inadequate.
8 A minimal fee of 1 euro is required in order to A nominal fee of 1 euro is required in order to
register a request for a municipal dwelling. register a request for a municipal dwelling.
9 Owing to the rarity of engineers with shale Owing to the lack / scarcity / dearth / paucity of
blasting skills, the company has decided not to engineers with shale blasting skills, the company
continue operations. has decided not to continue operations.
10 According to Williams and Ceci (2012), having According to Williams and Ceci (2012), having
children almost entirely explains the children almost entirely explains the lack / dearth
insufficiency of women in maths disciplines. / scarcity / paucity of women in maths
disciplines.

Context, norms, risk and threat
10 Context, occurrence, norms and deviation

Many topics and assignments will involve describing the context or situation in which things happen
and whether/how they are different from the norm. See also sections 8 (distribution), 11 (good and bad
situations) and 15 (time and sequence) for other useful words and phrases.
10.1 Words in action

Discussing context
▸▸ As Lilly, Cullen and Ball (2018) demonstrate, recent changes in global social contexts have generated
several new alternative theories in criminology.
▸▸ During the Great Depression, circumstances were such that civil unrest became common.
▸▸ By the 1950s the circumstances had become more // less favourable // advantageous // positive.
▸▸ The political situation is (highly) complex // (relatively) straightforward.
▸▸ The adverse // hostile situation that existed within the company contributed to its liquidation.
▸▸ The government now faces a dilemma over whether to forcibly break up the strike action.
Discussing occurrence and events

▸▸ The study looks at the occurrence of eye movement during sleep.
▸▸ The signing of the Treaty of Tlatelolco was an important event for Latin America.
▸▸ Any incident of racism in the workplace should be taken seriously by management.
▸▸ The report outlines how lifestyle interventions can reduce the incidence of type 2 diabetes.
▸▸ Photosynthesis is a natural phenomenon in all plants.
▸▸ We analyse the claim that illegal drug-taking has pervaded / permeated dance competitions.
▸▸ There is a pervasive sense of loneliness throughout the novel.
68
▸▸ The NAS (2018) state that the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in the UK is 1.1% of the
population.
▸▸ I define systemic risk here as that which has the potential to cause the collapse of the entire industry.
▸▸ A lack of women working in science persists, despite government initiatives.
Discussing presence or absence

▸▸ Witmer and Singer (1999) show that in a virtual environment, the presence of a feeling of reality
reduces motion sickness.
▸▸ Vitamin supplements are important in the absence of fresh vegetables in the diet.
Discussing norms, normality, conformity and deviation

▸▸ We show that accepted norms of classroom behaviour are influenced by its gender balance.
▸▸ In Christianity, the Holy Family represents normative family values.
▸▸ It is normal business practice for a company to have external auditors.
▸▸ The UN delegation asked local leaders to help restore normality in the region.
▸▸ The aim of audit committees is to ensure that companies comply with the regulations.
▸▸ Priess, Lindberg and Hyde (2009) argue that the pressure to conform limits adolescents’ ability to
consider alternative gender identities.
▸▸ The city council’s behaviour clearly deviated from that prescribed in legislation.
▸▸ Abnormal behaviour is that which not only deviates from the norm but which is also undesirable.

Words you probably already use correctly: absence, complex, event, favourable*, normal, normality, presence,
situation, straightforward.
Words defined in other sections: adverse s11, advantageous s11, context s2, hostile s11, phenomenon s1.
*
The US spelling is favorable.
circumstance n The condition or fact that affects a situation.
The circumstances surrounding X. Under difficult circumstances.

Exceptional // special // normal // unusual // unforeseen // challenging /
difficult circumstances.

comply v v – To obey regulations, legislation or a particular agreement or wish.
compliance n v – To comply with something.
n – Compliance procedures // standards // costs.
conform v v – (1) To behave according to generally accepted social standards or other type
conformity n of expectation.
(2) To be similar to an already established type, form or idea.
E.g. The restaurant conforms to people’s idea of a family business.
To conform to X.
deviate v v – To move away from common or accepted standards, values or behaviour.
deviation n
dilemma n (1) A difficult situation or problem, often where a choice has to be made
between two or more equally good or bad alternatives.
(2) In logic, an argument that forces an opponent to choose between two
unfavourable options.
incidence n The frequency or number of times something happens.
A / An high // low // reported // estimated // actual incidence.
To increase // reduce the incidence of X.
A fall // rise in the incidence of X.
Incidence and incident
An incident is an event, usually referring to something bad such as a car crash or
fight.
natural adj Existing in nature, not artificial or man-made.
natural product // resource // substance // consequence // reaction //

A
ability // phenomenon // tendency.
70 Context, norms, risk and threat

norm n n – The prescribed or generally accepted behaviour, standard or situation.
normative adj adj – Typical, prescribed or generally accepted.
n – The established // expected // prevailing // traditional norm.
A cultural // social // religious norm.
occurrence n n – Something that takes place or exists.
occur v A daily // yearly // common // regular // widespread // rare // isolated //
natural // normal // unexpected occurrence.
permeate v To spread or occur throughout. Similar to pervade.
persist v v – To continue, even in the face of obstacles and resistance.
persistent adj adj – When something or someone refuses to stop, let go or go away.
persistence n a dj – A persistent attack // refusal // illness // failure // belief // myth //
misconception // misunderstanding.
pervade v v – To spread or occur throughout. Similar to permeate.
pervasive adj adj – Widespread and dominant.
adj – A pervasive influence // attitude // presence // problem // belief.
prevalent adj adj – Common and/or dominant, often within a small area or at a particular
prevalence n point in time.
systemic adj Present in a whole system, organism or organisation.

A systemic disease // effect // risk // problem // failure.
Systemic infection // racism // corruption.
Systemic and systematic
Systematic means ‘according to a particular system, method or plan’, as in a
systematic approach or examination (see section 6).

Incorrect Correct
1 Poverty is one of the major occurrences Poverty is one of the world’s major problems.
affecting the world.
2 During the consultation the patient confided During the consultation the patient confided that
that they felt that an atmosphere of anxiety they felt that an atmosphere of anxiety pervaded
prevailed in the ward. the ward.
3 ‘Relative poverty’ is a term that comes up a lot ‘Relative poverty’ is a prevalent term / much used
in the world today. term.
4 Balachandra and Briggs (2019) find that Balachandra and Briggs (2019) find that
entrepreneurial behaviour complying with entrepreneurial behaviour conforming to
feminine stereotypes puts investors off, feminine stereotypes puts investors off, regardless
regardless of whether the entrepreneur is male of whether the entrepreneur is male or female.
or female.
5 I followed the norm procedure for the I followed the normal / standard / usual
experimental research. procedure for the experimental research.
6 Discrimination occurs across many jobs. Discrimination occurs in many jobs.
7 I will argue that the Wuchang Uprising is the I will argue that the Wuchang Uprising is the
most important incident in modern Chinese most important event in modern Chinese history.
history.
8 Waste is naturally extracted via the kidney Waste is normally extracted via the kidney
tubules. This may not be possible, however, tubules. This may not be possible, however, if the
if the kidneys have been damaged. kidneys have been damaged.
9 It is hoped that within the next 10 years It is hoped that within the next 10 years
educating boys in preference to girls will no educating boys in preference to girls will no
longer be normative. longer be the norm.
10 Any deviation in the rules will incur a penalty. Any deviation from the rules will incur a penalty.

11 Advantage, disadvantage, risk and threat
In many of your assignments you will need to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of something.
This section gives you words and phrases for doing this and also for describing and discussing risks and
threats. See also section 10 for other related words and phrases.

Discussing advantage and advantageous situations
▸▸ The idea of competitive advantage as a key management tool has been criticised.
▸▸ There are three main benefits to using anti-spyware software.
▸▸ There is some merit in using a cognitive behavioural approach.
▸▸ The voting capacity of the US ‘blue states’ is a boon to democratic candidates.
▸▸ Our study corroborates Moxham’s 2019 findings that medical knowledge acquired before training puts
the student in a favourable / advantageous / beneficial / positive position.
▸▸ It was a fortuitous error as it led to an improvement on the original design.
Discussing disadvantage and disadvantageous situations

▸▸ The advantages of using English as a global language do not outweigh the disadvantages.
▸▸ The public are often not told about the drawbacks of anti-spyware software.
▸▸ There are significant difficulties with / problems with using blanket pesticides.
▸▸ The company has had many / has been beset with problems since it installed the new payroll software.
▸▸ I do not agree that the policy helps students from disadvantaged / deprived backgrounds.
▸▸ The adverse // hostile situation that existed within the company contributed to its liquidation.
▸▸ In 2002 Schwarz described the adverse // disastrous // dire state of land reform in Zimbabwe.
▸▸ The increase in insulin resistance in developed countries has ominous implications for healthcare.
▸▸ An interesting recent study by Maji et al. (2019) challenges the assumption that humans have evolved
hypersensitivity to agency detection as a protection mechanism in threatening situations.
Discussing risk and threat
▸▸ Stampfer (1993) looked at possible links between vitamin E intake and risk of heart disease.
▸▸ The government risks leaving itself open to wide criticism if it tries to break the sanctions.
▸▸ We decided not to risk having to repeat the test and instead to wait until we were fully prepared.

▸▸ Haldane and May (2011) detail the ways in which the international banking system continues to be
exposed to / vulnerable to / prone to (the risk of) / susceptible to / at risk of systemic collapse.
▸▸ Global vaccine supply chains remain weak, putting lives in developing countries at risk / in jeopardy
(Kaufman et al. 2011).
▸▸ This study examines the extent to which the threat of takeover affects productivity.
▸▸ Huddy et al. (2005) found that those anxious about threats to security were less supportive of military
action.
▸▸ This essay looks at who carries the risk in peer to peer lending.
▸▸ Hur (2006) has shown that teenagers are more vulnerable / prone / exposed to internet addiction
disorder than other age groups.

Words you probably already use correctly: beneficial, difficult, disastrous, drawback, favourable*, positive, threat.
*The US spelling is favorable.
advantage n / v n – A benefit.

advantageous adj adj – Beneficial.
n – The advantage of X is that … / X has an advantage over Y.

There is an advantage in / to looking after your health.
X gives you the advantage of having Y.
The advantages outweigh // negate the disadvantages.
he adj advantaged has the different meaning of ‘being wealthy and/or
T
privileged’.
E.g. He comes from an advantaged background.
adverse adj Problematic and/or harmful.
( An) adverse impact // effect // change // conditions // consequences
// circumstances.

beset v To trouble, harass, surround. Usually used to describe a negative situation.
To be beset by / with problems / difficulties / worries / fears / doubts.
eople are beset by (external, non-connected) problems, and things are
P
beset with (internal, connected) problems.
boon n (1) A benefit.
(2) A favour or request.
X is a boon to Y.
deprived adj adj – Being in circumstances that are lacking in some way, usually in
deprivation n terms of the necessities for a comfortable standard of living. Similar to
disadvantaged below.
deprive v
deprived childhood // neighbourhood // area. Economically //
A
culturally // socially deprived.
Deprived / deprivation and depraved / depravation
Depraved / depravation have the very different meaning of being immoral /
immorality.
dire adj Very serious and/or urgent.
In dire circumstances / a dire situation.
In dire need of help // improvement.
disadvantage n / v n – Something that is not beneficial.
disadvantageous adj v – To put someone or something into an unfavourable position.
n – A distinct / definite // significant // slight // economic // political
disadvantage.
To feel / be at a disadvantage.
The disadvantages outweigh // negate the advantages.
Disadvantageous and disadvantaged. See below.

disadvantaged adj Being in unfavourable circumstances, usually in terms of social and
economic status. Similar to deprived above.
A disadvantaged background // childhood // neighbourhood // area.
Economically // culturally // socially disadvantaged.
expose v v – (1) To make visible or to reveal.
exposed adj (2) To cause something to be open to harm or at risk.
fortuitous adj Happening by chance and with a beneficial outcome.
hostile adj Being or seeming to be opposed to, angry or dangerous.
jeopardy n Danger of harm of loss. To put X in jeopardy.
merit n / v n – The value, worth, positive features or excellence of something.
v – To be worth doing or to deserve.
n – The merit of X is that … There is merit in doing X. X deserves merit.
To discuss // judge / assess // question / investigate // consider //
compare // the merits of X.
There is little // considerable / great merit in X.
v – X merits investigation // attention // consideration // discussion //
examination.
prone adj Is usually or often affected by or experiences something negative.
susceptible adj At risk, unprotected or easily influenced or damaged. Similar to vulnerable.
vulnerable adj Exposed to, or likely to be harmed or attacked, either mentally or
physically. Similar to susceptible.
ighly // particularly // increasingly // emotionally // mentally //
H
physically // economically // financially vulnerable.
To be // appear // seem // feel vulnerable to X.
Vulnerable, susceptible and prone
Prone has a slightly different meaning (see above) but they are sometimes
interchangeable because being vulnerable / susceptible (unprotected against)
can mean that you are therefore also likely to experience (be prone to)
something bad.

Incorrect Correct
1 There is still debate about whether the There is still debate about whether the benefits /
pros of the human population having advantages (merits) of the human population having
different blood groups outweigh the cons. different blood groups outweigh the disadvantages.
2 Employers are often unwilling to state an Employers are often unwilling to state an employee’s
employee’s disadvantages in a reference. shortcomings / limitations / faults / flaws in a
reference.
3 Tourism causes many environmental Tourism poses many environmental threats.
threats.
4 The advantages for species to have more The advantage for species of having more than one
than one blood group is that it provides blood group is that it provides opposing selective
opposing selective forces. forces.
5 The new software has left the industry The new software has left the industry more vulnerable
more risky to cyberattacks. / prone / susceptible / exposed to cyberattacks.
6 Fortuitous bank rates to chemical Favourable bank rates to chemical conglomerates
conglomerates perpetuate corporate crime perpetuate corporate crime in the industry (Pearce and
in the industry (Pearce and Tombs 2019). Tombs 2019).
7 The company is risking project success The company is risking project success by neglecting
to neglect to properly engage all to properly engage all stakeholders.
stakeholders.
8 There are many advantages to study There are many advantages in / to studying
philosophy. philosophy.
9 This essay will review and examine the This essay will review and examine the data on links
data on links between sleep depraved and between sleep deprivation and epilepsy.
epilepsy.
10 Research has shown that students who Research has shown that students who come from
come from more advantage backgrounds more advantaged / privileged backgrounds are more
are more likely to pass. likely to pass.

Communication, understanding
and position
12 Communication, expression and portrayal

This section gives you words and phrases for discussing how authors and others transmit information
and the manner in which they do this, for example whether they say something explicitly or implicitly, or
whether they use literal or metaphorical language. This section also gives you vocabulary for describing
how things are represented, signified or portrayed. You will find other useful related words and phrases in
sections 13 and 14.

Discussing how information is transmitted
▸▸ Technology has allowed radical new ways of communicating.
▸▸ Beacco et al. (2002) argue that knowledge is not transmitted only in one direction from scientists to the
public.
▸▸ This essay will evaluate different ways in which scientific innovations are disseminated.
▸▸ A molecular formula conveys information about the chemical’s atomic structure.
▸▸ The NATO-Russia Council is a mechanism for consultation and cooperation.
▸▸ We have shown that blogging is now the most popular vehicle for online self-expression.
▸▸ The book provides a descriptive account of the theory of Marxism.
Discussing different ways of communicating and expressing

▸▸ A translation that is too literal will often read as plodding and unnatural.
▸▸ The authors criticise the government implicitly in their report.
▸▸ I will argue that the government gave its tacit approval to the project.
▸▸ In Two Gentlemen of Verona, Shakespeare alludes to the Greek myth of Hero and Leander.
▸▸ Conflict euphemisms such as ‘collateral damage’ serve to distance us from the consequences of war.
78
▸▸ The use of a melting pot as a metaphor for immigrant assimilation in US cities is no longer valid.
▸▸ According to the World Health Organization (2019), developing regions need more explicit health policies.
▸▸ Violent acts are one type of overt aggression in the workplace described by Baron and Neuman (1996).
▸▸ In the poem ‘Do not go gentle into that good night’, Thomas expresses / articulates his emotions at
watching his father die.
▸▸ The Vanishing Princess stories (Diski, 1995) convey brilliantly a sense of wasted life and self-entrapment.
▸▸ Anger can manifest itself in various ways, including violent and destructive behaviour.
Discussing how things are signified

▸▸ The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 signified / represented the end of the Cold War.
▸▸ The announcement by the government denotes / signifies a change in policy.
▸▸ For Dickens’ character Pip in Great Expectations, the prison ship embodies menace and evil.
Discussing depiction and portrayal

▸▸ I suggest that the portrayal of / representation of some teenagers as ‘hoodies’ is harmful to society as a
whole.
▸▸ I will argue that the report projects an overly negative image of drug use.
▸▸ A carving depicting / showing / representing a mammoth has recently been found on a bone fragment
in Florida.

Words you probably already use correctly: communicate.
Words defined in other sections: metaphor s21.
account n n – A narrative report or a description of a process or events.

account for v – To be the reason for, or to be the total of.
phrasal v
E.g. Under 16s account for almost our entire customer base.
n – To give an account of X.
A detailed // brief // positive // negative account.
On account of has the different meaning of ‘because of’.

allude v v – To suggest indirectly or to mention only briefly.
allusion n n – A phrase that makes an indirect reference to something else.
Allude and elude
To elude is to (1) escape capture / danger or (2) not be remembered or
understood.
E.g. The name of the play escapes / eludes me.
Allusion and illusion
An illusion is a false idea, belief or visual phenomenon.
articulate v / adj V – (1) To express (verbally or in writing) in a clear and coherent way.
(2) To pronounce distinctly and carefully.
(3) To fit together to form a whole.
cognition n the process of mental thought and understanding
cognitive adj
convey v (1) To communicate and/or express an idea or feeling.
(2) To transport or carry.
To convey (a/an) emotion // feelings // idea // information // a sense of X.
denote v To indicate or to show. Often used in the context of formulations.
E.g. In the equation, S and Q denote mutation and polymorphism respectively.
depict v v – (1) To describe something using pictures or words.
depiction n E.g. The painting depicts a rural scene in the 17th century.
(2) To characterise or show in a particular way. Similar to portray.
E.g. In the novel he is depicted as an evil scientist.
disseminate v v – To spread over a wide area.
dissemination n o disseminate information // news // stories // research // ideas //
T
knowledge // propaganda.
To disseminate by / via email // the internet // newspaper.
80 Communication, understanding and position

embody v v – (1) To give physical / tangible form to something.
embodiment n (2) To be a good (or best) example of an idea, principle, belief or quality.
(3) To contain or include.
euphemism n n – An indirect or mild expression used as a substitution for something thought
euphemistic adj to be too blunt or offensive.
E.g. He passed away last week = He died last week.
I am in between jobs = I am unemployed.
explicit adj adj – (1) Clear and obvious.
explicitly adv (2) Depicting sexual activity.
An explicit instruction // threat // example // warning.
express v / adj v – To convey a feeling, thought or idea.
adj – Very clear.
E.g. She gave her express permission.
The express purpose of the meeting was to finalise the deal.
implicit adj adj – (1) Expressed indirectly. Similar to tacit.
implicitly adv (2) An essential and logical part of something.
E.g. Death is an implicit part of life.
(3) Total and unquestioning, e.g. an implicit faith in God.
( An) implicit acknowledgement // agreement // assumption // recognition
// understanding.
Implicit criticism // critique // challenge // condemnation.
For imply see section 32.

literal adj adj – The surface or ‘word-for-word’ meaning of something.
literally adv In a / the literal sense. The literal meaning of X is Y.
Literally and literary
Literally is the adverb of literal.
E.g. A parable should not be read literally but as an illustration of a principle.
Literary is an adjective meaning ‘related to literature and writing’.
E.g. Jane Austen is a famous literary figure.
The adjective literate can mean either ‘able to read and write’ or ‘well educated’.
manifest v / adj v – To show in a particular way or form.
E.g. The AHS virus manifests itself in four different forms.
adj – Clear and obvious.
E.g. The report highlights the research study’s manifest flaws.
X manifests itself as Y. X manifests itself in (the form of) Y.

mechanism n (1) A process set up to allow something else to happen. In academic study,
mechanism is commonly used for non-mechanical contexts.
E.g. The report evaluates democratic mechanisms for taxation.
(2) A system of parts that work together, e.g. a watch mechanism.
X is a mechanism for consultation. X is a mechanism by which members consult
and cooperate.
overt adj Open and obvious rather than hidden. Similar to explicit.
Overt behaviour // support // racism // hostility // aggression.
Overt and covert
Covert means ‘hidden’ or ‘secret’ and so has the opposite meaning to overt;
however, covert is usually used in a military context. For academic writing, use
hidden, implicit or unrecognised as an opposite to overt.

portray v v – (1) To describe or show in a book or film.
portrayal n E.g. The book graphically portrays the horror of the First World War.
(2) To describe in a particular way or with particular characteristics.
E.g. The film portrays him as evil.
v – X accurately // faithfully // powerfully // vividly // starkly //
sympathetically // sensitively // falsely // misleadingly portrays Y.
n – X gives a(n) accurate // faithful // powerful portrayal of Y.
project v / n v – (1) To give a particular impression or image.
E.g. The company projects a wholesome image.
(2) To depict or convey a particular message or meaning.
(3) To forecast using current information.
The verb is pronounced to project and the noun is pronounced a project.
represent v (1) To symbolise or indicate something. Similar to signify.
(2) To describe or show in a book, film or work of art using pictures or words.
Similar to depict and portray.
(3) To amount to / be the equivalent of.
signify v To symbolise or indicate something. Similar to denote and meaning (1) above of
represent.
tacit adj Expressed in an indirect or hidden way. Similar to implicit.
To give tacit agreement // approval // acknowledgement // consent //
support.
To have // gain tacit knowledge of X.
transmit v To pass on information, attitudes or beliefs. Similar to communicate but with more
emphasis on passing on something to another specific person, group or place.
o transmit knowledge // data // information // values // ideas // beliefs //
T
attitudes.
vehicle n A thing that allows something else to be expressed or fulfilled.

Incorrect Correct
1 Maths is an implied part of studying Maths is an essential / implicit / integral part of studying
chemistry. chemistry.
2 I need to improve the way I express my I need to improve the way I convey / transmit /
ideas across. communicate my ideas.
3 Companies need to convey their Companies need to convey / transmit / communicate
message across to consumers. their message to consumers.
4 The ideas portrayed in the report are The ideas conveyed / transmitted / communicated in the
not new. report are not new.
5 It can be clearly manifested that the It can clearly be seen that the results are similar to those
results are similar to those of our of our previous study.
previous study. or
As is clearly shown, the results are similar to those of our
previous study.
6 In the film Bruce Almighty (Spyglass In the film Bruce Almighty (Spyglass 2003) God was
2003) God’s portrait was that of a type portrayed as a type of ‘black angel’.
of ‘black angel’.
7 The discrimination people face is The discrimination people face is manifested / expressed /
through various forms. shown in various forms.
8 Fundamentalist groups place great Fundamentalist groups place great emphasis on the literal
emphasis on the literary meaning of meaning of their founding texts.
their founding texts.
9 The regulators found that the company The regulators found that the company did not have an
did not have an adequate vehicle in adequate mechanism / process in place for dealing with
place for dealing with absenteeism. absenteeism.
10 The minister attended the rally on the The minister attended the rally on the express
expressed understanding that she understanding that she would leave at the first sign of
would leave at the first sign of violence. violence.

13 Knowledge, understanding and ways of thinking
This section gives you vocabulary for describing and discussing how people see, think about and interpret
ideas, information and the world around them. You will find other useful words and phrases related to
these areas in sections 12 and 14.

Discussing knowledge, ignorance and mental process
▸▸ We do not yet have adequate knowledge about how these types of infection are spread.
▸▸ A growing number of children are ignorant of / are unaware of / have no awareness of // have little
awareness of how food is grown (Locknere 2019).
▸▸ Dickens conceived the plot for A Tale of Two Cities while acting in a play.
▸▸ Memory is one of the key cognitive processes involved in language learning.
▸▸ I conducted a comprehensive literature review in to order to frame my research question correctly.
Discussing understanding and misunderstanding

▸▸ Fractals (infinitely repeating geometric shapes) can be understood on several different levels.
▸▸ This survey provides fresh insights into / gives us a better understanding of why people smoke.
▸▸ Viewing Skinner’s ‘negative reinforcement’ as punishment is a common misconception /
misunderstanding.
▸▸ Johnson (1988) argues that Reagan’s policy of supporting ‘freedom fighters’ was misguided.
Discussing interpretation, perception and connotation

▸▸ Sloboda and Lehmann (2001) investigate how listeners interpret the same piece of music differently.
▸▸ Legislation is often open to interpretation and so the principle of statutory construction is important.
▸▸ Avoiding eye contact is perceived as / seen as a sign of shyness in Western cultures.
▸▸ Our perception of reality, according to Clark, is shaped via a cycle of expectation, experience and
mental modification.
▸▸ Working-class speech patterns have more favourable connotations / associations for men than for
women.

Discussing ways of thinking, ideology and belief
▸▸ Larson and Ribot (2004) discuss decentralisation through a natural resource lens / prism.
▸▸ Larson and Ribot (2004) discuss decentralisation from a natural resource perspective.
▸▸ Many psychologists today do not adhere closely to any one school of thought.
▸▸ We need to go back and examine the problem from a theoretical perspective.
▸▸ The renewal of the weapons contracts is seen by some as a pragmatic approach to global economics.
▸▸ In Kintsch’s paradigm (1998) people’s understanding of a text happens in two stages.
▸▸ Caspi and Roberts argue that mental constructs can be changed in adulthood and even old age.
▸▸ The data below supports Littell’s claim (2006) that multisystem therapy is based on evidence rather
than just conventional wisdom / received wisdom / orthodoxy.
▸▸ Marxist Communism is still an influential ideology, despite the breakup of the Soviet Union.
▸▸ The belief that Jesus is the son of God forms the basis of Christian dogma.
▸▸ The Peter principle states that successful employees are eventually promoted to a level beyond their
capability.
▸▸ The main tenet of Christian Science is that God’s creation is entirely good, and that evil is an illusion.
▸▸ The health belief model attempts to predict and explain people’s health behaviours.

Words you probably already use correctly: cognitive, conventional wisdom, received wisdom.
Words defined in other sections: conceive s19.
connotation n An emotion or idea associated with a word or phrase in addition to its literal
meaning. Similar to association.
A positive // negative // strong // obvious // subtle connotation.
construct n / v n – A complex idea made by combining different pieces of knowledge or
different concepts.
v – To build, develop or create.
n – A(n) theoretical // abstract // mental construct.

dogma n n – A system of principles or beliefs that its supporters view as undeniably true.
Sometimes used more loosely to refer to very strong political views.
dogmatic adj
adj – (1) Relating to dogma.
(2) The characteristic of being stubborn and opinionated, refusing to
consider any other point of view.
frame v / n v – To design or create a way of doing or communicating something. Similar to
formulate, devise and construct but usually used in the context of questions,
ideas, thoughts and theories.
ideology n n – A set of ideas held by a social or political group used to promote and/or
protect their interests.
ideological adj
A political // liberal // extremist // free-market // secular // racist //
ideologically adv
totalitarian ideology.
The dominant / ruling / prevailing ideology.
To adopt // embrace // share // challenge // oppose an ideology.
insight n n – A new understanding or piece of new knowledge.
insightful adj resh // further // new // rare // unique // profound // clear // useful //
F
important // valuable insight(s).
To give // acquire // obtain // present // provide // offer // afford (an)
insight(s) into X.
interpret v v – To explain or understand the meaning of something from a particular
viewpoint.
interpretation n

knowledge n Awareness: ideas or information that have not been disproved.
There is a difference in meaning between knowledge of and knowledge about.
Knowledge of relates to knowing that the item, topic or issue exists.
E.g. ‘I had no knowledge of the report’ means that you did not know that the
report existed.
Knowledge about relates to the internal details or particular aspects within an
item, topic or issue.
E.g. ‘I didn’t have much knowledge about the report’ means that you knew the
report existed but not what it contained.
lens n A particular way of thinking. Similar to perspective and prism.
Discuss / examine / analyse / see X through the lens of Y.
misconception n n – An incorrect belief or opinion caused by a lack of understanding.
misconceive v To have / hold / labour under the misconception that …
The misconception exists // persists that …
To address / tackle / confront // counter / challenge the misconception
that …
X reinforces // perpetuates // gives rise to / leads to the misconception
that …
A common // popular // prevalent // widespread // damaging //
fundamental / basic misconception is …
For conceive see section 19.

misguided adj adj – Misjudged or incorrect. Usually used in the context of actions, beliefs or
opinions. (See also section 27.)
misguide v
v – To mislead.
a dj – A misguided attempt // assumption // belief // impression //
perception.
orthodoxy n n – A generally accepted viewpoint, doctrine or way of doing things.
orthodox adj n – Economic / monetarist orthodoxy.
adj – Orthodox economic / social / business theory.
paradigm n (1) An overarching framework, set of ideas or worldview that underpins and
directs an area of theory and/or research.
E.g. Quantum mechanics presents a paradigm shift in the study of subatomic
physics.
(2) A typical and/or excellent example of something.
perceive v v – (1) To see or become aware of something.
perception n (2) To understand or realise something in a particular way.
pragmatic adj adj – Dealing with real-world reasoning rather than abstract theory.
pragmatism n n – (1) An approach based on real-world practicalities rather than beliefs or
ideas.
(2) A theory of knowledge that looks at how theory and practice affect each
other.
a dj – A pragmatic approach // attitude // stance // perspective // view //
strategy // policy.
Pragmatic and practical
Pragmatic means having an effective approach to planning and strategy, whereas
practical refers to putting plans into action and solving problems.

principle n A belief, idea, theory, rule or moral code.
E.g. Elections should be based on egalitarian principles.
Principle and principal
Principal means the main and/or most important.
E.g. The principal aim of the legislation is to reduce crime.
prism n A particular way of thinking. Similar to perspective and lens.
Discuss / examine / analyse / see X through the prism of Y.
school of A point of view or ideology held by an authoritative group.
thought n
E.g. Post-Keynesian and New Keynesian are different schools of thought within
the general Keynesian model.
tenet n A key principle or belief. Usually used in the context of philosophy and religion.
A core tenet.

Incorrect Correct
1 The idea of using a computer program to The idea of using a computer program to
collectively edit a website was perceived by collectively edit a website was conceived by Beck in
Beck in the 1990s. the 1990s.
2 Rinzai Zen is a way of thinking based in the Rinzai Zen is a school of thought based in the
Japanese rather than the Chinese Zen Japanese rather than the Chinese Zen tradition.
tradition.
3 Linguistic identity is the believe that a Linguistic identity is the belief that a cultural
cultural connection exists between people connection exists between people who share a
who share a language. language.
4 The report states that the government needs The report states that the government needs to
to have a more practical strategy for dealing have a more pragmatic strategy for dealing with
with inflation. inflation.
5 I will first summarise the main tenants of I will first summarise the main tenets of Islam.
Islam.
6 Wallace believes that the theory of evolution Wallace believes that the theory of evolution is
is based on five useful misconceptions. based on five basic / fundamental misconceptions.
7 The research findings have insights into ways The research findings provide / offer / give us
of increasing citizen participation in insights into ways of increasing citizen participation
community projects. in community projects.
8 It is now generally agreed that the action of It is now generally agreed that the action of
deploying troops was misconceived. deploying troops was misguided.
9 Cognitivism is one of the most influential Cognitivism is one of the most influential schools of
schools of thinking within psychology. thought within psychology.
10 There is a public perception of e-books being There is a public perception that e-books are
extremely cheap to produce. extremely cheap to produce.

14 Position, point of view, impartiality and bias
In order to use sources effectively to develop your own ideas, you need to be able understand, analyse
and discuss the different positions and viewpoints held on the issue, and this section gives you vocabulary
for doing this. You will find other useful words and phrases in sections 12, 13 and 23–28 (analysing and
evaluating evidence and arguments).

Discussing position and point of view
▸▸ The article criticises the government’s stance / position on potential strike action.
▸▸ Since 2001, many Spanish universities have increasingly positioned themselves within a free-market
economy (Marcos 2007).
▸▸ The book looks at the medieval Christian crusades from the perspective of the Muslim world.
▸▸ Personal blogs are written from a purely subjective standpoint.
▸▸ The study looks at salt sensitivity in the Japanese population from the viewpoint of genetic diversity.
▸▸ The view that all research should be concerned with developing theory is debatable, according to May
(2000).
▸▸ This essay takes / holds the view that earning money from money is unethical.
▸▸ It is important to analyse the facts before formulating a view.
▸▸ Many people think / hold the opinion / are of the opinion that using animals for experimentation is
inhumane.
▸▸ Picasso is widely regarded as / viewed as / thought of as / considered to be / deemed to be a major
influence in twentieth-century art.
Discussing agreement, support and acceptance
▸▸ There is cross-party agreement on the issue of identification cards.
▸▸ After a five-hour meeting the board reached a consensus on the proposals.
▸▸ I am a proponent of / advocate of / supporter of civil liberties in the UK.
▸▸ Gray (2018) subscribes to the view that modern liberal atheism is in fact a type of secular religion.
▸▸ Many alternative health centres endorse homeopathy.
▸▸ A poll last year showed that 61 per cent of Americans condoned capital punishment in cases of murder.
▸▸ Smit is a leading exponent of permaculture and runs related workshops across the country.

▸▸ Research literature supports the idea that a successful organisation is one that embraces change.
▸▸ Diehm and Armatas (2004) look at how surfing is a high-risk activity that has been accepted by society.
▸▸ Most physicists admit / acknowledge / concede / accept that producing a unified theory is a long-term
endeavour.
▸▸ We tolerate a high level of road deaths perhaps because we view them as an inevitable consequence of
car ownership.
Discussing disagreement and opposition
▸▸ Plans to have a single EU military headquarters have caused disagreement / discord among member states.
▸▸ The main objections to the airport proposal are noise, nuisance and damage to wildlife habitat.
▸▸ Nativists object to the idea that we are born as ‘blank slates’ on the grounds that some beliefs are
genetically programmed.
▸▸ Dawkins (2010) is opposed to / rejects the idea of faith schools.
▸▸ Most socialist parties are against / averse to the idea of a totally free market economy.
▸▸ Opponents of stem cell research argue that there is no moral justification for using and destroying
embryonic cells.
Discussing rigidity, ambivalence, indifference, scepticism and alternative views
▸▸ The article criticises the government’s rigid stance / inflexible position / entrenched position /
intransigence on strike action.
▸▸ Piper (2001) suggests that the more ambivalent one feels about someone, the less we grieve when they die.
▸▸ The recent human rights violations indicate that the government is indifferent to international opinion.
▸▸ Many economists remain sceptical about the reliability of qualitative research data.
▸▸ Taleb’s book shows us an alternative view of some traditional mathematical concepts.
▸▸ The artist’s work is still considered radical, even though he has been painting for over 50 years.
Discussing impartiality, bias, rationality, objectivity and subjectivity

▸▸ I will argue that journalism can never really be impartial / disinterested.
▸▸ The Gall-Peters map attempts to correct the Mercator map’s visual bias against southern developing
countries.
▸▸ Our report shows that food labelling is heavily biased towards the producer rather than the consumer.
▸▸ Affirmative action may include the policy of giving preferential treatment to candidates from minority
groups.
▸▸ Awan (2014) discusses online discrimination against Muslims.

▸▸ The Atheist Society states that it takes a rational view of the God belief.
▸▸ Smith (2002) argues that doctors need to accept the ‘irrational’ public views on vaccination.
▸▸ I will argue that aid charity advertising can encourage a distorted view of developing countries.
▸▸ I have shown that it is difficult to have an objective perspective on the ethics of medical research.
▸▸ Personal blogs are written from a purely subjective standpoint.

Words you probably already use correctly: admit, against, agree, opponent, oppose, position, standpoint,
support.
Words defined in other sections: acknowledge s25, consider s1, concede s28, radical s16, reject s3.
accept v v – (1) To agree or consent to do something.

acceptable adj
(2) To come to believe or recognise.
E.g. People often accept public policies they in fact personally oppose.
I accept that climate change is partially caused by human activity.
adj – Reasonable, adequate.
adj – Broadly // generally // mutually // socially // politically // morally //
ethically acceptable.
X is considered / deemed to be / seen as acceptable.

Accept and except
These two words have different meanings. Except means ‘with the exclusion of’.
E.g. We compiled the data using all the surveys except for those returned after
the deadline.
advocate v / n v – To actively support.
n – A (strong) supporter of something.
n – An advocate of / advocate for X.
To be a keen // a passionate advocate of X.
v – To actively // openly // strongly advocate X.

alternative adj / n adj – Of an option or choice, another possible one.
E.g. We decided to use an alternative venue for the concert.
n – One of a group of possible choices or options.
E.g. There is no alternative but to repeat the experiment.
For alternate see section 15.
ambivalent adj adj – Having mixed or contradictory feelings or ideas about something.
ambivalence n Ambivalent and indifferent
These words have different meanings. See indifferent below.
averse adj Opposed to.
Averse and adverse
Adverse means unpleasant and/or harmful (see section 11).
bias n n – The treatment of something in an unequal and partial manner.
biased adj adj – To be unequal or unfair.
n – To have a bias towards X.
adj – To be biased towards // against X. To be heavily / strongly // positively
// negatively // inherently biased.
To be culturally // ideologically // politically // racially biased.
condone v To accept or (reluctantly) agree with or approve of behaviour commonly viewed
as morally wrong.
o condone behaviour // the practice of // the action of // violence // abuse
T
// torture // murder.
consensus n n – Majority or total agreement across a group or area.

consensual adj General consensus.
The adjective consensual has the slightly different meaning of involving
permission or consent rather than agreement.

deem v To consider or regard as.
discord n Lack of agreement or harmony, or disagreement.
discriminate v v – (1) To be able to make a distinction between two or more things. Similar to
discrimination n differentiate.
discriminatory adj E.g. Tutors want to see that students can discriminate between reliable
and unreliable material.
(2) To show preference for, or to treat unfairly due to prejudgement.
E.g. The insurance policy discriminates in favour of older drivers.
n – (1) Differentiation.
(2) Unfair treatment due to prejudgement.
As shown in definition (2) above, the verb discriminate can be used in a positive
as well as a negative sense. Discrimination and discriminatory, however, usually
have the negative meaning of unfair treatment, e.g. racial discrimination.
disinterested adj adj – (1) Unbiased, not influenced by self-interest. Similar to impartial and
disinterest n unbiased.
(2) Having no interest in the topic / event.
Disinterested and uninterested
Note that as shown by (2) above, disinterested can mean uninterested, that is,
not interested; however, only disinterested can be used to mean ‘unbiased’.
distorted adj Adj – Incorrect and/or misleading.
distort v X gives a distorted picture / view / image of Y.
embrace v (1) To accept wholeheartedly.
(2) To hold closely.
To willingly // actively // wholeheartedly // fully embrace.
To embrace (a/an) change // challenge // concept / notion / idea //
opportunity.

endorse v v – To publicly support and recommend an idea, belief, action or product.
endorsement n
entrenched adj (Of viewpoints or beliefs) Established and/or held firmly, making change difficult.
exponent n (1) (Of people) An example, practitioner or representative (and so also probably
a supporter) of something.
(2) A skilled artist or performer, usually a musician.
Exponent and proponent
See proponent below.
Exponent has other specialised meanings in maths and linguistics.
Exponential and exponentially have a separate meaning, related to rate of change
(see section 16).
impartial adj Not influenced by any particular side, or not favouring one side or view. Similar
to neutral, unbiased, balanced and disinterested.
For partial see section 8.
To offer / give impartial advice / guidance.
indifferent adj adj – (1) Lacking interest and/or not caring about something.
indifference n (2) Average / not very good at something, e.g. an indifferent tennis player.
Indifferent and impartial
These words have different meanings. See above for impartial.
intransigent adj adj – Inflexible, unwilling to change one’s mind or position.
intransigence n
irrational adj Not logical, unsound or unreasonable.
objection n n – An expression of disagreement or a reason for disagreeing with or
object v / n disapproving.
To have an objection to something. To raise an objection to something.
A chief / main / primary / principal // fundamental // formal objection.

objective adj / n adj – Based only on facts and not influenced by feelings or beliefs.
n – An aim or goal.
perspective n (1) A particular way of thinking from which a view on a specific issue is formed.
E.g. I will discuss personal identity from a social behavourist perspective.
Similar to viewpoint, standpoint and stance.
(2) Representation of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface.
preferential adj adj – More favourable than the others.
preference n n – (1) Advantage given or favour shown to a person or group over others.
prefer v E.g. Preference is given to applicants who have previous experience.
(2) A greater liking.
E.g. My preference is for unseen exams rather than continuous
assessment.
proponent n Someone who puts forward or is in favour of a plan, idea or theory. Similar to
advocate and supporter.
Proponent and exponent
The two words are sometimes used interchangeably but there is some difference
in meaning.
A proponent is someone who is in favour of an idea but does not necessarily
make their support public or act on it.
An exponent is someone who is in favour of something and also does something
about it.

regard n / v n – (1) Care or attention given to something or someone.
(2) With reference or connection to something or someone.
v – To consider or think of something or someone in a particular way.
n – To pay / give regard to X. To show / have regard for X.
X has the utmost // a high // a low regard for Y.
X pays sufficient // insufficient // little / scant regard to Y.
v – X is commonly / widely / generally / usually / normally // traditionally //
rightly / justly regarded as …
rational adj Sound, logical.

Rational and rationale. See section 6.
sceptical∗ adj adj – (1) Doubtful.

scepticism∗ n1 (2) Questioning.
sceptic∗ n2 n1 – In philosophy, scepticism is the approach whereby all knowledge and belief
is questioned.
n2 – A person who is doubtful/questioning.
∗
The US spellings are skeptical, skepticism and skeptic.
stance n A clear position on something. Similar to standpoint, viewpoint and point of view.
A hardline / rigid // tough // firm // ethical // moral stance on X.
To have // adopt // hold // take a stance on / against X.
subscribe v v – (Of an idea or proposal) To agree with.
subjective adj Based on your feelings and beliefs rather than evidence or fact.
The newspaper article is highly / extremely / largely // somewhat subjective.

A subjective opinion // viewpoint // response // assessment // judgement.
tolerate v v – To allow something to exist or happen.
tolerant adj

view n / v n – An opinion, belief or attitude, often not based on evidence. Similar to point
of view and viewpoint.
v – (1) To think of in a particular way.
(2) To look at or inspect.
E.g. We viewed the landscape through binoculars.
n – A personal // broad // narrow // simplistic // orthodox // traditional
view.
To subscribe to / hold the view that …

X reflects the view that …
viewpoint n A particular way of thinking about something. Similar to perspective, standpoint
and stance and point of view.
A(n) alternative // different // opposing // subjective // objective viewpoint.

Incorrect Correct
1 The director was intransigent with the issue of a The director was intransigent on the issue of a
productivity bonus. productivity bonus.
2 The data is regarded for evidence of a new The data is regarded as evidence of a new
subatomic particle. subatomic particle.
3 There are several disagreements as to what There are several different opinions / views / points
constitutes an offence. of view as to what constitutes an offence.
4 A court judge should remain indifferent A court judge should remain impartial throughout
throughout a trial. a trial.
5 The primary argument to IVF of some religious The primary objection to IVF from some religious
groups is that it uses external fertilisation. groups is that it uses external fertilisation.
6 Balkin oppose to sex segregation in schools as Balkin opposes / is opposed to sex segregation in
he feels it is a diversion from more important schools as he feels it is a diversion from more
educative issues. important educative issues.
7 Many pressure groups have strong views Many pressure groups have strong views on /
against embryonic research. about embryonic research.
or
Many pressure groups are firmly against embryonic
research.
8 Some people see it as since they already pay Some people take the view that since they already
income tax they should not be additionally pay income tax they should not be additionally
taxed on interest from savings. taxed on interest from savings.
9 This report has outlined the factors that This report has outlined the arguments against /
condemn against animal testing. reasons for opposing animal testing.
10 The police spokesman stated that they do not The police spokesman stated that they do not
support unprofessional behaviour by officers. condone / tolerate unprofessional behaviour by
officers.

Time, change and movement
15 Time, sequence, duration and frequency

Nearly all assignments and topics will require you to discuss time, sequence, duration or frequency in
some way. This includes when you are describing the steps in your method (see section 6) and when you
are referring backwards or forwards to things you mention in your writing (see ‘Referring backwards and
forwards in your text’ below).

Discussing past to present and looking back
▸▸ I will give an overview of past / previous studies.
▸▸ Mumbai was formerly / previously known as Bombay.
▸▸ Sadat is a former president of Egypt.
▸▸ As yet / So far / Up to now there has been little narrowing of the gender pay gap.
▸▸ There has been little narrowing of the gender pay gap as yet / so far / up to now.
▸▸ The discussion over the safety of the mumps vaccine is ongoing.
▸▸ Significant changes in the way food is delivered and sold are underway in Asia.
▸▸ The current situation is not sustainable.
▸▸ I will contrast attitudes to crime in contemporary and late Victorian society.
▸▸ With hindsight / In retrospect it would have been better to use a much larger sample.
Discussing future and first occurrence

▸▸ The impending / imminent extinction of the black rhino cannot now be prevented.
▸▸ It is worth asking whether future studies should follow the same procedure.
▸▸ The advent of / The arrival of cellular technology enabled widespread use of mobile phones.
▸▸ The ZUP party’s election was hailed in the media as an unprecedented success.
102
Stating that something is at the right time
▸▸ Robinson et al. (2015) suggest ways of ensuring timely diagnosis and intervention for people with dementia.
▸▸ The documentary on immigration was timely / well timed in view of the coming election.
Discussing sequence of events

▸▸ The project has been a success from the start / beginning / outset.
▸▸ The chronology of the Chinese dynasties is well documented.
▸▸ Evidence indicates that the Chicxulub crater preceded / antedates / predates the KT mass extinction.
▸▸ A white paper usually states policy intention prior to a new piece of legislation.
▸▸ Turing’s machine was a forerunner of / precursor to the modern personal computer.
▸▸ Brown (1991) points out that successive governments have tried to modify pay settlements.
▸▸ The previous document gave an interim analysis and the final report is published next year.
▸▸ During the interview we alternated between direct and indirect questions.
▸▸ Hangen et al. (2012) look at the effect of stock price volatility on subsequent return expectations.
▸▸ The theory of special relativity was superseded by that of general relativity.
▸▸ Children with Down’s syndrome sometimes lag behind their peers in terms of learning.
Referring backwards and forwards in your text

▸▸ In the equation above // below, S and Q denote mutation and polymorphism respectively.
▸▸ In relief theory humour reduces tension, but in superiority theory it is used to assert superiority.
I propose that the former concept holds true in informal situations and that the latter does so in more
professional settings.
Discussing things occurring at (almost) the same time
▸▸ Heat transfer between the fluid and cylinder head is instantaneous.
▸▸ The two earthquakes were simultaneous even though 500 miles apart.
▸▸ It is useful to run two browsers concurrently / simultaneously in order to access all websites.
▸▸ A period of anxiety often coincides with minor ailments.
▸▸ Abraham Lincoln was contemporaneous with Charles Darwin.
▸▸ A fall in price is often accompanied by an increase in demand.
Discussing duration
▸▸ There is a lack of research on the duration of depressive episodes in teenagers.
▸▸ We will examine the short-, medium- and long-term effects of post-traumatic stress.

▸▸ We decided to extend / prolong the interviews with the younger participants.
▸▸ According to the survey, high-end hotels have a large number of transient / temporary employees.
▸▸ The media portrayal of ‘hoodies’ as petty criminals persists.
▸▸ Since April 2007, applicants for permanent residence in the UK have had to take a ‘Life in the UK’ test.
▸▸ They have agreed to keep their currency fixed for an indefinite period / indefinitely.
▸▸ The debate over the status of social work has been running throughout this century.
Discussing frequency
▸▸ The region experiences constant / continuous / continual // frequent // repeated // regular // recurrent
// intermittent / periodic // infrequent / occasional flooding.
▸▸ The government needs to ensure continuity of housing policy from one year to the next.
▸▸ The virus outbreak seems to have been an isolated incident.
Discussing breaks in occurrence

▸▸ Negotiations were suspended during the local elections.
▸▸ There was a break / pause / hiatus in the negotiations during the local elections.

Words you probably already use correctly: above, accompany, advent, arrival, below, current, forerunner,
frequent, future, indefinite, past, period, permanent, previous, repeated.
alternate v / adj v – To move back and forth between two things or conditions.
adj – Every other of two things.
E.g. He worked alternate weeks.
Alternate and alternative
An alternative is a noun meaning ‘another option or possibility’.
E.g. This report recommends two alternative courses of action. First, …
chronology n n – The order in which past or present events happen(ed).
chronological adj
104 Time, change and movement

coincide v (1) To happen at the same time.
(2) To occur in the same position.
concurrently adv adv – At the same time. Similar to simultaneously. Often used in scientific
concurrent adj and operational contexts.
E.g. The two experiments were run concurrently.
constant adj (1) Happening or existing over time without interruption. Similar to
continuous.
(2) Remaining unchanged over time.
contemporaneous adj Existing or happening at the same time.
Contemporaneous and contemporary (adj)

There is overlap – see adj (2) below. Contemporary is the more common
word.
contemporary adj / n adj – (1) Modern or current.
E.g. Many contemporary artists have websites.
(2) Existing or done together at the same time.
E.g. Leonard’s newspaper reports provide a contemporary /
contemporaneous record of the 1929 Wall Street Crash.
n – Living at the same time.
E.g. Shelley and Byron were contemporaries.
Note the two different meanings of the adjective contemporary. The fact that
this word has two meanings can cause confusion.
continual adj adj – Happening frequently, with or without interruptions. Often used for
continually adv negative things and to emphasise stopping and starting. Similar to constant
and continuous.
E.g. We had continual problems with the TV monitors.
continuity n A situation in which something continues smoothly without break or
interruption.

continuous adj Happening or existing over time, often without interruption. Similar to
constant and continual.
former adj (1) Having existed in the past.
(2) Referring back to the first of the two things just mentioned.
formerly adv Of or happening in the past.
Former/ly and previous/ly
Former/ly is usually only used to talk about names, titles and positions.
E.g. Myanmar was formerly / previously called Burma.
Previous/ly is the more general word and is usually used to describe sequence.
E.g. This report is similar to one I’ve read previously.
With both former and previous there is a difference in meaning between the
and a.
E.g. She is the former / previous director = She was the director immediately
before the current one.
E.g. She is a former / previous director = She was one of any of the previous
directors.
hiatus n A gap or pause. Usually used in the context of official procedures and
processes.
hindsight n An understanding or realisation of something only after it has happened.
With hindsight.
imminent adj About to or likely to happen very soon.
Imminent and eminent
Eminent describes someone who is an expert and/or admired and respected.
impending v About to or likely to happen very soon. Similar to imminent but used only
before the noun.
E.g. Disaster is impending. ✘ Impending disaster. ✓

instantaneous adj Happening or done with almost no time delay.
Instantaneous and instant
These have similar meanings but instantaneous is the more formal word
appropriate for use in academic writing.
interim n / adj n – The time between two events. Often used to describe a temporary
position while a more permanent one is arranged.
intermittent adj Happening at irregular intervals.
isolated adj (1) Happening only once.
(2) Geographically distant from areas of habitation.
(3) Lonely.
n isolated case / incidence of / incident / occurrence / outbreak /
A
phenomenon.
lag n / v n – A delay or time gap between two things.

v – To make slower progress than others or than expected.
v – To lag behind X.
latter adj (1) Referring back to the second of the two things just mentioned.
(2) The last stages of a process or time period. Similar to one meaning of
later.
E.g. The latter / later stages of the process are the most expensive.
outset n The beginning or start.
periodic adj Happening at intervals (regular or irregular).
persist v v – To continue, even in the face of obstacles and resistance.
persistence adj

precede v v – To happen or go before in time, order or position.
preceding adj Precede and proceed
To proceed is to go forward or to keep doing something.
precursor n Something that comes before something else of a similar type and
influences it in an important way.
predate v (1) To happen or exist before something else, often with the meaning of ‘to
be older than’. Similar to antedate.
(2) To mark with a date earlier than the actual one, e.g. to predate a cheque.
prior adj Existing or coming before in time, order or importance.
Prior and previous
There is overlap but prior is more formal and can be used as a preposition.
E.g. I contacted the solicitors previous to meeting. ✘
I contacted the solicitors prior to / before meeting. ✓
prolong v To extend the amount of time.
o prolong life // survival // suffering // conflict // an interview // a
T
meeting.
recurrent adj adj – Happening again / often.

recur v v – To happen again / often.
retrospect n A review of something after it has happened. Similar to hindsight.
In retrospect.

subsequent adj Coming or happening afterwards.
Subsequent and consequent
Subsequent is the broader term. Consequent describes something which has
happened as a direct result of a previous event.
successive adj Existing or happening one after another (in a series).
supersede v To take the place of.
timely adj Happening or done at an appropriate, quick and/or useful time.
transient adj Lasting for a (very) short time.
underway adj Recently started and ongoing. Often used in the context of planned, large
and difficult projects and activities.
unprecedented adj Never happened before. Often used to refer to something unusual or
remarkable.

Incorrect Correct
1 They are planning to cut costs in the wrong They are planning to cut costs at the wrong time.
time.
2 The experiments have been undergoing for five The experiments have been ongoing for five years.
years.
3 Animal testing has been proceeding for a long Animal testing has existed / has been happening
time. for a long time.
4 As of today, the UK government is currently The UK government is currently tackling gun
tackling gun crime. crime.
5 We conducted the experiments on alternative We conducted the experiments on alternate days
days so that we could analyse the data each so that we could analyse the data each time.
time.
6 Within two years the figures have continued to Over the last / Over the past two years the figures
rise. have continued to rise.
or
The figures have been rising for two years.
7 With retrospect the team could have worked In retrospect / With hindsight the team could have
more closely together. worked more closely together.
8 The interviews were conducted previous to The interviews were conducted before / prior to
giving out the questionnaire. giving out the questionnaire.
9 Animal cloning has been an area of research for Animal cloning has been // has become an area of
modern years. research in recent years.
10 Recreational drugs use to be almost encouraged Recreational drugs used to be almost encouraged
in certain professions. in certain professions.

16 Change, movement, trend and tendency
This section presents words and phrases for giving general statements about types and rates of increase,
decrease, change and trends. Such phrases can often be used to introduce or conclude a discussion about
change, but you must also include specific data and evidence to explain and support your ideas. Example
sentences below with ∗∗ indicate that the adjectives or adverbs are in order of smallest to largest, e.g.
minimal –> pronounced. Other useful words and phrases can be found in section 15.

Discussing change and transition
▸▸ There has been little change / alteration to the current legislation.
▸▸ These plants have been genetically altered so that they have a longer shelf life.
▸▸ The research team modified / adapted / adjusted its procedures to give more time for sample analysis.
▸▸ The paper has been revised following comments and suggestions from the reviewers.
▸▸ We were asked to correct / amend our figures in light of a statistical review by the regulators.
▸▸ Valient (2003) examines the Spanish feminist movement in the context of ‘the reconfigured state’.
▸▸ Impressionism evolved from the naturalist and realist schools.
▸▸ The protest helped to bring about a shift in the government’s position on the issue.
▸▸ The data show that Tanzania is undergoing a shift away from agriculture and towards the tourism sector.
▸▸ Many B2B companies are diverting from / are moving away from / are shifting away from competitive
pricing to customer service and added value.
▸▸ Olson et al. (2001) present a model for seamless transition from student to registered nurse.
▸▸ The invention of the printing press transformed European society.
▸▸ The announcement represents a radical change in / a radical departure from previous tax policy.
Discussing increase and decrease

▸▸ The global population increased / rose dramatically in the nineteenth century.
▸▸ Irish GDP fell / decreased in the first quarter of the year.
▸▸ The regime’s power has diminished / lessened in recent months.
▸▸ Cardioinhibitory drugs reduce heart rate.
▸▸ The rate of new cases reached a peak // hit a low in August.

Discussing the amount of increase or decrease
▸▸ ∗∗The graph shows a minimal / negligible // small / slight // discernible // noticeable // appreciable /
significant / substantial / marked / considerable / pronounced rise / increase // decline / decrease / fall /
drop // dip // fluctuation.
▸▸ ∗∗Prices rose // fell slightly // noticeably // markedly / significantly.
Discussing the speed or rate of increase or decrease

▸▸ The rate of change over the month was greater than expected.
▸▸ The new drug has been shown to speed up / accelerate // slow down / decelerate the healing of burn
injuries.
▸▸ ∗∗The graph shows a gradual // steady // dramatic / sharp / sudden rise / increase // decline / decrease
/ fall / drop.
▸▸ The graph shows that there was a dramatic / sharp / sudden fluctuation // dip.
▸▸ Prices rose // fell gradually // steadily // sharply / suddenly // dramatically.
▸▸ An incremental tax system is one in which tax is paid according to income level.
▸▸ Research shows that the rate of ‘child crime’ has increased exponentially over the last decade.
Discussing changeability and instability

▸▸ The political boundaries of the region are extremely changeable / mutable.
▸▸ The computer software is flexible / versatile / adaptable enough to cope with all gaming platforms.
▸▸ General relativity predicts that the universe is either contracting or expanding.
▸▸ The financial market is in (a state of) flux due to the uncertainty surrounding the election.
▸▸ Mutual funds cause short-term volatility / instability in credit markets.
Discussing stability and lack of movement

▸▸ The population of New Zealand’s rarest seabird has retained / kept a good level of genetic diversity.
▸▸ Our results suggest that student numbers will level off / level out / reach a plateau over the next few
years.
▸▸ Rates of infection stabilised / became stable once a handwashing regime had been established.
▸▸ The economy has remained stable over the last twelve months.
▸▸ Sales have remained static / fixed / stationary over the last three years.

Discussing accumulation and growth
▸▸ Salt-tolerant plants accumulate salt in their leaves rather than their fruit.
▸▸ Repetitive strain injury (RSI) is a form of cumulative trauma disorder.
▸▸ The proliferation of / expansion of / growth of / increase in mutual funds adds to market instability.
Discussing trend and projection

▸▸ Figure 1 shows an upward trend // a downward trend in male suicides.
▸▸ The study highlights a worrying trend towards / trend of women fearing to walk alone at night.
▸▸ Global temperatures are projected // predicted to rise // fall by 1–3 degrees over the next 20 years.
Discussing tendency
▸▸ Sleep-deprived nurses have a greater tendency to / propensity to eat junk food than …
▸▸ Sleep-deprived nurses are more likely to / are more inclined to make medical errors than …

Words you probably already use correctly: accelerate, changeable, decelerate, dramatic, fluctuation, gradual,
instability, minimal, sharp, slight, stationary, sudden.
Words defined in other sections: appreciable s8, considerable s8, discernible s8, expand s2, marked s8,
negligible s8, pronounced s8.
accumulate v v – To build up or increase over time.

accumulation n o accumulate assets // capital // profit // interest // wealth // debt //
T
accumulative adj evidence // knowledge // skill.
Accumulate and cumulate

To cumulate means ‘to gather and combine’, e.g. to cumulate the sales figures.
The nouns and adjectives of the two words have similar meanings, but
accumulation is the more common noun, and cumulative is the more common
adjective.
E.g. Accumulation of debt is what most worries students today.
The return on the investment is cumulative.

adapt v v – (1) To make changes to something so that it can be used for a different
adaptable adj purpose. Similar in meaning to modify.
(2) To get used to a new situation.
To adapt easily / readily / quickly // successfully.

To find it difficult to adapt.
To adapt well to X. To adapt X to Y.
adjust v v – To make small changes to something so that it is more suitable.
adjustable adj v – To adjust the temperature // your position // your screen // your chair //
adjustment n sales figures. An adjusted share price.
adj – An adjustable system // rate // mortgage.

n – To make an adjustment to X. An adjustment account // factor.
alter v v – To make small or large changes to something for a particular purpose. Alter is
alteration n a general term and so can be used instead of amend, adapt, adjust or modify.
n – To make alterations to X.
amend v v – To make particular changes (often corrections) to a text, document,
amendment n agreement or legislation.
diminish v (1) To become or cause to become less.

(2) To take away from something’s or someone’s power, authority or reputation.
To diminish in strength // size // power // authority // importance /
significance // popularity // credibility.
The capacity // resource // supply // number // impact // risk // threat

// likelihood // chance of Y diminishes // has diminished // will diminish.
divert v v – (1) To cause to change direction or purpose.
diversion n (2) To take attention away from something else. Similar to distract
(see section 27).
To divert money // funds // resources from X to Y.

evolve v v – To develop gradually. Often used to describe development from something
simple to something more complex.
To evolve (from X) into Y.
exponential adj adj – Increasingly rapid.
exponen adv – At an increasingly rapid rate.
tially adv
adj – Exponential growth // At an exponential rate.
Exponent, exponential and exponentially have more specialised meanings in
mathematics.
flux n In a state of change. In science, flux has the specific meaning of the rate at which
energy or matter flows.
incline v v – (1) To be likely to do something or act in a particular way. Similar to tend.
inclination n (2) To be willing or persuaded to do something.
E.g. Hopefully the panel will be inclined to overlook my nervousness.
n – (1) A natural tendency, interest or liking for.
(2) A slope.
v – To be inclined to X.
n – To have an inclination towards / for Xing / to X.
incremental adj Having a series of regular (sometimes fixed) increases or changes.
lessen v To decrease or reduce.
o lessen the likelihood // chance // risk // effect // impact // chance //
T
disruption // burden // pain // suffering // stress // tension (of X).
modify v v – (1) T
o make small changes to something specific, such as a particular process,
modification n plan, method, document or law.
(2) To make changes to something so that it can be used for a different
purpose. Similar to meaning (1) of adapt, e.g. to modify a machine,
building or software.

mutable adj Capable of change or of being changed. Similar to meaning (1) of changeable.
proliferation n A rapid, often large increase.
propensity n A tendency to act in a particular way. Similar to tendency and inclination.
radical adj / n adj – (1) Fundamental and/or large.
radically adv (2) Extreme, very different from the norm.
(3) Promoting fundamental political and social change.
(A) radical shift // transformation // change // improvement // restructuring
// reform.
A radical approach // idea // policy // ideology. Radical views.
rate n / v n – (1) A
measure, quantity or frequency measured against something else,
usually time.
(2) A measured quantity or proportion, e.g. interest rate, death rate, growth
rate.
v – To give a value or ranking according to a particular scale.
reconfigure v v – To change the arrangement or structure of something. Usually used in
reconfigura technical and mechanical contexts.
tion n For configure see section 6.
o reconfigure hardware // software // a system // a plan // a project // a
T
budget.
reduce v v – (1) T
o decrease, bring down or lower the level, size, amount or power of
reduction n something.
(2) To break something down to its fundamental elements for the purpose of
analysis.
To reduce X to Y. To reduce X in Y. To reduce X to the level of Y.

retain v To continue to have or keep possession of.
revise v v – (1) T
o correct or change, sometimes in order to improve and/or make more
revised adj accurate. Similar to amend.
revisable adj (2) To relearn knowledge in preparation for an exam.
o revise plans // an estimate // an amount // a forecast // an offer // a bid
T
// a target // proposals // guidelines // a deal // a contract / an agreement
// legislation // tax // earnings.
shift n / v n – A significant change or move.
A radical // fundamental // rapid / sudden shift (in X).
A shift in position / stance // emphasis // focus // attention // debate //
discussion // perception // perspective.
stable adj adj – Not changing, not likely to change, or having only small changes. Usually
stabilise v used with the positive association of the stability being desired, calm and/or
supportive. Compare with static below.
Stable economy // value // inflation // rate // price // situation // ground //
platform // personality // household // family // population.
static adj Lacking any movement. Sometimes used with negative associations of being
unable to move or change.
tendency n n – (1) A characteristic or behaviour that occurs quite often or is likely to happen.
tend v (2) An inclination towards a particular behaviour.
A tendency to do X. X tends to do Y.
A clear // marked / pronounced / strong // slight // worrying tendency.
A natural // violent // aggressive // inherent // instinctive tendency.
To have // display // exhibit // show // indicate // reveal // suggest //
reinforce // avoid // resist a tendency to do X.

transforma n – A fundamental and/or complete change.
tion n
v – To change fundamentally and/or completely.
transform v
transforma
tional adj
transition n n – The process of changing from one situation or position to another.
transitional adj To make a transition. To undergo a transition.
A seamless / smooth / easy // successful // painful // difficult // gradual //
sudden transition.
trend n (1) A general direction of movement or change, e.g. a downward trend in house
sales.
(2) A fashion.
A(n) upward // downward // emerging // current // prevailing // long-term
// short-term // worrying // significant // general // underlying // national
// global trend.
versatile adj (1) Able to be used for or to do many different things.
(2) Able to adapt or be adapted for different functions or purposes. Similar to
adaptable.
(3) (Of people) Having several or many different skills.
volatile adj Unstable, liable to change quickly.

Incorrect Correct
1 They are both at a state of balance. They are both in a state of balance.
2 The claim that most animal species have The claim that most animal species adapt successfully
successful adaptation to captivity in zoos is a to captivity in zoos is a huge overgeneralisation.
huge overgeneralisation.
3 Bird flu could elevate to a higher risk if The risk of bird flu could increase / rise if precautions
precautions are not taken. are not taken.
4 There was a raise in 2005 followed by a There was a rise in 2005 followed by a slight dip in
slight dip in 2006. 2006.
5 Profits have been rising highly. Profits have been rising sharply / steeply / suddenly /
dramatically.
6 The chancellor suggested substantial The chancellor suggested substantial changes to all
modifications to all areas of spending. areas of spending.
7 The transformation from school to university The transition from school to university can be
can be difficult. difficult.
8 Hirsch et al. (2001) assert that universities Hirsch et al. (2001) assert that universities are in a
are at a state of flux. state of flux.
9 The fact that the universe’s expanding is The fact that the universe’s expansion/expansion of
accelerating was discovered in 1998 by the universe is accelerating was discovered…
Perimutter, Ries and Schmidt.
10 Deforestation enhances the level of Deforestation increases the level of greenhouse gases.
greenhouse gases.

Encouragement, allowance
and prevention
17 Encouragement and improvement,
discouragement and deterioration
This section gives you words and phrases for talking about things that stimulate or improve and that
discourage, limit or make things worse. You will find other useful and related words and phrases in
sections 16 and 18.

Discussing encouragement
▸▸ RIBA educational boards encourage / stimulate / foster / cultivate / promote innovation in how
architecture is taught.
▸▸ Advertising companies want to motivate / incentivise / encourage mobile phone users to share their
data.
▸▸ I argue that international charities reinforce negative stereotypes of Africa.
▸▸ Our study looks at what types of music are most conducive to study.
▸▸ Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex gave renewed impetus / momentum to the women’s movement
in the US and Western Europe.
Discussing improvement
▸▸ Meta-cognitive theory improves / enhances // enriches // expands // helps / facilitates our understanding
of stress.
▸▸ Deep brain stimulation has been shown to relieve some of the symptoms of Parkinsonism.
▸▸ The 2018 IMF loan eased / alleviated / ameliorated Argentina’s financial problems.
▸▸ Owens et al. (1992) look at whether physical activity can mitigate the effects of ageing.
120
Discussing regaining and restoration
▸▸ Gandhi’s principle of non-cooperation helped Indians regain a sense of national identity.
▸▸ The constitutional reforms helped to restore the balance of power.
▸▸ There has been a resurgence of human tuberculosis in Indonesia (WHO International 2018).
Discussing discouragement and disruption

▸▸ There is evidence that rent regulation discourages property investors (Vandrei 2018).
▸▸ The negotiations were successful in deterring further conflict.
▸▸ The cost of making a house fully energy-efficient can be prohibitive.
▸▸ I will argue that continuous assessment can detract from student learning.
▸▸ Being excluded from the workforce can erode // undermine self-confidence.
▸▸ The new policing policy has successfully curtailed / reduced violent crime.
▸▸ The government claims that the opposition tried to disrupt / interfere with the referendum.
▸▸ Lack of stimulation in infancy has been shown to hamper / hinder / impede later intellectual
development (De Casper and Carstens 1981).
▸▸ The chemical inhibits / restricts / curtails / limits plant growth.
Discussing deterioration
▸▸ Social cohesion in nineteenth-century London deteriorated as a direct result of the high mortality rate.
▸▸ The study suggests that depression aggravates / exacerbates / worsens inflammatory disease.

Words you probably already use correctly: ease, help, motivate, promote.
Words defined in other sections: detract s27, prohibit s18.
aggravate v (1) To make worse.

(2) To annoy.
To aggravate a situation // a condition // an illness // a symptom // a problem.
alleviate v v – To make less painful, harmful or difficult.
alleviation n o alleviate pain // symptoms // anxiety // pressure // depression // hardship
T
// poverty // hunger.

ameliorate v v – To improve a painful, harmful or difficult situation.
amelioration n
curtail v v – To restrict or limit, often via the use of force or legislation.
curtailment n To curtail freedom // growth // spending // inflation // crime.
conducive adj Making something easier / nicer to do or more likely to happen.
X is conducive to Y.
deter v v – To discourage, to prevent or to make something unlikely.
deterrent n To deter X from doing Y.
deteriorate v v – To get progressively worse.
deterioration n
enhance v v – To increase the quality, value or extent of something positive.
enhancement n To chemically // artificially // digitally enhance something.
To enhance credibility // production // competitiveness // performance //
skills // understanding // experience // knowledge.
enrich v To improve in some way.
erode v To decrease or wear away gradually.
To erode trust // support // confidence // value.

exacerbate v To make a situation, pain or feeling worse. Similar to worsen and aggravate.
To exacerbate a/the situation // problem // symptom // cough // headache.
122 Encouragement, allowance and prevention

facilitate v v – To help, make easier or to make possible.
facility n n – (1) A building or amenity provided for a particular purpose.
E.g. The university has state-of-the-art facilities.
(2) A natural talent or skill.
E.g. I have a facility for learning languages.
foster v To encourage, nurture or develop.
o foster collaboration // cooperation // partnership // relations // growth //

T
development // learning // creativity.
hamper v To delay or obstruct movement or progress. Similar to disrupt, hinder and impede.
o hamper attempts // development // efforts // growth // progress //

T
performance // movement // communication // understanding // recovery.
hinder v v – To delay or obstruct movement or progress. Similar to disrupt, hamper and
hindrance n impede.
As for hamper above.
impetus n Something that provides motivation for something else to happen more quickly.
X provides / acts as / serves as an impetus for Y.
The initial / original impetus for X was // came from Y.
impede v To delay, obstruct or prevent. Similar to disrupt, hamper and hinder.
incentive n n – Something that encourages someone to do something.
∗
incentivise v A financial incentive. An incentive package // scheme.
To offer // create // act as an incentive.
To have no // little incentive to do X.
∗

inhibit v v – (1) To delay, restrict or prevent a process, action or behaviour. Similar to disrupt,
inhibitive/ hamper, hinder and obstruct.
inhibitory adj (2) To make someone self-conscious and unable to act.
mitigate v v – To make something less harmful, painful or serious.
mitigation n E.g. The food aid helped to mitigate the effects of the famine.
Mitigate and militate
To militate is to have a powerful effect against, or to cast doubt on something.
E.g. The evidence militates against his innocence.
momentum n Building up / increasing in speed, size or force. Similar to impetus.
regain v To get back something that has been lost.
E.g. The elected government regained power with the help of the rebel soldiers.
o regain respect // confidence // credibility // fitness // strength // dignity //
T
control // power // sovereignty // independence.
relieve v To decrease or remove something harmful or painful. Similar to alleviate.
To relieve pain // symptoms // anxiety // boredom // suffering // poverty.
restore v To cause a situation or practice to exist again.
E.g. The rebel soldiers helped restore power to the elected government.
o restore confidence // power // democracy // order // stability // discipline
T
// normality // harmony // balance // peace // faith // pride.
resurgence n The (often rapid) return of something that had previously declined or disappeared.
stimulate v v – To encourage activity, development or interest.
stimulus n

undermine v To cause something to become less confident, successful or powerful.
o undermine (self-)confidence // credibility // trust // validity // power //
T
effectiveness // competitiveness // growth // stability.
To undermine a(n) principle // argument // belief // idea // theory.
Undermine and underpin
Underpin means to support and therefore has the almost opposite meaning to
undermine (see section 31).
For underlie see section 3.

Incorrect Correct
1 Eating more carrots will restore the Eating more carrots will relieve / alleviate the symptoms
symptoms of vitamin A deficiency. of vitamin A deficiency.
2 The legislation is unlikely to alleviate the The legislation is unlikely to resolve the issue.
issue.
3 There has been a resurgence in There has been a resurgence of nationalism in the
nationalism in the region. region.
4 Mixing the two drugs will enhance the Mixing the two drugs will increase the risk of damage.
risk of damage.
5 Pollution from factories has exaggerated Pollution from factories has exacerbated global
global warming. warming.
6 The studies ameliorate our knowledge of The studies enhance / expand / increase / improve /
subatomic particles. facilitate our knowledge of subatomic particles.
7 The new legislation will foster employing The new legislation will foster (the) employment of
immigrants. immigrants.
8 Poor management gradually deterred Poor management gradually undermined / eroded
morale within the organisation. morale within the organisation.
9 The positive reviews provided the The positive reviews provided the impetus for
impotence for conducting further conducting further research.
research.
10 Rush et al. (2004) investigate alternative Rush et al. (2004) investigate alternative treatments to
treatments to relief major depression. relieve major depression.

18 Allowance, prevention, exclusion and elimination
This section gives you words and phrases for describing and discussing things that are allowed or not
allowed and also for discussing prevention, avoidance, exclusion and elimination. You will find other useful
words and phrases in section 17.

Discussing things that are allowed
▸▸ The construction company has been allowed / permitted to build on greenfield sites.
▸▸ The method we used permitted / allowed / enabled us to analyse each sound separately.
▸▸ The local authority has given / granted high-street landlords permission to increase rents by 1.5%.
▸▸ An official national religion is one authorised / sanctioned / endorsed by the state.
▸▸ Cunningham (2011) asks why governments make concessions to some protest groups but not others.
Discussing things that are not allowed

▸▸ From 1920 to 1933 the US government prohibited / banned / forbade the sale of alcoholic drinks.
▸▸ Our major obstacle / problem was that the university ethics committee did not allow / permit /
authorise / give permission / grant permission for us to use student data in the way we wanted.
▸▸ ‘Nudity or other sexually suggestive content’ is not allowed / is not permitted / is forbidden / is
prohibited / is proscribed on Facebook pages (Facebook 2019).
▸▸ I have shown via both legislation and case law that being vice-president does not preclude criminal
proceedings against you.
Discussing prevention
▸▸ Oscar Wilde’s maternal in-laws tried to prevent him from seeing his children.
▸▸ Condensation on the inside surface of lenses can obstruct / block vision.
▸▸ The protesters claimed they were denied access to legal representation.
Discussing avoidance and the unavoidable

▸▸ Using synonyms is one way of avoiding repetition.
▸▸ Assunta (2004) looks at how tobacco companies circumvented Singapore’s ban on cigarette
advertising.
▸▸ Some business costs, such as sunk costs, are unavoidable / cannot be avoided.

▸▸ It is incorrect to associate ageing with an inexorable decline in muscle mass.
▸▸ A funding decrease next year seems inevitable.
Discussing exclusion and keeping things separate

▸▸ We found that openly homosexual employees were regularly excluded from senior management posts.
▸▸ The exclusion of women from the national team was questioned in Parliament.
▸▸ This case study looks at protective legislation for marginalised indigenous communities in Nepal.
▸▸ The Jim Crow laws, legitimising racial segregation in the US Southern states, were in place until 1965.
Discussing elimination
▸▸ Human tuberculosis had not yet been eradicated / eliminated in Britain.
▸▸ The test tubes were then shaken at 300C and centrifuged to get rid of / eliminate the bacteria.
▸▸ Translation technology may one day obviate / eliminate the need for learning foreign languages.
▸▸ One aim of the government media campaign was to dispel rumours of divisions within the party.

Words you probably already use correctly: allow, avoid, ban, block, deny, forbid, obstacle, obstruct, permis-
sion, prevent.
Words defined in other sections: endorse s14.
circumvent v To get round something, obtaining your goal by a different means. Often used in
the context of regulations and laws.
dispel v To make a rumour, belief, doubt or feeling cease to exist.
Dispel, expel and disperse
To expel means to drive out by force, while to disperse means to scatter or spread
over a wide area (see section 8).
eliminate v v – To get rid of or remove completely.
elimination n
eradicate v To remove or destroy completely, particularly in the context of disease and animal
populations. Similar to eliminate.
To eradicate disease // a virus // a pest // hunger // poverty.

exclude v v – (1) To not consider or have in the group or set.
exclusion n (2) To deny a person or group access to something.
inevitable adj Certain to happen, usually relating to an unavoidable event or end result.
inexorable adj Impossible to prevent or stop. Used to describe an unavoidably ‘slow but sure’
process that has a predetermined result.
marginalise∗ v v – To treat as unimportant or of low status, or to exclude. Often used in the

marginal adj passive voice.
marginally adv E.g. The group was marginalised because of its religion.
marginalisa adj – (1) A very small amount or effect.
tion∗ n
(2) Not important, minor or excluded, e.g. a marginal political faction.
(3) Unclear or disputed, e.g. a marginal territory.
Marginal has other specialised meanings in accounting and economics.
∗
spelling.
obviate v (1) To remove the need for something.
E.g. Mobile networks obviate the need for wired services.
(2) To prevent or avoid.
E.g. This installation method obviates mechanical stress.
To obviate the need for X.

permit v / n v – (1) To enable. Similar to allow.
E.g. The results permit us to draw the conclusion that …
(2) To give permission.
n – An official document authorising the holder to do something, e.g. a driving
permit.
preclude v To make impossible, to prevent or to rule out.

prohibit v v – (1) To officially forbid. Similar to ban.
prohibitive adj (2) To make impossible or to prevent.
prohibition n
proscribe v To forbid by regulation or law.
Proscribe and prescribe
These words have almost opposite meanings. To prescribe is to order or advise
someone to do something.
E.g. The booklet prescribes the rules of the game.
sanction n / v n – An official order to limit or stop trade or communication with another state.
v – (1) In law, to punish someone for doing something.
(2) To officially give approval or permission.
Note the different, almost opposite meanings between the n and v (1) which are
both associated with punishment, and that of v (2) which relates to permission.
segregation n n – Forced separation from another / other groups.
segregate v n – Racial // gender // ethnic // social // religious segregation.
To resist // challenge // encourage // enforce // ensure // maintain //
promote segregation.
v – To segregate X from Y.

Incorrect Correct
1 This report examines incidences of people This report examines incidences of people being
having sanctions from the welfare benefit sanctioned by the welfare benefit department for
department for not attending job interviews. not attending job interviews.
2 The state government has brought in changes The state government has brought in changes that
that people are allowed to carry guns. allow / enable people to carry guns.
3 Philip Morris and other companies avoided Philip Morris and other companies circumvented
Singapore’s advertising laws and promoted Singapore’s advertising laws and promoted their
their products successfully. products successfully.
4 The act allows that any person below the The act allows / enables / permits any person below
income threshold can have free legal aid. the income threshold to have free legal aid.
5 The report claims that an 8–10% increase in The report claims that an 8–10% increase in energy
energy efficiency will obviate new power plants. efficiency will obviate the need for new power plants.
6 I suggest that the new curriculum will lead to I suggest that the curriculum will lead to religious
religious education in schools being marginal. education in schools being marginalised.
7 The kidney tubule lets the blood take out The kidney tubule allows / enables the blood to
waste from the blood. take out waste from the blood.
8 Christian groups are concerned about the Christian groups are concerned about the exclusion
excluding of religious education from the list of religious education from the list of core subjects.
of core subjects.
9 Dartnell believes it is inexorable that humans Dartnell believes it is inevitable that humans will
will one day colonise other planets. one day colonise other planets.
10 A proscriptive grammar gives rules for how A prescriptive grammar gives rules for how people
people should use language, in contrast to a should use language, in contrast to a grammar that
grammar that describes how speakers do use describes how speakers do use their language.
their language.

Origin, cause, effect and connections
19 Origin, cause and effect

When analysing ideas and information you will need to reveal the connections between them. It’s impor-
tant to communicate your ideas about the nature of these connections precisely (for example whether the
connections are causal or not) and to give your reasons for your conclusions. This section gives you words
and phrases for doing this.
Note that under ‘cause to effect’ and ‘effect to cause’ the sentences are divided into these two groups
for presentation purposes only; some of the underlined words and phrases can be used (with appropriate
grammatical changes) to describe both cause to effect and effect to cause. For example
Cause to effect Effect to cause
Photosynthesis results in glucose production. Glucose production is a result of photosynthesis.
You will find other related words and phrases in section 20 (connections), section 31 (influence and
impact) and section 32 (conclusions and implications).

Discussing origin, creation and derivation
▸▸ The main ingredient for aspirin comes from / originates from willow bark.
▸▸ The liquid is derived from // created by / produced by cooling the gas.
▸▸ Fabian Nicieza and Rob Liefeld created the character of Deadpool.
▸▸ Electricity can be generated from biofuel. / Biofuel can generate electricity.
▸▸ Groening conceived / devised the idea for The Simpsons outside producer James Brooks’ office.
▸▸ Cho (2019) asks whether Higgs should have got all the credit for discovering the Higgs Boson.
▸▸ Engelbart and English invented the computer mouse in the 1960s.
132
Discussing cause to effect
▸▸ The release of CFCs causes the ozone layer to thin / a thinning of the ozone layer.
▸▸ There is a causal link between the release of CFCs and the thinning of the ozone layer.
▸▸ The release of CFCs has the effect of thinning of the ozone layer.
▸▸ The release of CFCs affects the ozone layer, causing it to thin.
▸▸ The release of CFCs triggers a reaction that thins the ozone layer.
▸▸ Owing to / Because of / As a result of / As a consequence of the release of CFCs, the ozone layer is
thinning.
▸▸ CFCs are released into the atmosphere. Consequently, / As a consequence, / As a result, the ozone layer
is becoming thinner.
▸▸ CFCs are released into the atmosphere, thereby thinning the ozone layer.
▸▸ One outcome of the release of CFCs is that the ozone layer thins / is the thinning of the ozone layer.
▸▸ The release of CFCs is an important factor in // contributes to the thinning of the ozone layer.
▸▸ An election will be held in June and therefore / thus parties are preparing their campaigns.
▸▸ An election will be held next year, hence the campaign preparations.
▸▸ The misselling of loans gave rise to a lawsuit.
▸▸ The view that religious education is a form of indoctrination provokes / elicits a strong reaction.
▸▸ The debate on legalised abortion often arouses strong personal feelings.
▸▸ Evidence suggests that exposure to diabetes in the womb conveys a higher risk of the child developing
the disease.
▸▸ The complexity and length of the questionnaire account for / explain the low return rate.
Discussing effect to cause

▸▸ The thinning of the ozone layer stems from / is a consequence of / results from / is due to / is caused by /
is attributable to the release / the releasing of CFCs.
▸▸ The thinning of the ozone layer occurs through / via the release of CFCs.
▸▸ Habib’s theory is that dyslexia arises from a disorder of linguistic functioning in the brain.
Discussing counteraction
▸▸ The drug has proved successful in counteracting / negating / nullifying the effects of the virus.

Words you probably already use correctly: arise, as a result, because, causal, cause, consequently, contrib-
utes, create, discover, due to, invent, originate, outcome, owing to, stems from, thereby, therefore, thus.
Words defined in other sections: account s12, attribute s4, convey s12, factor s1.
affect v To make a difference to or to influence something.

Affect and effect. See effect below.
The opposite of affected is unaffected. Disaffected means ‘unhappy with those in
authority’.
arouse v v – To cause a person / people to give an emotional response.
arousal n o arouse (feelings of) interest // curiosity // anger // jealousy // suspicion //
T
sympathy.
conceive v (1) To form or create an idea or plan in the mind.

(2) To become pregnant.
To conceive the idea of doing X. To conceive the idea for X.
To conceive an idea // concept / notion // project // plan. X is well // poorly
conceived.
counteract v To do something in order to reduce or cancel out the effects of something else.
derive v To obtain one thing from something else.
The data are derived mainly / largely / primarily // solely from government
sources.
To derive pleasure // satisfaction // inspiration // profit // facts // knowledge
from X.
134 Origin, cause, effect and connections

devise v To create or invent a way of doing something.
To devise a plan // mechanism // method // model // strategy // system //

policy // scheme // technique // way of doing X.
Devise and invent
There is overlap but invent is usually used in the context of physical objects or
processes.
effect n / v n – The change or result caused by someone or something.
v – To cause or bring about.
– A beneficial / a positive // the desired // a profound // a serious // an indirect
n
// an adverse / a detrimental // a damaging // an unintended // a cumulative //
an immediate // a short-term // a long-term effect.
Effect and affect
Effect is the noun and affect is the verb.
E ffect as a verb is formal and not common except in the phrases to effect change and
to effect a cure.
negate v v – To cancel out. Similar to nullify.

negation n
nullify v v – To cancel out. Similar to negate.
nullification n

provoke v (1) To cause to have an action, reaction or response.
(2) To deliberately anger or annoy.
o provoke a debate // a discussion // a controversy // a crisis // questions // a
T
protest // an attack // violence // a response // a reaction.
Provoke and evoke
To evoke means to cause a particular emotion or memory to come to mind.
E.g. The poem evokes memories of childhood.
trigger v To make something happen, usually suddenly.

To trigger a crisis // an attack // a response // a memory // a collapse // an
explosion // a feeling of X.

Incorrect Correct
1 Darke and Garces (2017) claim that Darke and Garces (2017) claim that militarising
militarising ‘drug-war’ prisons in Brazil will ‘drug-war’ prisons in Brazil will provoke / trigger /
evoke further violence. cause further violence.
2 It seems clear that a slowdown in Pakistan’s It seems clear that a slowdown in Pakistan’s
economic growth will adversely effect jobs in economic growth will adversely affect jobs in the
the region. region.
3 Testing on animals influences them in several Testing on animals affects them in several ways.
aspects.
4 Unregulated tourism can cause Unregulated tourism can pose / present
environmental and sociocultural threats. environmental and sociocultural threats.
or
Unregulated tourism can be an environmental and
sociocultural threat.
5 Noise contributed by road works can cause Noise caused by road works can cause stress among
stress among residents. residents.
6 Oxygen corrodes iron, thereby it creating Oxygen corrodes iron, thereby / thus creating rust.
rust.
7 People do not realise that the UK is also People do not realise that the UK is also greatly
greatly impacted by the issue. affected by the issue.
8 Computer games have affected obesity in Computer games have led to an increase in / have
children. contributed to obesity in children.
9 This legislation will have a higher effect on This legislation will have a greater effect on public
public transport than on car ownership. transport than on car ownership.
10 The company originated a procedure that The company devised / invented / created a
allowed it to build the houses in nearly half procedure that allowed it to build the houses in
the time. nearly half the time.

20 Connection, compatibility, reciprocity and lack
of relationship
In order to analyse ideas and evidence you will need to understand and explain the nature of the connec-
tions and relationships between them. You will then need to evaluate your material and find new connec-
tion patterns as part of generating your own ideas (see section 32). This section presents words and
phrases for describing and discussing different types of relationship. You will find other related vocabulary
in sections 21–24.

Discussing connections that are essential, dependent or necessary
▸▸ The five bulk elements (e.g. oxygen) together with the six macrominerals (e.g. sodium) are essential to /
essential for all animal life.
▸▸ Humans are dependent on / depend on the physical environment.
▸▸ Humans and the physical environment are interdependent / mutually dependent // interrelated /
interconnected.
▸▸ This essay will argue that self-discipline is necessary for / integral to happiness.
▸▸ I agree with Doltu (2018) on the necessary / requisite conditions for continued robust growth in
Romania.
▸▸ Higher returns on investment entail / involve higher risks.
▸▸ The salary increases are contingent on reaching production targets.
▸▸ The requirements for completing a PhD vary between different universities within the same country.
▸▸ Good customer relations require direct communication between customers and frontline staff.
▸▸ The fact that the average mark is lower than last year necessitates a revaluation of the course syllabus.
▸▸ The prerequisites / preconditions for practising law are usually a law degree, training and a legal
practice certificate.
▸▸ The structural model stipulates that during depression the sufferer systematically perceives the world
with a negative bias.
Discussing other types of close connection
▸▸ Recent research suggests that there is a (close) link between passive smoking and hearing loss.
▸▸ Harter (2000) claims that there is an inextricable link between physical appearance and self-esteem.

▸▸ There is a significant / strong / close // direct // positive correlation between advertising and sales.
▸▸ There is a strong negative correlation between crude oil prices and the value of airline shares.
▸▸ The rise in global temperature is causing a corresponding rise in the amount of radiation penetrating
the atmosphere.
▸▸ Currency exchange rates are determined by a complex interaction of various market forces.
▸▸ Prager (2018) suggests that self-discipline is relevant to / has a bearing on / is a factor in / plays a role
in happiness.
▸▸ I will discuss how stream height relates to stream flow.
▸▸ Life-prolonging technology and the associated / related ethical issues will be discussed.
▸▸ Historically, Tyneside speech has had negative connotations / associations (Watt 2002).
▸▸ Nonaka and Toyama (2015) explain the dynamic process in which new knowledge is assimilated and so
becomes the basis of further new knowledge.
▸▸ Our data demonstrate that cross-faculty synergies lead to increased research output.
Discussing compatibility and reciprocity

▸▸ Tourism can be compatible with environmental sustainability if carefully managed.
▸▸ Lotte (2018) argues that the pursuit of profit is incompatible / not compatible with ethical modes of
conduct.
▸▸ There is increasing interest in the reciprocal relationship between humans and their environment.
Discussing reverse relationship

▸▸ As the supply of a currency increases it loses value, and the converse also holds true.
▸▸ The students in group A were asked to ignore the students in group B and vice versa.
Discussing weak or non-existent relationship

▸▸ The link between business plans and performance is, in fact, tenuous (Gibson and Cassar 2005).
▸▸ This essay will examine the claim by Statewatch (2018) that biometric ID data are only tangential to /
peripheral to national security.
▸▸ Table 1 shows the number of incidental injuries to marine mammals during commercial fishing
operations.
▸▸ There is no direct relationship / no connection between the two theories.

Words defined in other sections: determine s2.
compatible adj Existing and/or operating together without problems or conflict.

connotation n An emotion or idea associated with a word or phrase in addition to its literal
meaning. Similar to association.
A positive // negative // strong // obvious // subtle connotation.
contingent adj / n adj – (1) Conditional, dependent on future events.
(2) Happening by chance.
(3) In philosophy, true only under certain conditions, namely those of
the truth values that make up the proposition.
(4) A representative group or portion, e.g. a contingent force of
soldiers.
he noun contingency means a possible future event, or plan for such an
T
event.
converse n / adj n – Used to describe when elements are reversible or interchangeable.
conversely adv Similar to vice versa.
Converse and opposite

A converse relationship is when the different parts are interchangeable, for
example, the converse of ‘All Ys are Xs’ is ‘All Xs are Ys’. This is not the same
as an opposite relationship, in which the terms are incompatible, sharing
no common ground. Examples of opposites are ‘long – short’ and ‘black –
white’.
Conversely, in contrast and however
Conversely is used only to describe when elements are interchangeable.
In contrast and however are used to introduce differences or opposites.

correlation n n – An interdependent link or relationship. In statistics, a correlation is where
correlate v if one thing increases / decreases, the other also increases / decreases.
Importantly, a correlation does not necessarily mean that one change has
caused the other.
A strong // direct // significant // high // positive // negative // weak

correlation.
correspond v v – To have an equivalence or similarity, or to match.

corresponding adj
dependent adj Needing and relying on something else.
Dependent and dependant
A dependant is a child or other relative for whom another family member is
responsible.
dynamic adj / n adj – (1) A continuously changing and developing process or system, often
in the context of a two-way relationship.
(2) Full of ideas and/or energy.
n – A force that causes change.
entail v v – (1) To be a necessary part of or result of. Similar to necessitate.
entailment n (2) To follow logically. In logic, A is said to entail B if it is the case that if
A is true, B must be true, and that if A is false, B must be false.
incidental adj (1) Occurring by chance as part of something else.
(2) Of minor importance or with minor effect.
inextricable adj adj – Impossible to separate.
inextricably adv adj – There is an inextricable link between X and Y.
adv – X and Y are inextricably linked.

interconnected adj When parts are linked to each other, often in a physical way.
interdependent adj adj – (Of two or more things) being essential to each other in order to
interdependence n function.
o-dependent has a similar meaning but also has the different, separate
C
meaning of being passively and overly dependent on someone else.
integral adj Essential as a part of something. Necessary in order to make complete.
interrelated adj When things have a relationship to each other.
Interrelated, interconnected and interdependent
Interrelated is the most general term, followed by interconnected, and the
two words can usually be interchanged. Interdependent is used for closer
relationships, often in the context of people and societies.
mutual adj adj – Done to each other or experienced in the same way by both parties.
mutually adv
peripheral adj On the outer edges, marginal or of minor importance.
X plays a peripheral role in Y.
prerequisite n Required as a condition before something else can happen. Similar to
precondition.
reciprocal adj adj – Having mutual exchange and benefit between two things or groups.
reciprocity n reciprocal relationship is not necessarily the same as an interdependent
A
one. Two things can have a reciprocal relationship but not depend on each
other.
relate v v – (1) To connect with or refer to.
related adj (2) To give an account of / tell a story.
For relative see section 21.

requisite adj / n adj – Necessary.
n – A thing that is necessary in order for something else to happen.
a dj – The requisite funds // skills // structures // parts // machinery //
client base // market share // permission.
stipulate v v – To specify, require, demand, or necessitate.
stipulation n The model // regulations // rules // law // contract // instructions //
standards // doctrine // policy stipulate(s) that ...
synergy n The combined energy and activity produced when two or more things work
together.
tangential adj (1) Of little or no relevance.
(2) In geometry, touching but not crossing.
tenuous adj Weak and/or lacking a strong basis.
A tenuous link // argument.
vice versa adv Also true the other way round. Similar to conversely.

Incorrect Correct
1 The average reproduction time for bacteria A The average reproduction time for bacteria A was
was 17 minutes. Conversely, the average time 17 minutes. In contrast / However, the average
for bacteria B was 19.2 minutes. time for bacteria B was 19.2 minutes.
2 Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart into
heart into the lungs and vice versa. the lungs, and then this oxygenated blood flows
back to the heart.
3 Our report recommends that the firm develop Our report recommends that the firm develop
reciprocity partnerships with other companies reciprocal partnerships with other companies in the
in the sector. sector.
4 This report examines Brazilian ‘drug-war’ This report examines Brazilian ‘drug-war’ prisons
prisons and relative penal institutions. and related penal institutions.
5 Ullrich et al. (2017) provide a detailed analysis Ullrich et al. (2017) provide a detailed analysis of
of the relations between emotion and lexis in the relationship between emotion and lexis in
poetry. poetry.
6 The Indian Law Commission has recently The Indian Law Commission has recently reported
reported on tribunals and issues. on tribunals and associated / related issues.
7 I have argued that the Body Shop exploits its I have argued that the Body Shop exploits its
energies between the ethical and retail synergies between the ethical and retail markets to
markets to the detriment of consumers. the detriment of consumers.
8 Hagerty and Veenhoven (2003) disagree with Hagerty and Veenhoven (2003) disagree with
Oswald and assert that state wealth is not Oswald and assert that state wealth is not tangential
tangential for happiness. to happiness.
9 Space and time are more than inextricable; Space and time are more than inextricably linked;
they are part of the same phenomenon. they are part of the same phenomenon.
10 Many UK universities have reciprocity Many UK universities have reciprocal relationships
relationships with overseas institutions. with overseas institutions.

Comparison, similarity and difference
21 Comparison, similarity, convergence, equivalence

and balance
This section gives you words and phrases for comparing and contrasting ideas and information – an
essential part of critical analysis and argument. You should always give your reasons for saying things are
similar or different and explain any analogies you make. For example, if you say that the global economy
is like a finely balanced ecosystem, you must explain why you think the one resembles the other. Finally,
you should also say what insights your comparison gives to the issue you are discussing. See also section
22 for words and phrases relating to difference.

Comparison
▸▸ This assignment compares the birth rate of different EU member states.
▸▸ It is incorrect to compare Buddhism to mainstream religions such as Christianity.
▸▸ We conducted a quantitative comparison of the three habitats.
▸▸ We compared first year with final year students and found significant differences in analytical skills.
▸▸ Our comparative analysis shows little difference in ethical behaviour between small and large businesses.
▸▸ The relative lack of information on the website might indicate a desire to hide its real purpose.
▸▸ The current political situation is relatively / comparatively unstable compared with ten years ago.
▸▸ We compared and contrasted the two methods and found that both were equally effective.
Similarity, uniformity and convergence

▸▸ There are a number of interesting similarities between the US and UK financial systems.
▸▸ The US financial system is similar to / akin to that of the UK in one // in several // in a number of
respect(s).
▸▸ Old English is fairly similar to Middle English as regards / in terms of / with respect to orthography.
145
▸▸ Rinaldi et al. (2003) found that antioxidants are similarly depleted in both mild cognitive impairment
and Alzheimer’s disease.
▸▸ McMahon (1999) asks whether action research and reflective practice are synonymous.
▸▸ Non-profit administration resembles private sector management in two important ways.
▸▸ The current financial crisis has parallels with the problems in some other European countries.
▸▸ I will examine how far agricultural practices can realistically emulate natural ecosystems.
▸▸ Vaccines imitate / mimic / emulate the natural infection, tricking the immune system into producing
antibodies.
▸▸ Rotorb (2009) draws an analogy between writing a novel and painting. He explains that both …
▸▸ A common visual metaphor in art is a cross, used to represent Christianity.
▸▸ Wordsworth’s ‘I Wondered Lonely as a Cloud’ is one of the most well-known similes in English poetry.
▸▸ We ensured that each subgroup was homogeneous / uniform in terms of age and income.
▸▸ Van Zoonen (2004) looks at how the convergence of popular culture and politics can be exploited by
politicians.
▸▸ The Europa press release (2017) outlines the convergent views on the multiannual financial framework.
Equivalence
▸▸ I think Lach (2019) is mistaken when he equates wealth with happiness.
▸▸ The 2017 AEI map gives the GDP of the US state of Florida as equivalent to / corresponding to that of
Indonesia.
▸▸ Each colour in Figure 1 corresponds to a particular country, as explained underneath the chart.
▸▸ The new national minimum wage rate represents / amounts to an increase of 2.5% on the previous rate.
▸▸ I will argue that all EU member states should have equal / the same status.
▸▸ Ferreira and Peragine (2016) conducted a survey of the literature on equality of opportunity in relation
to individual responsibility.
▸▸ The usual method for assessing price parity between countries is to compare the price of a ‘standard’
good.
▸▸ Over 95% of human genes have a counterpart in the mouse genome.
Balance and compensation
▸▸ The point at which supply is balanced with demand is termed ‘market equilibrium’.
▸▸ Our report has found that CEO salaries are in proportion to / proportional to / proportionate to /
commensurate with their performance.
146 Comparison, similarity and difference

▸▸ We compensated for our small number of returned surveys by increasing the number of interviews.
egrees of similarity or difference (see section 22 for differences, and sections 8 and 9 for size
D
and degree)
Small similarities or differences
▸▸ There are (only) marginal // minor / slight similarities // differences between …
▸▸ We found virtually no / almost no similarity // difference between the two groups.
▸▸ Quantitative research is unable to capture the nuances of human behaviour and response.
▸▸ There is a subtle but important distinction between X and Y in that …
Medium-sized similarities or differences

▸▸ The results of this experiment have proved quite / somewhat similar // different in that …
Large similarities or differences

▸▸ Considerably more / less research has been conducted in this area of medicine than in any other.
▸▸ Compared with Southeast Asia, Australia has considerably more // fewer immigrants.
▸▸ The study indicates that there are far more // far fewer convictions when cases are heard without a jury.
▸▸ There are three striking // obvious // notable // substantial / major / marked / pronounced
similarities // differences between the two theories.
▸▸ Capitalism and socialism have radically / fundamentally different approaches to wealth distribution.

Words you probably already use correctly: balance, imitate, represent, resemble, similar, uniform.
Words defined in other sections: convergent s24, correspond s20, marginal s18, radical s16.
akin adj (1) Similar in character.

(2) Related by blood.
X is / are akin to Y.

analogy n n – A reasoned and explained comparison between two things in order to
analogous adj show their similarities.
To make / draw / use an analogy.
An apt // good // close // helpful // interesting // crude // poor //
inappropriate // false analogy.
Analogy, metaphor and simile
An analogy is a type of comparison used in logic and argument.
A metaphor is a figure of speech – the use of an image of one thing to
represent another to create an emotional or expressive effect.
E.g. He is a lion stalking his prey in the urban jungle.
A simile is also a type of metaphor because it is also a figure of speech used for
comparison, but a simile uses like or as.
E.g. He is like a lion stalking its prey. My love is as deep as the ocean.
false analogy is a common reasoning flaw, where a comparison between
A
objects or ideas is used to come to a conclusion that is not supported by the
comparison.
E.g. Dogs are like children – they love their owners in the way children love
their parents.
commensurate adj Similar in degree, extent or size. Similar to proportionate.
X is commensurate with Y.
comparative adj adj – As judged / measured in relation to other things. When used more
comparatively adv loosely, both comparative and comparatively have a similar meaning to relative
and relatively.
E.g. It is a comparatively / relatively big firm.
A comparative (dis)advantage // analysis // report // survey.
Comparative and comparable
These words have different meanings. See comparable below.

compare v v – To note the similarities and differences between things.
comparable adj adj – Similar or equivalent.
E.g. Teachers’ salaries are comparable to those of nurses.
Compare to and compare with

These are often interchanged, but strictly speaking, compare to highlights
similarities and compare with highlights differences.
E.g. A software virus is often compared to a biological one.
Compared with last year’s figures, this year’s have seen a significant rise.
Incomparable has two meanings: (1) unable to be compared and (2) unable to
be compared because of being the best.
E.g. She has an incomparable intellect.
compensate v To do or give in order to make up for a loss or deficiency in something else.
contrast v / n v – To compare things in order to show the differences between them.
n – A clear difference.
n – A stark // marked / / sharp // obvious // clear contrast between X and Y.
counterpart n A corresponding thing or person, often with the same or similar function.
emulate v (1) To purposely act in the same or a similar way to something or someone
else. Similar to imitate.
(2) To copy something or someone in an attempt to be as good as or better
than it/them.
equal adj / v adj – Being the same in form, value, quantity or size, e.g. 6 plus 6 equals 12.
equality n Having the same rights, status and/or opportunities.
E.g. A 2016 study reported that there is still a lack of equality in wages
between different racial groups in the US.
Equity is a different word meaning ‘The quality of being fair / impartial’.
E.g. Ideally the law should operate with equity and justice.

equate v To be the same as (equal) or equivalent to
equivalent adj / n adj – Being the same in function, meaning or effect.
E.g. The job has generous benefits that include a car and accommodation,
roughly equivalent to £50,000 per annum.
homogeneous adj adj – (1) Having elements that are all the same or similar.
homogeneity n (2) Of the same type.
omogeneous also has more specialised meanings in economics, chemistry and
H
maths.
metaphor n A figure of speech that uses the image of one thing to represent another.
E.g. He is a lion stalking his prey in the urban jungle.
Metaphor, simile and analogy

See analogy above.
mimic v / n v – (1) T
o purposely act in the same or a similar way to something or someone
else. Similar to imitate and copy.
(2) To have similar qualities to something else.
n – Someone skilled at imitating other people.
notable n Interesting and important.
A notable exception // absence // difference // omission.

A notable achievement // accomplishment // success // contribution //
example // feature.
Notable and noticeable

Noticeable means ‘easily seen’.
nuance n / v n – A subtle and or small difference in meaning, expression, visual composition
or sound.

parallel n / adj n – A similarity.
E.g. There are many parallels between the invention of printing and that of
e-books.
adj – (1) Side by side or at the same time, e.g. parallel computing.
(2) In geometry, two lines or surfaces having the same distance between
them.
– To draw // note // reveal // suggest a parallel with X/ a parallel between
n
X and Y.
An obvious // striking parallel.
parity n Equality or equivalence, usually relating to status, pay or functionality.
relative adj adj – (1) H
aving more or less of a particular quality compared with something
relatively adv else or other things.
(2) Not absolute.
E.g. Wealth is a relative concept.
adj – Relative abundance // importance // merits / strengths.
Relative decline // poverty // deprivation // risk // isolation // obscurity.
adv – Relatively easy / simple / straightforward / calm / short / cheap.
similarly adv adv – In a similar way.
similar adj Similarly and correspondingly
Correspondingly means having a directly linked or matching relationship to
something else (see section 20 for correspond and corresponding).
simile n A figure of speech used for comparison that uses like or as.
E.g. He is like a lion stalking its prey. My love is as deep as the ocean.
Simile, metaphor and analogy
See analogy above.

subtle adj adj – Very small, so as to be difficult to see, recognise or describe.
subtlety n A subtle difference // distinction // shift // variation // improvement //
effect // influence.
synonymous adj (1) (Of words) Having the same meaning.
(2) The same as, very similar, or closely connected to.
X is synonymous with Y.

Incorrect Correct
1 I will discuss whether Melville’s white whale, I will discuss whether Melville’s white whale,
Moby Dick, is a simile for something more Moby Dick, is a metaphor for something more
significant. significant.
2 Alcock and Rubenstein (2019) look at the Alcock and Rubenstein (2019) look at the
differences in bird song relative with territory differences in bird song relative to territory overlap.
overlap.
3 The poem contains metaphors relating to The poem contains similes relating to colour, for
colour, for example ‘as black as midnight’. example ‘as black as midnight’.
4 I suggest that a parallel can be made between I suggest that a parallel can be drawn between
the current global financial downturn and the the current global financial downturn and the
depression in the 1930s. depression in the 1930s.
5 It is unfair to say that our study only copies the It is unfair to say that our study merely emulates
Zhang et al. (2018) meta-analysis of links the Zhang et al. (2018) meta-analysis of links
between red meat intake and renal cancer. between red meat intake and renal cancer.
6 Sierra Leone is a relative small country. Sierra Leone is a relatively small country.
7 I suggest that the metaphor of El Nino to I suggest that the analogy of El Nino to describe
describe the effect of climate change (Pielke the effect of climate change (Pielke 2005) is false
2005) is false for several reasons. for several reasons.
8 Recent comparison studies of politics and Recent comparative studies of politics and
informal justice (Abel 2014) show two informal justice (Abel 2014) show two important
important similarities across societies. similarities across societies.
9 After 24 hours we contrasted the two viral cultures. After 24 hours we compared the two viral cultures.
10 Spain and Jordan have comparative Spain and Jordan have comparable
unemployment rates of around 16.5–17% unemployment rates of around 16.5–17% (Index
(Index Mundi 2019). Mundi 2019).

22 Difference, differentiation and diversity
This section presents vocabulary for describing and discussing difference, differentiation, diversity and lack
of equivalence. For divergence see section 24. See section 21 for other useful words and phrases related to
comparison.

Difference
▸▸ There are a number of important differences between the Mexican and Spanish financial systems.
▸▸ The way pesticides are used in India is different / differs from that of most other countries.
▸▸ Collins’ view differs from that of Esty as to the extent to which businesses are responsible for the effects
of production.
▸▸ Old and Middle English differ / are different in that Old English has much more inflection.
▸▸ The languages are quite dissimilar at first glance but they in fact share a language family.
Differentiation
▸▸ In traditional theology, the presence of a soul differentiates / distinguishes / separates humans from
animals.
▸▸ Cote and Morgan (2002) differentiate / make clear the difference between amplification and
suppression of emotions.
▸▸ A distinction needs to be made / drawn // recognised between size and volume.
▸▸ There are two distinct / discrete categories of Bengali literature.
▸▸ Previous research has distinguished atoms by their state of oxidisation.
▸▸ Demir and Nyhan (2008) evaluate the dichotomy between US politics and its administration.
▸▸ Wolf argues that business should not be concerned with social consequences. Svensson, however, / on
the other hand, shows that business and society are mutually dependent.
▸▸ Criminal law upholds national standards of behaviour. In contrast to this, / By contrast, civil law protects
individuals against each other.
▸▸ Type 1 diabetes is caused by autoimmune attack, whereas / while type 2 diabetes is often a result of
poor eating habits.

Diversity and variation
▸▸ There are diverse / varied / different opinions as to whether ethics have a valid place in a business.
▸▸ Ethnicity tends to be more diverse in larger towns and cities than in rural areas.
▸▸ The chemicals have disparate properties.
▸▸ Bowles (2004) argues that cooperation is of evolutionary benefit to heterogeneous populations.
▸▸ You need to present a varied portfolio of work in order to gain the art award.
▸▸ Research has shown that a variety of / various gene mutations are responsible for Parkinsonism.
▸▸ There is significant variation in the voters’ opinions.
▸▸ The standard of lectures on the course was variable / varied.
Lack of equivalence
▸▸ The study looks at pay disparity / the lack of parity in pay between men and women in Japan.
▸▸ I think Lach (2019) is mistaken, and that wealth does not equate / is not equivalent to happiness.
▸▸ Inequality remains between the two majority ethnic groups in the country.

Words you probably already use correctly: balance, differ, difference, dissimilar, inequality, on the other hand,
separate, whereas, while.
Words defined in other sections: contrast s21.
dichotomy n A division or absolute contrast between two things.

differentiate v v – To recognise or identify a difference between things. Similar to distinguish
differentiation n and make a distinction.
X differentiates A from B. To differentiate between X and Y.

discrete adj Being a separate identity. Similar to distinct.
Discrete, discreet and discretion
Discreet means to be tactful and/or secretive.
E.g. The website arranges ‘discreet relationships’ for married people.
Discretion (with one e) has two different meanings: (1) to be tactful (discreet)
and (2) having the freedom to choose or decide.

disparate adj Very different and/or fundamentally different and therefore unable to be
compared.
disparity n A significant difference.
nlike the adjective disparate, a disparity is a difference between things that
U
also have some similarities and can therefore be compared.
For discrepancy see section 7.
distinct adj adj – (1) Recognisable as separate.

distinction n E.g. Relative and absolute poverty are distinct. A distinct smell.
(2) Noticeable.
E.g. There is a distinct absence of evidence in the report. A distinct
smell.
– To make / draw / recognise // clarify // maintain a/the distinction
n
between X and Y. A clear // important // fundamental distinction.
Distinct and distinctive

Distinctive is used to describe something or someone that is unusual and/or
unique because of its differences.
E.g. The building has a distinctive design.
distinguish v To recognise a difference between things. Similar to differentiate and make a
distinction.
E.g. In our report we have distinguished between relative and absolute
poverty.
he adj distinguished means someone who looks/is dignified and commands
T
respect.
E.g. She is a distinguished actress.
diverse adj adj – Having a great deal of variety. Similar to heterogeneous.

diversity n

heterogeneous adj adj – (1) Having elements that are all different. Similar to diverse.
heterogeneity n (2) Of different types.
inequality n difference in rights, status and/or opportunities.
inequity is a different word meaning ‘lack of fairness or impartiality.
Iniquity is a different word meaning ‘immoral behaviour’.
variable adj (1) Changeable, e.g. a variable interest rate.
(2) Inconsistent and therefore not good.
E.g. Safety standards at the factory were variable.
varied adj Having differences / diversity (variety) within it.
E.g. A varied diet is necessary for good health.
The members of the group have varied interests.
variety n n – (1) A (large) group or collection of things or occasions that are different.
various adj Similar to range of.
E.g. You need to eat a variety of vegetables to maintain health.
(2) A type of.
E.g. Supermarkets sell only a few of the many existing varieties of
apple.
adj – Several or many different types of something.
E.g. We used various techniques in our experiment.
vary v To make different or to change something.
E.g. We varied the temperature according to the different melting points of
each solid.

Incorrect Correct
1 There is a variety of four main blood groups. There are four main blood groups.
2 Cote and Morgan make a difference between Cote and Morgan differentiate between
amplification and suppression of emotions. amplification and suppression of emotions.
3 There are seven discreet language groups in There are seven discrete language groups in
China. China.
4 Allen (1982) differs between novels in general Allen (1982) differentiates between novels in
and Arabic novels. general and Arabic novels.
5 New York has an extremely various population. New York has an extremely varied / diverse
population.
6 Our equivalent people at Harvard used the same Our counterparts at Harvard used the same
experimental protocol and replicated our results. experimental protocol and replicated our
results.
7 We found a distinctive difference of 8.4 grams We found a distinct difference of 8.4 grams
between the ‘before’ and ‘after’ weights. between the ‘before’ and ‘after’ weights.
8 DNA differentiates from RNA in that it is a DNA differs from RNA in that it is a double helix
double helix as opposed to a single-chained as opposed to a single-chained structure.
structure.
9 As the company had a somewhat varied safety As the company had a somewhat variable safety
record, its franchise was not renewed. record, its franchise was not renewed.
10 My past work experience has been different, My past work experience has been diverse,
involving jobs in four different industries. involving jobs in four different industries.

Analysis of evidence and arguments
23 Analysis of evidence and identification

of argument flaws
To analyse means to take something apart (e.g. a term, definition, idea, argument or datum) in order to
examine it in detail. A common cause of low marks in assignments is that the student has not properly
analysed their concepts and terms before moving on to evaluation. Analysis then, is the first stage in the
larger overall process of analysis, evaluation and drawing conclusions – often referred to (somewhat
confusingly) as ‘critical analysis’ or ‘synthesis’.
In your analysis you need to show that you understand what the authors are doing (or trying to do),
where they position themselves in relation to your issue, and how these positions relate to your own.
You therefore need to be precise in your use of reporting verbs (e.g. argue, discuss, examine, explain).
Each verb has a different meaning and it is important to show your reader that you understand what the
source author is doing by using the appropriate reporting verb.
See also section 14 (position and point of view) and sections 21 and 22 (comparison and difference).

Analysing concepts, ideas and arguments
▸▸ Before discussing the different main branches of psychiatry I will analyse the term itself.
▸▸ If we break down / take apart / separate out / dismantle the term ‘law’ into its constituent parts /
components / elements, we can see that …
▸▸ In order to asses Froom’s argument we first need to unpick / deconstruct the way he uses the concept
of feminism.
▸▸ Separating / Uncoupling / Dissociating rights from responsibilities gives us a clearer picture of the issue.
▸▸ Superficially, / On the surface, Lok’s argument is just about freedom, but on closer examination /
inspection / scrutiny it is also about …
159
▸▸ When discussing poverty we need to be clear on whether we are talking about relative or absolute poverty.
▸▸ It is important to recognise / acknowledge that some resources are more natural than others.
▸▸ It is a common confusion to think that / misconception that ‘democracy’ means that everyone …
▸▸ The paper misuses the term ‘Web 2.0’ by relating it to advances in technology rather than to how it
should be used.
▸▸ Simply using the ‘freedom’ label blurs the (crucial) distinction between // does not distinguish between
individual and collective choice.
▸▸ A distinction needs to be made / drawn between rate, speed and velocity.
▸▸ Bengali literature is not homogeneous; it has two distinct / discrete categories.
▸▸ The chemicals all have disparate properties.
▸▸ Correlation does not equal / is not the same thing as / is not synonymous with causation.
▸▸ The idea of intelligent design can be traced back to Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century.
▸▸ The paradox of a high intake of saturated fat but low rate of heart disease has been linked to wine
consumption.
Identifying specific flaws in the logic of an argument
▸▸ Our report highlights the research study’s many flaws.
▸▸ The view that because last year’s figures were poor we need redundancies, is a fallacy.
▸▸ The argument that the economy will be stronger if we leave the EU is irrational / illogical / unsound
invalid / inconsistent // incoherent / inconclusive because …
▸▸ The absence of women in the study means that his conclusions that people are naturally competitive is
an overgeneralisation.
▸▸ The 2010 report states that a high-sugar diet increases the risk of type 2 diabetes but this is an
oversimplification, as it is not sugar per se but obesity that increases the risk.
▸▸ Saying that an opt-out system is good because it ensures organs are donated unless specified otherwise,
is a circular argument.
▸▸ The minister offered the non sequitur that because identity theft is increasing, we should introduce
identity cards.
▸▸ Ormazabal (2003) argues that there is a contradiction in Keynes’ definition of income.
▸▸ Religious belief and scientific rationality are contradictory worldviews.
▸▸ I have shown that there is a contradiction between religious belief and scientific rationality.
▸▸ The report concludes with the tautological statement / tautology that the economy will either improve
or will not.
160 Analysis of evidence and arguments

▸▸ Buchanan offered the truism that to achieve good public health, all sections of the community need
adequate housing.

Words you probably already use correctly: break down, confusion, examine, inspect, illogical, misuse,
separate, surface, take apart, unpick.
Words defined in other sections: acknowledge s25, component s4, constituent s4, discrete s22, disparate
s22, distinct s22, elements s1, homogeneous s21, incoherent s27, inconclusive s27, inconsistent s27, irrational
s14, misconception s13, trace s4.
analyse∗ v v – To break something down into its basic elements in order to examine
analysis n and reveal its important characteristics and/or meaning.
E.g. I will analyse the data.
n – Detailed examination of the elements or structure of something.
E.g. The analysis is weak.
Analyse*, analysis and analyses

Analyses is both the 3rd person present verb form (e.g. He analyses the
results) and the plural noun (e.g. I compared the two analyses).
∗
The US spelling is -ze.
blur v / n v – To make or become unclear.
To blur the line // distinction between X and Y.

circular adj A mistake of logic whereby an argument is ‘empty’ because the conclusion
is merely a restatement of the premise(s).
E.g. Increasing income tax for top earners is a valid policy, so I propose that
we should raise this level from next April.
contradiction n n – The state of two things being incompatible.
contradictory adj
contradict v

deconstruct v v – To break something down into its component parts for the purpose of
deconstruction n analysis. Used mainly in the fields of literature, linguistics and philosophy.
For construct see section 13.
dismantle v To take apart piece by piece. Used in the context of machinery, equipment,
structures, organisations and concepts.
dissociate v v – (1) To separate from.
dissociation n (2) To stop meeting / associating with.
Dissociate and disassociate
These two words have the same meaning, dissociate being the more
correct.
fallacy n (1) A false idea or belief.
(2) In formal logic, any form of incorrect reasoning that causes an invalid
argument. Examples of logical fallacies are non sequiturs (see below)
and false analogies.
flaw n n – A defect, shortcoming or underlying weakness.
flawed adj
invalid adj adj – (1) In logic, an invalid argument is one that contains flawed reasoning,
invalidity n i.e. where the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the
premises. A non sequitur is an example of an invalid argument (see
below).
(2) Not legally recognised.
non sequitur n A statement that does not follow logically from the one before. In
formal logic, a non sequitur is when a conclusion does not follow from its
premise(s).
E.g. We decided not to repeat the experiment, so we asked for more
funding.

overgeneralise∗ v v – To apply a specific case to a wider range of situations (i.e. to generalise)
∗
overgeneralisation n in a way that it is too broad to be justified.
E.g. People are healthier now than they were twenty years ago.
For generalise see section 32.
Overgeneralise and oversimplify. See below.
∗
spelling.
oversimplify v v – To explain something (usually cause and effect) so that it seems simpler
oversimplification n than it actually is.
E.g. Sugar makes you fat.
v – To slightly // greatly oversimplify.

n – A slight // gross oversimplification.
Oversimplify and overgeneralise

As shown in the definitions here, an oversimplification involves one
particular situation or process, whereas an overgeneralisation is a statement
that is incorrect because it is applied too broadly to other areas.
paradox n n – A statement that seems contradictory but in fact has some truth.
paradoxical adj E.g. We discuss the paradox of how café chains benefit from both
customisation and standardisation.
Paradox and contradiction

Paradox can be used to mean a contradiction but is also used more loosely
to mean a problematic or surprising situation which on closer examination
can, in fact, be resolved (i.e. it is not a true paradox).
A contradiction is when the elements involved are logically incompatible and
the situation is therefore truly irresolvable.

scrutinise∗ v v – To examine carefully and thoroughly in order to check or find out
scrutiny n specific information.
– To be under / come under / be subject to / be subjected to / be the
n
subject of scrutiny.
v – To be scrutinised by X for (doing) Y.
∗
superficial adj adj – (1) Existing or happening only on the surface.

superficially adv (2) Lacking authenticity or real / deep understanding.
A/At a superficial understanding // knowledge // change // difference //
similarity // treatment // level.
tautology n n – A sentence or phrase that merely repeats itself. Tautologies are common
tautological adj in everyday language, e.g. a free gift, joined together, in close proximity.
truism n An obviously true and uninteresting statement that is therefore not worth
making.
Truism and axiom
The adjective axiomatic is sometimes also used to mean ‘obvious’, but
axiom has the more constructive meaning of an established truth, premise
or principle. Axiom is usually used in the context of logic, mathematics and
philosophy.
uncouple v To separate or disconnect one thing from another.

Incorrect Correct
1 Our analysis discovered several fundamental Our analysis revealed several fundamental flaws in
flaws in her argument. her argument.
2 First, let’s clarify if ID cards will really deter First, let’s clarify whether ID cards will really deter
terrorists or not. terrorists.
3 Separating the concept of liberal democracy or Separating the concept / concepts of liberal
direct democracy is crucial because … democracy from / and direct democracy is
crucial because …
4 In order to analyse the problem we first need to In order to analyse the problem we first need to
have a distinction between public and private draw a distinction / make a distinction /
law. distinguish between public and private law.
5 No group of students can be completely No group of students can be completely
homogenous, even if composed of only two homogeneous, even if composed of only two
students. students.
6 There are four chemical substances involved, There are four chemical substances involved, each
each of which plays a different role in the of which plays a different role in the process.
process. These desperate elements are … These disparate elements are …
7 The idea that social media causes depression in The idea that social media causes depression in
young people is an oversimplification. young people is an overgeneralisation.
8 The conclusion is contradicted with the data The conclusion is contradicted by the data given
given earlier in the paper. earlier in the paper.

Incorrect Correct
9 Knight (2018) offers the non sequitur that we Knight (2018) offers the circular argument that
should lower levels of taxation and that we should lower levels of taxation and that
therefore the government policy of tax therefore the government policy of tax reduction
reduction is a good thing. is a good thing.
10 In our experiment we looked at whether very In our experiment we looked at whether very
casual dress at work has the effect of blurring casual dress at work has the effect of blurring
the line in between professional and ‘outside the line between professional and ‘outside
work’ behaviour. work’ behaviour.

24 Grouping of authors’ ideas and identification
of common themes
The next stage of analysis after breaking down and examining concepts and ideas (see section 23) is to
see which authors agree with each other and which disagree, and to identify themes, patterns and types
of connections between ideas and information, perhaps in ways no-one has done before. See also sections
20–22 for other useful words and phrases.

Identifying similar and convergent views
▸▸ Both Marteinson and Bergson view humour as arising from conflict between the real and the unreal.
▸▸ Cote and Morgan are in agreement with / agree with / share the same view as / hold a similar view to
Hochschild, that is, that supressing emotions can cause stress in employees.
▸▸ Cote and Morgan, together with Hochschild, hold the view that supressing emotions can cause stress in
workers.
▸▸ Neither Wolf nor Carr feel that businesses should concern themselves with ethics.
▸▸ Collins’ and Esty’s positions converge / come together on the issue of business and social responsibility.
Identifying common themes

▸▸ The common theme that emerges from / emerging from both arguments is that …
▸▸ A common / shared idea in / theme in / thread running through the articles is a questioning of the
perceived benefits of student autonomy.
▸▸ The conclusion common to the studies is that the demand for organ transplants can never be met
purely by donation.
▸▸ Both articles show considerable overlap in how they view the link between literacy and reasoning.
▸▸ This report identifies important areas of overlap / common ground between the two industries.
▸▸ What makes these arguments interesting is that they all agree that patients are being harmed by online advice.
▸▸ This analysis of the studies reveals the general underlying premise that ethical business behaviour is
desirable.
▸▸ There are a number of interesting similarities between the three studies. First, …
▸▸ For Gray (2018), Christians work towards an ideal good (God), and similarly, modern atheists believe in
the positive progress of humanity.

▸▸ Non-profit administration resembles private sector management in two important ways.
▸▸ The current financial crisis in the UK has parallels with the problems in some other European countries.
Identifying different views
▸▸ Clint and others maintain that humour is used to assert superiority; however, / in contrast, / on the
other hand, Berlyne proposes that humour serves to relieve tension.
▸▸ Whereas / Although Wolf believes that businesses operate separately from society, Wood shows that the
two are mutually dependent.
▸▸ Wolf suggests that businesses should operate separately from society, while / whereas Wood shows that
they are interdependent.
▸▸ Wolf states that business should act separately from society, but opponents of this view believe that the
two are co-dependent.
▸▸ There are diverse / varied / different opinions as to whether ethics do have a valid place in a business.
▸▸ The literature reveals two different / distinct / discrete theories.
▸▸ Although both Miller and Hurley agree that humour is connected to sexual selection, they disagree on /
their views differ in regard to / they diverge on the extent of the role humour plays.
▸▸ Miller’s view differs from that of Hurley as to the degree of importance humour has in evolutionary
selection.
Identifying divergent views
▸▸ Cognitivist and behaviourist paradigms both deal with a common process but diverge on the issue of
memory.
▸▸ Plato and Aristotle developed divergent theories of knowledge.
▸▸ Collins and Esty agree that businesses should behave ethically, but their views differ in terms of / they
diverge on the extent to which …
▸▸ The building’s style is a departure from current mainstream architecture in Spain.

Words you probably already use correctly: although, common, criticise, differ, hold, however, neither,
opponent, overlap, share, whereas.
Words defined in other sections: considerable s8, contrast s21, discrete s22, distinct s22, diverse s22,
parallel s21, varied s22.

converge v v – Of different viewpoints or directions, to come together or start to come
together.
convergence n
convergent adj
departure n n – (1) The action of leaving.
depart v (2) A change in usual behaviour, action or direction.
diverge v v – To go or start to go in different directions. Usually used to describe things that
start from a similar point that then separate, or to describe things that have both
divergence n
similarities and differences.
divergent adj
emerge v v – To gradually become apparent or to gradually develop.
emergence n
resemble v v – To be similar in some way.
resemblance n
reveal v To allow or cause something to be recognised or seen.
ou can only reveal something that was already there. In academic writing
Y
we usually say ‘the data / experiment / analysis … revealed …’ rather than ‘I
revealed …’
theme n The main topic or idea.
thread v / n n – (1) A
particular point or aspect within a general theme / topic that runs
through all the different parts or stages of one or more books, essays,
plays, arguments etc.
(2) A long strand of cotton, nylon or other material.
A(n) common // unbroken // unifying // different / disparate thread(s).

Incorrect Correct
1 Our analysis emerged several Our analysis revealed several fundamental flaws in her argument.
fundamental flaws in her argument.
2 Neither Sloboda or Lehmann (2001) Neither Sloboda nor Lehmann (2001) feel that people interpret
feel that people interpret the same the same piece of music in the same way. / Both Sloboda and
piece of music in the same way. Lehmann (2001) feel that people interpret the same piece of
music differently.
3 Separating the concept of liberal Separating the concept of liberal democracy from / and direct
democracy or direct democracy is democracy is crucial because …
crucial because …
4 In order to analyse the problem we In order to analyse the problem we first need to draw a
first need to have a distinction distinction / make a distinction / distinguish between public and
between public and private law. private law.
5 The Argentinian researchers used the The Argentinian researchers used the patient’s own cells;
patient’s own cells in contrast we similarly we used donor cells.
used donor cells.
6 The flaw common for all three studies The flaw common to / in all three studies is their use of very
is their use of very small datasets. small datasets.
7 The thread of Perdue and Gurtman’s The theme / topic of Perdue and Gurtman’s study (1990) is
study (1990) is unconscious ageism. unconscious ageism.
8 The emergence in graffiti as a The emergence of graffiti as a recognised art form started in
recognised art form started in New York.
New York.
9 Swales (2015) and Bhatia (2015) Swales (2015) and Bhatia (2015) converge and agree on the
diverge and agree on the fundamentals of genre analysis.
fundamentals of genre analysis.
10 There seem to be similarity across There seem to be similarities / resemblances / parallels across
species kingdoms in the way species kingdoms in the way microbiomes form (Mendes and
microbiomes form (Mendes and Raaijmakers 2015).
Raaijmakers 2015).

Evaluation of evidence
and arguments
25 Authors’ evaluations of each other

After analysing and then grouping the ideas and information involved (see sections 23 and 24) you need
to evaluate them. This will often need to include showing your understanding of what authors think of
each other’s ideas, and this section give you words and phrases for doing this.

Discussing how authors support or agree with each other
▸▸ Barrick et al. (2002) cite Bakan as a proponent / advocate / supporter of the idea that achieving status is
a key goal in social interaction.
▸▸ Halle quotes from Le Corbusier (1986) as support for his argument that abstract art has been idealised
in art theory.
▸▸ Harwitt (2019) quotes / uses quotations from Meissner to highlight the importance of Max Planck’s
work.
▸▸ Hepner (2010) paraphrases / uses paraphrases from the Bible as justification for his ideas.
▸▸ Hepner uses Bible extracts / excerpts in order to defend // justify / rationalise his ideas.
▸▸ According to Woolf, Austen made a great contribution to fiction, despite not having a private writing
space.
▸▸ Woolf acknowledged Austen’s contribution to fiction and the fact that she wrote despite not having any
private space.
▸▸ Jung credited Gross with having preceded him in identifying two distinct types of consciousness.
171
Discussing how authors disagree with each other
▸▸ Jarzabkowski and Whittington (2008) quote // paraphrase from Carter et al.’s article to highlight which
parts of this model they view as confusing and incorrect.
▸▸ According to Phillipson (2000), Crystal has a Eurocentric view of English as a global language.
▸▸ Crystal (2000) responds to / replies to Phillipson’s criticism by stating that he merely describes how
English is used.
▸▸ Svensson and Wood (2008) disagree with / contest / reject Friedman’s claim that businesses do not need
to consider social issues, and state that, on the contrary, businesses have an enormous impact on society.
▸▸ Ainsworth refutes / rebuts Dawkins’ claim that faith schools are discriminatory, and shows that, on the
contrary, such schools allow children informed choice.
▸▸ Ainsworth counters Dawkins’ claim that faith schools are discriminatory by proposing that / with the
proposition that / by maintaining that / by asserting that such schools allow children informed choice.
▸▸ Guthrie and Parker (1989) offer a rebuttal of legitimacy theory. They suggest that …
▸▸ Lupton (1998) challenges / questions Fox’s suggestion that doctors are no longer seen as the authorities
on medical issues.
▸▸ Gould is (strongly / vigorously) challenged by Dawkins, who accuses him of writing for ‘middle of the
road religious people’.
▸▸ Phillipson has criticised linguists such as Crystal for having a Eurocentric view of the global dominance
of English.

Words you probably already use correctly: contribute, defend, disagree, fail, reply, respond, supporter.
Words defined in other sections: advocate s14, assert s3, challenge s3, claim, s3, contest s3, criticise s2,
maintain s3, proponent s14, rebut s3, refute s3.
according to prep (1) As stated by.

(2) Corresponding to or in proportion to.
E.g. Business should trade according to government regulations.
According to is only used to refer to others, not oneself.

E.g. According to me, … ✘
172 Evaluation of evidence and arguments

acknowledge v (1) To accept or admit something or to show gratitude for something.
(2) In academic writing, to reference / cite an author, i.e. to give their name and
details of publication.
cite v To refer to someone or something else, either by quotation, paraphrase or name
only.
Use cite only to describe when one author mentions another. It is incorrect to
say ‘I cite …’.
counter v To respond with an opposing argument, view or action.

o counter a claim // an argument // a threat // a criticism //
T
fundamentalism // terrorism // extremism.
o say that ‘X runs counter to Y’ is when X accidentally or purposely conflicts

T
with Y.
E.g. Building on this site would run counter to the government’s policy of
maintaining green spaces.
For counterargument see section 28.
credit v / n v – To praise or acknowledge a positive contribution.
excerpt n A short section from a book, film or piece of music. Similar to an extract.
extract n / v n – A short section from a book, film or piece of music. Similar to an excerpt.
v – To take or get something out of something else often with the use of force.
E.g. We extracted DNA from each cell.
justify v v – To give or show your reasons or evidence. Similar to rationalise.
justification n o justify a(n) action // act // choice // decision // assertion // claim //
T
argument // position // point of view.
To try // attempt // seek to justify.

paraphrase v / n v – To express the meaning of writing or speech using different words, often in
order to clarify or simplify.
quote v v – To use the exact words of someone else.
quotation n Quote / quotation and cite / citation
Citation is sometimes used to mean quotation; however, a citation can also refer
to any type of reference to a source, including paraphrase or just the use of an
author’s name.
Quote is usually only used to describe when one source quotes another.
E.g. I quote Smith: ‘. . .’ ✘
Smith quotes: ‘. . .’ ✘
Smith quotes Robinson: ‘. . .’ ✓.
rationalise∗ v To explain and defend an action by giving reasons. Similar to justify.

For rational and rationale see section 6.
∗

Incorrect Correct
1 According to me, the issue of global warming In my view, / I suggest that the issue of global
is not as serious as the media portrays. warming is not as serious as the media portrays.
2 Kerlinger (1969 p. 1127) quotes that ‘Science Kerlinger (1969 p. 1127) states that ‘Science is a
is a misused and misunderstood word’. misused and misunderstood word’.
3 It has been alleged that computer games can It has been claimed // suggested // stated // proved
be used to educate children. that computer games can be used to educate
children.
4 Smith (2009) has criticised Ramone’s work as Smith (2009) has criticised Ramone’s work for being
being overcomplicated. overcomplicated.
5 Karl Marx refuted capitalism as a positive Karl Marx rejected capitalism as a positive system for
system for social development. social development.
6 According to Gilchrist, he suggests that we According to Gilchrist, we need to re-evaluate how
need to re-evaluate how we perceive risk- we perceive risk-taking heroines.
taking heroines.
7 Kroll states Frie as an example of an early Kroll uses // gives // quotes // paraphrases Frie as an
approach to second language learning. example of an early approach to second language
learning.
8 The research team knowledge that their data The research team acknowledges that their data is
is incomplete and that further studies are incomplete and that further studies are needed.
needed.
9 According to (Dr Reynolds, 2000) there is no According to Reynolds (2000) there is no strong
strong evidence of long-term damage to evidence of long-term damage to health.
health.
10 As Collins (1994 p. 2) cites, ‘good ethics is As Collins (1994 p. 2) states, ‘good ethics is
synonymous with good management’. synonymous with good management’.

26 Your positive evaluation of evidence
and arguments
Critical analysis and evaluations are not the same things as ‘being critical’ – a critical analysis might involve
making only positive comments, making both positive and negative comments, or making only negative
ones. This section gives you words and phrases for introducing and commenting on your source material
positively. You can do this by using verbs that can precede either a positive or negative comment (what I
call here ‘neutral’ verbs) or by using ‘positive’ verbs, adverbs, nouns and adjectives to introduce positive
comments. Using such language correctly is a fundamental part of evaluating your sources effectively
and controlling the direction of your argument. See also sections 30 and 31 (importance, influence and
impact) for other useful words and phrases.

Using neutral verbs to introduce a source and then give a positive comment
▸▸ Collins states / asserts / claims / maintains / contends that violence is a product of environmental
factors. Other studies support this idea …
▸▸ Darwin proposed / suggested that individuals are ‘selected’ by nature over others. This idea is now well
established as …
▸▸ Vellitino examines // considers / takes into account // covers in detail the four different concepts of
dyslexia. He shows that …
Using positive verbs to comment on a source
▸▸ Milanovic (2002) explains how globalisation can affect income distribution. His findings are important
because …
▸▸ Miller (1991) explicates the process by which people develop mental models of relationships.
He illustrates how …
▸▸ Rubia investigates aspects of neuropsychology and clarifies / elucidates the nature of psychiatric
disorders.
▸▸ The authors demonstrate / illustrate / show / establish that well-run businesses are of benefit to society.
Their findings …
▸▸ Thouless observed / made the observation / noted that homing pigeons do not need to know the sun’s
location in order to fly home.
▸▸ Skinner found that reinforcement strengthens patterns of behaviour.
▸▸ Perdue and Gurtman (1990) identify an important and overlooked factor in ageism, namely …

▸▸ Brook (2019) encapsulates all the main empirical approaches used in finance.
▸▸ The article successfully simplifies the complex theory of special relativity.
▸▸ Stich (1985) provides some illuminating examples of human irrationality.
Using positive adjectives, adverbs and nouns to comment on a source

▸▸ Plamondon gives a thorough // a comprehensive / in-depth / an extensive // an exhaustive description
of handwriting systems and offers clear // useful insights into …
▸▸ Bergl and Vigilant provide important // interesting // reliable / sound data on Cross River gorilla
migration. Their data …
▸▸ The article contains overwhelming // compelling // convincing // objective // hard / strong / clear //
ample evidence that …
▸▸ She provides a cogent // coherent / logical / rational / sound / valid / plausible / credible / reasonable /
tenable argument to support her theory that …
▸▸ Skinner puts forward considered / convincing / persuasive // innovative ideas about teaching
methodology.
▸▸ Garnet and Sinner (2019) provide a definitive // archetypal // erudite // exceptional // singular //
exemplary // formidable // timely overview of the ways in which culture has affected art pedagogy.
▸▸ Stich (1985) provides some illuminating examples of human irrationality.
▸▸ Lamy makes the astute / shrewd / sharp-witted observation that Gray (2018) defines religion too
broadly and atheism too narrowly.
▸▸ The report benefits from rigorous // systematic research, a succinct style and a readable format.
▸▸ Their research conclusively // convincingly shows / establishes that environment affects mental
health.
▸▸ In my view, Perdue and Gurtman (1990) correctly identify an important and previously overlooked
factor in ageism, namely …
▸▸ A clear strength of the survey is the very large sample size.
Stating that a source is supported by other research

▸▸ Valencia-Flores et al.’s (2002) suggestion that Mexican students are not lazy and do not have a ‘siesta
culture’ is supported / corroborated / confirmed / verified / validated / substantiated by other research
in this area.
▸▸ Importantly, the findings are consistent with those of previous studies.

Stating that a source has contributed to the field
▸▸ Her body of work is substantial, with over 50 books, and has influenced many areas of psychology. The
most important area has been …
▸▸ Kramer’s article is a noteworthy // valuable // substantive contribution to the debate on corporate
responsibility because it has caused a shift in public attitudes.

Words you probably already use correctly: thorough, in-depth, valuable.
Words defined in other sections: assert s3, claim s3, contend s3, maintain s3, substantial s8, systematic s6,
timely s15.
astute adj Able to assess situations and people quickly and correctly. Similar to shrewd and
sharp-witted.
cogent adj Logical, clear and convincing. Usually used in the context of argumentation.
A cogent argument // case. To put forward / propose a cogent argument //
case.
coherent adj Logical, well structured and consistent.

A coherent argument // article // framework // strategy // policy // system
// theory. To do X in a coherent way / manner.
Coherent, cogent and cohesive

Coherent and cogent are often used interchangeably but strictly speaking, a
coherent argument is well structured but not necessarily cogent (convincing).
Cohesive means ‘sticking together’ and is usually used in the context of physical
things rather than argument.
E.g. They formed a cohesive group in order to survive.
comprehensive adj Covering all or nearly all aspects, very wide-ranging.
(A) comprehensive review // examination // study // account // coverage //
survey.

conclusive adj adj – (Of an argument or evidence) very strong and convincing.
conclusively adv X is / provides / gives // shows conclusive proof / evidence // results.
For inconclusive see section 27.
consistent adj (1) Does not contradict.
(2) Unchanging over time.
X is consistent with Y. A consistent approach // standard // level.
X is consistent with the aim // data // evidence / findings // objective //
principle // view of Y.
corroborate v To support something by giving additional data, evidence or information.
Corroborate and support
Corroborate is usually used for concrete evidence and empirical data rather than
ideas and theories.
credible adj Authoritative and convincing.
(A) credible source // evidence // data // argument // explanation // threat
// deterrent.
Scientifically // politically // academically credible.
definitive adj The best.

elucidate v To explain and clarify. More formal than explain or clarify.
encapsulate v To express or show the essential aspects of something.
erudite adj Showing great knowledge.
exceptional adj (1) Excellent, unusually good and impressive, e.g. an exceptional manager.
(2) Very unusual.
E.g. We will give a refund only under exceptional circumstances.
exhaustive adj Covering all aspects.

explicate v To analyse something in detail in order to understand its meaning and
significance.
Explicate and explain
To explain means to give a description of something and/or to give the reasons
why something happens or exists.
extensive adj (1) Covering many aspects of an issue or idea, e.g. an extensive survey.
(2) Covering a wide area.
Extensive, comprehensive and exhaustive
There is overlap but also some difference in meaning.
Extensive means covering many aspects.
Comprehensive means covering all or nearly all aspects.
Exhaustive means covering absolutely all aspects.
formidable adj Excellent, large, worthy of respect. Similar to impressive.
illuminate v v – (1) To clarify, providing understanding and insight.
illuminating adj (2) To provide light.
a dj – An illuminating example // discussion // piece of research // lecture //
experience.
illustrate v v – (1) To give an example and/or to demonstrate.
illustration n (2) To use / provide with pictures.
v – To illustrate a point // an argument // a principle // a concept.
To illustrate the/a(n) importance // complexity // difficulty // problem //
concept // model.
n – X serves as an illustration of Y.
noteworthy adj Worth special attention.

plausible adj Seeming to be reasonable and believable, with or without evidence.
plausible explanation // theory // argument // hypothesis // idea //
A
interpretation.
rational adj Logical and sensible.

E.g. They made a rational decision.
Rational and rationale
Rationale is a noun meaning the reason/s for a particular plan, decision or
action (see section 6).
The verb to rationalise has a different meaning (see section 25).

rigorous adj adj – Thorough and accurate.
rigour* n *The US spelling of the noun is rigor. Note that the adjective rigorous is spelt the
same way in the UK and the US.
singular adj (1) Unusually excellent and/or impressive. Similar to exceptional.
(2) Very unusual, unique.
(3) Referring to just one.
substantiate v To provide additional supporting evidence or information. Similar to corroborate
and support.
substantive adj (1) Dealing with facts, issues and evidence (and therefore having real-
world importance) rather than with theoretical concepts, formal logic or
methodology.
E.g. Phillips (2019) looks at both the substantive and theoretical
implications of the data.
(2) Important, main.
A substantive issue // body of work // report // piece of research.
Substantive and substantial
Substantial means of a large size or quantity (see section 8).

succinct adj Brief and clear.
tenable adj Logically reasonable and supportable. Similar to credible and plausible.
valid adj adj – (1) Reasonable, well-founded and supported by evidence.
validity n (2) Logically consistent, i.e. the conclusion follows from the premise.
Scientifically // statistically // logically valid.

A valid argument // assumption // opinion // belief // viewpoint //
interpretation // explanation.
For invalid see section 23.
validate v To confirm or prove.
verify v To prove the truth of something.

Incorrect Correct
1 The new company is extremely innovated. The new company is extremely innovative.
2 The National Bureau of Economic The National Bureau of Economic Research has been
Research has been a great benefit for the of great benefit to the field of economics.
field of economics.
3 I will look at both the theoretical and I will look at both the theoretical and substantive
substantial implications of this small study on implications of this small study on the consequences
the consequences of job insecurity. of job insecurity.
4 Lupton describes that the public is interested Lupton shows / establishes / demonstrates that the
in health news, and this idea is supported by public is interested in health news, and this idea is
other findings. supported by other findings.
5 Oswald brings some insights into how we Oswald gives / offers us (some) insights into how we
can measure happiness more effectively. can measure happiness more effectively.
6 Roger’s explanation of the effect of caffeine Roger’s explanation of the effect of caffeine on
on performance seems to me the most performance seems to me the most plausible
possible because … because …
7 The viability of this belief is called into The validity of this belief is called into question by
question by recent evidence. recent evidence.
8 Although the survey is comprehensive, it Although the survey is extensive / wide-ranging, it
fails to look at applications of learning curve fails to look at applications of learning curve theory.
theory.
9 Carr (1968) uses the illustrating analogy of a Carr (1968) uses the illuminating analogy of a poker
poker player to demonstrate his position on player to demonstrate his position on business
business ethics. ethics.
10 Importantly, the findings are consistent to Importantly, the findings are consistent with those
those of previous studies. of previous studies.

27 Your negative evaluation of evidence
and arguments
An important part of evaluating your material will often be to make negative comments and/or to present
opposing views, and show why they are not as convincing as your own. This section gives you words
and phrases for making negative comments by using ‘neutral’ verbs (those you can use to precede either
a positive or negative comment) or ‘negative’ verbs, adverbs, nouns and adjectives. See also sections
14 (points of view), 28 (agreement and disagreement), 32 (conclusions), 33 (qualification) and 34
(clarification of position) for other useful words and phrases.

Using neutral verbs to introduce a source and then give a negative comment
▸▸ Collins claims / maintains / contends / asserts that violence is a product of environmental factors;
however, other studies show that …
▸▸ The report proposes // states // suggests that all students should do an internship. This is not a sensible
policy because …
▸▸ Vellitino examines // considers // covers different concepts of dyslexia but does not identify the
synergies between them.
Example of negative forms of positive verbs to introduce a negative comment
▸▸ Jones does not consider // show / demonstrate // establish the fact that the virus has mutated.
Using negative verbs

▸▸ Delaware neglects / overlooks / omits / does not take into account // ignores the fact that …
▸▸ The report fails to draw a distinction between children and adults.
▸▸ The report suffers from a lack of detailed analysis.
▸▸ The theory of blending inheritance was later disproved / discredited by the theory of …
▸▸ The fact that there are several digressions detracts from the main argument.
▸▸ The diagrams and tables distract (the reader) from the main point of the text.
▸▸ Batiste’s assumption that discoveries are made by developing a theory and then testing it oversimplifies
the process.
▸▸ The study overcomplicates the explanation of what is, in fact, a relatively simple phenomenon.
▸▸ Gray (2018) overgeneralises when he discusses what counts as a religion.

▸▸ The study manipulates / distorts the findings to fit in with the initial proposition.
▸▸ I suggest that the Copyright Amendment Act is misconceived // misnamed because …
▸▸ In my view, we can disregard / discount the idea that personality has a major effect on second language
acquisition.
▸▸ The small sample size should alert us to the fact that the findings may be unreliable.
▸▸ Alwald’s conclusion seems to conflict with his earlier point that we need new legislation on drug use.
Using negative adjectives and adverbs

▸▸ Smith’s argument is invalid // flawed // inconsistent // unsound // incoherent // contradictory // circular
// misguided // problematic // unconvincing because …
▸▸ Smith’s study is inconclusive // limited // questionable // unreliable // unsatisfactory because the sample
size is very small.
▸▸ Alwald’s evidence seems subjective // anecdotal // contradictory // incomplete. He fails to …
▸▸ The questions in the survey used to gather the data seem somewhat arbitrary // simplistic // obscure //
opaque.
▸▸ This essay explains why the links McGilchrist (2019) makes between the left hemisphere of the brain
and the rise of the Roman Empire are somewhat tenuous / weak.
▸▸ The report’s conclusion is vague. It does not specify …
▸▸ Alcock and Rubenstein (2019) give only a cursory // superficial analysis of the reasons some artists died
young.
▸▸ Patel’s model has limited application because it only deals with small-sized businesses.
▸▸ The novel’s plot is formulaic // derivative and has a predictable ending.
▸▸ I will show that Peccori wrongly assumes that the correlation between stress and drug use is a causal
one.
Using negative nouns
▸▸ The report highlighted major shortcomings in the laboratory’s testing procedures.
▸▸ The argument that business and society are separate is, as I will demonstrate, a fallacy.
▸▸ There are both theoretical and practical objections to / problems with the idea of licensing parents.
▸▸ A (common) criticism of Dawkins’ position is that he overstates the role religion plays in human conflict.
▸▸ A serious weakness in / limitation of the argument is that it does not distinguish between volunteers
and employees.
▸▸ The problem with Kohil’s argument is that it does not cover all possible situations.

▸▸ One flaw in the study is that it is biased towards Western cultures.
▸▸ The research team seem to show a disregard for proper contamination control.
▸▸ Tse offers no explanation as to why left-handedness might be caused by complications at birth.
▸▸ The report suffers from a lack of / an absence of detailed analysis.
▸▸ A conspicuous / noticeable omission is that the analysis does not include children.
▸▸ There are several digressions that detract from the main argument.
▸▸ The many anecdotes are a distraction from the main point of the text.
▸▸ The authors make no attempt to present or evaluate the counterarguments.
Stating that an argument is not supported by other research

▸▸ Lock’s idea is not supported by / not corroborated by // contradictory to // undermined by other
research.
▸▸ This claim is called into question by / conflicts with / is contradicted by / is inconsistent with later
studies.
▸▸ The problem with Kohil’s argument is that it is not supported by (any) other evidence.
Stating how research or an argument could have been better

▸▸ The report would have been more convincing // persuasive // effective if it had used more …

Words you probably already use correctly: alert, conflict, misname, neglect, overlook, problem, suffer, wrong.
Words defined in other sections: assert s3, biased s14, circular s23, claim s3, contradictory s23, fallacy
s23, flaw s23, invalid s23, maintain s3, (mis)conceive s19, objection s14, overgeneralise* s23, oversimplify
s23, subjective s14, undermine s17.
*The US spelling is -ize.
anecdotal adj Coming from personal observations rather than more objective data.
The noun anecdote means ‘a short entertaining story’.
arbitrary adj Not logical and/or not planned.
An arbitrary decision // limit // rules.

conspicuous adj Clearly visible, noticeable. Often used in a negative context.
A conspicuous flaw // deficiency // absence.

cursory adj Quick and/or superficial and therefore not thorough or detailed.
derivative adj / n adj – Unoriginal.
detract v v – To reduce the value or worth of something or to make it seem less impressive.
detraction n E.g. The diagrams detract from the main point because they are not directly
related to it.
X detracts from Y.
Detract and distract. See below for distract.

digression n n – A departure from the main topic or issue.
Digress and divert

To divert is to change or cause to change direction or purpose from one thing to
digress v another (see section 16).
discount v / n v – (1) To disregard or leave out something because it lacks validity and/or
importance.
(2) To deduct from the original price.
discredit v / n v – (1) In academic study, to cause evidence or ideas to seem unreliable or false.
(2) To damage someone’s reputation in some way.
To discredit a(n) /the argument // idea // theory // research.

distort v v – To give a misleading or false impression, or to misrepresent.
distortion n o distort (the) facts // evidence // findings // results // truth //
T
understanding // reality.
distract v v – To prevent someone from paying attention or concentrating.
distraction n Distract and detract. See above for detract.

formulaic adj Being a standard and much-used format (and therefore not interesting).
incoherent adj Not logical or well structured.
n incoherent argument // article // framework // strategy // policy //

A
system // theory.
For coherent see section 26.
inconclusive adj Having no definite result or conclusion.
To be // remain // prove inconclusive.

inconsistent adj (1) Unstable or not staying the same throughout.
(2) Contradictory.
For consistent see section 26.
limited adj (1) Restricted or unsatisfactory in some way.
(2) (Of people) Narrow-minded or lacking in ability.
manipulate v (1) To alter or present information in a way that is purposely misleading.
(2) To move, handle or control, usually by using the hands.
(3) To influence and or control another person.
The adjective manipulative is too personal to use in an academic context.

misconceive v v – (1) To plan or judge something poorly or incorrectly.
misconceived adj (2) To misunderstand.
misconception n n – An incorrect belief or opinion.
misguided adj Incorrect or misjudged due to faulty reasoning, ideas or opinions
(see also section 13).
obscure adj (1) Not known about by many people.
(2) Difficult to understand. Similar to opaque.

opaque adj adj – (1) Not able to be seen through.
opacity n (2) Difficult to understand. Similar to obscure.
omit v v – To leave something out either accidentally or on purpose.
omission n
questionable adj Open to doubt or challenge regarding quality, accuracy or truth.
simplistic adj Being described or treated in a way that is simpler than is actually the case, and
which is therefore unhelpful or misleading.
simplistic approach // argument // assumption // description //

A
explanation // view.
The noun and verb with the related meaning are oversimplification and
oversimplify.
The verb simplify and noun simplification both have the positive meaning of
‘simple and therefore clear’.
tenuous adj Weak, easily broken.
A tenuous link / connection // hold over X.

vague adj adj – Imprecise, indefinite or unclear.
vagueness n Vague and ambiguous
These words have different meanings. Something is ambiguous if it has more than
one possible meaning and so may be interpreted differently in different contexts
(see also section 4).

Incorrect Correct
1 Although well explained, some of the smaller Although well explained, some of the smaller
details discussed by Lau are too opaque and details discussed by Lau are too obscure and
unimportant to be really relevant. unimportant to be really relevant.
2 The study alleged that mass media can be The study claimed / maintained / asserted /
used to educate children. suggested that mass media can be used to educate
children.
3 The claims in Al-Bashir’s 2019 report are The claims in Al-Bashir’s 2019 report are derivative
derived rather than original. rather than original.
4 Tanen (2000) established that visual Tanen (2000) claimed / maintained / contended
imprinting occurs in infancy; however, this / asserted / stated that visual imprinting occurs in
was shown to be incorrect by later studies. infancy; however, this was shown to be incorrect by
later studies.
5 Bijal fails to neglect the fact that in urban Bijal fails to consider the fact that in urban areas
areas rich and poor often live in proximity. rich and poor often live in proximity.
6 Smith’s study is limiting because the sample Smith’s study is limited because the sample size is
size is too small. too small.
7 The experiment was conducted according to The experiment was conducted according to a
a formulaic method to ensure reliability. standard / prescribed method to ensure reliability.
8 The arguments in Bazer’s article have a strong The arguments in Bazer’s article have a strong
bias of Eurocentric. Eurocentric bias / are highly biased towards Europe.
9 The many detailed references subtract from The many detailed references detract from the
the clarity of the report. clarity of the report.
10 The theory was given discredit when it was The theory was discredited when it was shown that
shown that there was no chimpanzee tissue there was no chimpanzee tissue in the remaining
in the remaining 1950s vaccine stocks. 1950s vaccine stocks.

28 Your agreement, disagreement
and counterarguments
This section gives you words and phrases for agreeing, conceding up to a point, disagreeing and
presenting counterarguments. Note that this section gives you vocabulary for agreeing and disagreeing
explicitly, but that giving a positive evaluation also usually implies agreement (see section 26) and that
giving a negative evaluation usually implies disagreement (see sections 23 and 27). When discussing your
own views and argument it is increasingly acceptable to use the first person (I) but this does depend on
your discipline, assignment type and on your tutors, so check with them if you are unsure.

Agreeing
▸▸ I agree with Doltu (2018) on the necessary conditions for continued robust growth in Romania.
Conceding up to a point and then disagreeing

▸▸ Translators are necessary / needed / useful but can’t always convey fully the author’s meaning.
▸▸ Although translators are necessary, I have shown that they can’t always convey the author’s exact
meaning.
▸▸ Notwithstanding the fact that / Despite the fact that translators are essential, they often can’t convey …
▸▸ Translators are essential; nonetheless, / nevertheless, / however, I have shown that they cannot fully
convey …
▸▸ While I don’t agree with Dawkins that religious education is indoctrination, I do think that he has a valid
point when he says …
▸▸ Although I think it is going too far to say that unions are redundant, we should be willing to concede /
accept / acknowledge that …
▸▸ I disagree with Collins on the extent to which businesses should be ethical, but I do agree with his basic
proposition.
Stating clearly that you disagree
▸▸ I refute / contest // reject // rebut Lei’s idea // claim // argument and offer the alternative suggestion
that …
▸▸ I counter Wolf’s hypothesis with the suggestion that businesses and society are interdependent.
▸▸ I don’t agree / disagree (with the view) that grammar should be taught in schools and have shown
that …
28 Your agreement, disagreement, and counterarguments 191

▸▸ My rebuttal to the argument for ‘human’ global warming is based on the fact that temperature
variations are …
▸▸ In my view the main flaw in // problem with // limitation of Bernhard’s hypothesis is that it is too
restrictive. I therefore / thus offer an alternative view, which is that …
▸▸ I would argue that the opposite is probably / likely to be the case because …
Suggesting counterarguments
▸▸ An argument against / An argument that counters / A counterargument to the theory of evolution
is that life is too complex to have developed without intelligent direction.
▸▸ A challenge to pro-capitalism ideology is that it inevitably results in the rich getting richer and the poor
getting poorer.
▸▸ There is good evidence for man-made causes of global warming, but an alternative theory is that the
climate is regulated by atomic particles from exploded stars.

Words you probably already use correctly: although, despite, however, necessary, needed, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, refute, rebut, useful, while, willing.
Words defined in other sections: alternative s14, challenge s3, contest s3, counter s25, extent s8, flaw s23,
limitation s6, rebut s3, refute s3, reject s3.
alternative n/adj n – one of two or more possibilities or choices. For alternate see section 15.
concede v v – To (unwillingly) admit the truth or existence of something.
concession n E.g. The newspaper maintained that the facts in the article were true but
conceded that the photographs did not add to the story.
n – A bargain or compromise.
counterargument n An argument that opposes another argument.
Counterargument and counterclaim

The noun and verb counterclaim are usually reserved for legal or insurance
contexts. For example, after a car crash, the car owner claims for damages
and the other person then counterclaims (or makes a counterclaim) for
personal injury.

Incorrect Correct
1 We countered a problem with the software We encountered a problem with the software and
and so had to do the calculations manually. so had to do the calculations manually.
2 In this essay I will examine the obesity In this essay I will examine the obesity paradox
contradiction whereby people diet and whereby people diet and increase exercise but don’t
increase exercise but don’t lose weight. lose weight.
3 The CEO has reservations about possible The CEO has reservations about possible
redundancies; in spite, he agreed to the redundancies; in spite of this, / despite this, /
merger. nonetheless, / nevertheless, / however, he agreed to
the merger.
4 Although US educationalists deny that Although US educationalists deny that educational
educational standards have fallen, they refute standards have fallen, they concede / admit that
that there has been a decline in school test there has been a decline in school test scores since
scores since the 1960s (Hirsch 2019). the 1960s (Hirsch 2019).
5 Svensson and Wood (2008) refute Friedman’s Svensson and Wood (2008) refute Friedman’s claim
claim that businesses do not need to that businesses do not need to consider social issues
consider social issues and state that, to the and state that, on the contrary, they have a huge
contrary, they have a huge impact on society. impact on society.
6 Cardona-Morrell et al. (2016), in looking at Cardona-Morrell et al. (2016), in looking at end of
end of life treatment in US hospitals, fail to life treatment in US hospitals, fail to analyse fully the
analyse fully the extents of the problem. extent of the problem.
7 Our data shows that immigration has fallen Our data shows that immigration has fallen
significantly, whatever the German media say significantly, whatever the German media say to the
on the contrary. contrary.
8 Miller (2019) discusses Nicholas of Cusa’s Miller (2019) discusses Nicholas of Cusa’s concept
concept of contradiction opposites such as of contradictory opposites such as ‘being and not
‘being and not being’. being’.
28 Your agreement, disagreement, and counterarguments 193

Incorrect Correct
9 High-definition television has higher High-definition television has higher resolution and
resolution and nonetheless requires more so / therefore / thus requires more bandwidth than
bandwidth than a traditional set. a traditional set.
10 The next section of this report will list The next section of this report will list alternative
alternate solutions to those proposed by the solutions to those proposed by the government in
government in May. May.

Importance and impact
29 Linking evidence to theory and practice

Many types of assignments require you to show the relevance of theories and ideas to the real world, and
this section gives you words and phrases for doing this.

Discussing how theories and concepts link to the real world
▸▸ I discuss how the concept of cognitive behaviour therapy can be put into practice / actualised / realised
// articulated / applied in the context of working with families.
▸▸ This essay looks at instances of where tactics from one war have been misapplied to another.
▸▸ This report has looked at two recent real-world // practical examples of successful use of quantum
computing being used to create secure networks.
▸▸ Our report recommends that the new strategy is put in place as soon as is practical / practicable.
▸▸ There have been useful insights showing how the academic literacies model can be used in both course
design and pedagogy (Lea and Street 2006, Lillis et al. 2016).
▸▸ By definition, the academic literacies framework cannot be discussed without real-world
contextualisation / being put into a real-world context // being put into context.
▸▸ The case of single gulls attacking osprey raises, as Alcock and Rubenstein (2019 p. 203) state, ‘all sorts
of intriguing evolutionary issues’.
▸▸ The IHI case studies exemplify the importance of recognising the homeless patient’s context.
▸▸ Cases of anaerobic microbial communities, such as those in hydrothermal vents, show that …
▸▸ Micromanagement can initially manifest as ‘just wanting to help’ but over time can be divisive and
obstructive.
▸▸ E-shops, e-auctions and emails are enormously powerful vehicles for virtual business.
▸▸ It is difficult to see how a mechanism for true 360 degree staff reviews can be implemented in this
organisation.
195
▸▸ The Valve Corporation utilises flat management and self-managing teams to great effect.
▸▸ Our report shows that microfinancing as an economic model does not have the ability // capacity to
alleviate poverty without the support of the wider financial structure.

Words you probably already use correctly: apply, exemplify, framework.
Words defined in other sections: ability s35, articulate s12, capacity s8, concept s1, contextualise s2,
convey s12, manifest s12, mechanism s12, model s6, practicable s35, vehicle s12.
actualise* v v – To make a reality or to put into practice.

actual adj adj – (1) Real.
actuality n (2) Exact.
*-ize is also acceptable in British spelling and is always used in US spelling.
case n (1) A particular or real situation, occurrence or example.
(2) The set of reasons (argument) in support of a proposition.
E.g. In the next section we present our case for rationalisation of the company.
(3) A legal action.
(4) A container, e.g. a suitcase.
In this case // In such a case // If this is the case // In the case of X.
In case (of) has the different meaning of doing something to prepare for a future
event.
E.g. Businesses need a reserve fund in case of revenue shortfall.
practical adj (1) Real word, actual.
(2) Likely to be useful and effective.
(3) (Of people) Being good at getting things done.
practical example // solution // suggestion // skill. Practical advice // support

A
// skill // knowledge.
For practicable see s35.
196 Importance and impact

realise* v (1) To make real, put into practice, achieve or cause to happen. Similar to actualise.
(2) To become aware of something.
*-ize is also acceptable in British spelling and is always used in US spelling.
utilise* v v – To make effective and practical use of.
utilisation* n Utilise and use
There is overlap but there is some difference in meaning.
Use is the more general and less formal term.
Utilise means ‘using well / effectively’ and can also be used to talk about using
something for a new or different purpose.
*-ize/-ization are also acceptable in British spelling and are always used in US spelling.
29 Linking evidence to theory and practice 197

Incorrect Correct
1 To increase productivity we need to make sure To increase productivity we need to make sure we
we use our new office facilities. utilise our new office facilities.
or
To increase productivity we need to make sure we
use our new office facilities effectively.
2 The organisation needs a better vehicle for The organisation needs a better mechanism for
reporting fraud. reporting fraud.
3 The company will be sold or managed by The company will be sold or managed by someone
someone else. In either cases, the employees else. In either case, the employees should be told
should be told as soon as possible. as soon as possible.
4 Work emails should not be used as a conveyor Work emails should not be used as a vehicle for /
for personal emotions and gossip. to convey personal emotions and gossip.
5 Carr’s analogy of business with a game of Carr’s analogy of business with a game of poker
poker fails to put into context a business as a fails to contextualise a business as a social entity.
social entity.
6 Managing a small business entails paying Managing a small business entails paying attention
attention to pragmatic, everyday tasks as well to practical, everyday tasks as well as blue-sky
as blue-sky thinking. thinking.
7 Osterwalder and Pigneur give tips on how to Osterwalder and Pigneur give tips on how to
actualise and then visualise game-changing visualise and then actualise game-changing models
models and strategies. and strategies.
8 George (2019) looks at how people do not George (2019) looks at how people do not
correctly use lessons learnt from historical correctly use lessons learnt from historical events,
events, as in case of the Vietnam War. as in the case of the Vietnam War.
9 We suggest 10% as the maximum viability We suggest 10% as the maximum viable return on
return on the investment. the investment.
10 Lack of understanding often exemplifies as Lack of understanding often manifests as fear,
fear, which in turn can lead to anger. which in turn can lead to anger.

30 Importance, significance and dominance
This section gives you vocabulary for describing and discussing whether and to what extent things are
important, significant, dominant or insignificant. The words and phrases in this section are closely related
to those in sections 31 (influence and impact) and 32 (implications).

Discussing importance
▸▸ Play is an important // a crucial / a critical / a vital / an essential / an indispensable / a fundamental / an
integral part of childhood.
▸▸ Quality is crucial / critical / vital / essential / fundamental / integral to healthcare (Singh and Prasher
2019, Machado et al. 2010).
▸▸ Quality plays a crucial / critical / vital role in healthcare (Singh and Prasher 2019, Machado et al. 2010).
▸▸ Training in cybersecurity for all banking staff is crucial in reducing the number of attacks (Bada et al.
2019).
▸▸ The list below summarises ways in which you can make yourself indispensable to your employer.
▸▸ Reaching an agreement on the treaty amendments is paramount / of paramount importance /
imperative.
▸▸ The report describes the pressing / urgent need for more foster carers in the UK.
▸▸ Kroop’s study (2017) deserves / warrants / merits attention because it asks and answers new questions.
▸▸ I will discuss whether safety should always take precedence / have priority over profit.
▸▸ Fishbach (2003) suggests that long-term goals usually override immediate temptations.
Discussing significance
▸▸ Karp’s launch of Tumblr in 2007 was a significant event // a pivotal event / instrumental in the
development of microblogging.
▸▸ Pascal made invaluable contributions to both maths and physics.
▸▸ R. v. Sparrow was a landmark decision on the issue of Canadian aboriginal rights.
▸▸ In 2008 the Kyoto Protocol was a historic moment / milestone / landmark in the climate change
debate.
▸▸ Kramer’s article is a noteworthy // valuable // substantive contribution to the debate on corporate
responsibility because …

Discussing dominance
▸▸ In the US, large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural paradigm.
▸▸ The chief executive dominated the meeting.
▸▸ The prevailing opinion among the respondents was that they did not receive sufficient compensation.
▸▸ The pursuit of wealth sometimes takes precedence / predominates over that of happiness.
▸▸ The pre-eminent figure of the Bloomsbury Group was Virginia Woolf.
▸▸ Horace Bristol was an eminent // a prominent figure in American photojournalism.
Discussing lack of importance or relevance

▸▸ The police decided that the document was not significant/ insignificant / inconsequential.
▸▸ The drug was found to have (only) a marginal / a minor effect on clinical malaria.
▸▸ The study argues that fathers have (only) a peripheral role in family life.
▸▸ Despite the media hype, identity cards are, in fact, tangential to the issue of national security.
▸▸ Table 1 shows the number of incidental injuries to marine mammals during commercial fishing
operations.
▸▸ We recommend that a root and branch review is carried out to identify any redundant / superfluous //
dispensable activities or areas of expenditure.
▸▸ Basic telephone and nurse call systems are now obsolete forms of communication.

Words you probably already use correctly: attention, deserve, dominant, essential, fundamental, noteworthy,
prominent, significant, urgent, valuable, vital.
Words defined in other sections: critical s2, crucial s1, marginal s18, substantive s26.
dispensable adj Not necessary or needed.
dominant adj adj – The most powerful.

dominance n
dominate v
eminent adj (Of people) Famous, admired and respected in their field.

historic adj Interesting and important because of its history.
E.g. Rome is a historic city.
Historic and historical

Historical merely means ‘relating to history’, not ‘important and interesting’.
E.g. I am doing a small amount of boring historical research.
incidental adj (1) Occurring by chance as part of something else.
(2) Of minor importance or with minor effect.
indispensable adj Essential.
imperative adj / n adj – Essential.
n – An essential and necessary thing.
integral adj Essential as a part of something. Necessary in order to make complete.
invaluable adj Extremely helpful and/or useful.
landmark n n – (1) A
significant action or event, often acting as a turning point in a stage
or process.
E.g. Ibn al-Nafis’ explanation of blood circulation in 1242 was a
landmark in biological science.
(2) An easily recognisable feature of the landscape.
Landmark is sometimes now used as an adjective, particularly in law, e.g. a

landmark court decision.
merit n / v n – The value, worth, positive features or excellence of something.
v – To be worth doing or to deserve.
n – The merit of X is that … There is merit in doing X. X deserves merit.
milestone n An event that marks an important point in a process.
To reach a milestone.

obsolete adj No longer of use because it has been replaced by something newer or better.
Usually used in the context of technology, machinery and gadgets.
overriding adj adj – The most important.
override v v – (1) To use authority to cancel or reject something.
(2) To be more important than anything else.
a dj – The overriding aim / goal / objective // factor // principle // concern

// consideration // priority is X.
X is of overriding importance // significance.
paramount adj More important than anything else.
X is paramount. It is paramount that …

peripheral adj adj – On the outer edges, marginal or of minor importance.
periphery n X is of peripheral importance to Y. X plays a peripheral role in Y.
pivotal adj Extremely significant and/or leading to great change.
E.g. Abraham Lincoln is a pivotal figure in American history.
X plays a pivotal role in Y.

precedence n The state of being more important than something else.
E.g. Should happiness take precedence over wealth?
X takes precedence over Y.
Compare with precedent in section 31.

predominant adj adj – (1) The main, largest or most common.
predominance n E.g. The predominant colour in the tapestry was red.
predominate v (2) The most common and therefore most powerful.
predominantly adv
E.g. The predominant opinion was that the treaty should be signed.

pre-eminent adj The most famous, admired and respected.
pressing adj Urgent.
prevailing adj adj – (1) The most influential or dominant behaviour or attitude.
prevail v (2) Existing at a particular place and time (often the present).
he/A prevailing attitude // custom // trend // belief // ideology // mood

T
// opinion // assumption.
The prevailing circumstances // conditions // climate // situation // rate //
value.
redundant adj (1) Not needed any longer or no longer useful.
(2) No longer in work.
A redundant process // system // idea // model // theory.

To be made redundant.
significant adj adj – (1) L arge or important enough to make a noticeable difference and/or
significance n to be worthy of attention.
n – The meaning or effect of a word or event.
superfluous adj Not needed, often because there is already more than enough.
tangential adj adj – (1) Of little or no relevance or importance.
tangent n (2) In geometry, along a tangent.
warrant v / n v – To necessitate, justify or deserve.

Incorrect Correct
1 Britain’s first televised election campaign Britain’s first televised election campaign debate in
debate in 2010 was a historical event. 2010 was a historic event.
2 The report emphasised that a desire for The report emphasised that a desire for results should
results should not preside over accuracy. not take precedence over accuracy.
3 Several prime authors will attend the Several eminent / prominent authors will attend the
opening of the new library. opening of the library.
4 Clinical trials are a pivotal role for the Clinical trials play a pivotal role in the development of
development of treatment drugs. treatment drugs.
5 Postcolonialism has merit in continued Postcolonialism merits continued academic attention
academic attention (Gandhi 2019). (Gandhi 2019).
6 We feel that having a general election is We feel that having a general election is paramount /
valuable in order to prevent total economic essential / vital / crucial in order to prevent total
collapse. economic collapse.
7 The army was predominant over the region The army dominated the region for fifteen years.
for fifteen years.
8 The first war of Indian independence in The first war of Indian independence in 1857 was a
1857 was a milestone event. landmark / historic event.
9 The presentation was weak because much The presentation was weak because much of it was
of it was on a tangent to the conference tangential to the conference theme.
theme.
10 The ruling sets a president for future libel The ruling sets a precedent for future libel actions.
actions.

31 Influence and impact
This section gives you words and phrases for describing and discussing influence and impact. The
vocabulary in this section is closely related to that found in sections 30 and 32. See also sections 17
(getting better and getting worse) and section 19 (cause and effect) for other useful words and phrases.

Discussing influence and impact
▸▸ Gurtman (1990) showed that unconscious ageism has an impact on / effect on people’s behaviour.
▸▸ Marxist Communism is still an influential ideology despite the breakup of the Soviet Union.
▸▸ The data suggests that YouTube advertising influences / has a (direct) bearing on what 10- to 12-year-
olds buy.
▸▸ Morris (2018) states that a feminist perspective has informed her writing.
▸▸ Research suggests that the new EU regulations will be a catalyst for change in fund management.
▸▸ The dove became a powerful / potent symbol in the American postwar peace movement.
▸▸ The analysis above shows how toy adverts reinforce gender stereotypes.
▸▸ According to Wright (2019) drawing and narrative together underpin the development of a child’s
powers of reasoning.
▸▸ In case law, a judgment sets a precedent for future decisions.
Discussing positive impact

▸▸ Several recent studies show the positive effect / impact of daily exercise on mental health.
▸▸ Cognitive theory enhances / helps / improves / facilitates // expands our understanding of workplace stress.
▸▸ Genome sequencing would not be possible without recent advances / breakthroughs in computing.
▸▸ Rowledge (2011) suggests that having a sustainability policy can promote a virtuous cycle / an upward
spiral of effective resource use in an organisation.
▸▸ The examples above illustrate how using value-added planning can enrich the business environment.
▸▸ Steve Jobs often spoke about reaping the rewards of risk-taking.
▸▸ Risk-taking can be daunting but if properly assessed and planned for, usually pays dividends.
▸▸ The company’s success has been consolidated by a continuing increase in demand.

Discussing negative impact
▸▸ Peak oil is likely to have an adverse / negative impact on / effect on the global economy.
▸▸ Peak oil is likely to be detrimental to / damaging to the global economy.
▸▸ I argue that negative media coverage of individual teenagers has a pernicious / insidious effect on
adolescents generally.
▸▸ Denton et al. (1997) showed that urban habitats are inimical to common toad populations.
▸▸ The main objection is that the superstore will be prejudicial to smaller, local shops.
▸▸ The recent E. coli outbreak in Europe has undermined / eroded public confidence in organic
vegetables.
▸▸ In his novels Dickens explicitly identifies the vicious circle / vicious cycle of poverty and ill-health.
▸▸ As Mason and Harrison (2011) show, the geography of investment opportunities perpetuates the
economic north–south divide.
▸▸ The performance targets had the effect of diverting attention away from new safety regulations.
▸▸ The many digressions in the essay detract from the main argument.
Discussing things being made more noticeable

▸▸ The evidence presented shows that the adverts purposely accentuate / emphasise / highlight / focus
attention on thinness as a desirable body image.

Words you probably already use correctly: bearing, breakthrough, damaging, emphasise*, focus attention on,
highlight, improve, influential, pay dividends, powerful, reinforce.
Words defined in other sections: adverse s11, detract s27, digress s27, divert s16, effect s19, enhance
s17, enrich s17, erode s17, expand s2, facilitate s17, undermine s17.
accentuate v To emphasise and/or make more noticeable.
206 Importance, implications and conclusions

advance n / v n – A positive development or invention.
v – To develop or progress.
– A(n) considerable / major / significant / important advance in science //

n
design // medicine // technology // (our) understanding // (our) knowledge.
v – To advance an agenda // a career // (our) knowledge / (our)
understanding.
Advance and advancement

Advancement usually means professional promotion or other recognised form of
career development.
catalyst n Something or someone that causes change, often suddenly.
To act as a catalyst for change. To be a catalyst for change.

consolidate v (1) To make or become more effective, successful and/or stronger.
(2) To join or group parts of a business or market.
o consolidate a position // power // a reputation // skills // knowledge //

T
learning.
detrimental adj adj – Harmful, damaging.
detriment n To have a detrimental effect on / impact on health.
impact n / v n – The effect or action on something else.
To soften / cushion / lessen // minimise // absorb the impact of X.
Impact and effect
These words have similar meanings but impact is often used for changes that are
more sudden or dramatic.

inform v (1) To give information.
(2) To influence the attitude, opinion or style of someone/something. This is a
common use of inform in academic writing.
E.g. Their designs are informed by their experience of living and working in
China.
inimical adj Harmful and/or obstructive. Similar to detrimental.
insidious adj Having a gradual, harmful effect. Similar to pernicious.
pernicious adj Evil, wicked and/or having a harmful effect, often gradually. Similar to insidious.
perpetuate v To cause to continue. Often (but not always) used for negative things.
To perpetuate (a/n) idea // belief // lie // myth // stereotype // inequality //

injustice // violence // cycle.
potent adj Powerful and/or influential.
precedent n Something that comes before and also acts as an example or standard for
something else.
E.g. The sacking of the minister sets a worrying precedent.
To set a precedent.
A legal // historical // historic // constitutional precedent.
The ruling is / provides / serves as / constitutes a precedent for future cases.
Precedent and precedence

Precedence means having more importance than something else (see section 30).
The adjective unprecedented means ‘never happened before’ (see section 15).
prejudicial adj (1) Harmful, detrimental.
(2) Being or having prejudice/d or bias/ed.
(3) Leading to premature judgement (usually used in the context of law).

reap v To receive the benefits from doing something or from a particular situation.
To reap the rewards / benefits of X.

underpin v To form the basis of something, to support or justify.
For underlie see section 3 and for undermine see section 17.
vicious cycle/ A situation in which one negative event causes another. Similar to a downward
circle n spiral.
virtuous cycle n A situation in which one positive event causes another. Similar to an upward spiral.

Incorrect Correct
1 This essay has shown that, as Crossick and This essay has shown that, as Crossick and
Jaumain (2019) suggest, small shopkeepers Jaumain (2019) suggest, small shopkeepers
regarded department stores as a potent symbol regarded department stores as a potent symbol of
for large-scale, organised capitalism. large-scale, organised capitalism.
2 Recent advancements in cloud-based artificial Recent advances / breakthroughs / developments
intelligence tools will make AI easier and / innovations in cloud-based artificial intelligence
cheaper to use. tools will make AI easier and cheaper to use.
3 An innovative product can create a vicious An innovative product can create a virtuous circle
cycle of cash flow generation leading to of cash flow generation leading to funding for
funding for further innovations. further innovations.
4 This reports discusses the assumptions that This reports discusses the assumptions that
undermine memory therapy and which underpin / support / underlie memory therapy
thereby help make it the most effective type of and which thereby help make it the most effective
help currently available. type of help currently available.
5 The impacts of computer technology are only The effects of computer technology are only just
just starting to be fully realised. starting to be fully realised.
6 There is a dearth of literature on the averse There is a dearth of literature on the adverse
impacts of drugs on job performance. impact of drugs on job performance.
7 The trials show that the affect of the drug is The trials show that the effect of the drug is
minimal. minimal.
8 Newspapers often fail to explain advances of Newspapers often fail to explain advances in
science clearly. science clearly.
9 The new vaccine is very potent for preventing The new vaccine has great potential for
HIV. preventing HIV.
10 High levels of anxiety can have both immediate High levels of anxiety can have both immediate
and more slowly effects on the body and more gradual // negative // insidious effects
(Healthline 2018). on the body (Healthline 2018).

Conclusions, clarification
and future action
32 Conclusions, implications and new ideas

Your analysis and evaluation should together enable you to identify new patterns and connections and
thus generate new insights, ideas and knowledge. Note that when drawing your conclusions you should
avoid phrases such as obviously, it is obvious that, we all know that, of course, and that you should use the
phrases it is clear that, and clearly, only when they relate directly to your evidence. E.g. ‘It is clear from
the data presented that the model does not work.’ See also sections 19 and 20 (cause and effect and
connections) and sections 30 and 31 (importance, influence and impact) for relevant words and phrases.

Drawing specific conclusions
▸▸ The evidence above leads us to accept the hypothesis that / the idea that intention to quit is causally
linked to job satisfaction.
▸▸ The inference we can make / conclusion we can draw from our survey is that students would like more
seminars.
▸▸ These findings corroborate / confirm / are consistent with / support / verify the idea that …
▸▸ This evidence helps to validate the waist to hip ratio and female attractiveness hypothesis.
▸▸ The events outlined above testify to the fact that tensions between the police and the community
persist.
▸▸ We can infer from the survey that many women object to the images on the grounds that they
promote exploitation.
▸▸ From our analysis we can infer that overall, having a job has a greater impact on happiness than the
salary received.
▸▸ As people are on average richer but not happier than forty years ago, we can conclude that we should
not be using …
211
▸▸ People are on average richer but not happier than forty years ago, which implies that we should not be
using wealth as the main indicator.
▸▸ Bioinformatic data enables us to deduce the function sequence of individual proteins.
▸▸ As most species of sea snail live in saltwater, (via induction / inductive reasoning) we can say that new
species are unlikely to be found in rivers.
▸▸ We can generalise from this study and suggest a link between being a victim of bullying and suicide.
Stating wider implications, consequences, projections and predictions

▸▸ The discovery of the new drug has important implications for all heart-related diseases.
▸▸ All the possible repercussions of // ramifications of the court’s ruling are as yet unclear, but one likely
consequence is that social media platforms will not be held responsible for content.
▸▸ The introduction of the new handwashing technique to all hospitals is likely to save lives.
▸▸ It is possible to predict future sea levels by extrapolating from our current data.
▸▸ The Lambda-CDM model extrapolates backwards in time to derive the idea of the ‘big bang’.
▸▸ Global temperatures are predicted to rise.
▸▸ Using the current data, the projection is that temperatures will rise by up to three degrees by 2050.
▸▸ We estimate that in a fifty-year period, one tree recycles more than £60,000 worth of water.
Generating your own ideas, creating new concepts and establishing new ground
▸▸ By looking at the issue in this way, we reach the disturbing conclusion that not only are children unable
to distinguish games from reality but (also) that violent games are actually shaping their world at a
young age and thereby creating a more violent real-world view.
▸▸ I would go even further / I would take an even stronger position and suggest that, crucially, the
insidious nature of the ageism and injustice individuals feel leads to a huge waste of individual, social
and economic potential.
▸▸ This essay suggests that these four artists are all in fact unconsciously celebrating their individual success
rather than just / rather than merely celebrity in general.
212 Conclusions, clarification and future action

Words you probably already use correctly: confirm, estimate.
Words defined in other sections: hypothesis s3, validate s26.
conclusion n n – (1) T

he inference / proposition you draw from the premises. In this sense,
conclude v the verb conclude is similar to deduce.
Note that you might have several conclusions at different stages in
your overall argument.
(2) The end or finish of something.
corroborate v v – To support something by giving additional data, evidence or information.
corroboration n Similar to support except that corroborate is usually used for concrete /
empirical data rather than ideas and theories. (See also section 26.)
deduce v v – The logical process whereby general principles (premises) are used to
deduction n arrive at a specific conclusion. In a formal deductive argument, the premises
guarantee (or entail) the conclusion – if the premises are valid, the conclusion
deductive adj
must also be valid.
E.g. All mammals are warm-blooded. A cow is a mammal, therefore a cow is
warm-blooded.
Compare with induce / induction below.
extrapolate v v – To extend the application of known statistical data.
extrapolation n

generalise* v v – To use specific data or specific case/s to arrive at a general statement.
generalisation* n 1 E.g. The shops in this street have high prices so all the shops in town must
generality n 2 have high prices.
n 1 – A general statement arrived at from specific data. A generalisation can be
universal, forming a premise of a deductive argument (see deduction above).
E.g. All mammals are warm-blooded.
A generalisation can be partial, forming a premise of an inductive argument
(see induction below).
E.g. The shops in this street have high prices.
n – 2 (1) A general statement. Similar to generalisation.
(2) The majority.
E.g. This study is much larger than the generality.
n – To make a generalisation.

*-ize/-ization are also acceptable in British spelling and are always used in US
spelling.
implication n (1) A likely consequence or effect.
(2) A conclusion drawn that is not stated explicitly.
(3) A conclusion that follows logically from the premises.
Important // profound // considerable // serious // wide // far-reaching

// long-term implications.
he verb implicate means (1) to be involved in a crime or (2) to convey

T
meaning indirectly / to imply.

imply v (1) To logically necessitate a consequence or conclusion.
E.g. Life implies death.
(2) To enable the drawing of a conclusion.
E.g. The data implies that the disease is spread via water rather than air.
(3) To suggest something indirectly.
E.g. His tone implied that I wasn’t working hard enough.
This last meaning is informal and not commonly used in an academic context.
For implicit see section 12.
Imply and infer. See infer below.

induction n n – (1) T
he everyday reasoning process used to form generalisations, i.e. using
inductive adj specific cases to arrive at a more general conclusion. A conclusion
arrived at through induction is only as sound as the evidence used and
cannot be proven with absolute certainty.
(2) The action and process of formally showing a new member how the
organisation works.
E.g. The student induction meeting is tomorrow at 10.00am.
infer v v – To reach a conclusion (through any type of reasoning process).
inference n Infer and imply
Only people infer things.
E.g. From the data we can infer that having a job is more important than the
salary.
Data and other information imply things.
E.g. The data implies that having a job is more important than the salary.
merely adv Only, just. Often used to imply that more should or could be done.

predict v v – To guess about a future event, with or without basing it on evidence.
predictable adj adj – (1) Able to be predicted.
prediction n (2) Usual, expected and therefore boring.
E.g. The film’s ending was predictable.
Predictable and predictive

These two adjectives have different meanings. Predictive means ‘relating to
predictions’ or having the ability to make predictions.
E.g. All mobile phones have a predictive text function.
Predict and speculate. For speculate see section 2.

project v / n v – To use current evidence or information to make a statement about future
developments, often involving amounts and/or statistics.
n – Any type of planned activity that has a specific goal.
ramification n Many and/or complex (often unwelcome) consequences.
E.g. The increase in business taxes will have serious ramifications for the
economy.
Ramification and repercussion. See below.

repercussion n Unintended consequences. Often used to refer to negative effects.
E.g. One repercussion of reducing the number of police on the streets has
been an increase in knife crime.
Repercussion, ramification and implication

These terms are often used interchangeably but there are differences in
meaning, as explained above. In addition, implication is used in logic to mean
a likely, future logical consequence, as in ‘if A happens, B will happen’.
testify v (1) To give evidence as a witness in court.
(2) To act as proof or evidence of something.
testifies to the fact that ... The fact that ... testifies to the significance //
X
importance of Y. X testifies that ...

Incorrect Correct
1 Writing in English is implied when studying Writing in English is an implicit part of studying for a
for a degree in the UK. degree in the UK.
2 The data infers that lack of sunlight The data implies that lack of sunlight increases risk of
increases risk of depression. depression.
or
We can infer from the data that lack of …
3 The company has projected a positive The company has predicted a positive outcome
outcome despite the fact that there is no despite the fact that there is no supporting data.
supporting data.
4 Data gathered from animal testing cannot Data gathered from animal testing cannot be
be generalised towards humans. generalised across species.
or
Data gathered from animal testing cannot be applied
to humans.
5 One insinuation of this data is that the One implication of this data is that the drug is not
drug is not effective. effective.
6 Morley (2005) asks whether we can be Morley (2005) asks whether we can generalise from
general about current twin study data to current twin study data to the wider population.
the wider population.
7 Historical patterns of migration can be Historical patterns of migration can be inferred from
implied from genetic data. genetic data.
8 Evidence that globalisation is happening Evidence that globalisation is happening more slowly
more slowly than commonly thought is a than commonly thought has significant business
significant business implication. implications.

Incorrect Correct
9 From our data we can imply that having From our data we can infer that having a job is more
a job is more important than the salary important than the salary received.
received. or
The data implies that having a job is more important
than the salary received.
10 One conclusion Trudgill makes is that One conclusion Trudgill draws is that working-class
working-class speech patterns have more speech patterns have more favourable connotations
favourable connotations for men than for for men than for women.
women.

33 Qualifying conclusions and degrees of certainty
Your conclusions should not be too general, vague, extreme or certain. In academic work it is rare
to express total certainty, as all knowledge is open to being questioned and possibly disproved, and
you will therefore usually need to express a degree of caution (also called ‘being tentative’). Showing
appropriate levels of caution and also being specific when making claims or drawing conclusions is
called ‘qualification’. For example, the sentence ‘The data proves that globalisation is beneficial to large
law firms’ is too certain and too vague. A better statement would be ‘The data strongly suggests that
globalisation is beneficial to most large law firms in Japan.’

Qualifying your conclusions and stating their limitations
▸▸ My position requires some qualification, namely that, as Waddle et al. (2019) also show, personal
attacks during Prime Minister’s Questions have only increased significantly since Cameron’s premiership.
▸▸ Businesses need to be profitable; even so, / despite this, / nevertheless, / nonetheless, / notwithstanding
this, / having said that, they (also) need to act within ethical boundaries.
▸▸ Businesses need to be profitable; however, they still / also need to take account of social norms.
▸▸ Further research in this area is needed; nevertheless, / nonetheless, it does seems that there is a causal
link between gum disease and heart disease.
▸▸ Despite / In spite of / Notwithstanding the fact that the drug had minor side effects, it was successful in
reducing incidences of migraine.
▸▸ Despite having minor side effects, the drug was successful in reducing incidences of migraine.
▸▸ Dmitrieva shows that the languages share word associations for ‘red’, albeit / although / though with
one or two differences.
▸▸ Even though / Although further research is needed, it does seems that there is a causal link between
gum disease and heart disease.
Qualifying your conclusion to avoid overgeneralisation
▸▸ Our findings cannot necessarily be generalised, as the conditions are unique to Kenya.
▸▸ Suggesting that all students prefer reading on screen to paper would be to overgeneralise.
▸▸ We need to be cautious in applying these findings to other types of organisations.
▸▸ The advantages listed are not necessarily transferable to all other group learning situations.
▸▸ I have looked only at this one piece of legislation and so cannot generalise to other areas of law.

▸▸ On the whole, / By and large, / With a few exceptions, state-owned schools are as good as those in the
private sector.
▸▸ In general / Generally, / To a large extent this framework is applicable to other areas of …
▸▸ The legislation is effective up to a point but, as I have shown, it needs revision in relation to …
▸▸ I have shown that a small number of / a minority // some // many // most / the majority of adverts are,
to some extent, misleading.
▸▸ Some // Many // Most adverts have a tendency to / tend to misuse the word ‘free’.
Expressing certainty and caution

Being certain about your conclusion
▸▸ This essay has shown that St. Paul was influenced by Mithraism.
▸▸ The findings (clearly) show / indicate that core personality traits are universal.
▸▸ It is clear / evident / apparent from the data that teachers are more at risk of throat damage.
▸▸ The data strongly / clearly suggest a causal link between handwashing and risk of infection.
▸▸ I would strongly suggest that globalisation is beneficial to large Japanese law firms.
▸▸ It is highly probable / highly likely that the vaccine will be almost 100% effective.
▸▸ The economic value of hydropower has almost certainly been underestimated.
Being fairly certain about your conclusions

▸▸ The events suggest underlying tensions between the police and the local community.
▸▸ The events seem to / appear to show / suggest underlying tensions between the police and the local
community.
▸▸ The findings indicate that / show that / suggest that there might be / may be / could be a causal
relationship between …
▸▸ The data would seem to / would appear to show / indicate that St. Paul was influenced by Mithraism.
▸▸ It is probable / likely that the economic value of hydropower has been underestimated.
▸▸ In summary, Owen was debatably / arguably the most influential First World War poet.
Being cautious about your conclusions

▸▸ It is possible that globalisation is generally beneficial to large Japanese law firms.
▸▸ It is conceivable that within our lifetime, nanoparticles will be used to cure most known cancers.
▸▸ The findings perhaps suggest that core personality traits are universal.

▸▸ This might / could suggest that school teachers tend to suffer long-term throat damage.
▸▸ We can draw only (very) tentative conclusions from our data.
▸▸ There is (only) a (very) slight / remote // small possibility that core personality traits are universal.

Words you probably already use correctly: appear, by and large, cautious, despite, even so, however,
indicate, in general, likely, majority, minority, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the whole,
probable, seem, still, suggest, transferable, up to a point.
Words defined in other sections: arguably s3, debatably s1, exception s5, extent s8, generalise* s32,
overgeneralise* s23.
albeit conj (1) ‘In spite of the fact that’. Similar to although / though / even though.
(2) ‘But’.
Albeit cannot introduce an independent clause.

E.g. The experiment design was useful, albeit it was flawed. 𝝌
The experiment design was useful, albeit flawed. ✓
apparent adj adj – (1) Clear and obvious.
apparently adv E.g. It is apparent from the size of the protest that people are concerned
about the issue.
(2) Seeming real or correct (although this might not be the case).
E.g. Sears and Burrows compared responses between asthmatic and
apparently healthy children.
he adverb apparently means ‘according to rumour or gossip’ and is too informal

T
for academic writing.
E.g. Apparently, they still don’t know the real cause of the accident.

conceivable adj adj – (1) Within the realms of possibility and capable of being imagined.
conceivably adv (2) Possible but unlikely.
For conceive see section 19.
evident adj adj – Clear / obvious. Similar to meaning (1) of apparent.
evidently adv
qualify v v – (1) To reduce from a general statement to a more specific or restricted one.
qualification n (2) To achieve the required standard and official recognition.
remote adj (1) Highly unlikely.
(2) (Of a place) Isolated.
(3) Having little connection or relationship to.
tentative adj Cautious, hesitant.
To draw a tentative conclusion. To make a tentative suggestion // inference.

Incorrect Correct
1 Rural areas have higher levels of poverty than Many / Most / Some rural areas have higher levels
cities. of poverty than cities.
2 Apparently, the data contains some minor It is apparent that the data contains some minor
errors. errors.
or
The data clearly contains some minor errors.
3 I am uncertain as to whether the experiment The experiment perhaps suggests that this species
shows that this species of starfish still inhabits of starfish still inhabits intertidal zones.
intertidal zones.
4 Obviously, a translation can never be as good I have demonstrated that / I have shown that a
as the original version. translation is rarely as good as the original version.
5 It’s not even remotely possible that there is a The possibility of a causal link is remote.
causal link. or
A causal link is highly unlikely / is highly improbable.
6 String theory is argued to be the most exciting String theory is arguably the most exciting current
current area of mathematical physics. area of mathematical physics.
7 From the research it is clear-cut that From the research it is clear that discrimination
discrimination has decreased. has decreased.
8 The statement that Europe’s population is The statement that Europe’s population is
increasing slightly needs some qualifications, increasing slightly needs qualification / to be
as this is an overall increase; roughly half qualified, as this is an overall increase; roughly
the countries in Europe have a decreasing half the countries in Europe have a decreasing
population (World Population Review 2019). population (World Population Review 2019).
9 People are more likely to cooperate if they People are more likely to cooperate if they think
think there is a high possibility of meeting the there is a good / strong possibility of meeting the
person again. person again.
10 The tendency of comparing oneself to others is The tendency to compare oneself to others is
a much more complex process than previously a much more complex process than previously
thought. thought.

34 Summary, clarification and restatement
of position
The word ‘conclusion’ has two different meanings in academic work. One meaning is to infer from your
evidence (to draw conclusions), and vocabulary for this is covered in sections 32 and 33.
The other meaning of ‘conclusion’ is the last (concluding) part of a piece of writing or speech, contain-
ing a summary of the main points and conclusions reached, and this section gives you words and phrases
for doing this. Note that in a longer piece of work you will probably need to make intermediate summa-
ries and conclusions at various stages throughout your text – your final conclusion should then summarise
and draw together these ‘mini conclusions’ to reach a larger, overarching statement. See also section 35
for other useful words and phrases.

Making initial summary remarks
▸▸ Our study has contributed to the debate on food labelling in that it has provided data on how …
▸▸ This essay has evaluated the arguments for and against euthanasia, using specific examples and cases.
▸▸ In this dissertation I have addressed the issue of whether stem cell research is ethical.
▸▸ It has been argued that ageism can be viewed as more disabling than ageing because …
▸▸ This report has assessed the advantages of globalisation for large Japanese law firms.
▸▸ This report has clarified the legal issues surrounding data mining and has demonstrated how …
▸▸ I have given an account of the main way in which children learn the word meanings, namely / that is,
latent semantic analysis.
▸▸ I have justified my position / my initial proposition / my claim by presenting specific, real-life examples
to expose the flaws in the concept of total quality management as a novel idea.
▸▸ As we have demonstrated, the analysis has exposed / has revealed / has identified a major loophole in
the current legislation, which is that …
▸▸ We have highlighted five main legal and ethical issues faced by professional nurses.
▸▸ The purpose / aim of this essay has been to examine the term ‘democracy’. I have done this via …

Clarifying, restating and emphasising your position and conclusions
▸▸ To clarify // restate // summarise my proposition / position, a key motivating factor in human evolution
appears to be innate curiosity.
▸▸ The data suggests that the father has a relatively minor role. In other words, / Put another way, / To be
more precise, the mother has the primary impact on …
▸▸ What I am saying is that / What I want to stress is that the underlying issue for all addicts is one of
feeling powerless.
▸▸ I wish to emphasise / stress / underline the need for the police to record the ethnicity of …
▸▸ The data has caused me to modify / alter // shift // change my original position because …
▸▸ As stated above, our research has shown that // found that teaching standards in schools have …
▸▸ Waist to hip ratio does seem to be a factor in female attractiveness. Indeed, / In fact, I would suggest
that it is a key indicator.
▸▸ It is worth noting / It should be noted / It is worth remembering / It is important to remember / It is
important to bear in mind / We should bear in mind that all living languages are evolving continuously.
▸▸ In summary, start-ups are more important to the economy than is often realised, particularly / especially
as they create a disproportionate number of secure jobs relative to their size.
▸▸ The above evaluation // analysis confirms / verifies / supports the view that mobile phones do not carry
health risks.
▸▸ The data suggests that the father has a relatively minor role, or rather, that the mother has the primary
impact on …
▸▸ Of paramount importance is // Of particular importance is / Of particular significance is the feeling of
powerlessness experienced by …
▸▸ Most importantly, many first-time mothers feel powerless in the hospital environment.
▸▸ The fundamental / essential / primary point is that system controls need to be put in place.
▸▸ The crux of the argument presented in this essay is that Chomsky’s idea of innate language ability
cannot be proved or disproved and is therefore not a scientific hypothesis per se.
▸▸ In essence, economics is the study of how individuals, societies and nations behave in response to
material constraints.

Words you probably already use correctly: clarify, emphasise*, highlight, in fact, indeed, position, precise,
purpose, rather, restate, stress, summarise*, underline.
Words defined in other sections: account s12, address s2, alter s16, argue s3, claim s3, modify s16,
particular s5, proposition s3, shift s16, verify s26.
crux n The most important or decisive point.
The crux of the X is …

essence n The essential character, meaning, aspect or part.
In essence, X is … / X is, in essence …

paramount adj More important than anything else.
X is of paramount importance. X is paramount. It is paramount that X …

Incorrect Correct
1 Durrett (2019) gives a detailed account for Durrett (2019) gives a detailed account of /
probability theory, including many useful description of probability theory, including many
examples. useful examples.
2 I argue that the paramount issue for any I argue that paramount for / the most urgent issue
incoming Venezuelan government is to find for any incoming Venezuelan government is to
the most effective ways of reducing the high find the most effective ways of reducing the high
rate of extreme poverty in the country. rate of extreme poverty in the country.
3 Our report has addressed to the main causes of Our report has addressed the main causes of
absolute poverty in Venezuela and suggested absolute poverty in Venezuela and suggested four
four country-wide initiatives that would start to country-wide initiatives that would start to
improve the economic situation. improve the economic situation.
4 Recent research suggests that quantum theory Recent research suggests that quantum theory is
is problematic. Or rather that as human beings problematic, or rather that as human beings we
we cannot … cannot …
5 Finally, it is important to underpin the message Finally, it is important to underline the message
that the vast and increasing gap between rich that the vast and increasing gap between rich and
and poor is not, as Oxfam (2017) claims, a poor is not, as Oxfam (2017) claims, a symptom
symptom of a broken economic system. of a broken economic system.
6 Our data has demonstrated that the assertion Our data has demonstrated that the assertion that
that India, China and Africa together are most India, China and Africa together account for most
of the world’s population growth is an of the world’s population growth is an unhelpful
unhelpful overgeneralisation. overgeneralisation.
7 This essay has cleared up what the main legal This essay has clarified what the main legal and
and ethical issues are that professional nurses ethical issues are that professional nurses face in
face in the workplace. the workplace.
8 The basis of Gladding’s (2016) argument is The crux / essence / essential point of Gladding’s
that the clinical application of the creative arts (2016) argument is that the clinical application of
should form a central plank in counselling. the creative arts should form a central plank in
counselling.

Incorrect Correct
9 I have summarised at the end that translations In summary, my key point is that translations can
can not only be as good as the original but can not only be as good as the original but can even
even be an improvement. be an improvement.
10 At the end of the day, there is clear evidence There is clear evidence that if you speak two or
that if you speak two or more languages it is more languages it is easier to learn further
easier to learn further languages. languages.

35 Recommendations, solutions and future action
This last section presents words and phrases you can use in the final part of your assignment to give
recommendations, suggest solutions and outline possible future action or areas of research. Other useful
vocabulary is given in sections 33 and 34.

Stating responsibility
▸▸ My analysis suggests that the responsibility for global warming (ultimately) lies with the developed
economies.
▸▸ Developed countries are (ultimately) responsible for global warming.
Giving advice and recommendations and stating goals

▸▸ Our advice is that hospitals should implement // enforce // maintain a strict handwashing regime.
▸▸ Schools should be more active in pre-empting funding reductions and by buying …
▸▸ Companies need a more pragmatic // effective approach to collaborations in order to fully exploit
technological opportunities.
▸▸ If we are to harness the potential of this technology fully, we need an increase in government funding
of at least two per cent.
▸▸ An ability / A capacity to adapt quickly to new situations will be paramount to companies in this sector.
▸▸ The findings accentuate / highlight the need for new legislation to protect online privacy.
▸▸ Increased collaboration between providers is likely to help reduce the incidence of theft.
▸▸ Transparent guidelines will help to restore public trust in the media.
▸▸ Apprenticeship schemes will help to equip young people with important job and life skills.
▸▸ Councils should not overestimate // should not underestimate the impact of planning policies.
▸▸ The key recommendation of this report is that ongoing staff training is needed to tackle workplace
discrimination.
▸▸ We recommend / advocate // propose shorter custodial sentences for this group of offenders.
▸▸ In order to achieve / attain // ensure growth, the company needs to limit new investment.
▸▸ The measures listed above need to be taken / need to be adopted in order to resolve the problem.
▸▸ I suggest that in order to adapt to / to adjust to the new market we need to continually monitor …

▸▸ This report suggests that the school tries to remedy / resolve / solve the situation by settling out of
court.
▸▸ From our analysis it seems clear that the priority should be for universities to reassess / to re-examine
how they …
▸▸ In order to rectify / correct the errors in the data, the experiment will need to be repeated.
▸▸ The long-term aim should be to empower patients so that they can take fuller responsibility for their
health.
▸▸ The ultimate goal should be to determine the primary cause of the erosion.
Giving recommendations for future research
▸▸ More research // Further analysis on bullying in schools needs to be conducted in order to enhance /
add to / further our understanding of this issue.
▸▸ We hope that further / future large-scale surveys are/will be feasible / practicable / possible.
▸▸ A question for future research is whether a way can be found to reconcile the different transfer
methods.
Justifying an alternative strategy
▸▸ An alternative to traditional forms of fracking is the use of aviation hydrovibrators.
▸▸ Although difficult, eliminating obsolete product lines rather than merely changing product design
will allow continued profitability and growth.
▸▸ In order to harness employee talent and potential effectively, a more transformational leadership style
is called for / is required / is needed.
▸▸ My suggested strategy for exploiting this emergent market is, for the reasons demonstrated, more
viable / feasible / tenable // pragmatic.
▸▸ Increasing the staff development budget will not, on its own / per se, increase motivation. Rather,
measures / steps should be taken to provide staff with more time and better structures for discussing
their ideas.
▸▸ Focusing more on consolidation rather than rapid growth is the best course of action for ensuring
survival.
Offering solutions and stating potential
▸▸ These findings will help to improve // will help to refine the design of factory buildings and the way in
which they use / utilise solar panels.
▸▸ These findings can be used to help reorient teacher training programmes.

▸▸ Our report shows that microfinancing has the ability to alleviate / capability of alleviating poverty with
the support of the wider financial structure.
▸▸ The analysis suggests that most people are capable of making positive lifestyle choices.
▸▸ The future prospects of UK law firms look positive provided they address the above issues.
▸▸ Augmented reality has the potential to give us ‘a multi-modal way to confront the full richness of
reality’ (Munnerly et al. 2012 p. 47).

Words you probably already use correctly: ability, highlight, improve, monitor, overestimate, priority, reassess,
re-examine, solve, underestimate, use.
Words defined in other sections: accentuate s31, adapt s16, adopt s5, advocate s14, alleviate s17,
alternative s14, capacity s8, effective s6, enhance s17, feasible s2, measure s6, merely s32, paramount s34,
propose s3, refine s6, step s6, tenable s26, utilise∗ s29.
∗ The US spelling is -ize.
attain v To reach a goal, or to succeed in doing something.

capable adj adj – Being able to do something well.
capability n n – The ability to do something.
Capability, ability, capacity and facility
Capability / to be capable refer to possibility and to things that might not
actually happen.
E.g. Zimbardo believes that we are all capable of committing evil acts.
Ability, capacity and facility can all be used to mean ‘skill’ or ‘talent’.
Ability is usually used in the context of current skills and real-world action.
Capacity can be used to mean ‘ability’ but also has other meanings (see section 8).
Facility can be used to mean ‘ability’ but is usually used for the different
meaning of a place or amenity provided for a particular purpose.
E.g. The university has excellent library facilities.

exploit v v – To make the best use of something for oneself (sometimes unfairly).
To exploit a situation // opportunity // weakness // fear // gap // loophole
// advantage // crisis.
further v / adv / adj v – To help develop or promote.
harness v To control and use something effectively.
To harness talent // ideas // expertise // skills // energy.
implement v v – To carry out, put into action or use.
implementation n To implement a(n) idea // plan // policy // strategy // proposal // scheme.
To implement guidelines // recommendations // measures // reforms //
change.
To agree // attempt / try // force // refuse // fail to implement.
potential adj / n adj – Showing or having future ability or possibility.
practicable adj (1) Able to be done successfully / feasible.
(2) Useful.
Practicable and practical
There is overlap. Practical is the wider, more common term, relating to putting
plans into action and/or being good at performing physical tasks.
pragmatic adj adj – Dealing with real-world reasoning rather than abstract theory.
pragmatism n n – (1) An approach based on real-world practicalities rather than beliefs or ideas.
(2) A theory of knowledge that looks at how theory and practice affect
each other.
a dj – A pragmatic approach // attitude // stance // perspective // view //

strategy // policy.
Pragmatic and practical

There is overlap, but pragmatic means having an effective approach to planning
and strategy, whereas practical means putting plans into action (see section 29).

pre-empt v To take action in order to prevent something from happening.
reconcile v (1) To restore good relationships and/or to end a disagreement.
(2) To make two previously conflicting things become compatible.
rectify v To correct or put right. Similar to remedy and resolve.
To rectify the problem // situation // issue // error / mistake.
remedy v / n v – To find a solution to or to put right. Similar to rectify and resolve.
To remedy the situation.
resolve v / n v – (1) To find a way to end or solve a problematic situation or issue.
(2) To decide to do something, particularly something difficult.
To resolve a problem // conflict // contradiction // puzzle.
Resolve and solve
Solve is the wider, more general term. Resolve is usually used in the context of
conflict or seemingly contradictory situations.
tackle v To deal with a problem in an organised manner.
To tackle a problem // challenge // issue // question.
ultimate adj (1) Final.
(2) Being the best example of.
viable adj Able to be done, feasible.
Economically // commercially // financially // politically viable.
A viable alternative // plan // option // method // strategy // approach //
solution // proposition.
To consider / deem something viable.

Incorrect Correct
1 This essay has demonstrated that discrimination This essay has demonstrated that discrimination
in the workplace can be reconciled. in the workplace can be reduced // eliminated.
2 Our findings add to those of Suzuki (2019) in Our findings add to those of Suzuki (2019) in
going further in our understanding of the links furthering our understanding of the links
between Zen and Confucianism. between Zen and Confucianism.
3 Improving rail and air infrastructure will help Improving rail and air infrastructure will help Mali
Mali tackle its tourism market. expand / develop its tourism market.
4 We need to try to solve the mistakes made in We need to try to rectify / remedy / put right the
the past by accessing as much evidenced fact as mistakes made in the past by accessing as much
possible, rather than relying on people’s evidenced fact as possible, rather than relying on
memories. people’s memories.
5 There has to be a solution to the problem of We need to continue working towards a solution
drug use among young people. to the problem of drug use among young people.
6 The case of growing obesity will only be solved The issue / problem of growing obesity will only
if the lobbying power of food manufactures is be resolved if the lobbying power of food
curtailed. manufactures is curtailed.
7 The bank should bear the consequences of its The bank should take responsibility for / be
illegal financial transactions. accountable for the consequences of / effects of
its illegal financial transactions.
8 If Switzerland’s SDS is to reach its 2030 energy If Switzerland’s SDS is to reach its 2030 energy
objectives, it must start to reach the potential of objectives, it must start to exploit the potential of
its renewable energy as a matter of urgency. its renewable energy as a matter of urgency.
9 We need a hands-on, pragmatic solution to the We need a hands-on, practical solution to the
heating problems in the office. heating problems in the office.
10 Smith and Wales (2018 p. 21) point out that we Smith and Wales (2018 p. 21) point out that we
need to resolve the ‘distance between the need to reduce / minimise the ‘distance between
subjectivity, motives and intentions of citizens the subjectivity, motives and intentions of citizens
and the political decisions made in their name’. and the political decisions made in their name’.

Appendices
Latin abbreviations and phrases

Points to remember
▸▸ Common Latin abbreviations and phrases do not use italics. The only exception to this rule is sic. Italics
are used in this section to highlight abbreviations and phrases explicitly, but you should not italicise
them in your written assignments.
▸▸ Common Latin abbreviations and phrases are not capitalized. The only exception to this rule is NB.
▸▸ Note that
–– etc. is informal and vague, and should be avoided in your written assignments.
–– i.e. and e.g. are more acceptable in some disciplines and assignment types than others, so check with
your tutor whether you can use these two abbreviations.
–– i.e. and e.g. mean different things (see below).
▸▸ Make sure you use the correct punctuation and spacing.
Latin abbreviations
Abbreviation Full form Meaning Points to note
(not commonly
used in writing)
c. circa approximately Circa does not have a full stop as it is the full form.
circ. between these For example: The shop was opened circa 1900–
ca. dates 1910.
cf. confer compare with
235
Abbreviation Full form Meaning Points to note
(not commonly
used in writing)
e.g. exempli gratia for example; In formal assignments use e.g. only inside
such as parentheses ( )
For example:
Some business costs (e.g. property taxes, rent,
salaries) are unavoidable.
et al. et alii and other Use et al. to give an in-text reference
authors that has more than two authors, unless it is the first
mention of the source, in which case you should
give all author names. Note that there is a space
after et and a full stop after al.
etc. et cetera and so on; Avoid using etc. in formal writing. Ending a
and others sentence with etc. (or and so on or and so forth) is
too vague for academic work; instead, finish your
sentence with precision:
This report recommends looking at ways of cutting
costs – cloud sourcing, coopetition etc. ×
This report recommends looking at ways of cutting
costs such as cloud sourcing and coopetition. ✓
i.e. id est namely; If you use i.e. (or namely, that is or in other words)
that is; you must list all the members of the set, not just
in other words some examples.
It is usually better to use namely, that is or in other
words rather than i.e.
NB nota bene take note Used only in notes and footnotes: do not use it in
n.b. the body of your written assignment.
236 Appendices
Latin phrases
Note that these phrases are not abbreviations and so do not use full stops.
Phrase Meaning
a posteriori Knowledge or conclusion gained by experience and observation.
a priori Knowledge or conclusion gained through abstract reasoning or logic.
ab initio Starting from scratch / from the beginning / at beginner’s level.
ad hoc (1) Created or done for a specific, one-off reason or occasion.
(2) Not planned or based on any particular principle.
ad infinitum Without end, endlessly.
bona fide (1) Done in good faith.
(2) Genuine.
de facto Actually existing or happening, even if not legally recognised or sanctioned.
de jure Existing by legal right.
in situ In the original or natural position.
inter alia Among other things.
prima facie (1) A self-evident truth or fact.
(2) At first glance or on the surface.
pro rata In proportion.
per se In or of itself, intrinsically (see section 5).
quid pro quo An exchange, reciprocity.
sic this error is in the original text (NB: used when using a quotation that has some type of
error, as in:
The report stated that ‘93% of students have there [sic] work returned within three
weeks’.
Note that sic uses italics and square brackets but does not have a full stop because it is
not an abbreviation.
status quo The standard or normal situation or status.
Latin abbreviations and phrases 237

Word class: a brief explanation
This is a summary explanation of the main word classes (also called ‘word forms’). Note that some words
can belong to more than one word class:
E.g. Debate used as a verb. The government will debate the motion next week.
E.g. Debate used as a noun. There has been a great deal of debate on the ethics of cloning.
Noun e.g. consideration

A noun is a thing, place or person. Proper nouns are names of people or places, and abstract nouns are
those you can’t see or touch (for example, happiness, economics). Some nouns are uncountable / mass
nouns (for example, evidence, information and importance) and are used on their own in the singular form
only. To talk about an uncountable noun in the plural you need to add another noun that indicates the
plural aspect.
Uncountable noun Making an uncountable noun plural ✓ Incorrect ✘

evidence the different types of evidence are the evidences are
information several pieces of information several informations
importance several important aspects several importances
Verb e.g. to consider

A verb is an action, event or state. The verbs be, do and have can be used on their own as a main verb or
as a supporting (auxiliary) verb together with a main verb. As supporting verbs, be, do and have indicate
either time, a negative or a question.
be, do, have as a main verb be, do, have as a supporting/auxiliary verb + main verb
I am happy. I was happy. I am studying journalism
I do the same thing every day. Do you want the job? I don’t want the job.
I have a car. I haven’t seen the film.
The verbs will, shall, can, could, may, might, must, should, ought to and would (and the phrases to be
able to, to need to and to have to) are always used as supporting verbs with a second main verb in order to
express possibility, request, necessity, certainty or caution. These verbs are called ‘modal’ or ‘modal
auxiliary verbs’ because they indicate the ‘mood’ of the main verb.
238 Appendices
Modal verb + main verb
We should consider all aspects of the issue. The data suggest that there might be a link.
Adjective e.g. considerable

Adjectives describe a characteristic or quality of a noun. E.g. The building is a considerable achievement.
Some adjectives have a comparative and a superlative form. E.g. Large, larger, largest.
Adverb e.g. considerably

Adverbs give more information about a verb, adjective or another adverb, as in the following examples.
An adverb describing a verb. E.g. The economy improved slowly.
An adverb describing an adjective. E.g. It is arguably an important issue.
An adverb describing another adverb. E.g. We added the liquid very carefully.
Preposition e.g. in, at, on

Prepositions describe the time or space relationship between things. Examples of prepositions are in, at,
on, of, to, with, over, under, between, through, during, before, after. Note that the word to is usually used as
a preposition (e.g. ‘She went to the conference’) but is also used to indicate the infinitive of a verb (e.g. to
discuss) and has one use as an adverb (‘She pulled the window to before going to sleep’).
Conjunction e.g. and, or, however

Conjunctions link phrases or clauses within a sentence or link separate sentences, showing the logical
relationship between them. Examples of conjunctions are and, in addition, also, moreover, but, either … or,
both … and, not only … but also, however, nevertheless, despite, after, before, since, while, until. Some words
such as after, before, as, since and until can also be used as a preposition.
Pronoun e.g. it, hers, myself

Pronouns replace full nouns. A pronoun usually refers to the full noun or noun phrase that precedes it.
1 The subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we and they. E.g. The diagrams in the text distract the
reader from the main argument and they also overcomplicate the issue.
Word class: a brief explanation 239

2 The object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us and them. E.g. Our results indicate that job satisfaction
is less important for new employees. It also seems to be less important for part-time employees.
3 The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs and whose. E.g. This book is mine.
4 The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves and
themselves. E.g. Virginia Woolf thought of herself as a writer from an early age.
Determiner e.g. a, the, these

Determiners give more information about a noun. There are four types of determiners:
1 Articles A and the
2 Demonstratives This, these, that and those
The demonstratives this and these can be used in a similar way to pronouns, but unlike pronouns you
can use both a demonstrative and a noun together to make your meaning more clear.
E.g. During the summit conference representatives from the six countries had a heated debate about
how to balance economic development with sustainable use of resources. This issue is causing increasing
controversy across the globe.
3 Possessive determiners (also called possessive adjectives) My, your, his, her, its, our and their
These are not pronouns because they do not replace a noun but are used with one.
E.g. Her car is over there.
Note that his can also function as a possessive pronoun and that her can also function as an object
pronoun (see above).
4 Quantifiers All, some, each, every, few, several, many and most.
240 Appendices
Word table
Words you probably know
Section Words defined
or defined in other sections
1 Topic acquire controversy emerging central fundamental pressing

aspect crucial emotive complex heighten problematic
attention debatable factor development insufficient s9 publicise*
concept debatably issue essential overlook
consideration debate phenomenon
controversial element widespread
2 Aim and scope address discuss pertinent aim examine primary s6

ascertain discussion principal analyse* s23 goal purpose
concern elaborate reflect appraise s7 identify question
context enumerate reflective appropriate investigate review
contextualise* establish relevant aspect s1 issue specific s5
critical expand review assess s7 measure s6 step s6
critique exploratory salient attempt offer tentative s33
describe feasible scope centre overview
descriptive focus speculate
determine objective trace
3 Proposition, argue contend presuppose base on found on show

argument and argument contest presupposition demonstrate rest on suggest
premise arguably debatably propose
assertion hypothesis proposition
assert hypothesise* rebut
assumption maintain refute
assume posit reject
challenge postulate theory
claim predicate thesis
conjecture premise underlying
contention
Word table 241

4 Brief definitions ambiguous component constituent acquire infrastructure school of

apply compose constitute branch interpret s13 thought s13
associate comprise mechanism broad literature several
attribute consensus mode concept loosely style
broad consist refer construct s13 material subjective s14
definition narrow substance
demonstrate paradigm s13 system
framework perspective s14 type
generally phenomenon universal
hierarchy s1 various s22
ideology s13 process widely
5 Classification and abstract entity particularly attribute s4 division narrow

characteristics adopt especially per se atypical exclude notably
allied exception quintessential basis extensive s26 refer to s4
archetype extrinsic respective category external satisfy
basis generic respectively chiefly finite subdivide
categorise* incorporate sole devise s19 fundamental subgroup
class inherent specifically dichotomy s22 fulfil subtype
classify innate specific differentiate include typical
conflate intrinsic sphere s22 infinite umbrella
criterion namely subsume discrete s22 internal variety s22
domain overarching trait distinct s22
encompass particular unique
6 Methodology, allocate limited quantitative address s2 exploratory s2 research

model and method collate measure rationale adopt s5 method design
compile methodological refine analyse* s23 observation rigorous s26
configure methodology replicate construct s13 phase sequence
constraint model secondary data s7 pilot study scope s2
effective parameter stage devise s19
empirical penultimate step
extract predetermined stipulate
formulate primary systematic
limit protocol undergo
limitation qualitative
242 Appendices
7 Data, findings, accord contrary findings analysis s23 measurable unexplained

problems and accordance data gauge conform s10 notable s21 underesti-
anomalies anomaly detect inconclusive determine s2 observe mate
appraise discern margin of establish s2 obtain replicate s6
assess discrepancy error exceed s9 outcome significant
cluster encounter preliminary exception s5 overestimate s30
conclusive exhibit provisional expectation problem statistical
consistent fallible yield initial
8 Amount, level, appreciable extent profound amount minimal rare

proportion and approximate level pronounced even minimum significant s30
distribution average magnitude proportion few noticeable uneven
capacity marked proportional majority number uniform
considerable negligible quantifiable maximum percentage widespread s1
degree numerous quantify measure
dense partial rare
dimension partially scale
discernible predominant sparse
disperse predominantly substantial
disproportionate preponderance widespread
9 Adequate and abundance excess plethora adequate lack shortfall

inadequate amounts ample excessive prolific appropriate over- surplus
dearth glut scarce depletion plentiful supply
deficiency insufficient shortfall enough shortage under-
deficient nominal sufficient ideal
deficit optimal surfeit
exceed paucity
10 Context, circumstance natural persistent absence favourable* presence

occurrence, norms comply norm pervade advantageous hostile s11 situation
and deviation conform normative pervasive s11 normal straightfor-
deviate occurrence prevalent adverse s11 normality ward
dilemma permeate systemic complex phenomenon
incidence persist context s2 s1
event
Word table 243

11 Advantage, advantage disadvantage jeopardy beneficial drawback positive

disadvantage, risk adverse disadvantaged merit difficult favourable* threat
and threat beset expose prone disastrous
boon fortuitous susceptible
deprived hostile vulnerable
dire
12 Communication, account explicit portray metaphor s21

expression and allude express portrayal
portrayal articulate implicit project
convey literal represent
denote literally signify
depict manifest tacit
disseminate mechanism transmit
embody overt vehicle
euphemism
13 Knowledge, connotation interpret perceive aware conventional received

understanding and construct knowledge pragmatic cognitive ignorant wisdom
ways of thinking dogma lens principle conceive s19 wisdom
dogmatic misconception prism
frame misguided school of
ideology orthodoxy thought
insight paradigm tenet
14 P
osition, point of acceptable distorted preferential admit concede s28 radical s16
view, impartiality advocate embrace proponent acknowledge consider s1 reject s3
and bias alternative endorse regard s25 opponent standpoint
ambivalent entrenched rational against oppose support
averse exponent sceptical* agree position
biased impartial stance
condone indifferent subscribe
consensus intransigent subjective
deem irrational tolerate
discord objection view
discriminate objective viewpoint
disinterested perspective
244 Appendices
15 T
ime, sequence, alternate hindsight precursor above current past
duration and chronology imminent predate accompany forerunner period
frequency coincide impending prior advent frequent permanent
concurrently instantaneous prolong arrival future previous
constant interim recurrent below indefinite repeated
contempora- intermittent retrospect
neous isolated subsequent
contemporary lag successive
continual latter supersede
continuity outset timely
continuous periodic transient
former persist underway
hiatus precede unprecedented
16 Change, accumulate inclination retain accelerate fluctuation sharp

movement, trend adapt incremental revise appreciable s8 gradual slight
and tendency adjust lessen shift changeable instability small
alter modify stable considerable s8 marked s8 stationary
amend mutable static decelerate minimal sudden
criticise proliferation tendency discernible s8 negligible s8 undergo
diminish propensity transformation dramatic pronounced
divert radical transition expand s2 s8
evolve rate trend
exponential reconfigure versatile
flux reduce volatile
17 Encouragement aggravate erode inhibit detract s27 motivate promote

and improvement, alleviate exacerbate mitigate ease prohibit s18
discouragement ameliorate facilitate momentum
and deterioration curtail foster regain
conducive hamper relieve
deter hinder restore
deteriorate impetus resurgence
enhance impede stimulate
enrich incentive undermine
Word table 245

18 Allowance, circumvent inexorable preclude allow deny obstruct

prevention, dispel marginal prohibit avoid endorse s14 permission
exclusion and eliminate marginalise* proscribe ban forbid prevent
elimination eradicate obviate sanction block obstacle
exclude permit segregation
inevitable
19 O
rigin, cause and affect derive nullify account s12 contributes outcome
effect arouse devise provoke arise convey s12 owing to
conceive effect trigger as a result create stems from
counteract negate attribute s4 discover thereby
because of due to therefore
causal factor s1 thus
cause invent
consequently originate
20 Connection, compatible incidental reciprocal determine s2 essential precondition

compatibility, connotation inextricable relate
reciprocity and contingent interconnected requisite
lack of relationship converse interdependent stipulate
correlation integral synergy
correspond interrelated tangential
dependent mutual tenuous
dynamic peripheral vice versa
entail prerequisite
21 Comparison, akin emulate nuance balance marginal s18 resemble

similarity, analogy equal parallel convergent s24 radical s16 similar
convergence, commensurate equality parity correspond s20 represent uniform
equivalence and comparatively equate relative imitate
balance comparable equivalent relatively
compare homogeneous similarly
compensate metaphor simile
contrast mimic subtle
counterpart notable synonymous
246 Appendices
22 Difference, dichotomy distinct variable contrast s21 dissimilar separate

differentiation, differentiate distinguish varied differ on the other whereas
diversity and discrete diverse variety difference hand while
divergence disparate heterogeneous various
disparity inequality vary
23 A
nalysis of analyse* fallacy scrutinise* acknowledge examination irrational s14
evidence and blur flaw scrutiny s25 homogeneous misconcep-
identification of circular invalid superficial break down s21 tion s13
argument flaws contradict non sequitur tautology confusion incoherent s27 misuse
contradictory overgeneralise* tautological constituent s4 inconclusive separate
deconstruct oversimplify truism component s4 s27 surface
dismantle paradox uncouple discrete s22 inconsistent take apart
dissociate disparate s22 s27 trace s4
distinct s22 inspect unpick
element s1 illogical
24 G
rouping of converge divergent reveal although distinct s22 overlap
authors’ ideas and departure emerge theme common diverse s22 parallel s21
identification of diverge resemble thread considerable s8 hold share
common themes contrast s21 however varied s22
differ neither whereas
discrete s22 opponent
25 Authors’ according to credit paraphrase advocate s14 criticise s2 rebut s3

evaluations of acknowledge excerpt quote assert s3 defend refute s3
each other cite extract quotation challenge s3 disagree reply
counter justify rationalise* claim s3 maintain s3 respond
contest s3 proponent s14 supporter
contribute
Word table 247

26 Y
our positive astute erudite rigorous assert s3 maintain s3 timely s15
evaluation of cogent exceptional singular claim s3 substantial s8 valuable
evidence and coherent exhaustive substantiate contend s3 systematic s6
arguments comprehensive explicate substantive in-depth thorough
conclusive extensive succinct
consistent formidable tenable
corroborate illuminating valid
credible illustrate validate
definitive noteworthy verify
elucidate plausible
encapsulate rational
27 Y
our negative anecdotal distort misguided alert flaw s23 overlook
evaluation of arbitrary distract obscure assert s3 invalid s23 oversimplify
evidence and conspicuous formulaic opaque biased s14 maintain s3 s23
arguments cursory incoherent omit circular s23 (mis)conceive problem
derivative inconclusive questionable claim s3 s19 subjective s14
detract inconsistent simplistic conflict misname suffer
digression limited tenuous contend s3 neglect undermine
discount manipulate vague contradictory objection s14 s17
discredit misconceived s23 overgeneral- wrong
fail ise* s23
fallacy s23
28 Y
our agreement, alternative concession refute although however rebut s3
disagreement and concede counterargu- rebut alternative s14 limitation s6 refute s3
counterarguments ment challenge necessary reject s3
contest s3 needed useful
counter s25 nevertheless while
despite nonetheless willing
extent s8 notwithstand-
flaw s23 ing
248 Appendices
29 L
inking evidence actualise* case realise* apply convey s12 model s6
to theory and actual practical utilise* articulate s12 exemplify practicable
practice actuality capacity s8 framework vehicle s12
concept s1 manifest s12
contextualise* mechanism
s2 s12
30 Importance, dispensable landmark predominant attention fundamental substantive

significance dominant merit pre-eminent critical s2 marginal s18 s26
and dominance eminent milestone pressing crucial s1 noteworthy urgent
historic obsolete prevailing deserve prominent valuable
incidental overriding redundant essential vital
indispensable paramount significant
imperative peripheral superfluous
integral pivotal tangential
invaluable precedence warrant
31 Influence accentuate inform precedent adverse s11 enhance s17 improve

and impact advance inimical prejudicial bearing enrich s17 influential
catalyst insidious reap breakthrough erode s17 pay divi-
consolidate pernicious underpin damaging expand s2 dends
detrimental perpetuate vicious cycle detract s27 facilitate s17 powerful
impact potent virtuous cycle digress s27 focus atten- reinforce
divert s16 tion on undermine
effect s19 highlight s17
emphasise*
32 Conclusions, conclude generalisation* predict confirm hypothesis s3 validate s26

implications conclusion implication predictable estimate
and new ideas corroborate imply project
deduce induction ramification
extrapolate infer repercussion
generalise* merely testify
Word table 249

33 Qualifying albeit conceivably qualification appear however on the whole

conclusions apparent evident remote arguably s3 indicate overgeneral-
and degrees conceivable qualify tentative by and large in general ize* s23
of certainty cautious likely probable
debatably s1 majority seem
despite minority still
exception s5 nevertheless suggest
extent s8 nonetheless transferable
generalise* s32 notwithstand- up to a point
even so ing
34 Summary, crux essence paramount account s12 in fact rather

clarification address s2 indeed restate
and restatement of alter s16 modify s16 shift s16
position argue s3 particular s5 stress
claim s3 position summarise*
clarify precise underline
emphasise* proposition s3 verify s26
highlight purpose
35 Recommendations, attain implement rectify ability feasible s2 reassess

solutions and capable potential remedy accentuate s31 highlight re-examine
future action capability practicable resolve adapt s16 improve refine s6
exploit pragmatic tackle adopt s5 measure s6 solve
further pre-empt ultimate advocate s14 merely s32 step s6
harness reconcile viable alleviate s17 monitor tenable s26
alternative s14 overestimate underesti-
capacity s8 paramount s34 mate
effective s6 priority use
enhance s17 propose s3 utilise* s29
*indicates that the word is given in its common British spelling but that there is also alternative British spelling (e.g. -ize, -ization) and a US spell-
ing (e.g. -ize, -ization).
250 Appendices
Word index
Page numbers show where a word is used in an example sentence. Page numbers in bold show where a
word is defined.
ability 229 against 93 appraise 8, 49, 50

above 103 aggravate 121, 121 appreciable 54, 56, 112
absence 69 agree 92 appropriate 9, 63
abundance 64, 64 aim 8 approximate 54, 56
accelerate 112 akin 145, 147 arbitrary 185, 186
accentuate 206, 206, 229 albeit 219, 221 arguably 17, 18
acceptable 92, 94 alert 185 argue 17, 18
accompany 103 alleviate 120, 121, 237 argument 18
accord 49, 50, 50 allocate 42, 43 arise 133
accordance 50 allow 127 arouse 133, 134
according to 171, 172 allude 78, 80 arrival 102
account 78, 79, 133, 176, 184, alter 111, 114, 231 articulate 78, 80
224 alternate 103, 104 as a result 133
accumulate 113, 113 alternative 93, 95, 191, 192, 230 ascertain 8, 9, 49
acknowledge 93, 160, 171, 173 although 168, 191 aspect 1, 3, 8
acquire 1, 3, 25 ambiguous 26, 27 assert 17, 19, 172
actual 195, 196 ambivalent 93, 95 assertion 17, 19
actualise 195, 196 ameliorate 120, 122 assess 8, 49, 50
actuality 195, 196 amend 111, 114 associate 25, 27
adapt 111, 114, 229 amount 54 assume 18, 19
address 8, 9, 41, 224 ample 64, 64 assumption 18, 19
adequate 63 analogy 146, 148 astute 177, 178
adjust 111, 114 analyse 9, 159, 161 attain 229, 231
admit 92 anecdotal 185, 186 attempt 8
advance 205, 207 anomaly 49, 50 attention 2, 3, 199
advent 102 apparent 220, 221 attribute 26, 27
advocate 92, 94, 175 appear 220 average 55, 56
affect 132, 133, 177 apply 25, 27, 195 averse 93, 95
251
avoid 127 claim 17, 20, 172, 176 conducive 120, 122
aware 85 clarify 225 configure 42, 43
cluster 49, 51 confirm 211
balance 146 cogent 177, 178 conflict 185
ban 127 cognitive 85 conform 50, 70
base on 18 coherent 177, 178 confusion 160
bearing 205 coincide 103, 105 conjecture 17, 20
because of 133 collate 42, 43 connotation 85, 86, 139, 140,
below 103 commensurate 146, 148 141, 142
biased 93, 95 common 167 consensus 26, 28, 92, 95
block 127 communicate 78 consequently 133
blur 160, 161 comparable 145, 148 contributes 133
branch 25 comparatively 145, 148 considerable 54, 56, 112, 167
break down 159 compare 145, 149 consideration 1, 4, 92
breakthrough 205 compatible 139, 140 consist 26, 28
broad 25, 28 compensate 146, 149 consistent 49, 51, 177, 179
by and large 220 compile 42, 43 consolidate 206, 207
complex 2, 68 conspicuous 186, 187
capability 231, 231 comply 69, 70 constant 104, 105
capable 231, 231 component 26, 28, 159 constituent 26, 29, 159
capacity 56, 196, 229 compose 26, 28 constraint 42, 43
case 195, 196 comprehensive 177, 178 construct 26, 42, 86
catalyst 205, 207 comprise 26, 28 contemporaneous 103, 105
causal 133 concede 93, 191, 192 contemporary 103, 105
cause 133 conceivable 220, 222 contend 17, 20
cautious 219 conceivably 220, 222 contention 17, 20
central 1 conceive 85, 132, 134, 185 contest 17, 20, 172, 191
centre 8 concept 2, 3, 25, 195 context 9, 10, 68
challenge 17, 19, 20, 172, 192 concern 8, 10 contextualize 8, 10
changeable 112 concession 191, 192 contingent 138, 140
chronology 103, 104 conclude 211, 213 continual 104, 105
circular 160, 161, 185 conclusion 211, 213 continuity 104, 105
circumstance 68, 69 conclusive 49, 51, 177, 179 continuous 104, 106
circumvent 127, 128 concurrently 103, 105 contradict 160, 161
cite 171, 173 condone 92, 95 contradictory 160, 161
252 Word index

contrary 50, 51 decelerate 112 difference 154
contrast 145, 149, 154, 168 deconstruct 159, 162 differentiate 33, 154, 155
contribute 171 deduce 212, 213 digression 186, 187, 206
controversial 2, 4, 5, 20 deem 92, 96 dilemma 68, 70
controversy 2, 4 defend 171 dimension 54, 57
conventional wisdom 86 deficiency 63, 64 diminish 111, 114
converge 146, 169 deficient 63, 64 disagree 172
converse 139, 140 deficit 63, 65 discern 49, 51
convey 78, 80, 135 definition 25 discernible 54, 57, 112
correlation 139, 140 definitive 177, 179 discord 93, 96
correspond 139, 141 degree 55, 57 discount 185, 187
corroborate 177, 179 demonstrate 17, 25 discredit 184, 187
corroborate 211, 213 denote 78, 80 discrepancy 49, 51
counter 172, 173, 191 dense 56, 57 discrete 33, 154, 155, 160
counteract 133, 134 deny 127 discriminate 93, 96
counterargument 192, 192 departure 168, 169 discuss 8, 12
counterpart 146, 149 dependent 138, 141 discussion 2, 8, 9, 12
create 132 depict 79, 80 disinterested 93, 96
credible 177, 179 depletion 63 dismantle 159, 162
credit 171, 173 derivative185, 187 disparate 155, 156
critical 8, 10, 199 derive 132, 134 disparity 155, 156
criticise 10, 172 describe 8, 11 dispel 128, 128
critique 9, 11 deserve 199 dispensable 200, 200
crucial 2, 4, 160, 199 despite 191, 219 disperse 56, 57
crux 225, 226 detect 49, 51 disproportionate 55, 57
current 102 deter 121, 122 disseminate 78, 80
cursory 186, 187 deteriorate 121, 122 dissimilar 154
curtail 121, 122 determine 8, 11 dissociate 159, 162
detract 121, 184, 187, 206 distinct 33, 154, 156, 160, 168
damaging 206 detrimental 205, 207 distinguish 154, 156
data 42, 51 development 2 distort 185, 187
dearth 63, 64 deviate 69, 70 distorted 94, 96
debatable 2, 5 devise 32, 42, 135 distract 184, 187
debatably 17, 5, 20, 220 dichotomy 33, 154, 155 diverge 168, 169
debate 2, 5 differ 154, 168 divergent 168, 169
Word index 253

diverse 155, 156, 168 equality 146, 149 extent 54, 57, 191, 220
divert 111, 114, 206 equate 146, 150 extract 42, 44, 171, 173
dogma 86, 87 equivalent 146, 150 extrapolate 212, 213
dogmatic 86, 87 eradicate 128, 128
dominant 200, 200 erode 121, 122, 212 facilitate 120, 123
dramatic 112 essence 225, 226 factor 1, 6, 133, 139
due to 133 essential 1, 138, 199 fail 185
dynamic 139, 141 establish 8, 12 fallacy 160, 162
estimate 212 fallible 49, 52
ease 120 euphemism 78, 81 favourable 68
effect 49, 52, 131, 133, 135 even so 219 feasible 9, 13, 230
effective 41, 44 even 55 few 54
elaborate 8, 12 event 68 findings 49, 52
element 2, 5, 159 evident 220, 222 flaw 160, 162, 185, 186, 192
eliminate 128, 128 evolve 111, 115 fluctuation 112
elucidate 177, 179 exacerbate 121, 122 flux 112, 115
embody 79, 81 examine 8, 159 focus attention 206
embrace 92, 96 exceptional 177, 179 focus 8, 13
emerge 167, 169 excerpt 171, 173 forbid 127
emerging 1, 5, 167 excess 64, 65 forerunner 103
eminent 200, 200 excessive 65, 65 former 102, 103, 106
emotive 2, 5 exclude 32, 129, 128 formidable 177, 180
emphasise 206, 225 exemplify 195 formulaic 185, 188
empirical 41, 44 exhaustive 177, 179 formulate 41, 44
emulate 146, 149 exhibit 49, 52 foster 120, 123
encapsulate 177, 179 expand 8, 12, 112, 120 found on 18
encounter 49, 52 expectation 50 frame 85, 87
endorse 92, 97, 129 explicate 176, 180 framework 25, 195
enhance 120, 122, 211, 230 explicit 78, 81 frequent 104
enough 63 exploit 230, 232 fundamental 1, 199
enrich 120, 122, 211 exploratory 8, 13, 44 further 230, 232
entail 138, 141 exponent 92, 97 future 102
entrenched 93, 97 exponential 112, 115
enumerate 8, 12 express 78, 81 gauge 49, 52
equal 146, 149 extensive 33, 177, 180 generalisation 212, 214, 219
254 Word index

generalise 212, 214, 225 impetus 120, 123 insight 85, 87
generally 25 implement 229, 232 inspect 159
glut 65, 65 implication 212, 214 instability 112
goal 8 implicit 78, 81 instantaneous 103, 107
gradual 112 imply 212, 215 insufficient 2, 63, 65
improve 205, 230 integral 199, 201, 138, 142
hamper 121, 123 in fact 225 interconnected 138, 142
harness 229, 232 in general 220 interdependent 138, 142
heighten 1 incentive 120, 123 interim 103, 107
heterogeneous 155, 157 incidence 69, 70 intermittent 104, 107
hiatus 104, 106 incidental 139, 141, 200, 201 interpret 26, 87
hierarchy 25 inclination 113, 115 interrelated 138, 142
highlight 206, 224, 229 incoherent 160, 185, 188 intransigent 93, 97
hinder 121, 123 inconclusive 49, 52, 160, 185, 188 invalid 160, 162, 189
hindsight 102, 106 inconsistent 160, 185, 188 invaluable 199, 201
historic 199, 201 incremental 112, 115 invent 132
hold 167 indeed 225 investigate 8
homogeneous 146, 150, 160 indefinite 104 irrational 94, 97, 160
however 168, 191, 219 in-depth 177 isolated 104, 107
hypothesis 17, 20, 211 indicate 220 issue 2, 6, 8
indifferent 93, 97
ideal 63 indispensable 199, 201 justify 171, 173
identify 8 induction 212, 215
ideology 26, 87 inequality 155, 157 knowledge 85, 88
ignorant 85 inevitable 128, 129
illogical 160 lack 63
inexorable 128, 129
illuminating 177, 180 lag 103, 107
inextricable 138, 141
illustrate 176, 180 landmark 199, 201
infer 211, 215
imitate 146 latter 103, 107
influential 205
imminent 102, 106 lens 86, 88
inform 205, 208
impact 205, 207 lessen 111, 115
infrastructure 25
impartial 93, 97 level 55, 58
inhibit 121, 124
impede 121, 123 likely 220
inimical 206, 208
impending 102, 106 limit 42, 44
initial 49
imperative 199, 201 limitation 42, 44
insidious 206, 208
Word index 255

limited 42, 44, 185, 188 misuse 160 objection 93, 97, 185
literal 78, 82 mitigate 120, 124 objective 8, 13, 94, 98
literally 78, 82 mode 25, 29 obscure 185, 188
literature 26 model 41, 45, 195 observe 42, 49
loosely 25 modify 111, 115, 225 obsolete 200, 202
momentum 120, 124 obstacle 127
magnitude 54, 58 monitor 229 obstruct 127
maintain 17, 20, 168, 172 motivate 120 obtain 49
majority 55, 220 mutable 112, 116 obviate 128, 129
manifest 78, 82, 195 mutual 138, 142 occurrence 68, 71
manipulate 185, 188 offer 9
margin of error 50, 52 narrow 25 omit 184, 189
marginal 128, 129, 147, 200 natural 68, 70 on the other hand 154
marginalise 128, 129 necessary 191 on the whole 220
marked 54, 58, 112, 147 needed 191 opaque 185, 189
material 25 negate 133, 135 opponent 93, 168
maximum 55 neglect 184 oppose 93
measure 8, 42, 44, 49, 54 negligible 54, 58 optimal 63, 65
mechanism 25, 29, 78, 82 nevertheless 191, 219 originate 132
merely 212, 215 nominal 63, 65 orthodoxy 86, 89
merit 199, 201 non sequitur 160, 162 outcome 49, 133
metaphor 80, 146, 150 nonetheless 191, 219 outset 103, 107
method 41 norm 69, 71 overestimate 49, 229
methodological 41, 45 normal 69 overgeneralise 160, 163, 184
methodology 41, 45 normality 69 overlap 167
milestone 199, 201 normative 69, 71 overlook 1, 184
mimic 146, 150 notable 51, 147, 150 overriding 199, 202
minimal 54, 112 noteworthy 178, 180, 199 oversimplify 160, 163, 184
minimum 55 noticeable 54 overt 78, 82
minority 220 notwithstanding 191, 219 overview 8
misconceived 185, 188 nuance 147, 150 owing to 133
misconception 85, 88, 162 nullify 133, 135
misguided 85, 89, 185, 188 number 54 paradigm 26, 89
misnamed 185 numerous 54, 58 paradox 160, 163
256 Word index

parallel 146, 171, 151 plethora 64, 65 presuppose 18, 21
parameter 42, 46 portray 79, 83 presupposition 18, 21
paramount 199, 202, 225, 235, portrayal 79, 83 prevailing 200, 203
226 posit 17, 20 prevalent 69, 71
paraphrase 171, 172, 174 position 92, 225 prevent 127
parity 146, 151 postulate 17, 21 previous 102
partial 55, 59 potent 205, 208 primary 8, 41, 46
partially 55, 59 potential 229, 232 principal 8, 14
past 102 powerful 205 principle 86, 90
paucity 63, 65 practicable 195, 230, 232 prior 103, 108
pay dividends 212 practical 195, 196 priority 230
penultimate 42, 46 pragmatic 86, 89, 229, 232 prism 86, 90
perceive 85, 89 precede 103, 108 probable 220
percentage 55 precedence 199, 202 problem 49, 185
period 103 precedent 205, 208 problematic 2
periodic 104, 107 precise 225 process 25
peripheral 139, 142, 200, 202 preclude 127, 129 profound 54, 59
permanent 104 precondition 138 prohibit 127, 129
permeate 68, 71 precursor 103, 108 project 79, 83, 212, 216
permission 127 predate 103, 108 proliferation 113, 116
permit 127, 129 predetermined 42, 46 prolific 64, 65
pernicious 206, 208 predicate 18, 21 prolong 104, 108
perpetuate 206, 208 predict 212, 216 prominent 200
persist 69, 71, 104, 107 predictable 212, 216 promote 120
persistent 71 predominant 55, 59, 200, 202 pronounced 54, 60
perspective 25, 92, 99 pre-eminent 200, 203 propensity 113, 116
pertinent 9, 13 pre-empt 229, 233 proponent 92, 98
pervade 68, 71 preferential 93, 98 proportion 55, 60
pervasive 68, 71 prejudicial 206, 208 proportional 55, 60
phase 42 preliminary 49, 52 propose 17, 22, 176, 184, 229
phenomenon 2, 6, 25, 68 premise 18, 21 proposition 17, 22, 225
pilot study 41 preponderance 55, 59 proscribe 127, 130
pivotal 199, 202 prerequisite 138, 142 protocol 42, 46
plausible 177, 181 presence 69 provisional 49, 52
plentiful 64 pressing 1, 199, 203 provoke 133, 136
Word index 257

publicise 2 refer 25, 29, 33 salient 9, 15
purpose 8, 224 refine 41, 48, 23o sanction 127, 130
reflect 9, 14 scale 54, 60
qualification 219, 222 reflective 9, 14 scarce 63, 65
qualify 219, 222 refute 17, 22, 172, 191 sceptical 93, 100
qualitative 41, 46 regain 121, 124 school of thought 25, 86, 90
quantifiable 60 regard 92, 99 scope 9, 15, 41
quantify 54, 60 reinforce 205 scrutinise 159, 164
quantitative 41, 46 reject 17, 22, 93, 191 scrutiny 159, 164
question 8 relate 139, 142 secondary 41, 48
questionable 185, 189 relative 145, 151 seem 220
quotation 171, 174 relatively 145, 151 segregation 128, 130
quote 171, 172, 174 relevant 9, 14 separate 154, 159
relieve 120, 124 sequence 42
radical 111, 116, 147 remedy 230, 233 several 25
ramification 212, 216 remote 221, 222 share 167
rare 56, 60 repeated 104 sharp 112
rate 112, 116 repercussion 212, 216 shift 111, 117, 225
rather 225 replicate 42, 48, 50 shortage 63
rational 94, 99, 177, 181 reply 172 shortfall 63, 65
rationale 41, 46 represent 78, 83 show 17
rationalise 171, 174 requisite 138, 143 significant 49, 54, 112, 199, 203
realise 195, 197 resemble 146, 168, 169 signify 78, 83
reap 205, 209 resolve 230, 233 similar 146
reassess 230 respond 172 similarly 145, 151
rebut 17, 22, 172, 191 rest on 18 simile 146, 151
received wisdom 86 restate 225 simplistic 185, 189
reciprocal 139, 142 restore 121, 124 singular 177, 181
reconcile 230, 233 resurgence 121, 124 situation 68
reconfigure 111, 116 retain 112, 117 slight 112
rectify 230, 233 retrospect 102, 108 solve 230
recurrent 104, 108 reveal 167, 169 sparse 56, 60
reduce 111, 116 review 8, 14 speculate 9, 15
redundant 200, 203 revise 111, 117 stable 112, 117
re-examine 230 rigorous 42, 177, 181 stage 42, 48
258 Word index

stance 92, 93, 99 surplus 63 trend 113, 118
standpoint 92 synergy 139, 143 trigger 133, 136
static 112, 117 synonymous 146, 152 truism 161, 164
stationary 112 system 25 type 25
statistical 49 systematic 42, 48, 177
stems from 133 systemic 69, 71 ultimate 229, 233
step 8, 42, 48, 236 uncouple 159, 164
stimulate 120, 124 tacit 78, 83 underestimate 49, 229
stipulate 42, 48, 138, 143 tackle 229, 233 undergo 42, 48, 111
straightforward 68 take apart 159 underline 225
stress 225 tangential 139, 143, 200, 203 underlying 18, 23
style 25 tautological 161, 164 undermine 121, 125, 186, 206
subjective 26, 94, 99, 185 tautology 161, 164 underpin 205, 209
subscribe 92, 99 tenable 177, 182, 230 underway 102, 109
subsequent 103, 109 tendency 113, 117 uneven 55
substance 25 tenet 86, 90 unexplained 49
substantial 54, 60, 112, 147, 178 tentative 9, 221, 222 uniform 55, 146
substantiate 177, 181 tenuous 139, 143, 185, 189 universal 26
substantive 178, 181, 199 testify 211, 216 unpick 159
subtle 147, 152 theme 167, 169 unprecedented 102, 109
successive 103, 109 theory 17, 23 up to a point 220
succinct 177, 182 thereby 133 urgent 199
sudden 112 therefore 133 use 230
suffer 184 thesis 17, 23 useful 191
sufficient 63, 65 thorough 177 utilise 196, 197, 230
suggest 17, 220 thread 167, 169
summarise 225 thus 133 vague 185, 189
superficial 159, 164 timely 103, 109, 181 valid 177, 182
superfluous 200, 203 tolerate 93, 99 validate 177, 182, 211
supersede 103, 109 trace 9, 15, 160 valuable 199
supply 64 transferable 219 variable 155, 157
support 92 transformation 111, 118 varied 155, 157, 168
supporter 171 transient 104, 109 variety 33, 155, 157
surface 159 transition 111, 118 various 26, 155, 157
surfeit 64, 65 transmit 78, 83 vary 155, 157
Word index 259

vehicle 78, 83 viewpoint 92, 100 while 154, 191
verify 177, 182 virtuous cycle 205, 209 widely 25
versatile 112, 118 vital 199 widespread 2, 6, 56, 61
viable 230, 233 volatile 112, 118 willing 191
vice versa 139, 143 wrong 185
vicious cycle 206, 209 warrant 199, 203
view 92, 100 whereas 154, 168 yield 49, 52
260 Word index

The Student Phrase Book - Vocabulary For Writing at University, Second Edition (2020)

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The Student Phrase Book - Vocabulary For Writing at University, Second Edition (2020)

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2nd edition

vocabulary for writing at university

Topic, aim and argument 1

Definitions and classification 25

Methodology, method and findings 41

Amount, level and proportion 54

Context, norms, risk and threat  68

Communication, understanding and position 78

Encouragement, allowance and prevention 120

Origin, cause, effect and connections 132

Comparison, similarity and difference 145

Analysis of evidence and arguments  159

Evaluation of evidence and arguments  171

Importance and impact 195

Essay sentences Corrections

How The Student Phrase Book is structured

Commonly confused words

Other important points to note

Nearly but not quite right

How The Student Phrase Book acknowledges source material

1.1 Words in action

Emphasising debate and controversy in relation to your topic

Highlighting a lack of research or discussion in relation to your topic

2 Topic, aim and argument

acquire v v – To get, come to have, or develop.

Political campaigning is an important aspect of environmentalism.

Cloning has attracted / received a great deal of // received little attention.

The concept of personalised drugs is new to science.

To take X into consideration. The proposal is under careful consideration.

 here is a great deal of controversy surrounding / concerning / over the use of

Sharing information is crucial in / to solving the problem.

4 Topic, aim and argument

6 Topic, aim and argument

2.1 Words in action

8 Topic, aim and argument

2.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

critically adv (3) At an extremely important point and/or a point of crisis.

10 Topic, aim and argument

 o determine what // how // why // when // whether // when // the reasons

 o be determined (adj) and determination (n) relate to the sense of being

 eterminism is the philosophy in which events and actions are absolutely

The noun discussion is followed by about, of, on or over.

Discuss and debate

Expand and expend

12 Topic, aim and argument

Exploratory, explanatory and expository

Feasible and likely

n – A broad // narrow // specific focus.

The plural of focus (n) can be either focuses or foci.

I will discuss the literature (that is) pertinent to Newton’s life.

Principal and principle

Reflective and reflexive

Relevant and related

14 Topic, aim and argument

Salient points // features // issues // facts // properties.

Within // beyond the scope of this essay.

16 Topic, aim and argument

3.1 Words in action

Talking about other people’s proposition, thesis, hypothesis or theory

3 Proposition, argument and premise 17

3.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

argue v v – (1) T

18 Topic, aim and argument

Topic, aim and argument 1

Definitions and classification 25

Methodology, method and findings 41

Amount, level and proportion 54

Context, norms, risk and threat 68

Communication, understanding and position 78

Encouragement, allowance and prevention 120

Origin, cause, effect and connections 132

Comparison, similarity and difference 145

Analysis of evidence and arguments 159

Evaluation of evidence and arguments 171

Importance and impact 195

1.1 Words in action

Emphasising debate and controversy in relation to your topic

Highlighting a lack of research or discussion in relation to your topic

here is a great deal of controversy surrounding / concerning / over the use of

2.1 Words in action

2.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

o determine what // how // why // when // whether // when // the reasons

o be determined (adj) and determination (n) relate to the sense of being

eterminism is the philosophy in which events and actions are absolutely

3.1 Words in action

Talking about other people’s proposition, thesis, hypothesis or theory

3.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

4.1 Words in action

Referring to other people’s definitions

Stating your choice of definition explicitly

Defining by describing elements

5.1 Words in action

Classifying by emphasising difference (see also section 22)

n the basis of X // X has no basis in fact // X forms the basis of Y // To do

he sole exception // aim // objective // purpose // cause // intention //

6.1 Words in action

Describing steps in the method

Describing method limits and limitations

7.1 Words in action

Discussing anomalies and surprises

7.2 Information to help you use these words correctly

8.1 Words in action

Discussing proportion, fraction and ratio

8.2 Information to help you use these words correctly