Inch -Pou nd Units

International System of Units

Strut-and-Tie Method
Guidelines for ACI 318-19-
Guide
Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445

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American Concrete Institute
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 First Printing
American Concrete Institute August 2021
Always advancing
ISBN: 978-1-64195-146-3

Strut-and-Tie Method Guidelines for ACI 318-19-Guide

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 ACI PRC-445.2-21

Strut-and-Tie Method Guidelines for ACI 318-1 ~9~Guide

Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445
Abdeldjdil Bclarbi", Chair Adam S. Lubell". Setrerory

Neal S. Anderson Catherine E French Carlos E. Ospina Co1tSt1lting Members

Robert 8. Anderson· Gary G. Greene, Jr. Stavroula J. Paiuazopoulou Viviane Adam
Roben IV. Barnes Neil ti.•t. Hawldns Maria A. Polak Pen')• Adebar
Oguzhan Baytak" Thomas T. C. I lsu Santiago Pujol Ge,·h.ard Breitschaft
Zdenek P. Bafant Gary .I. Klein• Julio A . Ramirez• A nl(mi Glade-ra
Evan C. Re11tz Daniel A. Kuchmn Karl-Heim~. Reineck• Daniel Ounkelberg:
John F, Bonacci Z. JohnMa' Onvid H. Sandcrs't Marc 0. Eberhard
Hakim Bouadi' Adolfo B. MMamoros Lesley H. Sneed Birol f'itik
Mikael W. Braestrup Denis rvtitchetr Robin G. Tuchscherer JosefHegger
Michael 0 . Brown
Michael P. Collins
Yi-Lung Mo
.
Daniel T. f!.'1ulli11s
James K. Wight Patrick Hubet
Karin Reissen
Pavid 0,1rw in Lawrence C. Novak• Udo Wiens
Konrad Z ilch
"Sub<;ommiuee 44S•A Mttnbefs wbo Dcvef0ped dliS Guide
'Chair of Subcommittee 445-A

Additional S ubcommittee 445-A Members not noted above:

Sergio Brena Manhew Huizinga Bozidar Stojadinovic
I-Kuang Fang Carin Robens-Wollmann Nancy Larson Verney
K:.trin H:thf'I R afiw!l A lvt~~ rtf" Snu?:l FP.rn:inrtn Y:in~?

Joint ACI- ASCE Committee 445 would like to thank Andrew Stam for his contribution to this guide.

Stnll-aml-fie mo<lels (S1i\1~) were first usetl lit the end of the nine-
teenth cen111ry as a concrete design me1hod. The me1h0</ 11·as added
10 AC/ 318 in 2002 as Appendix A. /11 2014, STM provision., were
moved into the 11wi11 body of the code as Chapier 23. Strlll-and-1ie
Me1hod. This docume11tfoc11ses on 1he ACl 318-19 impleme111a1ion
ofsrrut-and-tie modeling. The main oqjectives ofthis documem are
lo: I) expltiin 1he inte/11 and opplicalion of AC/ 3/8 STM provi-
sions: 2) provide addilional design guidance for 1he STM based on
other design codes, specifications, and committee documents; and
3) present design recommendations from recent rese(lrt:h publica-
tions. This tlocument provitfes proclical guidance 10 the s1r11cwral
design community.
Keywords: D-rcgions: design: disturbed regions; model: node: stnn: t-ic.
ACI Commiuee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are
intended for guidance in planning, dc.'iigning, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended fo r the use
of individuals who are c,o mpe tent to evaluate the s ignificance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete lnstirute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principks. The Institute shall
nol be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Refe.rence 10 this document shall 001 be made in c-0ntract
documents. If ite.n1s found in this docurnent a re desired by
1be Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
they shalI be restated in mandatory language for incorporation
by the Architect/Engineer.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION, p. 2
I. I- Background, p. 2
1.2--0bjcctivcs, p. 2
CHAPTER 2- NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS, p. 2
2.1 - Notation, p. 2
2.2- Definitions, p. 4
CHAPTER 3-OVERVIEW OF THE STRUT-AND-TIE
MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE, p. 5
3.1 - lntroduction, p. 5
3.2--0verview of the strut-and-tie method, p. 5
3.3-- C oncepiual ex.ample, p. 6
3.4-Historica l development of tl1c s trut-and-tic mclhod,
p. 9
ACJ PRC-445.2-21 was udoplcd and published Au1,,'llst 202 1.
CopyrigJn Q 2021. A,ncric:11, Concn::1c lns1in11c.
All rights rcscivcd including rights of rcproduc:tion and use many tbrm or by M>'
me.-tns, including 1he making of oopics by .-iny pholo process. or h>• electronic or me-
c~nical device. p,imed, wrincn, or oral. or recording fo r so1.md or visu.,I reproduC'lion
or for use tn any knowlOOge or rcllieval system or <kvicc. unlcs.-. pcnnission in writing
is obrnined from 1J1e c0pyrigh1 propriccors.

<acl)
2 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
CHAPTER 4-DESIGN STRENGTH OF STRUTS,
TIES, AND NODES, p. 10
4. 1- Overv iew, 1>. 10
4.2-Strut and node types and factors influencing strength,
p. II
4.3-STM strength requirements, p. 14
4.4-Strength and requirements for struts. p. 14
4.5-Strength and requirements for ties, p. 17
4.6--Strength and requirements for nodes. p. 19
CHAPTER 5-MODELING AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS, p. 23
5. 1- lntroduction, p. 23
5.2- lnfluence of model to1>0logy on perfonnance of
complex D-regions, p. 23
5.3- Guidance to selection ofSTM shapes, p. 25
5.4-Calculating member forces and stresses in complex
O-regions, p. 28
5.5-Comparison of sectional and STM design of trans-
verse rein forcement in a 8 -region. p. 30
5.6--Rcfincd models for cracking of Sl rtlls and the size
cJTcct. p. 3 I
5. 7-States of stress in nodes, p. 32
5.8-Maximum shear stress limits in beams, p. 34
5.9-Member dimensions and constitutive relationships,
p.36
5. I0- Rcinforccmcnt arrangcmem in relation to tie orien-
tation, p. 37
5. I I- Consideration of prestressing, p. 37
5. 12-Capacity evaluation of ex isting stn,ctures, p. 39
5. 13-Computer-based design aids, p. 40
CHAPTER 6-SERVICEABILITY
CONSIDERATIONS, p. 41
6. I- Introduction, p. 4 I
6.2-Cracking at service limjt states, 1>. 4 1
6.3-Determination of required distributed reinforce-
ment, p. 42
6.4-Distributed reinforcement placement and detailing.
p. 42
6.5- Deflections, p. 43
CHAPTER 7-IMPLEMENTATION OF STM DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS, p. 44
7. 1- lntroduction, p. 44
7.2- Deep beams, p. 44
7.3- Frame corners and beam-column joints, p. 46
7.4-Corbels, p. 48
7.5 Dappcd-cnd beams. p. 50
7.6-Beams suppo1ting beams (indirect supp01ts), p. 53
7. 7- lnverted T-beams, p. 56
7.8-Walls and beams with openings, p. 58
7.9-Coupling beams, p. 60
7. 10- Footings, p. 62
7. 11- Pilc caps, p. 62
7. 12- Post-tensioned anchorage zones, p. 64
American Concrele Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
CHAPTER 8-0THER STM DESIGN
SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND GUIDE
DOCUMENTS, p. 66
8. I- Introduction , p. 66
8.2- Strut-and-tic design rcquiremcnls in CSA A23.3-19.
p. 66
8.3 American Association of State Highway and Transpor-
tation Officials (AASHTO), p. 69
8.4-FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999), p. 71
8.5- Eurocodc 2, p. 74
8.6--fib Model Code for Concrclc S1ructurcs 20 IO (fib
20 13), p. 75
CHAPTER 9- REFERENCES, p. 75
9. I- Referenced standards and reports, p. 76
9.2- Authorcd references. p. 76
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.1-Background
While the origins of stlllt-and-tie models date back to the
end of the nineteenth centmy (Ritler 1899; Considere 1900;
Morsch 1909), the strut-and-tie design method was not
formally introduced into ACI 3 18 until 2002. Up unti l the
2014 version of AC! 318, SlllJl•and-tie model (STM) provi-
sions were included in Appendix A of ACI 3 18. With the
reorganization of ACI 318 in 2014, STM provisions were
moved into the main body of the code as Chapter 23 , in
part to recognize the importance of this method in structural
design practice. Subsequently, significant changes to the
STM provisions occurred in AC! 318-19. Chapter 23 was
re named to "Strut-and-Tie Melhod." The abbreviation of
STM only stands for stlllt-and-tie model.
In an effort to provide infonnation o n the use of strut-
and-tie models in structural design, explanatory notes are
included with the AC! 3 18 provisions. Additionally, lwo
AC! special publ ications- AC! SP-208 and AC! SP-273-
were developed by Subco mmitlee A, Strut & Tie, of Jo int
ACI-ASCE Committee 445, Shear and Torsion, in which the
application of STM was illustrated through various design
examples. Nevertheless, there is a need to provide additional
guidance on the use of STM techniques.
1.2-0bjectives
This document focuses on the ACI 3 18-1 9 im1>lementa-
tion o f strut-and-tie modeling. The main objectives o f this
document are to: I) explain the intent and application of AC!
3 I 8 STM provisions; 2) provide addilional design guidance
for the STM based on other design codes, specifications, and
committee documents; and 3) present design recommen-
dations from recent research publications. This document
is intended to provide practical guidance to the strucniral
design community.
CHAPTER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
2.1-Notation
This section defines notations used in this guide.
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 3

A1 = loaded area for cons ideration of bearing strength, Fnn = nominal strength at face of a nodal zone, lb (N)
in .2 (mm 2) F., = nominal strength o f a strut, lb (N)
A2 area of the lower base of the largest frustum of a F,., nominal strength of a tie, lb (N)
pyra mid, cone, or tapered wedge conta ined wholly F,, factored force acting in a strut, tie, or nodal zone in
w ithin the suppol1 and having its upper base equal a strut-and-tie model, lb (N)
to the loaded area. The s ides of the pyramid, cone, ./4 = compressive stress in concrete , ps i (MPa)
or tapered wedge should be s loped one ven ical to ./4' = s pec ified compressive strength of concrete, ps i
two horizontal, in.2 (mm2 ) (MPa)
A• area of an individua l bar or wire, in. 2 (1111112) / ,. effeclive compressive s trength of concrete in a s trut
A...,~ = cross-sectional are a of a member measured to the or a nodal zone, psi (MPa)
outside edges o f transverse rei nforce me nt , in. 2 J,,,, = specified tens ile s trength of prestressing reinforce-
(mm 2) ment, psi (MPa)
A,, = cross-sectional area at one end of a strut in a strut- J~y = specified y ie ld strength of prestressing reinforce-
and-tie model, taken perpendicular to the axis of ment, psi (MPa)
the s trut, in. 2 (mm2) J, modulus o r rupture o r concrete, ps i (MPa)
A,,, = gross area of concrete section bounded by web J; = calculated tens ile sh·ess in rein forcement at service
thickness and length of section in the direction loads, psi (MPa)
o f shear force considered in the case of walls, J,' = s ti-ess in co mpression reinforcement under factored
and gross area of concrete section in the case of loads, psi (MPa)
diaphragms. Gross area is total area of the defined ;;, effeclive s tress in prestressing re inforcement (afler
section minus area of any openings, in .2 (nun2) allowance for all prest:ress losses), ps i (MPa)
= gross area o f concrete section, in. 2 (111111 2) fa; = s h·ess in the i-th layer of s urface reinforcement, ps i
= area of a face of a nodal zone or a section through a (MPa)
nodal zone, in.2 (1111112 ) h = specified yield s trength of rein forcement, psi (MPa)
area of prestre-s sing reinforc-e111ent in flexura l ;;, specified yield s tre ngth of transverse rein force-
te nsion zone, in.2 (n11n 2) ment, psi (MPa)
= area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension rein- It = overall thickness or height of member, in. (mm)
force ment, in.2 (1111112) I = moment o f inertia o f section about centro idal axis,
A'
s = area of compression reinforcement, in.2 (mm 2) in.• (mm4)
Arp = area of prestressing rein forcement in a tie, in.2 fer = moment o f inertia of cracked section transfonned
(1111112) to concre te , in. 4 (mm4 )
= are.a of nonprestressed re inforcement in a tie, in.2 I, = e ffective moment of inertia for computation of
(1111112) deflection, in. 4 (mm4)
A,. = area of s hear reinforcement within spacing s, in.2 lg = moment of ine,tia of gross concrete section about
(111111 2) centro idal ax is, neglecting reinforcement, in.•
tota l area of re inforcement in each group of diag- (1111114 )
onal bars in a diagonally reinforced coupling beam, L e ffect of service live load
in.2 (1111112) e = span length of beam or one-way s lab; clear projec-
minimum area of shear re inforcement within tion of cantilever, in. (mm)
s pacings, in.2 (1111112 ) e,nc = length along w hich anchorage of a tie should occur,
a = s hear span to near support, in. (mm) in . (mm)
b s hear span to far support. in. (mm) e. w idth of bearing, in. (nun)
b, = e ffective w idth of strut, in. (mm) e, = segment length of curved reinforcement, in. (mm)
b., = web w idth o r wall thickness, in. (mm) e,, = development length in te nsion of defonned bar,
C = compression force acting on a nodal zone, lb (N) defonned wire, plain and de formed welded wire
D = e ffect of service dead load re inforcement, or pretens ioned strand, in. (mm)
d distance from extreme compress ion fiber to centroid ed, development length in compression of defonned
o f longitudinal tens ion re in forcement, in. (mm) bar and deformed wire, in. (mm)
d' = distance from extreme compression fiber to e,,h = development length in tension of de fonned bar or
centro id of longitudinal compression reinforce- defonned w ire with a standard hook, measured
ment, in. (mm) from critical section to outside end of hook (straight
£ = e ffect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced embedment length between critical section and
forces s tart of hook (point of tangency] plus inside radius
£, = modulus of elasticity o f concrete, ps i (MPa) of bend and o ne bar diameter), in . (mm)
£., = modulus of elasticity of re in forcement and struc- e,,, = development length in tension of headed defonned
tural steel, psi (MPa) bar, measured fro m the critical section to the
F. = nominal s trength o f a strut, tie, or nodal zone, lb bearing face of the head, in. (mm)
(N)

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4 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
t,. = length of clear span measured face-to-face of
supports, in. (mm)
e, effective lenglh of node, in. (mm)
N. factored axial force nonnal to cross section; to be
laken as pos itive for compression and negative for
lension, lb (N)
R = reaction, lb (N)
rh = bend radius at the inside ofa bar, in. (mm)
s cenler-10-center spacing of ite ms, s uch as longi-
tudinal re in forcement, transverse re inforcement,
prestressing lendons, or w ires, in. (mm)
S; = ce nter-to-center s pacing of reinforcemenl in the
i-th layer adjacent 10 the surface o f the member, in.
(mm)
T 1ension force acling on a nodal zone, lb (N)
w = effect of wind load
\ V" = effective heighl of concrete compressive stress
region, used to dimension nodal zone, in.
w, = density (unit weight) of nonnalweight concrete or
equilibrium dens i1y of lightweight concrete, lb/ft3
{kg/m3)
w, = width of a s trut perpendicular to the ax is of the strnl
and in the plane of the strut-and-tie model, in. (mm)
w, = effective he ight o f concrele concentric w ith a tie,
used to dimension nodal zone, in.
\ Vi.ma.,= maximum elfeclive heighl of concrete concentric
with a tie, in. (mm)
\Vu = factored load per unit length of beam or one-way
slab, lb/ in . (kg/m)
(1 = angle defi ning the orientation of rein forcemenl
(ti angle between the axis of a strut and the bars in the
i-th layer of re in forcemenl crossing thal strut
= factor re lating depth o f equivalenl recta ngular
co mpressive stress block to depth of neutral ax is
= confi nement modification factor for struts and
nodes in a strut-and-tie model
factor to accoum for the effect of tl1e anchorage of
ties on the effective co mpressive strength of a nodal
zone
~s = factor to account for the effect of cracking and
con.fi ning reinforcement on the effective compres-
sive s1reng1h of tl1e concrete in a s trut
/:if,, = increase in stress in prestressing re in forcement due
lo faclored loads, ps i (MPa)
r., = principal tensile stra in in c racked concrete due to
factored loads, in.fin. (mm/mm)
e angle between axis of strut, compression diagonal,
or compression field and the tension c hord of the
member
0< = the s ma ller of the two angles between the stJu t
(or the resultant of l:\vo or more struts) and ties
exte nding fro m a curved-bar node
Ber angle of diagonal cracking relative to the longitu-
dinal axis o f a member
9,, = differe nce between angle of diagonal c racking and
co mpression
), = modifi cation factor re flecting the reduced mechan-
ical prope,ties o f lightweight concrete, all relative
rcic'l1 American Concrele lnslilule - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
to normalweight concre te of the same compressive
strength
),., factor used to modify s hear s tre ngth based on the
effects o f member depth, commonly referred 10 as
lhe s ize effecl factor
v = Po isson ·s ratio (may be assumed to be 0.1 7 for
co ncre te w ith!,' up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa])
<I> = strengl!1 reduction factor
2.2-Definitions
Please refer to the latest version of ACI Concrete Tenn i-
nology for a compre hensive lis t of definitions. Definitions
provided here in complement that resource.
8-region-portion of a member in which it is reasonable
to assume 1ha1 slrains due 10 flexure vaiy linearly through
the seclion.
c.o vcr, concrete-d istance between the outermost surface
of embedded reinforcement and the closest outer s urface of
the concrete.
O-reg ioo- portion of a member w ithin approximately a
distance h of a force disco ntinuity or a geometric disconti-
nuity, where nonl inear strain disllibutions occur.
discontinuity- abrupt change in geometry or loading.
effective depth of section-dista nce measured from
extreme compression fiber to centroid of longil udinal
tension reinforcement.
headed d eformed bars- deformed bars w ith heads
attached at one or both ends.
nodal zone-volume of concrete around a node that is
assumed to transfer strut-and-tie forces through the node.
node-point in a strut-and-tie model w here the axe-s of
the s truts, ties, and co nce ntraled forces acling on the j oin!
inte rsect.
node, curved bar- the bend region of a continuous re in-
forcing bar (or bars) .
strength, d esign- nominal strength multiplied by a
stre ngth reduc1ion facwr <j).
st rength, nominal-s tre ngth o f a member o r cross section
calculated in acco rdance with provis ions and assumptions
of the strength design method before application o f any
stre ngth reduclion factors.
strength, required- tre ngth of a member or cross
seclion required to resist factored loads or relaled internal
moments and forces in s uch combinations as required by
codes.
strut, bottle-shaped- trut that is wider at midlength
than a1 ils ends.
strut, boundary- strut localed along the boundary of a
member or disco nlinuity region.
strut, interior-strut 1101 located a long the boundmy of a
member or discontinuity region.
strut-and-tie model-a framework or tn1ss model of a
s tructural member or of a D-region in such a member made
up o f s truts and ties connected a t nodes, capable of trans-
feITing the factored loads lo the supports or to adj acenl
B-regions.
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
CHAPTER 3-0VERVIEW OF THE STRUT-AND-TIE
MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE
3.1-lntroduction
The strut-and-tie method is an approach to evaluate or
design structural concrete by simpl ifying complex states
of stress within a structural member into si mple load paths.
These load paths are idea li zed as two-dimensional or three-
dimensiona l networks of straight, pin-connected, axially
loaded elements that link all applied loads with supports
or with adjacent portions of the structure, such as s hown in
Fig. 3. 1. The arrangement of struts, ties, and nodes is collec-
tively known as a strut-and-tie model (STM) and resembles
a truss or framework within the body of the member.
The process of approximating the load patl1 in a s tructure,
or portion thereof, entaiIs visualizing the flow of forces from
the applied loads to the reactions while maintaining equilib-
rium of a ll forces. External and internal equilibrium condi -
tions s hould be satisfied. The strut-and-tie method complies
with the lower-bound theorem of plasticity (Baker ct a l.
1956; Nie lsen 1971; Th(irlimann e t a l. 1983)- the concept
that a structure can resist a set of applied loads as long as
there is at least one s tress distribution that satisfies equi-
librium without violating the yield condition. Accordingly,
the STM should achieve equilibrium with the applied loads
withou1 exceeding tl1e capacity of any model component
(strut, tie, or node). T hus, for design purposes, the internal
force in each e lement of the STM is limited to that e lement's
design strength as prescribed by the coJTesponding ACI 3 18
strut-and-tie modeling provisions. The nominal strength of
each strut, tie, or node is based on the material strength as
well as the geometry and other characteiistics of the STM
that should foll within the bounds defined by the code provi-
sions. Strut or overall member dimensions may be controlled
by sectional shear force limits. These provisions and limits
are described in Chapter 4.
The stru1-and-tie method is most useful when applied lO
regions of a structure near localized changes in geometry or
applications of external loads. In these instances, the stress
and s train distributions may be complex with nonlinear
variation over the cross section. Because these regions are
defined by the presence of one or more disco11ti11uities, they
are denoted 0 -regions, sometimes refe1Ted to as disturbed
regions. Common examples inc lude corbels, non-slender or
deep beams, anchorage zones for post-tensioned tendons,
and regions near openings in s tructural wal ls. In addition
to these regions of complex load patl1s, the s trut-and-tie
method can be used to model simpler stress states or load
paths, including those with a linear variation of strain over
the cross section. B-regions, sometimes referred to as beam
regions, are those portions of the structure where the assump-
tion that plane sections remain plane is reasonable, and
Bernoulli's c lassical beam theory is appropriate to approxi-
mate the actual behavior. Because simplified methods for the
design of B-regions are available, strut-and-tie mode ling is
most commonly applied to the O-regions of members.
One additional consideration of the s trut-and-tie method
is compatibility. In the stru1-and-tie method, load paths are
American Concrele lnstttule - Copyrighled © Malarial - www.concrele.org
5
Strut
Node
Fig. 3.1- Basic e/emellfs ofa strut-and-tie model for a deep
beam.
discretized into struts and ties connected at nodes, where
these elements are assigned finite dimensions. The method
is based on the assumption that stmts cany compressive
stresses, while the areas immediately adj acent to, but outside
of, the strut boundaries are considered unstressed. A similar
scenario exists with both ties and nodes. This simplification
of the load paths leads to apparent strain discontinui ties at
element boundaries. These discontinuities are permissible:
kinematic compatibility is not required to satisfy the lower-
bound theorem of plastic ity, on which the method is based.
Nonetheless, compatibility considerations can be addressed
by aligning the STM e lements with the linear-e lastic stress
field to improve efficiency and service-load pe1formance as
described in Section 5.3.
3.2-0vervlew of the strut-and-tie method
An overview of the general s trut-and-tie method for
modeling and design of a structural concrete member is
provided in this section. The process can be adapted to a
wide variety of structure and model types. Some of the
concepts described wil l be used later in this chapter to illus-
trate the application of the method through the development
of an example STM. T hese are the basic steps of model
development for each load case:
I. Determine all applied loads and reactions. This step
may need to be repeated to suit the geometric layout of the
STM in later s teps.
2. lden1ify portions of a structure where the use of the
sh1.1t-and-tie method may be necessmy, includi ng regions
near load or geometric discontinuities. These regions
are called O-regions and are discussed in more detai l in
Section 3.3.2.
3. Calculate all forces tha1 s hould be transferred at the
boundaries of the region modeled and the locations where
these forces are expected to act on the STM.
4. Detern1ine if minimum distributed reinforcement is
warranted in accordance with ACI 3 18- 19 Section 23.5.
Use of distributed reinforcement may influence the allow-
able s trut strength (Step I0).
5. Check that the member dimensions are adequate to
satisfy any applicable sectional shear force limits such as
those prescribed in ACI 3 18-19 Sections 23.4.4 or 9 .9.2.
<acl)
6 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Fig. 3.3. I-Elevatio11 view of example stmcture with actions.
6. Develop an STM consisting of struts and ties inte r-
secting at nodes that is based on the flow of forces through
the region to either suppo,ts or adjacent B-regions. Model
development should include consideration of possible
effects of cracking. In some situations, especia ll y in more
complex configurations, a linear-elastic finite element
analysis (FEA) can be helpful, but not required, for estab-
1ishing load paths based on principal sh·ess trajectories.
Three-dimensional e ffects s hould also be considered.
7. Calculate the internal force e ffects for each element
wiU1in the STM to achieve equi librium with U1e forces
appl ied at the boundaries of the region modeled .
8. Determine a configuration of reinforcement, prestressed
or nonpresh·essed, to resist a ll tie forces from the STM .
Often, ties are s ized first, as they can affect the s izes of
nodes and struts and may necessitate modification of the
model geometry. This process is discussed in Chapter 4.
9. Determine the geometry of the nodes and struts based
on the overall model layout and the configuration of the
ties chosen in the previous s tep. This process is discussed
in Chapter 4.
IO. Ca lculate the design s trength of each s trut and node by
c-0nside1ing the re levant effectiveness factors and compare
these ca pacities to the factored load demands at each node/
strut interface.
11 . Consider revisions to the STM configuration, member
dimensions, or specified concrete s trength as necessa,-y
to satisfy the s trut or nodal strength requirements. The
arrangement of reinforcement s hould be consistent with
the geometric layout of the model. A suitable configuration
of longitudinal or confinement re inforcement to enhance
the s trength of struts and nodes may also t,e considered.
Recheck the design strength of all ties, s truts, and nodes
relative to factored forces after revising the STM.
12. Determine a configuration for additional distributed
reinforcement to address serviceabil ity and ductil ity
considerations, such as that required by ACI 318-19
Section 23.5.1 , as well as other requirements that apply
to specific member types (for example, corbels). Such
distributed reinforcement, if provided in s ufficient quan-
tity at appropriate locations, may increase the efficiency
factor of interior struts, enhance the deformation capacity
of the member, and help control crack widths in struts.
American Concrete lnslilule - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
These latter benefits are discussed in detai l in Chapte r 6
of this guide.
13. Ensure adequate anchorage of a ll ties. Reinforcement
used as ties should t,e properly anchored to achieve the
tie force relative to the geometric layout of each node,
in accordance with Section 23.8 and Chapter 25 of AC!
3 18- I9 . Adequate anchorage of the dis tributed re in force-
ment should a lso be achieved.
3.3-Conceptual example
3.3.J l11troductio11- This section presents an introducto1-y
discussion of the strut-and-tie method based on a concep-
tual example, whic h is presented to introduce and illus-
trate general strut-and tie modeling concepts. Subsequent
chapters inc lude details of STM appl ication. T he example
stn,cture consists of a simply-supported beam shown in
Fig. 3.3.1. The self-weight is neglected for simplicity in U1is
conceptual example.
In general, several load combinations may need to be
investigated for any given member or structure and each
may require a d ifferent geometric configuration of the STM
to maintain stat ic equilibrium at U1e nodes. Further, the pres-
ence of movable gravity loads or reversing lateral loads may
necessitate the use of a different STM for each load pattern
or combination. G iven the simplicity of this example struc-
ture, a single load case is s ufficient for discussion.
3.3.2 lde11t/fica1io11 ofB- a11d D-regio11s-Aftertheapplied
loads and c.orresponding reactions are detennined, the s truc-
ture is divided into 8-regions and O-regions. The 8 -regions
can be designed and detai led with cross-sectional sh·ength
methods described in Chapter 22 of AC I 3 18-1 9. The use of
an STM as described in Chapte r 23 of ACI 318-19 is also
allowed in these regions. In the D-regions, conventional
beam the-01-y from Chapter 22 of AC! 318-19 that assumes
a linear variation of strains over the cross section is not a
reasonable basis for design. Instead, STMs are used to repre-
sent ideal ized load paths in these D-regions.
Based on St. Venant's princip le, D-regions are normall y
identified as regions occurring within one cross-sectional
dimension It of a geometric or load discontinuity. A
commonly adopted value of It is the cross-sectional dimen-
sion perpendicular to the axis of bending. The actual length
of the segment selected for analysis can be expanded to
larger regions if desired or if required 10 ensure the adequate
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 7

D B

• h h a

Fig. 3.3.la-B- and D-regio11s ofexample srrucwre.

transition of the load path from the D-region to adjacent

B-regions. h,I(++ t+>I"2
For the example beam, two D-regions resulting from loading
discominuities are detennined as illustrated in Fig. 3.3.2a.
Ih1 I..
"2 I

Each of these 1wo shaded D-regions represenls the overlap- mn

ping discontinuity zones thal result from the applied load
and the reaction force near each e nd of the beam. A single (f c::J t>Ih
B-region occupies the remaining portion of the beam. Due
to the symmetry of the beam and this load case, strul-and-tie
h
1--1 1--1
h

modeling will be discussed only for the D-region at the left

end of1he beam. \+ "2
ACI 3 I 8- 19 conlains additional guidance on the detenni-
nalion of D-regions for the common types of geometric or
h1
loading discontinuities depicted in Fig. 3.3.2b, along with
the forces acting on the D•rcgion boundaries. The geometric
discontinuil ies in Fig. 3.3.2b(a) are so named because 1he
~
disturbance arises from an abrupl c hange in the geometric (a) Geometric discontinuities
shape of a member. Loading discontinuities s hown in the
left three cases in Fig. 3.3.2b(b) arise due to the presence of h
a local ized application of load, including supp-011 reactions
+'
or applied concentrated loads, as is the case in this example.
A corbel, as shown al righc in Fig. 3.3.2b(b), is influenced by l ">}
both geometric and loading discontinuities.
3.3.3 Bou11da1v forces a11d basic strllt-and-tie mode/-
The forces acting on each of the boundaries of each D-region
are determined next. Figure 3.3.3 indicates the i111ernal
sec1ional load effects (shear force V and bending moment (t fj] h
{
M) compuled al the D-region boundary withi n the beam, as
well as how these load effects are resolved into forces acting 2h
on the selected STM. These forces should be equilibrated by
the load path defined by the model.
This simple direct-stn1t model represents an intuiti ve flow
nonn u h
of forces in the D-region. S1ru1s are indicated as thick, dashed
lines (green); ties are thick, solid lines (red). The lower chord
provides tension resislance whereas the upper chord and the
diagonal Strut AJ are in compression. The depth of the lower
chord is detennined by the practical location of tension rein-
forccmeol and by the dimensions of nodes described later.
i h
.,±
(b) Loading and geometric discontinuities
The depU1 or lhe upper chord is ac first estima1ed; this could
be done by employing the equi valent rectangular compres-
Fig. 3.3.2b- Types ofD-regio11s (ACJ 318-19 Fig. R23. /).
sive stress distribution used in B-region design. The diagonal
that frames into Node C can-ies no force because there is no wi1h 1hin, dotted lines and labeled 0) are often not explic-
shear force Von the model boundary. Likewise, the vertical illy included in lhe STM. However, they would become
CJ ca1Ties no force. These zero-force members (indica1ed necessary lO 1ransmit forces if lhe loading was changed lO

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8 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

• .I
Fig. J.3.3-D-region: boundary forces and direct-s11·ut
model. Fig. 3.J.4a-D-region: model with vertical transverse
reinforcement.
an asymmetric case, or if shear forces from self-weight were
included. They might also be needed for numerical stabil ity
if the STM forces are determined using some commercial
software or other calculation techniques . With no shear
resisted by the diagonal at the boundary for the symmetric
loading in the example, the up1}er and lower c hords resist the
boundary bending moment M with equal but opposite force.s
computed to satisfy equil ibrium. The chord positions can be
refined after strut stresses and reinforcement quantities arc
estimated from an initial model analysis.
3.3.4 Model r"1finement and altematives- For the
a/2 a/2
re mainder of this example, several variants on the basic
model introduced in Fig. 3.3.3 are presented to illustrate a
range of possib ilities that can be considered in developing Fig. 3.3.4b- D-region: combined statically indeterminate
an STM. In practical applicat ions, it is common to consider model.
only one or a few model geometJies. A common alternative
model that incorporates transverse re inforcement between
the load a nd the support is shown in Fig. 3.3.4a.
The vertical Tie BH in this indirect load transfer STM is
used to incorporate conventionally oriented transverse rein-
forcement. This model becomes more appropiiate as aid
increases (larger than approx imately 2) and the slope of the
direct strut AJ in Fig. 3.3.3 flattens (less than approximately
25 degrees), indicating a transition away from deep-beam
s hear behavior as the direct-strut force demand becomes
extremely large. Analysis of the STM in Fig. 3.3.4a indicates
p ,,_ _ .,_2--;>l+- a/2
- -+I
that the vertical reinforcement in BH s hould be proportioned
and detailed to provide a design tie strength no less than the
applied load P. The force magnitudes in the diagonal struts Fig. 3.3.4c~D-region: adjusting node location.
are less than in the direct-strut model shown in Fig. 3.3.3,
and the lower-chord tension demand decreases in Tie AB. If the designer prefers adjusting the geometry of a single
thus reducing the tie anchorage demand at Node A. STM rather than distributing loads between superimposed
Figure 3.3.4b represents an STM that combines features models, the model s hown in Fig. 3.3.4c offers a single,
of the direct-strut and indirect-transfer models. This model statically determinate, indirect-transfer STM for selectively
is statically indeterminate, but it can be decomposed into proportioning the longitudinal and transverse re in forcement.
a s uperposition of two statically determinate models- one The forces in AB, BH, AH, HJ, and BJ depend on the
like Fig. 3.3.3 and one like Fig. 3.3.4a. selected location of Node H, which is the only change
The designer is then fac-ed with choosing how to appor- from the STM of Fig. 3.3.4a. As Node H approaches the
tion load between the direct-strut STM of Fig. 3.3.3 and the line connecting Nodes A and J, this indirect-transfer STM
indirect-1ransfer STM of Fig. 3.3.4a. Thus, Tie BH in the transfonns into the direct-strut STM. The optimum position
combined STM will be subjected to less tension than Tie of Node H could be estimated by visualizing compressive
BH in the STM of Fig. 3.3.4a. Methods for determining stress trajectories or by minimizing the stra in e nergy in the
an appropriate distribution of loads between the statically model (as discussed in 5.4.3), which would theoretically
detenninate STMs are discussed in Section 5.4. require the least reinforcement and exhibit the best service-
level perfonnance (least post-cracking deformation).

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
z
a
.I
Fig. 3.3.4d- D-region: poor model.
Figure 3.3.4d represents another STM that might be
considered for this example but is a poor c hoice for several
reasons. Although the STM theoretically provides a solution
that is in equilibrium with the g iven loading, the diagonal
tension force in CH and the lack of tie force between Nodes
A and C are problematic as presented in Fig. 3.3.4d. The
sl ightest (in-plane) horizonta l load or end-region cracking
wi ll result in instabil ity of Strut AH. The tie re inforcement
could be difficult to anchor adequately due to limited space
beyond Node H. Even if these issues were resolved, this
STM cou ld ex hibit wide cracking under service loads. ln
effect, the tension that was resisted by the lower Chord AC
in the other STMs is now resisted by the inclined Tie CH.
However, cracking of ll1e concrete across CH is necessary
before the tie re inforcement becomes fu lly engaged. For
this to occur, very wide cracks wil l open in the unreinforced
region between Nodes A and C, resulting in unacceptable
service-level performance. This poor performance could be
quantified via the s train energy in the model, which is greater
lhan the strain energy in the models presented previously. In
addition, the use of inclined nonprestressed re in forcement in
Tie CH can be difficult to construct and adequately anchor,
especially when better-alternative STMs exist.
3.4-Hlstorical development of the strut-and-tie
method
3.4. t Early developmenr and codification- The s trut-and-
tie method has its o,ig in in the parallel-c hord huss models
proposed by Ritter ( 1899), Considere ( 1900), and Morsch
( 1909) to rationally dete1mine the amount of reinforce-
mem necessary to transmit applied loads to the supports of
concrete beams. This modeling approach was s ubsequently
refined by other researchers (Kupfer 1964; Leonhardt 1965)
and became the basis for s hear design provisions of Euro-
pean codes. Three-dimensional truss models were also
proposed by various researchers as a rational approach for
the design of beams for torsion (Rausch 1929; Lampert and
Thiirlimann 1971 ; Collins and Mitchell 1980; Hsu 1988).
Fu11her deve lopment of these modeling concepts included
the adoption of limit analysis in the plasticity theory as the
scientific basis for the strul-and-tie method (Nielsen 197 1;
Thurlimann ct a l. 1983). However, application of the method
was still mainly limited to a selection of typical O-regions,
American Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
9
such as deep beams, dapped--end be.ams, corbels, and wa lls
(IABSE 1978, 1979).
Works by Marti ( I 985a,b), Collins and Mitchell ( 1986),
Schlaich et a l. ( 1987), Schlaich and Schafer ( 199 1, 200 I),
and Reineck (1996) were instrumental 10 the expanded
use of strut-and-tie modeling as a rational design method.
St.rut-and-tie model provisions were added to various major
No11h American and European codes o r standards, including
CAN3 -A23 .3M-84, CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO 1994), DIN
I045- 1, and ACI 3 18-02.
3.4.2 Research ejforls
3.4.2. 1 Struts and node.;~ Considerable research has
focused on understanding factors influencing the s trength
of struts and nodes within STMs. Researchers have quanti-
fied and recommended efficiency factors for strut a nd node
strengths chat are appropriate for use in design or analysis
(MacGregor 1997; Marti 1985a; Nielsen ct al. 1978; Schlaich
et al. 1987; Tuchscherer et al. 2011 a; Yun and Ramirez 1996,
20 I 6; Yun 2006).
Experimental investigations have been conducted to
understand the behavior of concrete under biax ia l stress
conditions (Kupfer et al. 1969; Liu et a l. 1972; Vecchio a nd
Collins 1986). Effective strut strengths in unifonn compres-
sion fields that reflect strain compatibil ity and the resulting
softened response of cracked re in forced concrete have been
proposed (Coll ins and Mitchell 1986).
Analytical failure criteria have also been studied, with
corresponding proposa ls used as a basis for nodal zone
stress limits (Kupfer and Gerstle 1973). Bearing strengths
of nodal zones with different configurations of intersecting
struts and ties have been s tudied experimentally (Jirsa e t a l.
199 1; Polla 1992), and e ffective stre ngths of the concrete
within nodes have been proposed (Bergmeister et a l. 199 1;
Tuchschcrer ct a l. 2011 b ). Schafer reviewed nodes for the jib
Stmclural Co11crere textbook (jib 20 IOa).
3.4.2.2 Configurarion ofsrru/s and ries-ln an indetermi-
nate shucnire, the location and quantity of the tie reinforce-
ment based on the selected confi guration o f struts and ties
can subs tantially change the flow of forces (Rogowsky and
MacGregor 1986; Maxwell and Breen 2000; Kuchma et al.
2008 ; Garber et al. 2014 ; Chae and Yun 2015). Schlaich e t
al. ( 1987) recommended an anging the struts and ties within
the STM in accordance with the principal stress direc-
tions obtained from a linear-elastic soluti on of the region.
By adopting this approach, a design can provide adequate
strength and service-load perfonnance with a statically inde-
terminate STM (Barnes 2002). T he resulting design requires
little or no redistribution of internal forces in the indeter-
minate STM after cracking; therefore, the ductility demand
is minimized.
The development of STM techniques to implement three-
dimensional (3-0) truss models has been investigated by
several researchers (Adebar and Zhou 1996; Nguyen 2002;
Widianto and Bayrak 20 I0).
3.4.3 Design applicarions and examples-Marti ( I 985a,b)
provided introductory overviews of STM application. Cook
and Mitchell ( 1988) demonstrated the use and effectiveness
<acl)
10 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
of the strut-and-tie method for design of common O-regions.
Joint ACI-ASCE Commiucc 445 ( 1998) included the
method in a report on s hear design and published an exten-
sive STM b ibliography (Joint ACI -ASCE Committee 445
1997). Design with STM was summarized by Schafer for
jib Bulletin 3 (fib 1999). Fl P ( 1999), based on the CEB-FI P
Model Code 1990, fom1ed a foundation for STM application
examples in two fib repo1ts (fib 2002, 20 II ). ACI SP-208
included many examples for the application of strnt-and-
tie models. The same volume included a presentation and
j ustification of the original ACI 3 18 STM provisions by
MacGregor (2002), as well as comparisons to tests by
Mitchell eta!. (2002). A further set of examples was provided
in ACI SP-273.
Application of the method has been demonstrated for the
design of precas t concrete connections (Pensiero 1989),
design of prestressed concrete members (Rami rez 1994;
Schla ich ct al. 1987; Tan and Naaman 1993; Tan and Tong
I999), and in anchorage zones (Breen et a l. 1994; Yun
2005). Reineck (2005) provided numerical examples for the
design of O-regions in prefabricated members, including
corbels, dapped-end beams, and beam webs with openings.
Birkle et al. (2002) used the method to design double corbels
re inforced using T-headed bars. Adcbar et al. (1990) and
Nguyen (2002) applied 3-D STMs to the design of pile caps.
The application of strut-and-tie principles for the evaluation
of seismic actions, such as in beam-column jo ints (Sritharan
et al. 2001 ). walls with openings (Yanez et al. 1992), and
diaphragms (Bland6n and Rodriguez 2005), bas atso
been introduced.
3.4.4 Va/idatio11 and improveme111 of code provisio11s-
Experimental evaluation ofthe ultimate load capacity ofdeep
beamsdesigned in accordancewithAC I3 18-02 was completed
by several researchers (Agui lar et al. 2002; Chen et a l. 2002;
Maxwell and Breen 2000). Experimental validation of
the strength of corbels, dapped-ended beams, and deep
beams designed according to ACI 318-02, CSA A23.3-94,
and CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 was also completed
(Mitchell et a l. 2002). Polla ( 1992) assessed the nodal zone
stre ngth recommendations of CAN3-A23.3-M84.
Other testing programs on deep beams and inve1ted-
tee beams have provided information on the accuracy and
conservatism of ACI 318- 11, AASHTO LRFD (AASIITO
20 I0), and CSA A23.3-04 STM provisions (Tuchschel'er
et al. 2010b, 2011a, 2016; Birrcher et al. 2013 , 20 14) and
recommended improvements to those AC! 318 andAASHTO
LRFD STM design provisions (Tuchscherer et al. 2014). In
general, these research studies as well as others (Kuchma et
al. 2008) validated the conservativeness of the ACl 318 STM
provisions while highlighting areas where improvement is
possible, s uch as the effect of triaxial confinement on node
strength, the role of distributed reinforcement, and the influ-
ence of bond stresses outside the nodal zone. The AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications were revised in 2016
to implement some of these findings, and these c hanges a re
described in Section 8.3.2 o f this guide.
Bazant ( 1997) proposed a size effect factor for strut streng1.h
in beams without stim1ps. Based on a review of test results
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Malarial - www.concrete.org
fi-om the ACI-OAfStb Shear Database (ACI-DAfSTB 6 17),
Reineck and Todisco (20 14) concluded that AC! 3 18-I4
STM provisions were unconservative for deep beams without
transverse re inforcement and recommended a reduction in the
design strength of unrein forced strnts. Laughery and Pujol
(2015) reported no significant difference in the strength of
prismatic unre inforced struts and planar bott le-shaped unrein-
forced struts. Rezaei el al. (2019) showed that interior shuts in
deep beam specimens are weaker than the struts in comparable
truss-like specimens because interior stmts in a beam pass
through a region of diagonal tension. Based on this testing
and analysis of the ACI-DAfStb Shear Database, Klein et al.
(2019) developed design requirements for maximum allow-
able shear stren&>th in D-regions without distributed reinforce-
ment. TI1ese issues were addressed by changes to shu t loca-
tion definitions, limits on a llowable shear force, and revised
strut strength coefficients in ACI 318- 19 Section 23.4.
3.4.S Rece11t deve/op111e111J~ Strut-and-tie model code
provisions include limitations on material strengths, geom-
e try, or other criteria. Rece nt research has investigated the use
of shut-and-tie analysis and design approaches that extend
these limits. For example, researchers have examined the
use o f STMs for deep beams containing high-strength steel
re inforcement (Garay and Lubell 2016; Hassan et al. 2008).
Andennatt and Lubell (20l3a,b) investigated the application
of STM provisions to predict the strength of deep beams
with fiber-reinforced polymer re in forc ing bars and s uggested
practical limits ofSTM use due to the limited ductili ty avail-
able with this type of re inforcement. The extension ofSTMs
to design with higher-s trength concrete has been investigated
(Foster and G ilbert I 998; Warwick and Foster I993; 11m et
al. 1997; Watanabe and Kabeyasawa 1998; Ghoneim 200 I;
Nielsen 2011 ), including members with concrete compres-
sive strengths up to 20,300 psi (140 MPa) (Von Ramin and
MaLamoros 2004, 2006). Section 6.4 of AC! ITG-4.3R-07
contains a summary of recommendations related to shu t
stre ngth in high-s trength concrete.
CHAPTER 4-DESIGN STRENGTH OF STRUTS,
TIES, AND NODES
4.1-0vervlew
Chapter 4 presents the AC I 318-1 9 strut-and-tie meth-
odology and re lated design considerations. Criteria in ACI
318- 19 include limitations on the stresses applied to struts,
ties, and nodes relative to their ultimate strengths, as well
as geometric design limitations. This c hapter provides
guidance for proportioning tl1e elemems of a strut-and-tie
mode l (STM) and determining their respective capacities. In
addition to the prescriptive provisions in ACI 3 18- 19, this
chapter also discusses design conditions where the Code
does not provide guidance. In these cases, recommendations
are pre-sented from other codes. standards of practice, and
researc h studies.
The STM provisions conta ined wi thin ACI 318-19 are
applicable to most structural concrete members rega rdless
of their configuration. As such, applying the STM wi ll lead
to a design resu ll that satisfies the strength requ irements at
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 )
the ultimate limit state (ULS). This is one of the strengths
of adopting the strut-and-tie method for design or ana l-
ysis. However, it is important to note that even if structural
members are designed per the STM prov isions, the design
professional shou ld a lso be aware of othe r prescriptive
provis ions withi n ACI 3 18- 19 for specific member types.
These prescriptive provisions can often govern aspects of
geometry, reinforcement details, and strength limitations
for materials. For example, Sections 9 .9, 11.7, and 16.5
of ACI 3 18-1 9 contain prescriptive detailing requireme nts
specifi c to deep beams, walls, and corbels, respectively.
4.2-Strut and node types and factors Influencing
strength
4.2.l Overview- AC) 318- 19 provisions indicate the
stress lim it for struts, ties, and nodes. The resistance of
struts is influenced by their geometric shape, dimensions
of surrounding concrete, and the relationship to reinforce-
ment or tensile stress fields. Section 4.2.2 of this document
discusses strut types and the factors that influence their
strength. The strength of nodes is influenced by similar
factors, as discussed in Section 4.2.3.
4.2.2 Struts
4.2.2. 1 Strut types- Struts are used to represent the
resultant of compressive stress fields. Beginning with ACI
3 18-1 9, stm t types are classified based on location within
the member as either: I) boundary struts; or 2) interior strut~.
Figure 4.2.2.1 provides an example of these strut types as
they occur within a beam.
A boundary strut occurs within a unifonn compressive
stress field, or regions where the compressive stress is not
traversed by tensile stress fields. Interior struts spread later-
ally and are c rossed by tensile stress fi elds in the transverse
direction. As shown in Fig. 4.2.2.1 , boundary stmts and inte-
rior struts are often approximated as prisma1 ic having the
same cross section s ize at each end. However, they can also
be non-pris matic.
In ACI 318- 14 and prior versions of the code, strut types
are defined by shape, namely prismatic, and bottle-shaped,
where 1he overall concrele geometry allows the compres-
sive force to spread to a larger sb11t size along the length
than occurs at either e nd. The pris matic strut was renamed
as a boundary strut to more accurate ly define its location
and associated unifo11n stress field. Bottle-shaped struts
were renamed as interior struts to emphasize the fact that
their strength is determined by the presence of transverse
tension, rather than the spreading of the compression. Treat-
ment of these stm t defi nitions by other international codes is
presented in Chapter 8.
4.2.2.2 Factors i1!flue11ci11g strut strength- T he strength
of concrete in a strut depends on the multi-axial state
of stress as well as disturbances from cracks. Struts can
foi l due to axial c rus hing or from lack of restraint to the
presence of transverse diagonal tension. Major factors
that affect the strut ax ial stre ngth include: I) the effective
stre ngth of concrete; 2) presence of cracking a nd diagona l
tension; 3) confinement provided by s urrounding concre te
or reinforcement; and 4) distributed reinforcement across
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11
Boundary Strut
Interior Strut
Nodal Zone
Fig. 4.2.2. I- Example ofstrut types as they occur i11 as/rut-
a11d-tie model.
the stru1. Experimental 1ests on deep beams indi cate that
diagonal tension can be the governing fa ilure mode, espe-
cially if distributed reinforcement is not provided (Klein e t
al. 20 I9).
4.2.2.2.l Effective stre11gth of co11crete-The e ffective
strength of concrete in a boundary strut is limited to 0.85}/.
This reduction relative to J/ accounts for load duration
elfecls, the difference in stress fields between cyl inders and
struts, and the influence of ve-rtical migration of bleed water
(MacGregor 2002).
The effecti ve strength of concrete in a strut compared
to Jc' may be further reduced as the cyl inder compres-
sive strenglh is increased because the quality of aggregate
has a greate r influe nce on its ability to transfer shear and
tension (Bergmeister et al. 1993 ; MacGregor 2002; Bahen
and Sanders 2007; Ma,ti n and Sanders 2007; Bahen and
Sanders 2009: Anderman and Lubell 2013b; Tuchscherer
c1 al. 2014). For this reason, strut strength coeffic.ients
specified within some codes of practice or gu ide lines (for
example, fib I999) are determ ined as a function of the
cylinder compressive strength. J-lowever, strut strength
coefficie nts spec ified in AC! 318- 19 are independent of
the cyl inder compressive strength because these provisions
have been calibra1ed to ava ilable 1est data which incl ude a
wide range of compressive strengths.
4.2.2.2.2 Struts crossi11g cracks or diagonal te11sio11
.fields-T he effective strength of concrete in compression is
further reduced when the compression stress field c rosses
regions of cracking, transverse tension, or both (Vecchio and
Coll ins 1986). The location, spacing, orientation, and widths
of c rncking at struts can be attributed lo numerous factors,
including: I) diagonal tension and the presence of tensile
strains crossing the idealized stn1t (Fig. 4.2.2.2.2a); 2) lateral
spreading of compression in an interior strut; 3) cracking
from prior load cases, including cyclic or reverse loading;
4) biaxial or biaxial loading or confinement; 5) reinforce-
ment configuration and spacing; and 6) member depth. One
source of tension transverse to a strut is diagonal tension
from shear, as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.2.2.2a, which shows the
elastic p,incipal stress trajeclories for the deep beam shown
in Fig. 4.2.2.1 .
<acl)
12 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GU IDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

.\ C .
•.. •
Compressive
s,,-
•
• •
:c T

~! ~ ..
" •
••
.: c :c
►T
i -••: T

(i) C-C-C Node (ii) C-C-T Node (iii) C-T-T Node

Fig. 4.2.3.Ja-Classification ofnodes (AC/ 3/8-/9).

!l ll l l l ll ll l l l l l !lllllllllllllll
Fig. 4.2.2.2.2a-Principa/ stress trajectories in a deep beam
I
result in tension Lransverse 10 interior s t1111. I I
6-------q
Load
CLZ: -130mm (5 in.)
Leed
/ "--smu,.,, \
,' (CCC) \
0.ection 2 O,rection 2
I \
I \
I \
I 01,.,.,04
Q (CCT)

a)STM bl STM wilh Sltl!SS fields

Load Load Leed
o.ection 1 Direction 1 O,redion 1
Fig. 4.2.2.2.2b-Strut crossing a crack caused by reverse
loading (adaptedfi-om Mihaylov et al. {2010]).
The lateral spreading of compression introduces tensi le
stress transverse to the strut resulting in spl itting. This tensi le
stress tends 10 cause longitudinal cracks near the ends o f the
s trut. According to MacGregor (2002) and Schlaich ct al.
( 1987), this cracking wi ll occur when the compressive s tress
on the e nd of the strnt exceeds approximately 55 percent of
the concrete compressive strength.
In members w ithout d istributed rein forcement, shear
strength decre.ases with member depth due to the s ize effect.
The size effect factor is included in the sectional she.ar design
equations in ACJ 318-1 9 as wel l as Eq. (4.4.5) of this docu-
ment, which applies to discontinuity regions without distrib-
uted re in forcement.
Finally, strnt strength is reduced w hen structures are
loaded in reverse or multiple d irections, as illustrated in
Fig. 4 .2.2 .2.2b. For this reason, Section 23.11.2 .1 of AC!
318-19 requires a multiplier of 0.8 o n strut strength for
struts located in regions of the seism ic -force-resisting
system subject to reverse loading from earthquakes because
s truts wi ll cross w ide preex is ting cracks that formed during
earlier loading cycles.
4.2.2.2.3 Confinement- Whereas tnmsverse tension
adversely affects the strut strength, compression that is
transverse to a strut can increase its s trength if it confines
the strut in the biaxial or triax ia l directions. The beneficial
effects of concrete perpendicular to the STM or reinforce-
ment placed to confine the strut may be used to increase the
Fig. 4.2.3.lb-STM with discrete and smeared node noted
(Scl,/aich et al. 1987).
stn,t strength. Refer 10 Section 4.4.6 o f this document for
more information.
4.2.3 Nodes
4.2.3.1 Node types- A nodal zone is the region where
three or more struts o r ties or external forces intersect. Nodes
are classified based o n the types of forces (that is, element
types) that meet at the node. As illustrated in Fig. 4.2.3. 1a, a
CCC node is used to denote a node bounded by struts on ly. A
CCT node anchors one tie and a CTT node anchors two ties.
If o ne of the s tn1ts or ties adjoining a node represents
a concentrated stress or force, which typically occurs at
an external load or support, then the node is referred to
as a singular or discrete node. On the other hand, a node
bounded by wide stress fields, which typically occurs at an
in ternal location along a structuml member, is referred to
as a smeared or comimt011s node because the distribution
of force is s meared (or s pread) over an indistinct length.
Figure 4.2.3 .1b presents an STM with both discrete and
s meared nodes identified.
4.2.3.2 State ofstress in node
4.2.3.2.1 Hydrostatic nodes-Originally, STM provisions
were developed assuming that nodal zones would have equal
stresses on all s ides (MacGregor 2002). Jn this case, the node
is te1111ed a hydrostatic node. In the hydrostatic approach,
the idea lized shape of nodal zones is arranged such that
the stresses on a ll sides of the node, from the truss member
forces as well as from the boundaiy forces meeting at the
node, are equal. As the name implies, the resulting state of
stress inside the node is hydrostatic-that is, the stresses

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 13

are isotropic, unifom1, and equal in all directions. For p lane
stress problems, the term "hydrostatic" may be mislead ing
beca use only the in-plane stresses are isotropic; the out-of-
plane stresses are negligible. The condition o f equal stl"esses
on a ll node sides is achieved by selecting the sides s uch
that their lengths are proportional and perpendicu lar to the
forces acting o n them; refer to Fig. 4.2.3.2. J(a). In defining
the effective widths o f ties intersecting at the node, the tie
forces are assumed to be anchored by fictitious bearing
plates behind the node; refer to Fig. 4.2.3.2. l(b) through (d).
4.2.3.2.2 Non-hydrostatic 11ode-T he require ment of
equal stresses on all faces of a node often resu Its in imprac-
tical construction deta ils. T herefore, nodal regions are orten
proportioned to be non-hydrostatic. Figure 4.2.3.2.2a illus-
trates the sta tes of stress associated with hydrnstatic and
non-hydrostatic nodes for a two-dimensional node.
The s hape of a non-hydrostatic node can be simple to
construct, but the state of stress within the node can be diffi-
cult to determine. The presence of shear stress within a non-
hydrostatic node and its e ffect on node stre ngth is a topic

a) CCC node
iF,
b) CCT node
that requires further investigation. De parting from a hydro-
static state of stress could potential ly result in compatibility
stresses not covered by typical stre ngth values (Schlaich et
al. 1987). Accordingly, Schla ich et a l. ( 1987) recommended
designers limit the ratio of maximum to minimum sh·esses
on the node faces to no more than 2. Finite e lement analyses
have been used to obtain the stress distribution in nodal zones
(Alshegeir and Ramirez 1992 ; Yun 2000; Yun a nd Ramirez
1996). Alternatively, Mohr's circle can provide insight into

~=:,---,,. '-[• the idealized state of stress in these zones as described in

Section 5.7.
The idealized shape of a non-hydrostatic nodal zone is
c) CTTnode d) TTT node formed by the intersection of the effective widths of struts
and ties (Fig. 4.2.3.2.2b). In this example, the length of the
Fig. 4.2.3.2. I-Example.<ofhydro.<talic node.r.

~
w,.L:.:

Mohr's Circle

, = o 2 --. no shear o, > 02--. shear

-o
7 +o -o 01 +a
(tension) (compression) (tension) (compression)

·t ·t

a) Hydrostatic Node b) Non-Hydrostatic Node

Fig. 4.2.3.2.2a- Mecha11ics ofhyd,vstatic and non-hydrostatic node (Thompson 2002).
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14 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
~ ---~.:...--.:::::..J-
--
Fig. 4.2.3.2.2b- Const111crion of non-hydrostatic nodal
zone.
4 each end of the stn,t (that is, at the strut-to-node interface).
5
Fig. 4.2.3.2.lc-Example of a transition zone for a node
formed by five truss elements (Sch/aic/1 and A nag11osro11
1990).
bearing plate is fixed , as is the effective height of the tie
based on the reinforcement placement.
If more than three members frame into a node, they are
otlen resolved into three equivalent vector components . As
a conceptual alternative, Schlaich and Anagnostou ( 1990)
s uggest using transition stress fields to subdivide a node
into several intennediate nodes (Fig. 4.2.3 .2.2c). Both
approaches reduce the number of nodal forces to three.
4.3-STM strength requirements
The s trength of an interna lly and externally s tatically
determinate s tn1ctural member is detenn ined by the strength
of the STM, based on the e lement w ith the least strength
(that is, the weakest link). If the internal force applied to
one of these elements exceeds its strength, potential failure
modes can include the crushing of concrete in the strut or at
the interface between the strut and node, fracture (yielding)
<cicl'1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
of tie reinforcemem, or anchorage failure of the tie rein-
forcemem. Thus. the design strength of each element s hould
be greater than or equal to the factored load effects on the
e lement, or
(4.3)
The nomina l strengths F,, of s truts , ties, o r nodal regions
are described in Sections 4.4, 4.5, and 4 .6, respectively.
It is noted that because the strut-and-tie metl,od relies on
the lower-bound theorem of plasticity, fo r statically indeter-
minate systems, the assessment of the weakest link s hould
be made after any and all redis tribution of forces occurs.
Common industry practice is to achieve redistribution
through y ie lding of se lected ties, but some redistribution
from the deformation strength of concrete undergoing local-
ized crushing may be possible. In e ither case, redistribution
requires local and/or global defonnation of the member,
and the design 1>rofessional should ensure detai ling of the
primary and distributed reinforcement is provided to a llow
for this defonnation.
4.4-Strength and requirements for struts
4.4.l Strut strength- T he nominal compressive strength
of a strut is taken as
(4.4. la)
where A~ is the cross-sectional area o f the s trut: JM is the
maximum effective stress lim it for the s trut; A.,' is the area
of compression reinforcement a long the length of the strut;
and/.:' is the stress in the compression re in forcement at the
nominal axial strength of the strut. F,,, shall be evaluated at
The effective compressive s trength of the concrete in the
s trut is
(4.4.lh)
where the value of the st111t efficiency factor 13., is dependent
on the type of st111t and quantity of transverse reinforcement
crossing its ax is, as listed in Table 4.4.1.
T he strut efficiency factor 13, is based on the area of concrete
s urrounding and confining tl1e discrete node adjoining the
,J
stn,t and is equal to A2 /A1 :, 2. For other cases, ~,-is equal
to I (Section 4.6.1 ). T he ACI 318-19 Code has s ubstan-
tively updated the strut efficiency factor 13, compared w ith
the ACI 318-14 Code and previous versions. T hese changes
provide consistency with the new definitions fo r strut types
as described above in 4.2.2.1 . In addition, for interior struts
that do not satisfy the minimum re in forcement requirements
of 4.4.4, the strut efficiency is taken as either 0. 75 or 0.40,
depending on the deptl1 of the member (Section 4.4.5). This
limitation is intended to preclude diagonal tension failure
and may be either more or less rest1ictive than the fo nner
ACI 318- 14 factor of 0.60, depending on the configuration
of the strut.
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 15

4.4.2 S1nt1 orie111a1io11- To avoid incompatibi lities
between the shortening of struts and lengthening of adjacent
ties, or a convergence of high compressive and tensile stress,
the orientation of a strut should not cause an excessively
acute angle with any tie. Accordingly, ACI 3 18- 19 requires
a strut to meet a tie at an angle 0, gre.ater than or equal to
25 degrees.
4.4.3 Cross-sectio11a/ dime11sio11s for struts- T he width of
a strut is nonnally defined by the dimensions of the nodes
at each end whic h are, in turn, limited by the width of the
member, column, bea,·ing p late, or tie geometry. Examples
of common geometries are g iven in Fig. 4.4.3.
Table 4.4.1-Strut efficiency factor~-'
Condition
Roundary :;l.n11$
l1uerior struts witll reiilforoement satisfying requirernems i1l
Sc.-ction 4.4.4
huetior stl'uts with diagonal tensio1l strengtll satisfyi ng
requirements in Section 4.4.5
Stmts satisfying be::un-colum1l joi1u requirernems ill ACI
318-19 Ch•pler 15
Interior sttuts witll less reinforcement than specified in
Section 4.4.4
Sui.us in 1ension members. or the. tension zones of members
All other cases
When a s trut frames into an internal or smeared node, the
nodal dimensions and, thus, the effective width of strut (b,)
perpendicular to the planar model, are less clear. Leonhardt
and Walther ( 1962) originally theorized the strut forces to be
concentrated at the stinup legs. T hus, the strength or required
width of the strut would be d irectly related to the spac ing
of stirrups across the width of the web. As a res ult , Leon-
hardt and Walther ( 1962) recommend limiting the maximum
spacing of stirrups across the web to 8 in . (200 mm) for
beams with high shear stress (approximately 4 to 8-.J.fc' [ps i]
or 0.33 to 0.66✓// [MPa]) and 16 in . (410 mm) for beams
with low shear stress (approximately 2 to 4-.J.fc' [psi] or 0.17 to
0.33 '¼' [MPa)) in order to consider the full beam width as
effective; their recommendations are based on tests of beams
p, with 12 in. (300 111111)-wide webs. CSA A23 .3- 14 recom-
mends that the effective width of a strut perpendicular to the
1.0
STM planar model s hould be limited to the concrete within
eight times the longitud inal bar diameters at a s tirrup. By this
approach, a wide member with wide transverse spacing of
0.75
stinups in Fig. 4.4.3(a) could be considered multiple pamllel
STMs. AASHTO LRFD (AAS IITO 20 17) provisions no
longer contain specific requirements for transverse widths of
struts but encourage the use of multiple stim ,p legs in wider
bridge elemcms. AC! 318-19 Chapter 9 requires a maximum
spacing of stinups legs across the beam width of d, or 24 in.
0.40 (6 10 111111) maximum, for nonprestressed beams with low
shear stress and (d/2), o r 12 in. (305 mm) maximum , for
nonprestressed beams with high shear stress, similar to the

V
.

w,
---
L. I( '• ,I
X Viewx-x

a) Strut anchored by reinforcement

b) Strut anchored by bearing e) Strut anchored by bearing

plate and reinforcement plate and strut

Fig. 4.4.3- Determi11atio11 ofp!Vjected stmt width for strut anchored by rei11forceme11t.
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16 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
recommendations of Lubell et a l. (2009). Tuchscherer et a l.
(20 l la) simi larly note that stirrup leg spacing less than d
had no significant effect on the experimental shear strenb>th
and crack widths of deep beams with 2 1 x 44 in. and 36 x
48 in . (530 x I 120 mm and 9 IO x 1220 mm) cross sections
(b,Jh ::: 0. 75).
4.4.4 Dis1rib11tetl crack-control rei1iforceme11t- Per AC!
3 I 8- 19 Commentary, "the strut-and-tie method is derived
from the lower bound theorem of plasticity; therefore, a
member designed using this method requires sufficient re in-
forcement to promote redistribution of the internal force.s
in the cracked state (Marti 1985a)." Also, as discussed in
Section 4.2.2.2, interior struts may be subjected 10 transverse
tension, or may split due to the s preading of compression.
Thus, the strength o f an interior strut is reduced when it
contains less distributed re in forcement than specified, with
two exceptions- a strut may attain its upper strength without
distributed reinforcement: l) when latera lly restrained; or 2)
when member dimensions satisfy a diagonal tension limit
(Section 4.4.5). A continuous ledge suppo1ting a discrete
bearing pad is an example of lateral restraint.
ACI 318- 19 does not require distributed reinforcement for
a laterally restrained strut. For un.restrained stnits, a grid of
reinforcement equal to 0.25 percent of the cross section, or
0.0025b.,s, in each of the two 01thogonal directions meets
the minimum require ment. For reinforcement placed in one
orthogonal direction, its compo nent trnnsverse to the strnt
s hould be equal to 0.25 percent of the cross-sectional area.
Table 23.5.1 in ACI 3 18- 19 prescribes the requ ired distrib-
uted reinforcement, where ex, is the minimum angle between
the strut and reinforcement (Fig. 4.4.4).
While AC( 3 18-1 9 allows placement of the transverse
reinforcement in a single direction, providing a ll the rein-
forcement in one direction is undesirable in large members.
This is because there is the po1en1ial for cracks t0 orient to
avoid intersection with the provided steel. Thus, the disb·ib-
uted crack-control re inforcement should be placed equally
in two orthogonal directions to the extent possible and the
spacing limited between bars in each direction. However,
as is the case for corbels (Fig. 4.4.4), instances may exist
where it is acceptable to place the reinforc-e ment in a single
direction. Per Section 23.5.2 of AC! 318-1 9, the spacing of
distributed reinforcement shall not exceed 12 in. (305 111111)
and the orientation of the strut axis ((1 1) shall not be less 1han
40 degrees.
4.4.S Shear force limit- As described in Section 4.4. 1, a
reduced strut factor of 0.4 should be taken for discontinuity
regions without minimum reinforcement unless member
dimensions are selected such that
V,, ::: ~5tan8)J.., jj; b. d (lb)
(4.4.5)
v. 5 ~0.428tan)J.., jjj b.,d (N)
For prestressed members, d s hall be taken as the distance
from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressed re inforcement and any nonprestressed re in force-
ment but need not be taken less than 0.8h. This limitation
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Malarial - www.concrete.org
----'-Distributed
reinforcement
Fig. 4.4.4- Rei,forcement crossing a s1ru1 (AC! 318-19).
is intended to preclude diagonal tension failure in members
without minimum distributed reinforcement. Note that
the equation includes adjustment factors for lightweight
concrete(),,) and member depth (I,.,) per ACI 318-1 9 Sections
19.2.4 and 22.5.5.1 .3, respectively.
4.4.6 Conjinecl s/lws- The strength of the smn•to-nodc
interface may be increased when the node connected to the
strut includes a bearing surface swrnunded by concrete; that
is, when the adjoining node is confined. A strut can also be
confined with closely spaced hoops or spiral reinforcement.
In this case, AC! 3 18- 19 does no1 provide expl icit guid-
ance. Bcrgmcistcr ct al. ( l 993) proposed an expression for
determining the effective strength of a confined compres-
sion field. Section 7.9 presents a similar application for a
coupl ing beam.
4.4. 7 Struls located in tension regions- Struts may be
located in tension members or in tension zones of members.
In the presence of lransverse tension, the effective compres-
sive strength of concrete is reduced (Section 4.4. 1). Some
common cases of a strut occurring in a tension zone include:
a) an inverted T-beam (Fig. 4.4. 7(a)), where the load on the
ledger is carried to the top of the beam with hanger reinforce-
ment, and b) around a large opening located in the tension
flange ofa beam, such as a box g irder bridge (Fig. 4.4.7(b)).
Example models for inverted T-shape sections are provided
in Section 7.7.
4.4.8 Slruts crossing i111e,jt1ces- Stru1s may cross an
interface such as a construction joint or existing crack. For
example, consider the strut crossing the construction joint
in the corbel shown in Fig. 4.4.8. Section 23.2.11 of ACI
3 I 8-1 9 expl icitly requires an independent check of the shear
friction requirements of ACI 3 18- 19 Section 22.9 "where
it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across any g iven
plane, such as an existing or potential crack, an interface
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 )
Compression
IT~ II
I ' I
t --+--- -
Sttut ln
Ttn•llt Zont
Tension
Cross Section
a) Inverted tee cross section
Fig. 4. 4. ?-Examples qf:uruts located in te,uion regions ofmembers.
Construction Joint
Fig. 4.4.8-Strut crossi11ga11 inte,face between two concretes
cast at dijfere11t limes.
between dissimilar materia ls, or an inte,face between two
concretes cast at different times."
4.5-Strength and requirements for ties
4.5.1 Strength of ties- Calculating the design stre ngth of
a tie is usually stmightforward. Details s uch as bar spacing
and anchorage are critical to the tie strength and deserve
careful considerati on when detailing the tie rein forcement.
The centroidal axis of the reinforcemem in a tie should al ign
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17
Compression
Tension
Cross Section
\\ /
I
Strut in
Ten•fleZOM
! Tension
b) Tension flange with large opening
with the axis of the tie in the STM. In addition, AC! 318- I9
Section 20.2.2.4 limits the maximum value off,. permitted
for design calculations to 80,000 psi (550 MPa) for longitu-
dina l ties and 60,000 psi (410 MPa) for other reinforcement.
In ACl 3 18, the effects of prestressing shall be included
in the strut-and-tie model as an externa l load in accordance
with Section 5.3.11 of AC! 31 8-1 9. Thus, the nominal
strength of a tie is
F,,, =A,J; + A,p(t!.f,,) (4.5.1)
where the resistance is provided by the yield strnngth o f the
mild reinforcement and the remaining incremental stress
increase in the prestressing due LO the application of factored
loads. Refer to Section 5 .12 of this document for additional
discussion of the considerations of prestressing.
4.5.2 Effective tie heig/11-Because the centro id of a tie
should coincide with the centroid of reinforcement, the
effective height ofa horiwntal tie in a beam is often taken as
twice the distance from the edge of the beam to the centroid
of reinforcement (refer to Fig. 4.5.2a(a)). A similar a nalob'Y
can be used for ties in other member types. Depending on
reinforcement placement, an upper limit recommended for
the tie height dimension is the width of a hydrostatic nodal
zone (ACI 3 18-19 Section R23 .8. 1), or
F
ltl
tJ11tt.T
=-"'-
rb (4.5.2)
J ee t
<acl)
18 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

,, ,,

centroid of centroid of
reinforcement reinfo,cement

a) Effective Tie Height, w, b) Maximum Tie Height, w.....,

Fig. 4.5.2a-111.f/ue11ce ofrei11force111e11t placement 011 effective height oftie.

, re in forcement can conservatively be taken at the edge o f the

T Axis of strut bearing plate !hat defines the node.
Where the development length of the bar is shorter than
, the node length, it is recommended that the bar be extended
,·
to the end of the node to be consistent with the force flow in
the model. Otherwise, the node should be truncated at the
Nodal end of the bar and the STM reevaluated.
zone If headed defom1ed bars are used to anchor re in force-
ment, the length avaiIable to develop the bar can be dete r-
mined by assuming that the force in the bar is transferred
to the concrete via a combination of bearing force at an
appropriate ly sized head and bond forces along the bar. This
philosophy is incorporated in the ACI 318-19 provisions
for headed deformed bars in tension (Section 25.4.4). As
an alternative yet consistent with AC] 3 I 8- 19 Chapter 23 ,
Fig. 4.5.21>-Extended nodal zone anchoring two ties. a designer could proportion an anchor plate such that the
tie f~rce is transferred to the nodal zone solely through the
The geometry of some ties may preclude the use of the
bearing force between the face of the node a nd an appropri-
full available depth shown in Fig . 4 .5 .2a(a) lnstead, the
ately sized anchor plate. Thompson e t a l. (2005, 2006a,b)
upper limit g iven in Eq. (4.5.2) should be considered . As
provide additional infonnation.
a n example, the nodal zone for a CTT node at the base of a
. Large members, such as transfer girders, coupling/
dapped end girder is given by Fig. 4.5.2b.
hnk beams, and outriggers in tall buildings norma lly
4.S.3 Anchorage requireme/11s- T ie re inforcement shall be
have multiple layers o f tie reinforcement. When multip le
anchored by mechanical devices, post-tensioning anchorage
layers of reinforcement are used to form a tie, ACI 3 18-19
devices, headed bars, standard hooks, or straight bar devel-
requires the tie to be anchored from where the centroid of
opment per the respective requi rements in ACI 3 18- 19.
the reinforce ment in the tie crosses the extended nodal zone
Anchorage of nonprcSlresscd and prestressed reinforcement
(Fig. 4.5.3 a(b)). However, while not required by ACI 318- 19,
s hould be provided to support the nominal design force in
when the exte nsion or end detai ls in each layer vary, it is
the tie. Anchorage requirements for curved-bar nodes are
recommended to verify the anchorage length for each layer.
discussed in Section 4 .6.7 o f this document. When an STM
Figure 4.5.3b illustrates a tie consis ting of multiple layers of
is used for structures with internal o r extemal i11dete11ni-
re mforcement and tJ1e lenbrth available to anchor each layer.
nacy, it is recommended the anchorage be provided for the
The ACI 318- 19 Section 25.4.4. 1 minimum clear spacing
nominal strength of the tie. When an STM is used to model
require ment supersedes the minimum spacing requirement
part o f a seismic- force-resisting system, A.Cl 31 8-19 Section
in Section 25.2.2 of ACI 318-19 for bars placed within two
23.11 requires the develo1>ment length be increased by a
or more layers.
factor of 1.25.
Some members could have nodes lhat anchor ties but are
ACI 318-19 requires the designer to develop the tie force
spaced fmther apart than available re inforcing bar lengths, or
" in each direction at the point where the centro id of the re in-
where constructabi lity concerns dictate the need for shorter
forcemenl in the tie leaves tl1e extended nodal zone" , unn e segments o f re in forc ing bars. In these instances, tie re in-
as shown for an internal node in Fig. 4.5.2b and an external
forcement wi ll need to be spl iced . The design professional
node in Fig. 4.5.3a. In Fig. 4.5.3a(b), this occurs where
s hould give consideration to redundancy o f load paths and
the oud ine o f the extended nodal zone is crossed by the
whether other portions of AC! 3 18- 19 contain requirements
centroid of the re inforcement in the tie. As a simplification
for splices of non-redundant tie re in forcement.
the critical section for assessing adequate anchorage o f lh;

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
-
E ,_see R23.8.2 )I
a) One layer of reinforcement
Fig. 4.5.3a-Exte11ded 11odal zone showing the effect of'the distribution of'theforce (AC!
318- 19).
• Condition
--
CMttold ofAppllttd Load ~
Fig. 4.5. 3b-length available to anchor a tie consisting of'
multiple layers of' rei11force111e11t (afier Tuchscherer et al.
{20/0a]).
4.6-Strength and requirements for nodes
4.6.l Strength of nodes- The nominal compression
strength of the surface of a nodal zone (F••) is
(4.6. la)
whereJ, is the effective compressive s tre ngth of the concrete
in the node, and A,,, is the area of the boundary surface or
section taken perpend icular to the resultant force applied to
the node.
The effective compressive strength of the concrete at the
boundary of the nodal zone is dependent on the number of tie
forces anchored within the node. The e ffective compressive
strength of the node decreases as the number of tie forces
anchored w ithin the node increases; this is the result of the
increasing incompatibil ity berween the tensile strains in the
ties a nd compressive strains in the struts (AC! 318-1 9).
(4.6.l b)
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19
w,
t_ seeR23.8.2
b) Df1trlbuted refnforcem.nt
Table 4.6.1-Node efficiency factor P•
p. Type
Nodal zones bounded by Slruts. bearing areas, <)r bo1h 1.0 CCC
Nodal zo,ie ,rnchoring one tie 0.80 CCT
Nodal zone anchoring two or more ties 0.60 c-rr
Va lues for the node efficiency factor ~" are listed in
'fable 4.6.1.
The node e fficiency factor ~. accounts for the effects of
concrete confinement on the effective compressive s trength
of a node containing a bearing surface and is equal to
'1A2 1Ai :::, 2. For other cases,,;, is equa l to l.
Node types are discussed in Section 4.2.3.1.
4.6.2 Confined nodes-In addition to surrounding a node
with concrete, confinement may also be provided with trans-
verse hoop or spiral rein forcement. Increasing node s trength
through ll1e use of spiral reinforcement is a common practice
for the design of post-tens ioned anchorage zones.
4.6.3 CCC node- A CCC node is s hown in Fig. 4.2.3. la.
Application of these guidelines including treannent of various
node types is discussed in ACI SP-208 and ACI SP-273. To
illustrate a typical approach for detenn ining nodal dimen-
sions, consider the asymmetrically loaded beam shown in
Fig. 4.6.3a.
When calculating the s tre ngth of the rightmost D-region,
it is first necessmy to determine the nodal dimensions. The
CCC node (Node I) can be s ubdivided into two nodes based
on the propon ion ofload that is being transfen ed to the right
and left suppo1ts. The faces of the non-hydrostatic node
can be propo1tioned as illustrated in Fig. 4.6.3b. The forces
appl ied the top s urface o f the node, as s hown, are resultants
of the respective uniform stress.
4.6.4 CCT node
4.6.4.l Typical dimensiom~ Consider the beam and STM
shown in Fig. 4 .6.3a. T he three faces of the non-hydrostatic
CCT node at the right s upport (Node E) can be pro1}0rtioned
as illustrated in Fig. 4.6 .4.1.
<acl)
20 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

D B D

h h
b a
L

a) B- and D-reglons noted

.,,.,, / F -----
/

bl Representative strut-and-tie model

Fig. 4.6.Ja-Asymmetrically loaded beam.

,.
l0{a/ L) I /
0
(b/L)

P(a/L) P(b/ L)

'
w.cosfl., + /0 (a/L)sin fl.,

w.cos fl,. + /0 {b/L)sin fl..- - -

Fig. 4.6.Jb-ProportiOJJS ofa CCC node.

Given the ACI 318-1 9 requirement for detennining the adequately anchored reinforcement, then it is unlikely that
effective height of a tie (Section 4.5 .1 of this document), the crushing of concrete at the back face of a node will occur
force in the tie is visualized as being resisted entirely at the (fib 1999; Birrcher et al. 2009). In this case, the allowable
back face of the node. However, if tie forces are resisted by stress at the back face of the node is not crit ical. However,

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 21

.... ....
.... ....
.,._
8, ....

... 0.5w,

Fig. 4.6.4.1- Proportions ofa CCTnode.

it is important to point out this exception only applies to
straight. hooked. and headed reinforcement that meets the
anchorage require ments of ACI 318-19 Section 25.4. For
other cases (for example, when the force in the bar is trans-
ferred to concrete entirely through bearing at the head), the
designer should consider anchor failure modes that include
the crushi ng of concrete at the face of the node or side-
face blowout.
4.6.4.2 J11terior node over co11/in11011s support- A unique
type of CCT node is an interior node over a continuous
suppon, as shown in Fig. 4.6.4.2.
ACI 318 does not provide expl ic it guidance for this type
of node. The most conservative interpretation of the Code
is to treat this as a CIT node, or nodal zone anchoring two
or more lies. Although two ties exist in the node, only one
horizontal force (that is, the difference between the hori-
zontal forces at each s ide) acts through the node. Thus. the
state of stress is more representative o f a CCT nodal region.
For that reason, Schlaich and Schafer ( I99 1) and.fib (1999)
recommended the node be treated as two adjacent CCT
nodal regions.
4.6.5 CIT 11ode (discrete)-CTT nodes can be classified
as e ither s meared or discrete, as described in Section 4.2.3 . l.
One example of a discrete CIT node is that which may Fig. 4.6.4.2-/nterior node over a continuous support.
occur near the dap of a dapped-end beam. This node type is
critical and should be ca refully eva luated. The proportions vertical tie (Wight and Pan a-Montesinos 2003). In other
of this type of CTT node are illustrated in Section 7.5 of words, Tie HD shown in Fig. 4.6.3a may include al l appli-
this document. cable stirrups to the left o f Node 11 and intersecting a line
4.6.6 CTT node (w1eared)-Provided re in forcement proj eccing at 25 degrees from the vertical and horizontal
is anchored properly, the strength of a smeared node wi ll axis at Node 11 (Fig. 4.6.6b). Tie HD should be located at
genera lly not govern the s trength of an STM. According to the centroid of the applicable s tirrups, as will Tie CG be at
.fib ( I999), " If. .. bars are distributed over a great length of the centroid of the stim1ps it represents. Stirrups included in
the main reinforcement, as is normally the case in beams; the Tie HD cannot also be used for Tie CG.
node is of the 'smeared' type and needs not be checked in 4.6. 7 Curved-bar nodes
detail." Nonetheless, for the purpose of illustration, consider 4.6.7. 1 Overview- AC! 3 18- 19 Section 23.10 includes
Node D of the beam and STM shown Fig. 4.6.3a. The provisions for a curved-bar node, a type of discrete C'TT a nd
proportions of this node are illustrated in Fig. 4.6.6a. CCT node that deserves special attention. A curved-bar node
Any stirrup fully anchored at each end within the node is defined as the bend region of a continuous reinforc ing bar
that intersects an adjacent strut at an angle greater than (or bars) whose straight extensions form two ties in an STM.
25 degrees from each end may be included as pan of the The deviation of the tie forces at a curved-bar node should

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22 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

w, t.
...
Fig. 4. 6. 6a- Proportio11s ofa smeared CTT node.

H 1,
~
-- -- --,, . -- - . / I
- 12
,, ,,' ✓ I '
,, ,, ,, , , /
,, ,, ,, /..... 18/1° Bend (Typ.)

•>
,, ,,
. ,,., ,
I
/25·
.,
,.
,,,· ,, ,,
"' ,,
D .v I
I
I

"Hairpin" Reinforcment (Typ.}

,
I
Stirrups that may be used for Tie HD
., «
L._
+
See ACI R23.10.2(b) for
~Stirrups that may be used for Tie CG Minimum Bend Radiu$
• C1nnot be les.s than 25 d ~
Fig. 4.6. 7.1b- Curved-bar CCT node using ties anchored by
Fig. 4.6.6b--Stirrupsforming 7ie HD (refer 10 Fig. 4.6.3a). 180-degree bends.
4.6.7.2 Bend radius and node stress- Bend rad ii of the
re in forc ing bars s hould be within the limits of the following
- T
b
equations.

' rb 2A.f,,
8 \ CTI nodes: r. ;;: _ _>
\ (4.6.7.2a)
b bJ;
' \----- - c
A ts I I .5A,,J,.
I CCT nodes: '• ;:: ' (4.6.7.2b)
w,//
!T C
Equation (4.6.7.2a) ensures that the node stress does not
exceed that a llowed for a CTT node (~. = 0.6). Equation
Fig. 4.6. 7.1 a- Cu111ed-bar CTT node at a frame come,: (4.6.7.2b) applies to the higher node stress at CCT nodes
(~,, = 0.80) formed by two struts and a bar (or bars) with a
be equilibrated by one or more struts. Examples of CTI and 180-degree bend. Genernlly, a larger bend radius will result
CCT curved-bar nodes are s hown below in Fig. 4.6.7.1 a and in lower nodal stress a nd provide for a smoother flow of
4.6.7. l b, respectively. forces. For optimum performance, the bend radius s hould
Design guidel ines for curved-bar nodes were adopted be as large as possible, but the center of curvature s hould
within ACI 318- 19. More specific designs of frame comers, fall within the lim its of the member or joint as defined by the
corbels, a nd dapped-end connections using strut-a nd-tie geometry of the STM (refer tO Section 7.3).
models with c urved-bar nodes are discussed in Sections 7.3 , 4.6.7.3 Multi-layer curved-bar nodes- W here more than
7.4, and 7.5 . respectively. one layer of reinforcement is used in the plane of the STM,
nodal zone stresses are increased in proportion to the number

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
'\/ 7 AJfJS of Strvt.s
) \
' ,-,Ql_- -
I
- CI •A·-"~lane
t •
I
I
I
a) Overall model
Fig. 4.6.7.4- Forces acting on a ettrved-bar node where there is a difference in tie forces.
of layers. An example of a multi-layer curved-bar node is
illustrated in Fig. 4.6.7. l a. The aforementioned equat ions
may be used, provided A,., is taken as the area of tie rein-
forcement in all layers and rb is taken as the bend radius at
the inside layer.
4.6.7.4 Bond stress in curved-bar nodeJ~l n some
cases- for example, a wall/slab junction with differing
effective depths of the two members joined- the tie forces
are not equal. Such a case is similar to tl1e detai l shown in
Fig. 4.6.7.4. ACI 3 18-1 9 requires that the difference in tie
force be developed within the nodal zone. In cases where
the strut (or the resultant of multiple st.ruts) does not bisect
the angle formed by the ties extending from the curved-bar
node, the length of the curve should be sufficient to deve lop
the difference in tie force. For 90-degree bends, the bond
force that should be developed a long the curve length (t, )
is A,J.;.( I - tan0,). Integration of the linearly varying normal
stress and uniform bond stress over the length of the curve
gives a resultant identical to the resultant of the two ties
extending from the curved-bar node, with respect to magni -
tude and direction as well as point of origin.
For 90-degree bends, the minimum radius rb required for
sufficient development length through the curve may be
checked using the following equation
,. ;a:.2l,(l - tan0..) d /
b 1t b
2 (4.6.7.4)
4.6.7.S Side cover and effective width of curved-bar
nodes- A clear side cover of at least two bar diam-
eters is recommended to avoid side splitting. Where this
side cover cannot be provided, the bend radius should be
increased in in verse proportion to the decrease in clear cover
(Ostlund l 963).
The effective width of a curved-bar node, tmnsverse to
the plane of the truss model, is usually taken as the width
of the member transverse to the plane of the truss model,
provided that reinforcement is evenly distributed entirely
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23
Radial Compre$slve Stress
Clrcumftntntl1I Bond Sttw.s:1
<:::_ RHultant of Radial and
•
A.,F,
Clrcumferentlal Stru.ses
CrA,.F/coao.
b} Free body diagram of bend region
across the width. Where the centroid of 1he 1ie is not located
in the middle of the member, the effective width of the node
should be taken as twice the d ista nce from the centroid of the
tie to the nearest face of the member (Fig. 4.S .2a).
CHAPTER 5-MODELING AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
5.1-lntroduction
Chapter 5 presents and discusses modeling and design
considerations that are most relevant to complex 0-regions,
such as when the geometry of the strut-and-tie model (STM)
is less apparent and/or when the performance of the designed
region under service, ultimate, and overloads is significantly
uncertain . The content of this c hapter wi ll assist the design
professional in selecting suitable models for primarily
complex 0 -regions, in ca lculating truss-member forces in
indeterminate models, in using the STM for capacity evalu-
ation, and in taking advantage of computer-based design a nd
analysis tools.
5.2-lnfluence of model topology on performance
of complex D-regions
5.2.l Four different S7i l.f design solutions for the same
D-region-The selected geometry of a model for design of
a complex 0 -region can signi ficantly affect the perfonnance
of the built structure under load. A detailed example is
presented herein 10 illustrate that tl1ere can be more than one
code-compliant STM design solution for a given problem
and that the outcomes can be quite different.
Figure 5.2. I presents four different STMs used to design a
deep beam member that had a <lapped-end and a n opening;
these members were 6 ft long and 6 in. thick. The struc-
ture suppo1ted a top point load near its mid-length and had
vertical supports at the base o n the left and right sides of
the structure. While the structure was externally statically
detenninate, each of the four d ifferent trusses were statically
indeterminate. A full design that still satisfies the ACI 318- 19
<aci)
24 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

.................
,o,orce ,_.,,
,,
,,
1

(.) ( b)
Tie
• ·······• Strut
p p

,
,, ,/
,, ,.
( C) ( d)

(e)
Fig. 5.2. I- Multiple strut-and-tie models for deep member with dapped-e11d and ope11i11g.
STM provisions was completed for each of these four model Table 5.2.2-Comparison of tested (measured) and
geometries, and then these structures were constructed and ACI 318-19 Code-calculated nominal capacity
load-tested to failure. (Kuchma e t a l. 2008) Design P,~, kip (kN) P,.,c,, kip (kN) P«., /P,,.,tCI
The four models were deliberately selected to provide quite
(a) 252 ( 112.0 ) 146(651) 1.72
different load path solutions. Of the group, Model (c) had the
most regular truss in which the load to the right support is (b) 183 (8 14) 140 (624) 1.30
carried by an upper and lower truss past the opening, and a (c) 290 (1292) 193 (860) I.SO
similar Howe truss carried the load to the left support. The (d) 194 (863) 127 (563) 1.53
ties in Model (c) were essentially vertica l and horizontal ,
(a) No mesh 61 (270) 146(65 1) 0.40
with two horizontal ties, one being at the base a nd the other
being at mid-depth. The shape of Model (a) is similar to that
5.2.2 Co111pariso11 of capacities and 111odes offailure of
of Model (c), but the loading to the letl support was consid-
four designs- Table 5.2.2 compares the experimentally
ered to run all the way to the botwm of the member and tl1en
measured capacities of these designs with the ACI 318-19
be lifted up by a single diagonal tie over the <lapped end . The
calculated nomina l strengths. As shown, the measured
s ha1>e of Model (b) is simi lar to Model (c) in the left part of
capacities were always well above the nominal strengths,
the member, but o n the right half of the member the e ntire
which may be expected because the s1rut-and-1ie method
load is carried above tbe opening in a determinate truss to
is consistent with the lower-bound plasticity theorem.
the right support. Whi le both Models (a) and (b) may be
However, this theorem is only applicable if the member is
suspected to not perform as well as Model (c ), they are both
sufficiently ductile to transfer the load in the manner selected
acceptable design solutions by ACI 318-1 9. In Model (d), the
by the designer. To examine the necessity of using distrib-
strnts radiated out from the point of loadi ng in a compressive
uted reinforcemem to provide the needed ductility, a repea1
fan toward the supports as far as possible before ties were
of Model (a) was bui lt without the 0.0027Ag of welded wire
used. This resulted in the reinforcement being concentrated
reinforcement and load tested . T his specimen failed at only
at the bottom, lower right, and left sides of the structure. All
40 percent of the calculated nominal capacity because of a
these models had a welded wire mesh with a reinforcement
brittle failure that occurred after a crack extended from the
ratio of0.0027 in both directions in addition to the re in force-
inside comer of the dapped e nd a long the line of the diagonal
ment for the primary ties from the models.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 25

reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 5.2. le. This understrength
illustrates Lhe importance of using minimum amounL of
distributed re inforcement, and a requirement for this has
been introduced in AC) 318-19.
Figure 5.2.2 presents the applied load versus the displace-
ment at the loaded point. The responses ranged from quite
briLtle 10 somewhat ducLile.
The STM design for Model (a) s uggested that capacity
was controlled by struts connecting Nodes I0-12, 22-1 6, and
23-26. However, Model (a) failed due to crushing of the s trut
that connected Nodes 29 and 30. The STM design for Models
(b), (c), and (d) suggested that they were a ll limited by the
strength of ties. For Model (b), the STM correctly identified
that thec1itical tie was between Nodes 3 and 5, which yielded
in the test and precipitated the failure of the s pecimen. The
STM design for Model (c) had the capacity controlled by the
tie connecting Nodes 16 and 3, but the observed failure was
due to yielding of Lhe tie between Nodes 19 and 16, which
occwTed just p1ior to crushing of the sb11t connecting Nodes
20 and 24. The STM design for Model (d) had the capacity
controlled by the tie connecting Nodes 23 and 28. However,
the experimental failure was precipitated by the crushing of
the strnt connecting Nodes 34 a nd 36, which in the design
had approximately twice the needed capacity. Based on
these observations, the overall ability of the STM to predict
the failure modes was relatively poor. This is not stul)rising
because the model neglects the effect of regions outside of
the dimens ions o f the struts, ties, and nodes, and in cases of
indeterminacy, the re lative SLitrness of the struts and ties is
not considered.
1250
1000
a.. 500 (b)
250
2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Displacement (mm)
Fig. 5.2.2-load-dejormatio11 respo11se ofmodels.
5.2.3 Challe11ges and uncertainties i11 the use ojihestrut-and-
tie method-Based on the results presented in Section 5.2.2
on the strength and performance of the dap-e nded beams
with openings, the following observations can be made:
a) There can be multiple STM design solutions to the
same design problem. with each of these leading to a
conservative design solution in which the strength of the
O-region is greater than the capacity calculated us ing the
ACI 3 I 8- 19 STM provisions.
b) A minimum level of distributed re in forcement can
overcome an otherwise poor c hoice in selected load path
and enable the structure 10 achieve its nominal capacity.
c) In accordance with the lower-bound theorem of plas-
ticity a nd the ACI 3 18-1 9 Code provisions, the calculated
stre ngth of the idealized STM s hould a lways be greater
than or equal to the capacity of the plastic truss. This is
only true if the structure is sufficiently ductile to carry the
loading in the manner selected by the designer.
d) A satisfactory design may have adequate strength, but
the design cannot e nsure signi ficant defonnation capacity.
Kuchma et al. (2008) fo und that the geometry of the
selected strut-and-tie design model can have a large effect
on the location a nd width of cracks under service load levels.
Even when distributed reinforcement is provided, the level
of cracking was found to be greater than deemed acceptable
when a poor s hape of an STM was used in design.
5.3-Guidance to selection of STM shapes
5.3.l !11troductto11- The strut-and-tie design process
requires the selection of a model geometry for the flow
of forces. This task becomes more c hallenging with the
increasing complexity of the region wider design, as illus-
trated in Section 5.2. This section provides additional direc-
tion for selecting model shapes.
The use of more refined mode ls generally enhances perfor-
mance under both ultimate and serviceabi lity states (Almasi
1992). An example of this is presented in Fig. 5.3. 1a, which
shows three levels of model refinement for the e nd of a
prestressed beam. Model (a) could result in the uncontrolled
splitting a long the length of the inc li ned strut and may not
be a sufficient mode l. Model (b) captures the need and value
of using bursting reinforcement some distance from the
support. Model (c) has advantages over Models (a) and (b),
as it a lso illustrates thatthere is value and need for vertical tie
reinforcement near the left face of the beam; this is discussed
in Section 7.12 of this g uide. This is va lidaLed by the re la-

=+ ------ - ----- -----

-----
--
t t t
(a) Simple model (b) Refined model (c) Further refined model

Fig. 5.3. la-Various degrees or refinement of strut-a11d-tie models for a prestressed

a11chorage zone (adapted from FIP recamme11datio11s [FIP 1999)).
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26 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

! ! ! !
I I

I II I
I
If-----\ I
I
I , I \
I \ I
I \\

i i i i
(a) Elastic distribution (b) Model following elastic (c) Model representing
ofstresses stress trajectories condition at ultimate
Fig. 5.3. / b-Se/ectio11 ofstrut-a11d-tie models for a deep beam (adapted jivm Leonhardt
and Walther {1966)).
tivcly common practice in the prestressing indus try to use tie
reinforcement at the end of the beam to arrest horizontal end
cracks that are commonly observed.
~,,------
__-........

. . _ ..... ,'
'__...:-,,.,::,,
._

The selection of appropriately shaped STMs is further .,

complicated because models only need to represent the
simpl ified flow of forces at the ultimate limit state (ULS)
whereas the most suitable STM at service load levels is likely
to be close to the e lastic distribution of stresses, as shown in
Fig. 5.3.1b(a) and (b). After s ubstantial cracking, the strnts
for this example are more likely to be s traight, as shown in
Fig. 5.3.1 b(c). which reduces the amount of required rein-
forcement relative to Model (b) at the same force level. For
the type of simple strncture presented in Fig . 5.3.lb, the
difference in the most suitable geometiies may be inconse-
quentia l. For complex models in w hich the flow of forces at
service and factored loads is more uncertain, a grid of crack
control reinforcement can help e nsure good performance
under all load levels.
Techniques for ide ntifying appropriate STMs include
followi ng the load path in similar models, fitting by
followi ng e lastic stress h·aj ectories, using expected crack
patterns, and using topology optim ization. These techniques
are not always available to or routine ly used by designers.
Sect ion 5.3.2 presents the use of elastic s tress trajecto-
ries and Section 5.3.3 presents the use of topology opti-
mization and other methods for selecting mode ls for more
complex regions.
5.3.2 Use <>f elastic stress trajec1<>ries f<>r m<>del selec-
tion- Schlaich ct al. ( 1987) suggested that the oriemations
of struts and ties should be selected to align as close as prac-
tical to the directions of principal compression and tension,
with a target of limiting the deviation from the elastic stress
trajectories to within 15 degrees. Figure 5.3 .1 b(a) presents
an example of this for the case of a deep beam subjected to
a distributed load in which it is possible to locate the rein-
forcement in a hooizontal line and stay within the 15-degree
target. Figure 5.3.2a presents another example of e lastic
stress trajectories, but w here the directions o f principal
tension are not within 15 degrees of horizontal or vertical
(refer 10 AC! SP-208 for additiona l examples). Because it
. .,. _ , , ,..."-..
----+ ----.:..::;'~'-=:-....-J
----+
Fig. 5.3.2a- Principal stress trajectories for squat wall with
openings (elastic model).
is often not pract ical to orient reinforcement on diagonals,
it is frequently difficult to strictly adhere to Schlaich's guid-
ance, but this should not be viewed as a significant concern.
For example, shear re in forcement at the end of a slender
be.am is nonnally placed vertically, departing from the
s teeply inclined direction of principal tension in the web at
this location.
Numerical modeling tools can be used to show directions
of principal compression and tension, and these are helpful
in selecting the orientation and location of struts and ties.
This can be done using li near-elastic material assumptions
or by nonlinear methods. For example, Fig. 5.3.2b presents
the state of cracking predicted by a non! inear finite element
s meared-cracking model for a dapped-end deep beam with an
opening. This is the same structure examined in Section 5.2
and where 0.27 percent of distributed reinforcement was
used in each of two orthogonal directions. For each e lement.
if the tensi le stress reaches cracking strength, then the tensi le
stress in this element is reduced and the angle of expect
cracking if shown by a red line. This pattern of cracking

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 27

✓- ,,,,

---
✓✓-------
,"/,,,,,,..,,,.,,,_,,.,,,,.,,,,...,,,,,,,
I ,,,,,,,,
\\\,,
,,,,,,,,
/// _____ ,,, '
///.,,,,..,,,..,,,.,,,,.,,,.,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,

'D ,, __
///✓----,,,, ' ,,,,,,,,, --
///✓✓----,,,,,, \\\\ '''' ---
/Ill//--///(/(// \\'\ ,, __ _
l/ll//1,-11//(/// \\\ ---
lllllll/1\\/II/II//
\Ill \I/\\/II//I/JI \ ,,,,,
ti/Ill/Ill/I \ \\\\'-
\-/I//IIIIIII ,\\\\
---1////IIIIIIII ,, \\\\\\
--//II I I I I I I I I I I \ \,,, \,,, \ \ \ \ I I
- / 11 I I I I I I I I I I I I \ \ \ , \ \ , , , \ \ \ \ \
11111/fl/llllll/ I,,,,,,,,,,, I I
lll/llllllll/l/\\\\\\\\\\\/\1
I\/IIIIIJllllll\/1\\'- J//

Fig. 5.3.2b-Pri11cipa/ compressive stress trajectories in load transfer beam with 011
opening (cracked model).
provides guidance to a designer to include a horizontal tie
along the bottom of the member and immediately above the
left s upport across the dapped end, as was done in Fig. 5.2.1
Model (c). It a lso encourages use of ve1tical ties near the
reentr8nt corner of the d~p, 8S W8S done in Models (b) 8nd
(c). Furthermore, the cracking pauem defines a potential
orientation of the strut(s) to be modeled over the opening.
Note that use of a linear-e lastic model described above
only requires the design professional to define the concrete
outline and is therefore an advantageous approach to estab-
lish rhe STM geometry before rein forcement quamities are /o) Geometry ond toodlng /b) Topology ot the 20"' iteration
selected. Once the reinforcement has been determined us ing
the strut-a nd-tie method, the designer mig ht consider further
refinement by use of a numerical modeling tool to evaluate
the nonlinear s tructural response of exte rnally indeterminate
models or O-regions under a range o f load intensities.
5.3.3 Use of topology optimization for model selectio11-
The shapes for STMs may be obtained from topology opti-
mization. Liang et a l. (2002) employed this type of optimi- /c) Topology ot the 401-• i terotion /d) Opt/mo/ topology ot
the 49"' i teration
zation based on the assumption that the concrete continuum
is linear e lastic. The optimization procedure involves calcu- Fig. 5.3.3a- Example of identi[ving a strt11-a11d-tie model of
lating e lastic strain e nergy in each element in the structure a bridge pier 1111der ver1ical /oadi11g 11si11g topology optimi-
at each step, and t.hen eliminating the elements w ith the zation scheme.
lowest strain energy. A topo logy optimization example is
presented in Fig. 5.3.3a, where the strnctme and loadings are the cantilevers. The resulting optimum s tructure is gener-
shown in Part (a). Part (b) presents the mesh that was used ally a fonn of a Michell Truss. In 19()4, Michell (1904)
in this example, as well as the results o f the first ropology formulated that the optimal stress distribution of a canti lever
opt;mizat ion step in which the s tructure is divided into two structure is composed of te nsi le members a nd compres-
regions, one of more s ignificantly s trained e lements (darkly sive members, intersect ing at right angles to each other.
shaded) and the other of the more Iightly strained regions This solution s upports the logic of previous re in forcement
(l ightly shaded). Parts (c) and (d) show further refinements practices in deep beams (inverted problem to this example)
in w hich the most heavily strained regions are s hown; Part where some of the longitudinal re in forcement was bent up
(d) s hows that the optimal position for the tie re in forcement toward the e nd of the span so to be near perpendicular to the
is along the top of the structure as well as diagonally across diagonal cracking.

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28 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

internally at each node. For statically determinate STMs,

!! ! !! l ! ! l !l l ! !! l l
Stm•
T,ajeclories
fa) Compressive stress trajectories
or cmt:k orientation
Fig. 5.3.3b-A11tomatic generation of a strut-and-tie model
of a deep beam 11nder uniformly distributed load (adapted
j,'0111 Riickert [1992)).
Another example of auwmatic STM generation is thaLby
Ri.ickcrt ( I992). Regions defined by principal s tress traj ec-
t01ies a re s ubjected to only nonnal s tress on each side.
Thereby, these elements can be used to form STMs. One
example of an STM generated using this approach is s hown
in Fig . 5.3.3b
Some of the continuing efforts in developing topology
optimization methods include considering the inelastic
response of materials a nd preferred orientations of ties {that
is, vertical and horizontal).
5.4-Calculatlng member forces and stresses In
complex D-reglons
5.4.l lntrod11ction- Al1 STM s hould be in external equi-
librium with the appl ied loads and support reactions, and
I.he force distribuLion in the struts and ties can be directly
solved by statics. For statically indeterminate STMs and
for statically indeterm inate s tructures, such as the examples
presented in Fig. 5.4.1 , the a nalysis is c hallenging because
the stiffness characteristics of struts are often difficul t to
define, as they are idealized members within a continuum.
The stiffness of ties reflects tens ion stiffening, which is the
recognized contribution of the concrete still bonded to the
re in forcement between cracks.
(b) Strut-and-tie made/
5.4.2 Force distribution based 011 equilibrium only
5.4.2.l Imroduction- There are Lhree different approaches
for solving member forces using only equilibrium: 1) decom-
position into statically detenninate trusses; 2) allocation of
model forces to redundant members; and 3) force distribu-
tion by optimization. Each of these is discussed below.
5.4.2.2 Decomposition into statically determinate
trusses- This technique was originally developed for hand
calculations, but the concept is applicable to all computer-
based approaches. The sta tically indeterminate truss is
decomposed into numerous statically dete nninate trnsses, as
presented by Schlaich a nd Schafer ( 199 1). Figures 5.4.2.2a
and 5.4.2.2b illustrate the truss decompos ition process for an
STM. For members or regions Lhat are part of more Lhan one
determinate truss, the s ummation of the demands is required
on a ll components (ties, struts, and nodal zones).
5.4.2.3 Allocation ofmode/forces to redundant members-
In this approach. internally staticall y indeterminate models
are tume<I into stat ical ly determinate models by removing
s truts and ties cons idered to be redundant a nd replacing them

1 1
I
I
... ,. ...I ., ., ,
;

;r'
'' .,
T

., ., '
''
I I
., ., ., .,
I ... '' ''
.... .,
I
., ,
I _,.
...
I _,. I
' ' - ., ''.
I
. . .
t t t t
(a) Internally indeterminate (b) Externally indeterminate

Fig. 5.4. I- Examples of statically indeterminate strt11-a11d-tie models redu11da111 to one

degree.

I I
I I
I I
+
~..
I _,. I
I _,.
, I
I
I
I
....
t t t
Truss 1 + 2 Truss 1 Truss 2

Fig. 5.4.2.2a- Decomposition of an i11temally statically i11determi11ate stmt-and-tie model.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 29

t t t
Truss 1 + 2

'
'c
''
''' ;
;
;
;
/
'
7
+ ;
;
;
;
/ '
/\
'
''
' . ;
;
/
;
; '
P,
''
''.
~
=
t t t t
Truss 1 lnlss 2

Fig. 5.4.2.21>-Decomposirion ofan externally swtically indeterminare strut-and-tie model.

with a stat ically equivalent sets of forces. Figure 5.4.2.3
l
----
shows how the interna lly sta tically indete nninate truss from
Figure 5.4.2.3 is turned into a s tatically determinate truss
by a ll ocating a set force to replace the vertical tie. Refer to
Section 8.4.6 for additional guidance on this approach, in
which.fib ( 1999) provides a re lationship that suggests what
portion of the load should be carried by the tie. I
I
I
I
1
r,
,,
Fi,,,
,,
I
I
., .,
,, I
I

A computer-based tool implementing this approach is I .," F I

I ,, \f
the Fachwerk program by Vontobel (2004), w hich allows ~., I

users 10 select the redundant members and assi~n s tatically

equivalent forces to the members. This approach requires a
reasonable est imat ion of the statically equivalent forces. In
addition, the s tructure s hould possess sufficient ductility to
handle any deviation in the actual internal force distribution.
Included in this approach is the so-cal led p lastic truss
method. In this technique, the ties considered to be redun-
dant in the statically indeterminate model are provided
reinforcement sufficient to cause yielding so that the tie
forces become known and the model becomes statically
determinate. An example on how to use this approach for a
propped cantilevered deep beam can be found in Rogowsky
and MacGregor {1986). To apply this method to 1he STM of
Fig. 5.4.2.3, the vertical Lie F, is chosen as the yielded tie.
If the provided re inforcement area is A.., the force of the tie
is F, = A,,f,..
Simi lar to the treatment of internally indeterminate cases,
the treatment of externally statically indeterminate cases
is handled by turning the models into statically detenni-
nate models by allocati ng forces to suppo1ts considered to
be redundant. From the analytical evaluation of eight two-
span deep beams, Foster ( I992) found that the differe nce in
support reaction forces at uhimate between linear e lastic a nd
nonlinear FE analyses was only 15 1>ercet11. Based on this
finding, he s uggested that linear e last ic ana lysis be used to
estimate redundant reaction forces (Foster 1998).
5.4.2.4 Force distribution by optimization-I ncluded in
this approach are the rigid-plastic optimal design (RPOD)
and shakedown opti mal design presented by Anderheggen
and Schlaich (1990). where the structure does not fai l by
t
Fig 5.4.2.3-Allocolion of force Jo the vertical rie of an
internally srarical!y indeterminate str111-and-1ie model.
incremental collapse. ln the RPOD, the forces of s tatically
indeterminate STMs are determined in s uch a way that
minimum tie resistances, corresponding to the min imum
weight of steel ties, are obtained. The process is done using
linear programming. Estimating stat ically redundant forces
by minimizing steel weight is common in limit analysis. For
beams with no or small axial loads, this approach leads to
a force distribution that minimizes elastic strain energy-
that is, o ne that is proportional to e lastic force distribution
(Nielsen 1999). However, the validation of this technique
for other types of structures designed using STM bas yet LO
be establis hed.
As the name implies, the second approach is based on the
static shakedown theorem. This technique is similar 10 the
R.POD except that e lastic truss solutions have to be consid-
ere<I. It is particularly useful for structures designed for
multiple load cases, as the computational time is less than
that for the RPOD. The solution obtained lies between the
elastic solution and the rigid-plastic solution.
5.4.3 Force distribution based 0 11 relative truss member
stiffness values- In this approach, the force distribution in
indeterminate models is calculated by a truss analysis in
which l11e axial stiffness of the ties and struts are considered,
and a ll members are assumed to be linear-elastic perfectly-

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30 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Strut Stress, '•
0 Strain, Ce
(a) Struts
Fig. 5.4.3-Examples o.fmonotonic stress-strain relationships.
plastic. This analysis is not very co nvenient because the re la-
tive stiffness of stmts and ties s hould be known or estimated.
This approach is commonly implemented in computer-based
tools, including those developed by Alshegeir and Ramirez
(1992), Bcnabdallah c t a l. (1989), Mish ct al. ( 1995), and
Yun (2000) .
To obtain the re lative elastic stiffness for each strut-and-tie
component, truss-bar elastic stiffness is usually used- that
is, E, A, for struts and E, A, for ties, where A, is the effec-
tive cross-sectional area of the strut, A, is the provided area
of the nonprestressed s teel reinforcement, Ee is tangent or
secant modulus of elasticity of concrete, and E., is modulus
of e lasticity of s teel. The e lastic modulus of the materia ls,
provided tie area. and the effective stmt cross-sectional area
of struts may need to be assumed or estimated. The latter
of these three is often the most difficult to estimate, and the
designer should c hoose the average and full width of the
stmt rather than the reduced area at the end of the strut o r the
minimum width needed to provide s ufficient st,ut capacity.
Alternatively, these properties are dete nnined iteratively to
satisfy the corresponding stress limits; refer to Yun (2000a)
and Yun and Ramire~ (1996) . The stiffness of the tie will
be somewhat higher than the bare bar response due to the
tension stiffening effect of the concrete bonded to the re in-
forcing bars between cracks.
In both lineal' e lastic and inelastic a nalysis routines,
s mal l deformation theory is employed; this is consistent
with the assumption used for deriving limit analysis theo-
re ms. Shut-and-tie models are ideal ized as pin-jo inted,
centerline-to-centerline (joint-to-j oint) geometry tmsses,
and nodal zone deformation characteristic.s are ignored. In
the e lastic analysis procedure, the stiffness c haracteristics
of each member should be supplied for solving s tatica lly
indetem1inate cases. In the inelastic a nalysis procedure , the
stress-strain characteristics of shu ts and ties are user-defi ned
but have to be monotonic increasing functions, as shown in
Fig. 5.4.3. The compressive response in Fig. 5.4.3(a) pl'es-
ents rhe incrementa l decrease in compressive stiffness wiU1
increasing strain . The sharp c hange in the te nsi le response is
first cracking, and subsequent changes are due to re in force-
ment constitutive behavior. Relevant constitutive relation-
ships are discussed in Section 5.10 of this guide. The direct
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
Tie Stress, f,
0 Strain, e,
(b) Ties
stiffness method is used to solve for the member forces and
defonnations (Bathe 1996).
5.5-Comparlson of sectional and STM design of
transverse reinforcement in a B-reglon
A 8-region is usually designed by sectional methods in
w hich shear and flexure requirements are separately fulfi lled
(that is, <j> V,, ::: V,,; <j)M. ::: M,.). A 8-region may also be
designed using the strut-a nd-tie method, which provides a
holistic full-membe.r design that directly considers al l forces
and moments acting on the face of a section. The difference in
the transverse reinforcement requirements between these two
approaches is now examined. Consider the beam segment in
Fig. 5.5 in w hich the three right shear panels would have a
nominal shear capacity by ACI 318- 19 of v. = V, + V,, where
V, is calculated using a 45-degree parallel-chord truss model.
The shear capacity of the three left s hear panels can be deter-
mined by ACI 3 18-1 9, Chapter 23 (STMs), and would be
equal to the yield strength of a vertical tie shown in the left
half of Fig. 5.5 and can be calculated using Eq. (5.5a).
V,, = F., = A.J;, (5.5a)
This assumes that the member's capacity is not limited
by tl1e compressive s trength of struts and longitudinal re in-
forc.e ment. For members with distributed vertical re inforce-
ment of A,, at a spacing ofs, then Eq. (5.5a) can be expanded
10 take the form of a variable-angle truss model, as s hown
in Eq (5.5b).
A_0 z cot(O).f,.,
(5.5b)
s
where z is the flexural lever-arm that is commonly taken as
0.9d, and where 8 is the angle of the diagonal shu t re lative
to the longitudinal axis of the member.
A comparison of the STM and section requirements is shown
in Eq. (5.5c). This equates V, for the variable-angle tniss model
shown in Eq. (5.5b) to the nominal shear strength relationship
given in Section 22.5 ofACI 318-1 9 in which V,, = Ve + v_,.
A,.z cot 8.f,, A,.f,,d
----"- - V, + - - (5.5c)
s s
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 31

St.r ut-and-Tie Design -1- Sectional Design

Fig. 5.5-Variable-angle and 45-degree /n,ss madelsfor sr,w-and-tie model and sectional
designs.

~ Reinforcing
(Typ)
I ~z
~
I I
I I
I I
~
\ I
-
(a) Prismatic (b) Spreading (c) Refined Model (d) Tie Reinforcement
Strut Strut

Fig. 5.6a-Stress trajectories and refined stn,r-cmd-tie models.

If !he left and right three panels have the same size and
spacing of re inforcement (that is, A.ls), this equation can
e
be used to assess what angle would satisfy this equa lity;
with this, the angle of diagonal compression w ill need to be
less than 45 degree,s. Equation (5 .5c) a lso illustrates that the
designer has great nexibility w iLl1 the use ofa variable angle
truss model faci litated by STMs to provide a combinat ion of
the amount tie reinforc.e ment and strut angle to provide the
equivalent capacity to the AC! 3 18- 19 sectional method. For
example, the use of a shallower angle for O w ill e nable the
use o f a light amount o f shear re inforcement in compa.-ison
to the use of a 45-degree truss model.
It is also noted that the selection of angle 0 will influence
the resu lting chord forces as well as length zcot0 that influ-
ences the location where longitudinal re inforcement should
be developed. For case.s of large shear stress and small levels
of 0, the capacity of the D-region would be controlled by
diagonal compressive capacity rather than the amount of
provided shear reinforcement. This is directly considered in
the use ofSTM through the calculation of s trut capacity. This
matter is explored funher in Section 5.8 on the max imum
shear s tress limit in beams.
5.6-Refined models for cracking of struts and the
size effect
Section 4 .4 described splitting of interior strnts a nd
presented the s impl ified ACI 318-19 approach for estab-
lishing an elfec.t ive strut capacity. This section explores this
concept in additiona l deta il, with reference to more general
geometric conditions.
The overall shape of a strut will depend on the dimen-
sions of the e nd bearing areas re lative to that of the region
through which the strut passes. Figure 5.6a(a) presents stress
trajectories in a prismatic strut, as would be the case for a
column where the full cross section is uniformly s tressed.
Figure 5.6a(b) presents e lastic stress traj ectories in an inte-
rior s trut where the width of the strut away from the e nd
regions is larger than it is at either end region. Figure 5.6a(c)
presents a refined STM for the s tress condition shown in
Fig. 5.6(b) that roughly follows the e lastic stress traj ectories.
The slope o f the spreading stn1t is selected by the designer.
but a ratio of 2: I is commonly recommended. The top-most
end nodes are s hown in Fig. 5.6a(c) at the quarte r points
of the bearing plate for a member under uniax ia l compres-
sion w ith no bending moment; the nodes at the end of the
spreading were selected 10 be at the quaner points across
!he width of the member. With this model, the designer
can directly calculate the forces in the ties. Reinforcement
is then provided for the ties as s hown in Fig. 5.6a(d). The
development of this re fined STM and providing reinforce-
ment for the tie is not an STM des ign requirement, but it
is an option for the des igner to consider. If s uch a member
contained e ither horizonta l ties or a grid of re in forcement
in s ufficient quantity, the compressive capac ity of the s tn1t
would be controlled by the loading node, as this is w here the
dimension of the strut is the s mallest.
The s hape of the stress traj ectories w ill depend on both
!he level of cracking and if the re inforcement is provided tO
carry tension across the crack. Figure 5 .6b includes a presen-
tation of the results from a series of tests on plain co ncrete
in which the influence of SJ>ecimen width to load width on

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32 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

cracking strength a nd on capacity is shown (Adebar et a l.
1990). Because no tie reinforcement is provided. the flow of
forces in Fig. 5.6a(b) and (c) would ini tially be limited to the
equivalent tie force from the uncracked concrete in tension.
To design for a larger ca1>acity, the designer wou ld use this
refined model to determine the requi red tie rein forcement to
provide this capacity. This figure also illus trates the reduced
cracking strength of interior struts in unreinforced concrete
that was discussed in Section 4.4.
Research by Marti ( 1989) indicated that bearing stress
at failure decreases with increasing size of unreinforced
specimens. This size e ffect can be pred icted by an appli-
cation of nonlinear fracture mechanics (Bazant CL al. 1986).
Ad ebar a nd Zhou ( 1996) p resented additiona l test data
o n single-punch tests of long cylinders and proposed a
method to account for this size effect within STMs for large
1.25
1.00
8 °0 0 0
0 .75 • s tatic node. FurU1ermorc, tile assumption that tie forces are
footings with interior struts and no transverse rein forcement.
Andennatt and Lube ll (20 13a) s howed that the capacity of
deep beams without transverse re in forcement exhibit a size
effect in the ultimate strengtl1 . If re inforcement is provided
across the axis of struts, then this size effect was found to
be mitigated but not tota ll y absent (Birrcher et al. 2014).
The ACT 318- 19 expressions for the strength of struts were
revised to consider this size effect in regions w here m inimum
dishibuted reinforcement is not provided across the axes of
interior struts.
5.7-States of stress in nodes
As briefly described in Section 4.2, there are two general
approaches to characterizing the s tate of stress in nodal
zones: hydrostatic and non-hydrosta tic methods. Additional
information on the states of s tress in complex nodes, and
th ree-dimensional effects are discussed in the following.
The more members that frame into a node, the more diffi-
c ult it generally is to use a hydrostatic node. This is because
the centerl ines of truss members framing into these hydro-
static nodes are unlikely to coincide, making it inaccurate
to use a pin-jointed truss analysis 10 find the forces in all
members unless multiple, short, link elements are intro-
duced. In addition, the dimensions of the s truts and ties need
to be drawn to scale to establis h the geometry of the nodal
zones, as shown in the examples in Fig. 5.7a. Several itera-
tions are often needed to accurately determine the forces in
the truss members and the final dimensions of the hydro-
anchored by fictitious bearing plates behind the node may

• • not well represent the actual stress dis tribution in the node .

• •
It is useful to have all actions on a node intersect at a single
0.50 point, as shown in Fig. 5.7b (Tjhin and Kuchma 2007a),
because this simplifies the determination of member forces
by truss analysis. This has the complication that the stresses
Expenmental in the members framing into this jo int are d ifferent, as s hown
0.25 • Cracking
o Ul~mate in Fig. 5.7b(b). Each of these members has a differe nt s tress,
and the nodal zone is now di vided into triangles w here each
has a biaxial state o f stress. This condition is satisfactory
0,00 .___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___, and consis te nt with the sinu-and-tie design phi losophy
1.0 1.5 2.0 2. 5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 where kinematic constraints are ignored, and that only equi-
Ratio of Specimen Width to Loaded Width (Bib) libiium and s tress limits need be satisfied . Figure 5.7b(c)
presents the Mohr 's circle of stress for this region. T his
Fig. 5.6b-h!f!uence of s1rut witllh to loaded width on approach can be extended to members with a larger number
cracking and ultimate slrengths (Aclebar el al. 1990). of intersecting members.

l"l;!:,~,"'-,r--'I . .
b'--«-- --1 . .

tt
(a) left end of beam (b) Detail A (c) Detail B
Fig. 5. 7a- Stmt-and-tie model dimensioned using hydroslatic approach.
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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
(b) Dimensioned struts and common node
Fig. 5. 7b-State ofstress in a simple node for three illlersectingfon:es.
Allematively, the adequacy of a node can be checked
using linear e last ic finite e lement (FE) analyses and us ing
a Coulomb failw-e crite 1ion (A lshegeir and Ramirez I 992)
or nonlinear FE analyses with failure c riteria determined
from experimenta l test data of two-dimensional (2- D)
plain concrete (Yun 2000; Yun and Ram irez 1996); refer 10
Fig. 5.7c.
The desig n of three-di mensional (3-0) nodes can be geo-
metrica lly complex, and codes-of-practice do not prov ide
detai led guidance on the design or capacity of these nodes.
T herefore, assu mptions a nd good judgme111 are o ften needed
to provide an expedie nt and safe desig n solution. In deter-
mi ning how to a na lyze a 3-D node, it is useful to consider
the following questions:
(a) \!/hat are the areas of highest critical s tress?
(b) What are the effects of actions that ACI 3 18- 19 does not
consider, and is it expected that these would make existing
provis ions more or less conservative? For example, if
there is confinement in a direction not co nsidered in the
selected s tress lim it, then it would be co nservative to use
this limit.
(c) What is available in the technical literature about the
stress capacity within the geometry of simi lar 3-D nodes
l0 those in the design problem?
(d) Do multiple load cases need to be cons idered , and how
will this influence the geometry and capacity of the node?
(e) W hat methods are available to check the suitability of
the design solution?
Examples are provided regarding the approach for
designing 3-0 nodes. The fi rs t three are from a pi le cap, as
described in Fig. 5.7d.
5.7.1 £mmp/e / -T he node of interest is under the column
in the pi le cap shown in Fig. 5.7d(a), w here there is only an
axia l compressive force from lhe column. In lhis case, the
node is confined by the compressive fore-e s in the diagonal
struts. ACI 3 18- 19 contains a new provis ion to account for
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33
,,,,,' t
t.{
(c) Mohr's circle of stresses
JJJJJJJ JJJJ
Fig. 5. ?c~ Example of a finite element model used to obtain
the stress distribution in a CCT nodal region (adapted from
Yun and Ramirez {1996}).
this confinemeol effect in Table 23.4.3(b). Additiona l discus-
sion on confinement of nodes was presented in Section 4.6.1
of this guide.
5.7.2 £yamp/e 2-T he node of interest is under the column
in a pile cap in which the column supports an axial load a nd
a moment about a horizontal axis. The five forces at the top
of Fig. 5.7d(b) arc the equivalent point load forces at the
nodes beneath the base o f the column in the pile cap. In this
case, only a portion of the p ile cap under the co lumn is under
a ve1tical compressive stress, and it would be reasonable to
apply the bearing provisions in Table 22.8.3.2 of ACI 3 J 8 for
the top faces of tl1e nodes in the compressive region. Where
it becomes more compl icated is determining the overnll
geometry of the full node needed for making s tress checks
at the other node face areas and at the e nd of the inclined
struts in the p ile cap. T his is especia ll y c hallenging under
a biaxial momenl from the column such that the compres-
sive bearing region beneath lhe column is triangular. When
the column does not fail, it is unreal istic for the node under
the column to fai l, especially w hen dowels with adequate
<acl)
34 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

(a) Compression only in column (b) Compression and moment in column

Fig. 5. 7d- Pile cap truss models (Klein 2002).

- ---- ---
I
I
" ''
''
-
-
I

-
I

I
I
I
''
'

(a) Joint of OrthOgonal (b) Perspective, Side and Front Elevation View of
Frames Ledger Beam

Fig. 5. 7e- Three-dime11sio11al nodes at i11tersectio11 oforthogonal planar str11c11tres.

development length and matching the column reinforcement ties, and that the lowest effectiveness factor for struts is 0 .40
area extend into the pile cap and the concrete is the same or w hen they are located in tension members or the te nsion
higher strength. zones of members.
5.7.3 Example 3- The node of interest is directly above
the pile in Fig. 5.7d(a), where there is horizontal te nsion 5.8-Maximum shear stress limits in beams
in two transverse directions above each pi le. It would be The sectional shear stJ'e ngth for B-regions of beams in AC!
conservative to consider this node to be anchoring two ties 318-19 Section 22.5.1.2 limits the max imum shear strength
for which~"= 0.6. If the pile cap overhanging past the edge contribution from the shear reinforcemem to a value of
of tl1e pile is sufficient, Table 22.8.3.2 increases bearing V:, = 8 ,fl: b,.d. lfthis is considered for a re in forced concrete
capac ity by a factor o f up to 2 above this limit to account beam containing transverse (that is, shear) reinforcement
for the benefit of confinement; this limit s hould be similarly
applicable for this situation when the STM provisions are
where V, = 2 Jl: b.d, then the corresponding maximum
c ross-sectional shea r stress in the B-rcgion is limited
being used . Refer to Adebar et a l. ( 1990) for more informa-
tion about these types of nodal regions.
to IO Jl: . Th is limi tation is intended to guard against
a d iagona l compression fai lure in beam webs. The strut-
5.7.4 Example 4- Many of the other 3-D nodes commonly
and-tie mel.hod requires a direct check o f the compressive
e ncounte red in design practice can be visualized as forming
s tresses in struts which in a beam is the diagonal compres-
at the intersection of two planar sn·uctures. For example,
sive fi eld . This section of this guide examines the differences
Fig. 5. 7e presents the cases of a beam-column j oint in a 3-0
in these limits, limits in other codes-of-practice, and the new
frame; the intersection of the web and bottom flange of a
provision in ACI 3 18- 19 aimed at improving the safely of
ledger beam that supports a concentra ted load are illustrated
these members and resolving discrepancies.
in this figure. With this, the perpendicular action can be
Figure 5.Sa s hows the simpl ified load pat h for ver1 ical
examined and its effect considered. If the effec t is benefi-
forces in an idealized 45-degree parallel chord truss in which
c ia l, then only the design of the planar structure needs to
the shear force flows toward the left suppor1 by running
be considered. lf the effect is detrimenta l, then it is useful
down each inclined s trut and then being picked up by each
to consider that the lowest ACI 318-19 effectiveness factor
ver1ical tie until it reaches the support. Each ver1ical tie
for nodes (p,.) is 0.60 when the zone anchors two or more

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 35

(a) 45-degree parallel chord tr uss model (b) det ailed variable-angled truss model
with all transverse bars shown

Fig. 5.8a- Flow ofshear and diagonal compression ill a beam.

shown in Fig . 5.8a(a) represents the stirrups that are distrib-

uted over a tributa1y lengllv'width of d centered on the tie.
Figure 5 .8a(b) provides a more complete model for this flow
of forces where there is a continuous diagona l compres-
sion field that is picked up by closely-spaced ve1tical ties
and w here the angle of diagonal compression O is kept as
a variable {tha1 is, not necessari ly 45 degrees). Close w
the suppo,t, the inclination of each diagonal strut increases Fig. 5.8b-Diago11al compressio11 field ;,, a coupli11g beam.
forming a fan-s haped distribution.
variations to the approximate ratios described above will be
1l1e relationship between the diagonal compression stressJ;.
confirmed for the actual member and model geometries.
and the cross-sectional shear stress vis given by Eq. (5.8a) if
The above arguments would not be true in the case of a
the tensile stress in the concrete is neglected (taken as zero).
seg~ent of a beam where the s hear was more uniformly
distributed over the height of the section, as shown in Fig. 5.8b,
J;. = >-(tan8 + cot8) (5.8a) which m ig ht represent the region o f a beam nea r the point
If the angle of diagonal compression is taken as 45 o_f inflection. In this case, the permissible diagonal compres-
degrees, then the compressive stress is equal to twice the sion may be about twice that of the value when the ACI
shear stress- that is./, = 2v. If the shear stress limit of v,. = 318- 19 Section 22.5 .1.2 sectional shear limit is used. This
Io .Jl: is applied, based on AC! 318- 19 Section 22.5. 1.2
leads to the question of which methodology is correct. It
appears that the sectional s hear provisions might be unnec-
limit to V., which is s uitable for reinforced concrete beams,
essarily conservative for establishing member strength for
then for /4' = 6000 psi and/4' = I0,000 psi, the corresponding
this application, as they were generally established based on
compressive stress limi ts a re 0.261,.' and 0.20.fc', respectively.
observed compression failures above concentrated bottom
In contrast, the maximum stress in a diagonal compression
s upports, as presented in Fig. 5.Sa(b). There is additional
field crossed by transverse re in forcement is f c, = 0.8513// =
evidence for this co nclusion. The c urrent editions o f the
0.85(0.75)// = 0.6'\fc' by the ACI 3 18- 19 STM provisions
AAS HTO LRFO Bridge Design Specifications and Euro-
in Section 23.4.3. Because this value more than twice the
code 2 provisions both have much higher shear stress limit~
permitted compressive s tress as set by the V, limit (:::0.20 to
than given by the AC! 318-19 V., limit. The corresponding
0.26{,.'), this may leave the impression that the AC I 318-1 9
compressive stress limits in these other codes are in excess
STM provisions are less conservative than the sectional
of 0.5J;.', provided that regions near s upports are designed
shear provisions when it comes to an acceptable max imum
by the STM o r other approaches that directly consider the
diagonal compression stre-ss. This is not necessarily the case,
true flow of forces. O n the other hand, if Fig. 5.8b repre -
as the flow of forces in Fig. 5.8a(b) will be used to illustrate.
sented a link beam that could undergo force reversals and,
If the s tress in the diagonal compression fie ld to the right of
therefore, experience struts acting across preexisting cracks,
the s haded zone is/,, then the stress at the top o f the s haded
adhering 10 I.he section shear s tress limit might be more
zone is quite similar. Adhering to the ACI 3 18- 19 STM limit
appropriate. Adhe,ing to the section shear s tress limit can
for minimum angles between struts and ties of 25 degrees
also guide in desib'lling a member with adequate perfor-
for tl1e upper and lower edges of the fan, the strut dimension
mance at the se,viceabi lity limit state. Indeed, ACI 318 -1 9
at the base of the fan will be on the order of one-half of that
Section R22.5. I .2 indicates the sectional shear stress limit is,
at the top, depending on the member geometry and angles
in pan, inte nded 10 limit the extent of cracking.
selected. For this ratio, the diagonal compressive s tTess at the
The above arguments notwithstanding, and based on an
base o f the fan is approximate ly twice that at the top of the
evaluation of the AC! 3 18 STM s trut strengths by Reineck
fan. Thus, if the diagona l compressive s tress corresponding
and Todisco (20 I 4), a new provision was introduced in ACI
t~ the V, limit is 0.26.fc', then the actual diagonal c-0mpres-
3 18-1 9 for the s hear stress limit in beams designed by the
s1ve sb·ess above the support co uld be twice this value a nd
strut-and-tie method. For members that provide a minimum
thereby be c lose to the ACI 318- 19 STM limit. Note that
s pecified level of distribu1ed reinforcement, o r in which the
the strut stresses at the support location should a lways be
simt is otherwise restrained, a beam may now be explicitly
checked when applying the STM provisions and, thus, minor
designed by the STM provisions without the need to consider

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36 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
(a) Lightly-loaded beam
Fig. 5.9a- ldealized strw dimensions for light(v and heavi(v loaded deep beams.
any limit on V,,. Otherwise, tJ1e maximum shear stress limit
is made a function of the tangent of the angle of the strnt
re lative to the beam's longitudinal axis (""<Ila) and the size
effect factor as provided in Eq. (5 .8b) and (5 .8c). With this,
the s hear sh·ess limit in small stocky beams can be consider-
ably larger than in ACI 318- 14, and the shear stress limit is
more restrictive in large and slender beams.
(5.8b)
2 which is usually characterized by a parabolic s tress-strain
)., = (5.8c)
·' (l+d/ 10)
5.9- Member dimensions and constitutive
relationships
The strut-and-tie method is based on the lower-bound
theorem of plasticity such that only the plas tic capacity of
members, as opposed to their axial stiffness c haracteristics,
is needed to calculate the load capacity of a sh11cture. Being
able to estimate the load-defonnation response of each
member of the model would allow for the determination of
s tructural displacements, dis tribution of forces in s tatically
indeterminate STMs, and the level of plasticity needed in
each member to realize the full plastic truss capacity of an
STM . However, this is not so easy to do because of the chal-
lenge in detenn ining effective member dimens ions, uncer-
tainties in the constitutive relationships for struts and ties
s tiffened by the s urrounding concre te . Each of these is now
briefly discussed.
For purposes of determining structural displacements, the
effective w idth of a strut that carries the diagonal compres-
s ion is not necessarily the w idth ideal ized in the des ign, and
it usual ly changes over the length of the strut. For example,
consider the deep beam shown in Fig. 5.9a and imagine that
is being designed for two different loads, one smaller (P,,,,.11)
and the other larger (P1, ,g,)- In accordance with ACI 318- 19,
the minimum w idth of the diagonal struts required to support
the smaller load would be smaller than that needed to support
the larger load as illustrated in this figure. Howeve r, this does
not mea n that the actual effective widths of struts would be
different. The w idth of the strut at its ends would largely be
governed by the dimensions of the nodal regions, but the
d imensions of the bearing region may not be proportional
to the s upport loading. Additionally, the effective width of
the st.rut at mid-length is not necessari ly proportional to the
strut width at either end. For these reasons, estimating the
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(b) Heavily-loaded beam
axial stiffness of the s trut us ing the minimum-required strnt
dimensions by ACI 3 18-1 9 would more greatly underesti-
mate the actual stiffness for the lightly loaded beam than it
would for the more heavily loaded beam.
The sign ifi cant uncertainty about strut dimensions
notwithstanding, it is important to understand the constitu-
tive properties (that is, stress-strain relationships) of concrete
in compression in struts and for concrete in tension for stiff-
ening ties. For stmts, it is useful to divide them into a few
types. Unreinforced prismatic stm ts, w ithout an imposed
transverse strain, behave simi lar to that of plain concrete,
re lationship for low- to nonnal-stTength concrete, then tran-
sitioning to being closer to linear for high-strength concrete .
If a strut contains longitudinal re inforce ment, the stiffness of
the composite strut s hould be calcu lated using the constitu-
tive properties o f the concrete and reinforcement.
Prismatic s truts may also have an imposed tensile s tress
or strain that is perpendicular to the direction of compres-
s ion. An example of this is the field of diagonal compres-
s ion in the web of a beam, as presented in Fig. 5.9b, where
the shear forces and moments at the ends of the beam are
s hown . Figure 5.9b(b) presents !hat this pattern of diagonal
compression, and the associated cracking, is observed in
the webs of prestressed girders. In this situation, transverse
te nsion softens and weakens the response of the compres-
s ive field. This is commonly referred to as compression soft-
ening. One example of a compressive softening relation is
given by Vecchio and Collins ( 1986), where the compression
softening relationship to the parabolic compressive response
of concrete can be taken as shown in Eq. (5.9a)
(5.9a)
where F.0 is the compressive strain in the concrete; E/ is the
strain at peak stress; and F. 1 is the principal tensi le strain
(perpendicular 10 eel that can be found by Eq. (5 .9b)
s, = &, + (s., + 0.002)cot28 (5 .9b)
It can be considerably more difficult to predict the load-
defonnation response of non-pris matic struts (for example,
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 37

(a) Idealized compression field

r-- ,, y / // / v ,,..- V •/ _,,, ,,, I/ V // / /

._- -/ I>"' /
.,._ ~
/ , ~ -;, /
-'; ::;, ;..-- v
~
/
/
,,, ..- ---: - -v ,.,
•/
V
,i-:
·/ ~
./ ·' ,
, '
V
-~ .,., 1·:::- --::: 7
/.
~
- /
/ V ✓ 1- ,::'. _,, i.-,,- /,,
, '
-✓ /. .

.,
"/ / ,( t,,. /. J I'

(b) M easured cracking pattern
Fig. 5. 9b- Compression field and cracking in the web
(NCHRP 2007).
bottle-shaped or fan-shaped struts) because the e ffective
areas of these s truts change over tl1eir lengths and are affected
by location and size of cracks in these regions. Another
factor affecting the response is the quantity o f tens ion rein-
forcement that may constrain the spl itting of these st,uts. It
is beyond the scope of this document to provide approximate
relationships for predicting the load-defonnation response
of each of these types of stiuts.
One last type of strut to cons ider is the confined strut,
where the level of confinement is sufficient to ensure that
the strut can suppo11 ilS full capacity for high levels of strain
(-0.002 to - 0.008 in.tin.). The load-deformation response of
such confined struts may be calculated using methods that
are similar to those used for confined columns; refe-r to Kent
and Park ( 1971 ), Sheikh ( 1982), and Mander et a l. ( 1988).
This does not consider the sti ffness of the concrete that
would surround non-prismatic struts.
Predict ing the load-deformat ion response of ties presents
a differe nt challenge. While the area ofreinforcement and its
stress-s train chamcteristics are genemlly much better-known
than for concrete stiuctures, predicting the load-defonnation
response of ties is difficu lt because the stiffening effect o f the
concrete bonded to the re in forcement must be considered.
At cracks, the reinforcement will cany 1he full force in the
tie. Between cracks, the axial force will be s hared between
the concrete and steel, where bond s tress co ntrols the force
transfer from steel to concrete. Close to the cracks, the rein-
forcement wi ll continue to carry most the force, as little
force would have been transferred via bond. Further from
the cracks, the concrete wi ll often cany most of the loading
beca use its axial stiffness (E,A,) is usually much greate r
than that of the reinforcement (E.,A,,). At low levels of strain
(<0.005 in.tin.), there are usual ly more widely spaced cracks
and, thereby, the presence o f the concrete greatly stiffens the
axia l response in comparison to what it would be if there was
no concrete. In the technical literature, this is referred to as
the tension stiffening effect. At much higher levels of strain,
the cracking is more exte nsive and the concrete has little
effect on the tens ile stiffne,ss o f the tie. The size and spacing
.
' "
011 a portion of a bulb-tee girder
of reinforcement a lso affect the area of tl1e surrounding
concrete that contributes to canying the tie force. Additional
infonnation about the tension s tiffening effect is avai lable
in the technical literature; refer to Borosny6i and Balazs
(2005), Beeby ( 1979), and Scott and Beeby (2012).
5.10-Relnforcement arrangement In relation to tie
orientation
The orientation of ties may be at an angle relative to either
a horizontal o r vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 5. I0a(a) for
Tie A-8. While providing tie reinforcement oriented along
the axis of this tie may be the optimal design solution, it is
often impractica l 10 orient the reinforcement in this way for
constructabil ity reasons. Figure 5.10a(b) presents an orthog-
onal grid of re in forcement that cou ld be used for Tie A-8.
In this case, the capacity of the tie may be evaluated as the
component of the yielding force of each reinforcement in the
line of ax.is of the tie over a tributary w idth equal 10 the width
of the narrowest end of the tie, as given in Eq . (5. 10). While
valid, it is strongly pre ferred to provide tie capacity by rein-
forcement oriented along the longitudinal axis of the tie.
(5 .1 0)
Tnste.ad of us ing a model that requ ires a diagonal ti e, it
may be preferable to use a different STM that follows the
preferred orientation of reinforcement. One alternative for
this is shown in Fig. 5.1 0b(a). A more deta iled model, also
referred to as a refi ned model, is shown in Fig. 5. I0b(b).
5.11-Consideration of prestressing
This section describes how pre-m essing forces are
considered in stiut-and-tie models for both pre- and post-
tensioned members. This section only gives guidance for
global behavior. In ACI 3 I8- 19, the prestressing forces are
to be considered as external loads applied to the model.
The remaining capacity of the prestressing steel, treated
as a tie capacity in the model resistance, is detennined as
the di fference between the peak capacity of the prestressing

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38 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

.... . .............. .
(a) D-Region with Diagonal Tie A-8 (b) Orthogonal Reinforcement for Tie
Fig. 5./0a-Orthogo11al g rid ofrei11forceme111 used/or diago11al tie.

!CJ
.... 8
·-...

(o/ Coarse Model with Vert/col ond Horlzontol nes (bl Refined Model with Vtfficol ond Horlzonrol nes

Fig. 5. /0b- Detailecl (bar-level) model ofRegion A-B.

~Led at Lhc ul limale I imit slah:! antl the i rnpo~cd prcstressing Force whirl A A
force. Figure 5.1 la shows a n example of this for a simply-
supported post-tensioned beam. This is further examined in
Section 7.12 of this guide.
An a lternative approach is to consider the effect of A A
prestressing on the resistance side in which prestressing
steel is treated as a tie with a capacity determined from Fig. 5.//a-Simply-supported beam with effect ofprestres-
peak strength of the prestressing steel at the ultima te limit si11g shown asforces (adapted from Schlaich et al./ /987)).
state. AC I 318- 19, and this alternative method, lead to the
same or very simila r results for overall me mber capacity
when the capacity is governed by the struts or ties, with any
di fference being due to load a nd resistance factor values;
refer to Breen ( 1991 ).
Pretensioning forces F,., are introduced into the member
through bond between the tendon and the concrete over
the transfer length of the tendon, as discussed by Ramirez
( 1994). The remainder of the tendon capacity (F.,,, - F,..,)
is developed over the remainder of the development length,
as shown in Fig. 5.11 b. In an STM, pres tressing forces arc L transfer:
typically applied as follows: e ither the full prestressing force L c1.vo10 nt
is introduced at half of the transfer length, or half of the
prestressing force is introduced at each of the quarter and Fig. 5.11 b-Relationship oftransfer length and development
three-quarter points of the transfer length. length with prestressing forces (F•..J and ultimate capacity
In post-tensioned members, the full development of of the prestressi11g steel (F.,Jfor pretensioned members.
the ultimate capacity of the tendons is achieved through
For post-tensioned construction, tendon directional
anchorage devices at the ends of the prestressing steel; refer
c hanges (for example, draped tendons) a re introduced by
to Fig. 5.1lc in which both a more general and refi ned model
c hanges in the geometry of the ducts, whic h can be influ-
a re s hown. Design o f the anchorage zones is d iscussed in
e nced by tendon size a nd the number of tendons per d uct.
more detail in Section 7.4 of this guide.
For p re-tensioned construction. te ndon di rectiona l c hanges

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Equivalent Load /'
Post-Tensioning____,,/
(Orange)
a) simpl e STM model
Fig. 5.1l c-Forcefi-om deviation in tendo11 path.
(for example, harped tendons) are introduced by tendon
deviators that are cast into the concrete. In both cases,
the c hange in te ndon geometry generates deviation forces
acting on the concre te, which s hould be incorporated in
the STM load path. Figure 5. 11 c provides an example of
including the deviation forces for a draped tendon into
si mple and refined STMs.
5.12-Capacity evaluation of existing structures
If properly used, strut-and-tie model ing can p resent
a simple and effective method to assess the capacity of
O-regions in existing structw-es. Strut-and-tie model ing
of ex isting strucmres follows the same principles as the
analysis of new structures with some distinct differences as
described in the foll owing.
Tie locations within an STM are governed by the
arrangement and orientat ion of the rein forcing bars or
prestressing in the existing sh1.1cture. The location of the
nodes is governed in part by the anchorage or develop-
ment conditions of the re inforcement. The reinforcing
layout o ften suggests a dominant load path in the structure.
However, structures may have sec.ondary load paths, and
these load paths should be considered where appro priate.
Consideration of several load paths to max imize the evalu-
ated capacity usually requires the use of statically indeter-
minate models as described in Sections 5.2 a nd 5.4 of this
guide. The model g iving the largest capacity is often the
model that best uses the ava ilable reinforcement. However,
recall that when the model deviates sig ni ficantly from the
linear e lastic stress mode l, the service ability performance
may be poor and the use o f a separate model at the se rv ice-
ability li mit state (SLS) may be warra nted .
The determination of strut-and-tie capacities requires
knowledge of the material prope11ies. These prope11ies can
be obtained either from drawings or other documentation
about the structure or through material testing. Instead of
testing or available in formation, typical material properties
can be estimated using historical standards or specifications.
Structures built in accordance with previous versions of
design codes and standards are often o nly lightly reinforced
and may not meet current re inforcing requirements. There-
fore, the capacitie.s of scrucs. ties, and nodes need to be care-
Am erican Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
39
b) refined STM model
fully assessed according to current best practices. Issues to
be considered include:
a) Reinforcing ratio a nd arrangement of d istributed crack
control reinforcement can infl uence the strut efficiency
factor of interior struts. Refer to Section 4.4.
b) Reinforcing bar properties have evolved over time, a nd
the evaluato r should consider the bar type and its influence
on bond. Th is can affect development and splice lengths.
which are important in establishing the capacity o f the tie.
Existing structures may also include smooth reinforcing bars
with significantly longer development and splice lengths for
either a portion or all their reinforc ing bars.
c) Confirm detailing o fre inforcement a nd check that there is
a continuous flow of forces at all spl ices and tra nsitions. Note
that the reinforcing bar pat.tern in an exist ing structure may
not always fol low the exact layout shown on the construe-
tion drawings, and not all can be readily confirmed through
nondestructive testing methods. Historical standards for
acceptable construction tolerance may di ffer from current
norms. The impact of s mall changes to the reinforc ing
configuration should be considered during the evaluation,
including misalig nment of bars, variations in the bar plac ing
order, and bars being sl ightly shorter than s hown. Partic-
ular a ttention should be paid to splices a nd arra ngements
of perpendicular layers of rein forcement. At a minimum, it
s hould be examined at a conceptual level if small changes in
the re inforcement layout would lead to a sign ificant decrease
in load-carrying capacity.
d) Check for welded rei nforc ing bar details. Fu11her inves-
tigation o f the reinforcing bars used in welded connections
is requi red to dete11nine whether the steel was of a weld-
able grade. Non-weldable steel, frequently used in older
strnctures, can become very brittle if we lded. Thus, there
is a possibility that these welds have e ither failed o r have
very low remaini ng capacity. Rei nforcing bars welded at
their e nds 10 anchor plates are particularly vulnerable. Weld
fai lures can drastica lly change the anc horage conditions of
the bars and very likely impact the overall load-carrying
capacity of the structure.
e) Existing strucnires are often deteriorated by spa lling, a nd
by corrosion in the reinforcing bars. The evaluator should
consider the impact o f this deterioration in the analysis. This
<acl)
40 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Fig. 5.13.2-Screenshoi of graphical user inte,ji,ce for a truss analysis and geometric
modeling tool.
can be done by adj usting strut, node, and tie s trengths and/
or using modifications lo the anchorage, splice, and develop-
ment length requirements.
It is important to remember that strut-and-tie modeling is
a lower-bound method that is only val id if the s tructure is
s ufficiently ductile LO s upport the load in the manner selected
by the design. The need for a distributed grid of reinforce-
ment to provide this ductility increases w ith the complexity
of the model. That said, tl1e actual structure can have addi-
tional capacity beyond that predicted by tl1e selected model.
The amount of additional capacity depends on the model
chosen and the overa ll geometry and properties of the region.
lf the results of the STM analysis do not ind icate sufficient
capacity, the evaluator s hould consider the use of other, more
advanced, analysis methods s uch as finite element modeling
to further assess capacity and perfonnance.
5.13-Computer-based design aids
5.13. 1 Introduction- Section 5.3.2 presented how prin-
c ipal stress traj ectories, as dete nnined from a linear-e lastic
finite e lement analysis program, can be used to select suit-
able STMs for use in design. Section 5.3.3 presented how
computer-based topology optimization can also be used
to select preferred shapes for STM design solutions. This
section presents how computer-based methods can make
the design process more efficient and transparent by using
a g raphical interface for drawing STMs, iterating its geom-
etry, and displaying calculated truss-member forces and
member/nodal geometries. It also presents how an inelastic
finite e lement analysis can be used to predict conditions in
the designed D-region under all load levels.
5.13.2 Graphical e11vironme111 for determination of
member forces and stresses-After a suitable shape of
the STM has been selected, the next step is to specify the
exact location of the center points of all nodes so that a
truss a nalysis can be conducted to detennine the forces in
each member. This can range from a s imple to a n intensely
iterative task, as now expla ined. For the design o f simple
D-regions, s uch as many deep beams and corbels, c losed-
rcic'l1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
form expressions can often be developed for dete nnining the
horizontal or vertical locations of these nodes such that the
stresses are within acceptable limits. This process is simi lar
to that of determining the depth of compression in the flex-
ural design of a beam s ubjected to a specified moment.
For a complex D-region, the detem1ination of node loca-
tions and truss member forces can be much more difficult.
This is because the forces to be designed for and the dimen-
s ions of members and nodes are linked in manners that can
be dillicult or impossible to isolate in a closed-tonn analysis.
Thus, an iterative de-s ign is often required that needs exten-
s ive geometric representations, and this can be burdensome.
It is useful to remember that the design solution only needs
10 satisfy that the truss member forces are in equilibrium
wi th the applied loadings and reactions, and that the stresses
in members and nodes are in within code-specified limits.
Computer-based tools (Alshegeir and Ramirez 1992; Yun
2000; Tjhin and Kuchma 2007b) can make this process more
straightforward and intuitive.
Figure 5.13.2 provides a screenshot from a program by
Tjhin and Kuchrna (2007b). This tool a llows a designer to
draw the shape of the structure, apply load and boundary
conditions, and then draw the s hape of an STM, snap1>ing to
grid points and guidel ines as des ired. The software perfonns
s imple truss analysis to dete nnine the e lement forces for the
defined geometry as shown by the larger numbers in this
figure. The user can select widths or stTess limits for each
member or node, a nd the program automatically calculates
stress values (categorized by color), and the dimensions of
nodes as needed. W ith the use o f such a simple tool. the user
can adjust locations and dimensions within the graphical
interface unt il all the truss members and nodes fit within
the dimensions of the structure, and stresses are within code
s1>ecified limits.
5. 13.3 Predicting pe,formance using inelas1ic fin ite
eleme111 analysis-The designer has great freedom in the
selection of the geometry ofa model, and there can be many
acceptable model solutions for the same design problem.
In addition, the strut-and-tie method is recognized to be an
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 41

useful modeling tools available, ranging from free to quite

costly, and documented in papers and manua ls. A few selec-
tions for these are presented in the jib Practitioners· Guide
(fib 2008), Maekawa et al. (2003), and Vecchio ( 1990) .
An example of the predictive capabilities of models is
presented in Fig. 5. 13.3, where pa,t (a) s hows the STM a nd
measured pattern of cracking, pa,t (b) shows the predicted
patterns of cracking, and part (c) compares the load-defor-
mation of the measured a nd predicted response. The calcu-
lated nominal strength by the ACI 318- 19 STM provis ions
was 65 kip (289 kN).

CHAPTER 6-SERVICEABILITY
(a) Measured Pattern of Cracking CONSIDERATIONS
at Ultimate
6.1- lntroduction
As described in Chapter 3, the strut-and-tie method is
applied at the ultimate limit states (ULSs) and does not
explicitly address service limi1 states (SLSs). This chapter
is therefore focused on content that design professionals
traditionally understand as serviceabil ity issues- namely,
expected cracking at the service limit s tate, design and
detailing of crack co,mol re inforcement, and deflections.
The most e ffective method to ensure good service- level
behav ior of a region designed with the s trut-and-tie method
is to develop a model that c losely follows the flow of fore.es
based on an elastic analysis.
(b) Predicted Pattern of Cracking
at Ultimate 6.2- Cracking at service limit states
Visible cracking at service loads can be expected if esti-
mated service loads on a concrete member result in tensile
Finite

90
Element
Model ,
.... Measured
strains in the concrete that exceed the stmin corresponding
to its tens ile capacity. Additional cracks and w idening of
existing cracks are both like ly, as stress redistribution occurs

'
80
j
~
0,

'8
70
60 ACI 318-19
... - . within the member and load paths al ign with the provided
tie rein forcement.
50 Cracks are more likely to fonn at service loads in
'"0
...J
,::, 40 members with large dead-to-live load ratios. Tests of rein-
.ii forced concrete deep beams indicated first diagonal cracking
-a.
Q.
30
<(
20 loads as low as 25 to 40 percent of the calculated strut-and-
10 tie design capacity (Birrchcr ct a l. 2013; Huizinga 2007;
0 Garay and Lubell 2016). Based on these tests, it may be
0.0 0.1 0.2 0 .3 0.4 0.5 0.6 pllldent for the designer to consider providing additional
Displacement Under Point of Loading (in.) tie reinforcement, additional crack control reinforcement,
or both, to reduce the expected tensile s tress after cracking
(c) Load Deformation Response within the reinforcement provided. Research has shown
that higher crack control re inforcing ratios are effective in
Fig. 5.13.3- Compariso11 of predicted and measured reducing crack widths at service loads; beam specimens with
respo11se ofdapped-e11d beam with openi11g. a 0.003 transverse re in forc ing ratio had improved service-
idea lization that does not consider kinematics and thereby ability performance (that is, smaller crack w idths) relative to
cannot rel iably predict pe,fonnance (including defor- those with a 0.002 re in forcing ratios (Bin-cher et al. 20 13).
mations, c racking, and s teel s train) under all load levels The designer may w is h to a lso cons ider providing a member
(including service and overload~)- In cases of uncertainty that is larger than required for strength 10 limit service-
and/or critical parts of a s tructure, the design professional level s hear and flexural s tresses. lt is widely accepted that
may wish to conduct a continuum analysis, as implemet11ed using several reinforcing bars at moderate spacing is more
through fin ite element ana lysis sofiware, where the fu ll effective in controlling cracking than an equivalent a rea of
inelastic response of the stlllcture, including the biaxia l s tate larger bars at w ider spacing because the c rack spacing (and
of s train a nd stress, is considered. TI1ere are numerous very
American Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrele.org <acl)
42 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
therefore the average crack width) is related to the spacing
of bars (Frosch 1999).
T here are numerous existing references ( Binc her et a l.
20 13; 1-! uiz inga 2007; Garay and Lubell 20 16) that address
anticipation and limitation of crack widths in members
designed using the strut-and-tie method. Schlaich et a l.
( 1987) address this serviceabil ity consideration by suggesting
that the forces in ties at service levels can be calculated and
used with the effective concrete area surrounding the tie in
typical crack width equations. This method would be partic-
ularly useful for ties near the edges of members, where the
tie provides the primary flexural reinforcement. They a lso
note that this provides best results when the model's ties
loosely follow the elastic te nsi le stress trajectories. Notably,
the paper emphasizes that good detail ing is more effective in
mitigating undesirable cracking than is sophisticated crack
width calculations .
6.3-Determination of required distributed
reinforcement
Distributed reinforcement is required across the axes of
interi or struts, with the exception of struts that are consid-
ered restrained. In a strucnire designed w ith the strut-and-tie
method, tie reinforcement is not necessarily provided in all
locations where tensile stresses develop. For example, tensile
stresses may develop where compressive stresses at a node
spread out along the length of a strut or w here interior s tm ts are
oriented perpendicular to diagonal tension fields. Providing
distributed reinforcement at these locations serves a threefold
purpose: I} controls cracks; 2) a llows the strut to resist more
axial force; and 3) ensures some capacity for redis tiibution of
forces by e nhancing the defo1111ation capacity.
T he design of distributed re inforcement is covered in AC I
318-19 Section 23.5 and is d iscussed in Section 4.4.4 of this
document. The reinforcement in Section 23.5 is required for
interior struts that are designed with a strut efficiency factor
of~.= 0.75 and do not satisfy the require ments o f Section
23.4.4. A lthough the provision of the distributed re inforce-
ment influences the strength of the strut, the commentary
notes U1at this reinforcement also restrains crack w idths.
A lthough the code a llows the omission of distributed re in-
forcement e ntire ly when a s trut is restrained and an efficiency
factor of~-' =0.4 is used, this practice is discouraged and
s hou ld be used w ith gre.at care. T he absence of distributed
reinforcement is detrimental to the ability of the member
lO redistribute s tresses, limit crack widths, encourage crack
disbibutions, and properly develop strut capacity. T hat said,
there may be situations where minimum distributed re in-
forcement is impractical or unnecessaiy, s uch as thro ugh the
depth of a ledge or in pile caps. T hese cases are addressed in
Section 23.5. 1 by defining restrained interior struts that do
not require minimum distributed re inforcement.
T he use of the strnt-and-tie method does not preclude
the need to satisfy minimum reinforcement requirements
prescribed in other parts of ACI 3 18, such as m inimum
temperan,re and shrinkage re in forcement requirements.
Another example is deep beams, for which the m inimum
re inforcement provis ions of AC! 3 18-19 Section 9.9.3
rcic'l1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
s hould be satisfied regardless of whether the strut-and-tie
method is used. Addit ional discussion on design require-
ments for deep beams is provided in Section 7.2 of this guide.
Section 23.2.9 directs designers to sections from Chapter 9
of ACl 3 18-19 that must be satisfied when deep beams
are designed using the strut-and-tie method. For instance,
Section 9.9.3. 1 requires placement of unifoll'Rly distributed
re inforcement in a deep beam such that the minimum hori-
zontal and vertical re inforcement areas are 0.0025 times the
gross cross-sectional area. T his minimum reinforcement is
identical to the amount required by AC I 318-19 Table 23.5. 1
for cases in which the distributed re.i nforcement is provided
by an orthogonal grid. Additional info1T11ation on reinforce-
ment deta iling requirements for deep beams is provided in
Section 7.2 of this guide.
Other structural e lements that could be designed w ith the
strut-and-tie method have minimum distributed reinforce-
ment requirements presented within the A CI 318-19 member
chapters. For walls, Table 11.6. 1 of AC! 3 18-19 presents
minimum reinforcement requirements with in-plane shear
J7;
of v. !: 0.54'0.,),. A,., These requirements for distributed
re inforcement do nol satisfy Section 23.5.3. However, the
requirements of Table l 1.6.2 for wa lls with in-plane shear
J7;
V,, e: 0.54'r1,A A,.,, result in reinforcement that satisfies
Section 23.5.3.
Section 23.2.10 di rects designers to Sections from
Chapter 16 of ACl 318-19 that must be satisfied when corbels
are designed using the strut-and-tie method. For instance, the
required distributed reinforcement for corbels is presented in
Section 16.5.5.2 and is a function of the amount of prima,y
tension re in forcement provided . T his requirement and
Section 23.5.3 must both be sat isfied for corbels designed
with the strut-and-tie method if a strut efficiency factor of
~s = 0.75 is used.
Other s tructural elements that might be designed with the
strut-and-tie method, such as s lender beams, diaphragms,
be.am -column joints, and founda1ions, have requirements for
minimum distTibuted reinforcement that are much less than
Section 23.5.3 require ments. In these cases, the designer can
c hoose to satisfy o nly the member specific minimum distrib-
uted reinforcement and use s truts with an e fficiency factor
of~,= 0.4.
6.4-Distributed reinforcement placement and
detailing
In addition to quantifying the reinforcement required,
placement and detai li ng of re in forc ing bars is important to
ensure nan ow, wel l-distributed cracking at service loads and
redistribution of stresses so the required ultimate st rength
can be achieved.
Placement of dis nibuted reinforcement in two 011hogonal
di.rections is strongly encouraged. However, if distributed rein-
forcement is placed in one direction only, the amount of rein-
forcement given by the following equation should be provided
0.0025
(6.4)
sin 2 a I
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Fig. 6.4a- Vertical distribltled reinforcement is more effec-
tive to control cracking in shallow angle struts.
ACI 318-19 Section 23.5.2 requires that the angle a, not
be less than 40 degrees.
If a designer chooses to use distributed re inforcement
placed in one direction only, the more favorable direction for
crack contro l should be selected. For instance, in a discon-
tinuity region witl1 a s mall strut angle relative to the hori-
zontal, cracking that might develop due to transverse tensile
stresses is controlled most effectively by vertical reinforce-
ment (Fig. 6.4a). Similarly, in discontinuity regions with a
nearly vertical stn,t inclination, cracking is most effectively
controlled by horizontal rein forcement (Fig. 6.4b).
Depending on concrete element geometry, distributed
reinforcement may be placed in as few as one layer or in
multiple layers. A single layer of distributed re inforce ment
on each face may be prudent for thin structural members
such as walls or narrow beams. However, walls with a thick-
ness not greater than 10 in. (254 mm) may be detailed with a
single layer of distributed reinforcement Conversely, U1ick
members such as wide beams may require more than two
layers of distributed reinforcement to provide e ffective load
paths of similar stress intensity across the full cross section.
It may often be the case in wide beams that multiple layers of
reinforcement are needed simply 10 satisfy s hear demands or
minimum code requirements for distributed and transverse
(shear) re inforcement. The maximum spacing of legs of
shear re inforcement across the width of beams is presented
in ACJ 318- 19 Table 9.7.6.2.2.
Multiple layers of distributed reinforcement through 1he
thickness of 1he member may a lso be advamageous in situ-
ations where the loaded area of a member is considerably
smaller than the member width. In this case, use of interior
layers of distributed reinforcement locates some of this rein-
forcement adjacent to the loaded area. However, it should
also be recognized that a loaded area naITower than the
member width wi ll result in crosswise spreading of the load
and crosswise reinforcement to control splitting cracks in the
plane of the D-region may be needed. Such crosswise rein-
forcement and its anchorage can be expl ic itly detennined
by using a loca l strut-and-tie model (STM) representing 1he
spreading effec1, but in the absence of such a model, the use
of the AC! 318-1 9 minimum distributed re inforcement for
interior stmts might be investigated.
American Concrele lnstttule - Copyrighled © Malarial - www.concrele.org
43
2: ----
l
I
- - t - - - - - - -:- - - ; • - -
Fig. 6.4b-Horizontal disrributed reinforcemem is more
effective 10 control cracking i11 steep angle struts.
6.5-Deflections
ACI 318-19 does not provide an explicit method to calcu-
late deflections in members designed using the strnt-and-tie
method, but this does not preclude calculating deflections
of members designed with an STM. Because an STM is
frequently used for short, shear-dom inated members, deflec-
tions are typically small and do not often govem member
design. Nonetheless, limitations on maximum defonnations
or member deflection need to be considered by the design
professional, regardless of the design method employed.
Shear stress in reinforced concrete members causes defor-
mations in components that are distinct from deformations
due to bending (curvatures). This deformation due to s hear
is often ignored, particularly in slender members, because
it is assumed to represent a small fraction of the overnll
deformation. Lubell (20 18) demonstrated analytically that
this might not be the case even for members meeting the
typical span-to-depth ratios commonly assumed to provide
adequate deflection control. Therefore, a thorough analysis
should include consideration of both shear defonnation and
flexural defonnation. Flexural de fonnation may be esti-
mated using the methods in ACI 318-19 Chapter 24. Shear
deformation is not specifically addressed in ACI 318- 19
Chapter 24, but ACI 318 does provide guidance on cross-
sectional area to be used in the estimation of shear defor-
mations in Table 6.6.3.1. 1(a). Designers can estimate s hear
deformations using well-establ ished equations (Timoshenko
and Gere 1972). For linear-e lastic deformation calcula-
tions, ACI 318-19 Section R6.6.3 . l s uggests that the s hear
modulus for uncracked concrete can be taken as 40 percent
of the detennined modulus of e lasticity (that is, 0.4£,).
Lube ll (2018) presented an ana lytical method for estimating
shear deformations in cracked slender beams based on the
<acl)
44 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Modi fied Compression Field Theory (Vecchio and Collins
1986; Collins and Mitchel l 1997).
In the case of using an STM to design the local disconti-
nuity regions of larger, sectional members (such as dapped
beam ends or post-tensioned anchorage zones), the use of
an STM for the discontinuity region need not change typical
ACI 3 18- I9 methods for calculating flexural deformations
of the member as a w hole. However, the designer s hould be
aware of possible influences on the global member response
from local effects. As one example, loca l shear deformations
at STM-designed links around a beam opening can result in
increased overal l member defonnations beyond the incre.ase
associated with the local moments of inertia.
Severa l research studies have used load-deformation
analysis of STMs to consider the behavior well beyond
the serviceabi lity limit state. Hwang and Lee (2000), for
example, proposed an STM for interior beam-column j oints
and used load-deformation analyses of the model 10 predict
s hear s tre ngths. ln another example, Yun (2000a) demon-
s trated the use of nonlinear analysis of STMs to pred ict the
entire load-deformation response under monotonic loading.
Sunden11ann and Mutscher ( 199 1) used load-deformation
analysis of STMs to estimate the s upport reaction forces of
an externally static.ally indetenninate deep beam. An a uempt
to simulate the hysteresis response of re in forced concrete
structures using STMs was also made (To et al. 2000). The
software developed by Tjhin and Kuchma (2007b) provides
an option to conduct nonlinear s tatic analyses under
increasing load, also known as pushover analyses, based on
user-defined stress-strain re lationships and effective widtbs
of struts and nonprestressed reinforc.e ment ties.
The a forementioned references have shown that STMs
can be used to describe deformation well beyond the service
limit state. However, for gravity load-deflection checks at the
service limit state, the effective moment of inertia method
desc1ibed in AC! 3 I 8- 19 Chapte r 24 can be used for most
members designed with STM. For calculation of immediate
lateral deflections due to service loads, AC! 3 I 8- 19 Section
6.6.3.2.2 can be used. Finite e le ment methods that consider
the effect of cracking and other nonlinear effects on stiffness
and strength can provide an effective means of evaluating
the performance of D-regions under service load levels.
CHAPTER 7-IMPLEMENTATION OF STM DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
7.1-lntroduction
Chapter 7 discusses implementation of Lhe strut-and-tie
method 10 design and the resulting construction details that
are specific to common d iscontinuity regions, including the
following:
7.2-Deep beams
7.3- Fra me corners and beam-column joints
7.4-Corbels
7.5- Dapped-end co nnections
7.6-Beams suppo1ting beams
7.7-lnverted T-beams
7.8- Walls and beams with openings
<cicl'1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
7.9-Coupling beams
7. 10- Footings
7. 11- Pile caps
7.1 2-Post-tensioned anchorage zones
The strut-and-tie models (STMs) commonly used for these
types of discontinuity regions are presented and discussed in
this chapter. Each section presents the design and deta iling
considerations thal require special a ttention for the disconti-
nuity region type. Where appropriate, the general presenta-
tion of design and deta iling principles provided in Chapters
4, 5, and 6 are referenced. Also, most sections refer to the
numerical examples provided in AC! SP-208 and SP-273.
7.2-Deep beams
7 .2.1 Overview-Deep beams are characterized by re la-
tively s mall s hear span-to-depth ratios (ai d < 2). They are
frequently used as transfer girders within re in forced concrete
structures, where concentrated loading from columns or
other members above are supported by columns or other
s tructural members be low that are laid out in a differe nt
configuration.
ACI 318-19 provides a general definition of deep beams in
Section 9.9. I, as members that satisfy one of:
(a) Clear span not exceeding four times the overall
member depth Ir or
(b) Concentrated loads within a distance of 211 from the
face of the support.
As discussed in Section 3.4.1 of this guide, this defi ni-
tion is consistent with having Lhe entire region between the
concentrated load and the support classified as a D-region. A
s hort 8-region wiII occur between a D-region adjacent to the
s upport and the D-region adjacent to the concentrated load
when they are separated by a distance exceeding 211. Thus, if
the cle.ar span-to-depth ratio is less than 4, a single point load
at m idspan will also cause the full member to be c lassified
as a D-region.
According to ACI 318-1 9 Section 9. 9, deep beams must
be designed taking into account the nonlinear distribution of
axial strains in these D-regions. Use of the STM is identified
as complying with U1is requirement.
There are several key considerations when using the strut-
and-tie method for design o f deep beams:
a) Developing models consistent with the e lastic stress
traj ectories
b) Max imum s hear stress limit
c) Minimum reinforcement limits
d) Anchorage of re in forcement
Whi le these considerations are generally addressed in
previous chapters, the following sections a lso discuss these
considerations in relation to other ACI 318-19 deep beam
de.sign requirements.
7.2.2 Developi11g models co11sistent with elastic stress
trajectories- Like many other discontinuity regions, plane
sections in a typical deep beam do not re main plane. As
illustrated in Fig. 7.2.2 for a deep beam under a unifonnly
distri buted load, the principal s tress traj ectories vary over
I.he member height. This unique deep beam, a lthough not
typical o f deep beams encountered in practice, is presented
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
to illustrate elastic stress trajectories. Refer to Section 3.4 for
more typical deep beam STMs. The region of concrete under
tensile s tress corresponding to the tensile force resisted by
the bottom reinforcement varies over the span . As described
by Schlaich et a l. ( I987), the STM s hould roughly fol low the
elastic stress trajectories, as il lustrated in Fig. 7.2.2, to better
approximate the tie forces. In Fig . 7.2.2, changing the slope
of the diagonal strnts 0 will affect the force in the horizonta l
tie F,. Refer to Section 5.3 of this guide for further discus-
sion of elastic stress traj ectories in discontinuity regions.
7.2.3 Maximum shear stress limi1-ACI 318- 19 Section
9.9.2 requires that the cross-sectional dimensions be selected
such that V,, 5 ¢ 10.Jl: bwd (lb) (V,, 5 ¢0.83.Jl: b,d (N)]
unless the design proceeds per Section 23.4.4, which allows
a 13, of 0.75 if member dimensions satisfy Eq. (4.4.5):
V,, 5 ~5ian0'1,.">-..Jl: b.d (lb) [V,, 5 90.42ian0M,.Jl: b,.d
(N)]. In effect, Eq. (4.4.5) allows shear forces exceeding
¢ 10.Jl: b,.d(lb)[V,,5¢0.83 .Jl: b. d (N)]fordeep beamswith
strut angles greater than 63 degrees, such as the deep beam
shown in Fig 7.2.2. Because both horizontal and ve,tical
distributed reinforcement are required for deep beams (refer
lO Section 7.2.4.2 in this guide), 'I,., in Eq. (4.4 .5) may be
taken 1.0.
If the shear force in the deep beam is resisted by transverse
reinforcement, the minimum allowable angle of 25 degrees
(between an interior strut a nd a tie representing the trans-
verse re inforcement) limits 0 to a maximum of 65 degrees.
7.2.4 Minimum reinforcement limits
7.2.4. 1 Flexural tension reitiforcement- According the
ACI 3 18- 19 Section 9.9.3.2, the minimum flexural tension
reinforcement must meet the criteria for minimum tension
reinforcement in an ordinary beam. Specifical ly, A,_ .,;. is the
greater of(a) and (b):
(a) 3.JI: .JI:
b,,.dlf,, (in .2) (0.25 b,,d!f, (1111112)]
(b) 200b,,d!f,, (in. ) (I .4b,,d/f,. (1111112) ]
2 Because a grid of distributed reinforcement that mee ts
Note that A~,,,;. can exceed the required reinforcement
calculated using an STM, especially if the member propor-
tions are large relative to the typical cross section dimen-
sions of an ordinary reinforced concrete beam that could
resist the imposed load ing. However, as A,,_.,;. is intended to
prevent sudden collapse o f a beam after flexural cracking,
this limit is required to be satisfied for deep beams regardless
of the design method used.
7.2.4.2 Distributed reiliforcement- The deep beam provi-
sions in ACI 318- 19 Section 9.9.3 provide prescriptive rules
for crack control reinforcement on both side faces of deep
beams of at least 0.0025b,,s in d irections parallel and perpen-
dicular to the axis of tJ1e member, where s is the reinforce-
ment spacing. This spacing is to be less than d/5 or 12 in.
ACI 3 I 8-19 Section R9.9.3. I explains that the reinforcement
perpendicular to the member axis is more effective in deep
beams, but the same criteria is specified for both directions to
help control the growth and width of diagonal cracks.
The STM provisions for distributed crack control rein-
forcement, described in Section 4.4.4 of this guide, are
simi lar. They require a minimum distributed re in forcement
ratio of 0.0025 in each direction unless struts are laterally
American Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
45
I
J_ Fe
I
(- ) \
Fee / \
h
I
I \ z
I \
\
\
Fig. 7.2.2-Elastic stress trajectories in a deep beam
(adapted.fi'Om Scl,/aich et al. [/987}).
restrained. Reinforcement in one direction is permitted,
provided the minimum amount is i11creased where the angle
between the strut and unidirectional reinforcement is not 90
degrees. For wide deep beams, consideration s hould also be
given to providing multiple layers of distributed reinforce-
ment across the full member width and not only on the faces.
minimum require ments is provided in all deep beams, P, for
interior struts may be taken as 0.75, as prescribed by ACI
3 18- 19 Table 23.4.3(a).
7.2.5 Anchorage of rei1,force111e11t- ACl 318-19 Sect ion
9.9.4 s pecifies require ments for the anchorage of reinforce-
ment at the supports of deep beams. For simple suppm1s,
positive moment tension reinforcement is to be anchored to
develop J;, at the face of the support As this requirement is
based on/,, rather I.ban a force level. it does not consider the
possible provision of excess reinforcement beyond the force
demm1d that may be required. Hence, it is recommended that
the tension reinforcement be anchored in a manner consistent
with the STM forces, and this capacity is not less than A,_.,;,, ·J;..
At interior supports of multi-span deep beams, the ACI
318- 19 deep beam provisions require that negative moment
tension re inforcement be continuous with that of adjacent
spans. These provisions pennit splicing of positive moment
tension reinforcement, w hich s hould be spl iced in a manner
consistent with the forces in the STM used for the analysis.
7.2.6 Strut-and-tie models ofdeep beams- Worked exam-
ples for different deep beam configurations following the
STM provisions in ACI 3 18 have been published previously
<acl)
46 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

and representative models are discussed herein. However, it

s hould be noted that the examples emphasize the stnn-and-
tie modeling approach and therefore may not directly adhere
II T
b
to all deep beam requirements described in Section 9.9 of
ACl 318- 19 and Sections 7.2.2 through 7.2.5 of this guide. rb
Uribe and Alcocer (2002) presented an example ofa deep
beam design using the s trut-and-tie method in Example la
J
a ''
of AC I SP-208. To emphasize that multiple solutions are I ''
possible, Tjhin and Kuchma (2002) presented an alternate
solution to the same problem in Example I b of ACI SP-208.
'
Ats
' ,_ --- - -
I
. C
Lubell a nd Habel (20 I0) developed STMs for a deep beam I
with asymmetric loading in Example 6 of AC ! SP-273 . I
The example illustrates difference.s in the reinforcement I
detailing that occur with changes to the selected truss model.
Example 4 in SP-208 by Novak and Spre nger (2002) illus-
trates the development of a strut-and-tie model for the case of
a deep beam with an opening. MacGregor a nd Wight (2005)
l
T
t
C
present an example of a multi-span deep beam following Fig. 7.3.2a-Strut-and-tie model of a frame comer (AC/
ACI 318-02. 318-19 Fig R23. I0.4).
Numerous other publications provide examples of deep
beam design using the strut-and-tie method, including Curved Bar Node
Schla ich e t a l. ( 1987), FIP Recommendations (Fil' 1999),
and Collins and Mitchell ( 1997). Review o f different
common model configurations in these publications can aid
in deve loping STMs for deep beams. However, it is noted
that, as these examples do not follow AC! 318- 19 provisions,
adaptation is required for structures designed according to
ACI 318-19.

7.3-Frame corners and beam-column joints

7.3.l Introduction- Many reinforc-ed concrete strnctures
include intersections of vertical and horizonta l e lements
forming a frame. This section discusses the application of
the s trut-and-tie method to joint design. This section does
not address other important aspects of joim design and
detailing. For example, ACI 3 I 8-1 9 Chapter 15 requires
consideration of the s hear resulting from moment transfer
and sets minimum transverse reinforcement requirements
in unconfined beam-column joints. Where seis mic require-
mems govern, AC! 318- 19 Chapter 18 includes deta iling
requirements for longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
in joints of intennediate and special moment frames. These
other design and detai ling require ments must also be satis-
fied when using the strut-and-tie method for j oint design.
7.3.2 Com111011 models-The common STM for frame
corners s ubjected to closing mome11t is shown in Fig. 7.3.2a.
As illustrated, closing moment causes compression on the
inside corner. The closing moment model employs a curved
bar node at the intersection of the primaiy ties and a diagonal
strut between the inside and outside comers.
As illustrated in Fig. 7.3.2b, a different model is used for
tall joints (joints with ratio of height to width of2 or greate r).
The simple STM illustrated in Fig. 7.3.2a cannot be used
at tall j oints because the angle between the diagonal strnt
and tie on the outer face of the column would be less than
25 degrees, the shallowest angle permitted by ACT 318-19.
In the STM for a tall joint. diagonal struts and horizontal ties
transfer the horizontal shear through the height of the joint.
T C
Fig. 7.3.2b-Stru/-and-tie model for a tall joint.
This model provides a conservative means for proportioning
the required horizontal tie reinforcement in the joint. Note
that ACI 3 I 8-1 9 Section 15.2.5 specifically mandates the use
of an STM for the design of tall joints. These joints, though
designed by STM, are sci II required 10 meet the shear strength
limits and detail ing requirements stipulated in Chapte r 15.
The common STM used for joints subjected to ope11i11g
moment is s hown in Fig. 7.3.2c. In this model, a diagonal
s trut across the corner is intercepted by the primary ties on
the inside of the frame corner.
Anchoring the ties at the CCT nodes can be a chall enge.
Several reinforcement schemes for frame comers subject to
opening moment have been s tudied (Nilsson 1973; Mayfi eld
et a l. 1971 ; Swann 1969). The findings are presented in
te nns of the efficiency of the re inforc ing scheme: the ratio
of the flexural strength of the joint relative to that of the
connecting members. Secondary reinforcement is sometimes
used to achieve 1he ful l positive moment bending potential

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 )
( I00 percent efficiency). Campana et a l. (20 13) present
STMs for joints with secondary reinforcement. Meggct
(2003) has evaluated the perfonnance ofbeam-<:olumn knee
joints with various reinforcement schemes under cyclic
loading. Figure 7.3.2d, taken from this reference, shows the
forces from closing and open ing moments at a joint rein-
forced with overlapping U-bars, a detail that performed well
in Megget's research.
Although a ll frame corners and beam-column joints are
discontinuity regions, STMs are not generally used for
design of frame corners. Except for ta ll joints, frame corners
and be.am-column joints are typicall y designed foll owing
standard practices and prescriptive code requirements.
However, STMs are useful to understand the flow of forces
at joints and should be used for design in certain c ircum-
stances, includ ing:
I. Joints with limited available development length. where
the dimension of the connected e lements in the plane of
the frame are such that the available development length
is less than e,th•
'
C T
Fig. 7.3.2c~ Openi11g 1110111e11/ stritl-and-lie model of a
ji·a111e corner.
DIAGONAL STRUT
JOINT SHEAR
t REINFORCEMENT
(a) Closing moment
Fig. 7.3.2d-Forces in knee joints reinforced with overlapping U-bars and join/ ties
(Megget 2003).
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47
2. Heavi ly reinforced joints, where c losely spaced bars or
multiple layers of reinforcement are used to provide nega-
tive moment strength.
These c ircumsta nces are discussed in 7.3.3 and 7.3.4.
7.3.3 Joinls will, limiied available developmen1 length-
AC I 3 I 8-19 Section 25 .4.3 requires that the distance from
the back of a be111 bar to the face of the suppo,t exceed CdA,
the development length for hooked rein forcing bars. Where
the dimensions of the joint in the plane of the frame are such
that the available development length is less than l,1h, the
STM shown in Fig. 7.3.2a can be used to demonstrate that
the closing moment can be developed in the joint region.
In this model, the tensi le force from negative moment
is canied through the curved-bar node. As such, the rein-
forc ing bars should not be bent at the comer. As described
in Section 4.6.7, the bend radius should be large e nough to
ensure the a ll owable compressive stress at the face of the
node is not exceeded. Also, the length of bend at U1e curved-
bar node (th) should be sufficient to develop any difference
in force between the ties extending from the node (refer to
Section 4.6. 7.4). If a curved bar node is used to demonstrate
the adequacy of a joint subjected to c losing moment, the
hooked bar development requirements of Section 25 .4.3
need not be met.
There is also a n upper limit to the bend mdius. Per the
requirement stated in ACI 3 18-1 9 Section 23. 10.5, the radius
must be s1>ecified such that the center of curvature of the
bent bar falls within the joint. Otherwise, the bend radius of
a curved-bar node will be inconsistent with the geometry of
the trnss used for the STM.
7.3.4 Heavily reillforced joillls- For large frames, s uch
as transfer girder frames and rectangu lar vehicular tunnels,
several layers o f large, closely spaced bars are needed to
develop s ufficient negative moment strength. Figure 7.3.4 is
adapted from an actual design in which 7.5 fl. (2.3 m)-thick
slab e lements connect to fom1 the wall/roof slab junction
of a tunne l. The outside flexural re in forcement consists
of three layers of No. 11 bars spaced 6 in . on center with
(b) Opening moment
<acl)
48 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

3 Layers of #11 (43) @ 6" ( 150)

Vertical Spacing with
90° Standard Bend
and l, Extension

Potential _.__.~ ;_
0
~~
Crack -i

Fig. 7.3.4- Potential diagonal failure ofa heavily reinforced wall/slab joint under closing
moment.

v,,.
Nuc
.. C 0------80
'
(a) Single corbel (b) Double corbel

Fig. 7.4. I- Strut-and-tie models for corbels (SP-208).

standard bend diamete rs in accordance with Table 25.3. 1
of ACI 318- 19, 11-3/8 in. (289 mm). (Note that the bend
radius is half the diameter.) All three layers contribute to
the force in the diagonal strut and the potentia l diagonal
crack s hown in Fig. 7.3.4 could open as bars straighten at
the standard bend. According to ACI 318- 19 Section 23.10,
the bend radius should be at least 23 in. (584 mm) based
on// o f 4000 psi (27.6 MPa). Though e ither bend radius
is technically permitted per ACI 3 I8- 19, the calculated
23 in. (584 mm) radius requirement could have easily been
accommodated within the dimensions of the frame corner,
substantia lly enhancing the stmctural integrity of the wall/
slab connection compared to the use of standard bends.
For similar joints that are not confined, such as beam-
column joints in por1al frames, crack control reinforcement
should be added in the joint region as required by AC! 318-19
Chapter 15. Usually, horizontal ties are provided in the joint.
7.4-Corbels
7.4.l Introduction and common model.1~Corbels are
commonly used in precast and cast-in-place construction
for transfer of loads from floor or deck framing elements to
columns and walls.
This section describes the design of corbels using the
strut-and-tie method . AC! 318- 19 Chapter 16 a lso includes
prescriptive methods for designing brackets and corbels
meeting specified geometric and load ing limits. Per
ACI 318-19 Section 23.2.10, several of these prescriptive
provisions, including ce,tain geometric limits, minimum
area of primary tension reinforcement, and requirements for
reinforcement deta iling, are also applicable to brackets and
corbels designed using the strut-and-tie method .
Strut-and-tie models for corbels are reasonably straight-
forward. ACI SP-208 Example 3.1 describes an STM for
a single corbel near the top of a column, which is s hown
in Fig. 7.4. l(a). The vertical reaction V,, is transferred via a
strut to the column face. The horizonta l reaction N,,, results
from friction at the bearing due to creep, shrinkage, and

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 49

temperature movements, or external loads. The horizontal
reac1ion can acl in e ither direction. but the direction away
from the column usually controls. At the bearing, a hori-
zontal lie transfers the exlernal horizonlal force and lhe hori-
zontal component of lhe inclined sln11 to the far face of the
column, where the tie force is resolved by a vertical tie along
the back face of the column and anoll1er inclined slrut.
ACI SP-208 Example 3.2 provides a STM for a double
corbel, which is shown in Fig. 7.4. l(b). In this case, the
model is sim1>lified because the reaclions on each side of
the column are equal. Unbalanced reaclions would require
an additional incl ined strut across the column thickness, as
noled in lhe figure.
Design of corbels using STMs requires care ful consider-
ation of four items:
I. Anchorage of the pri mary tension reinforcement at the
front face of the corbel (Node C in Fig. 7.4.1 (a))
rimary reinforcement
( _,=~db
_ db
\
Fig. 7.4.2a-Welded 1ransverse bar far anchorage of
primc11y reinji:>n::eme11t at ouiside face of corbel (ji-0111 AC/
318-19 Section R 16.5.6.3).
2. Anchorage of the primary te nsion reinforcement near the
back face oflhe column or wall (Node Bin Fig. 7.4. l(a))
3. Distributed reinforcemenl and shear slress in the
bracket or corbel
4. Shear friction
These considera1ions are discussed in Sections 7.4.2
through 7.4.5, respectively. Section 7.4.6 discusses tran-
siti on from the corbel to the 8-region of the column
or wall.
7.4.2 Anchorage of primary 1ension reinforceme111 al
the fro11t face of 1he c orbel-E ffective anchorage o f the
primary lensio n reinforcement is required to ensure lhal the
tie force is developed where it exits the nodal zone below
the bearing . Often, the length of bearing, which defi nes the
extended nodal zone, is insufficienl for development using
straig hl bar development or standard hooks. In these cases,
alten1a1ive means of mechanical anchorage are needed.
such as a welded transverse bar or headed bars.
As addressed previously, AC! 318-1 9 allows for design of
corbels using STMs, but also provides allernative prescrip-
tive require ments {ACI 318-1 9 Section 16.5) that may be
used in place of the STM provisions for corbels with a shear
span-to-depth ratio less lhan 2. The prescriptive require-
menls include recommendations for the anchorage of
the primary tension reinforcement at the fronl fac-e of the
corbel. ACI 3 18-1 9 Seclion I6.5.6.3 pennits anchorage of
the primary tension reinforcemenl using a welded transverse
bar o f equal size or by bending the primary tension rein-
forcement to form a horizontal loop. The commentary 10
AC! 318- 19 Section 16.5.6.3 includes a welded transverse
bar detail thal is reproduced in Fig. 7.4.2a. This detail was
successfully used in tests by Mattock et al. ( 1976). Similarly,
as can be seen in Fig. 7.4.2b, ACI SP-208 Example 3.1 uses

1rx&"'
(305 x 152) - - - - - ~
Bearing Pad
2·
(51)

J•½'" X :J.'n" X %"'

189 x 89 x 12.7) - - --+-- 4 ... (13)
StMIAngl• _ _ ,_ 3 • 113 {10) H-• a13-¼" (891

~ ~~+-.--
3- #4 (13)
."'!e.-
0 ..

... i!:!. Fr•mi-"9 Bars

..__ _ 2 · 113 (10) H-ul2" (51)

14•
(229) (358) NOTE: Column Relnforc1ng
Not Shown

Fig. 7.4.2b-Reinforcement details a1 single corbel, including steel angle at front face of
corbel to anchor pri111a1y 1ensio11 rei11forceme11t.
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50 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
a steel angle at the front face of the corbel to anchor the
primary tension reinforcemem.
Mechanical anchorage of reinforcement is also effective
in contro lling cracks due to bearing stresses at the outer edge
of the bearing pad. On the other hand, hooked reinforcement
is not e ffective in intercepting edge cracks.
7.4.3 Anchorage of pri111a1y tension rei11forcemenl near
the back fa ce of the column or wall- In single corbe ls, the
primary tension re inforcement is usually bent down to capture
Strut BD (referto Fig. 7.4. l(a)). As s hown in Fig. 7.4.2b, the
primary tension reinforcement in ACI SP-208 Example 3. I
consists of four No. 4 (No. 13) bars bent down along the
back face of the column. T he anchorage of this reinforce-
ment is not discussed in the AC! SP-208 example. However,
s uch nodes at the back face of the column should be treated
as curved bar nodes if the flexural re inforcement is bent
down along the back face of the co lumn. As discussed in
Section 4 .6. 7 of this guide, the bar rad ius s hould be checked
to ensure that: I) stresses at the face of the node are within
allowable limits; and 2) the difference in tie forces CB and
BA (refer to Fig. 7.4.1) can be developed through the bend
region. Standard bend radii are usual ly s ufficient unless
multiple layers of reinforcement are required.
Also, the downward legs of these bars should be of suffi-
c ient length for a tension spl ice to the primmy vertical
re inforcement.
7.4.4 Distributed rei11force111e111 and shear stress in the
bracket or corbel- Distributed reinforcement meeting
the AC! 318- 19 requirements described in Section 4 .4 .4 is
required for isolated (non-continuous) corbels because the
incl ined s trut is not laterally restrained. The s trut factor 13,
for the inclined interior strut with dis tributed re in force-
ment may be taken as 0.75, as prescribed by ACl 318- 19
Table 23.4.3(a), and a shear stress c heck is not required.
Usually, distributed reinforcement is placed horizonta lly
in a corbel. For unidirectiona l distributed reinforcement
ACI 318-19 Section 23.5 . 1 requ ires a minimum re inforce-
ment ratio of 0.0025/sin 2o 1• As illustrated in Fig. 7.4.4, the
minimum distributed reinforcement ratio is controlled by the
smal ler o 1 angle.
Distributed reinforcement is not required and may be
impractical for a continuous corbel, such as a corbel along
a wall, because the interior struts are laterally restrained.
If d istributed reinforcement is not provided, AC! 318-19
requires that 13., be taken as 0.4 unless Eq. (4.4.5) is satisfi ed:
v. :5 <j,5tan0Ai., f.l: b, d (lb) [V. :5 <j,0.420tan,J..,f.i; b. d
(N)], in which case 13, may be taken as 0. 75. As described
in Section 4 .4.5, this equation is intended to preclude diag-
onal tension failure by limiting shear stress as a function of
strut angle.
7.4.S Shear fi'iction- ACI 3 I 8-1 9 Section 23.2. 11
requires consideration of s hear friction where ap1>ropriate ,
as described in Section 4.4.8 of this guide. Consideration
of shear friction is appropriate where there is a construc-
tion joint at the face o r the column or wall supporting the
corbel or bracket. Consideration of shear friction may also
be approp1iate for monol ithic corbe ls with s hort s hear spans,
s uch that the compression reaction from the ledge load is
<cicl'1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Malarial - www.concrete.org
~--1-Distributed
reinforcemenl
Distributed reinforcement crossing interior struts.
Note that a 1 is different tor the two struts above; the
minimum distributed reinforcement ratio is controlled
by the smaller angle a 1 •
Fig. 7.4.4- Disrributed horizontal reinforcemenr in a corbel
(AC/ 318-19 Fig. R235.I).
not sufficient for shear friction if a crack develops at the
interface between the corbel and support. Although not
applicable to corbels and brackets designed using the strut-
aod-tie method, the prescriptive requirements ofACI 318- 19
Section 16.5 require shear friction re inforcement at the face
of the column or wall supporting a corbel. Specifically,
ACI 318-1 9 Sections 16.5.5.2 and 16.5.6.6 require c losed
stirrups or ties parallel to the primary tension reinforcement
to be unifonnly distributed within the upper two-thirds of
the effect ive depth o f the corbel. The area oft he ties is to be
at least half of the reinforcement required for flexure (Tie
BC of the single corbel shown in Fig. 7.4. 1(a)).
7.4.6 Transition to B-regions- Figure 7.4.l(b) shows
forces in the B-regions above and below the corbel that add
to stresses from the corbel loads at Nodes Band B', which
s hould be accounted for in the STM. Otherwise, the sizes
of the nodes and struts may be underestimated, which can
reduce the calculated forces in ties. Also, as described in
Section 7.4.2, the downward legs o f the primary tension rein-
forcing bars should be of sufficient length for a tension lap
spl ice to the primary vertical reinforcement. In the B-regions
above and below the corbel, sectional design procedures can
be used to proportion vertical and horizontal re inforcement.
7.5 Capped-end beams
7.5.J Introd11ctio11- For precast buildings and bridges.
the end s upports of beams are often dapped such that the
bottom of the beam is level with the bottom of the inverted
tee or ledger beam on w hich it is supported. Dapped ends
include both load and geometric discontinuities. ACI SP-208
discusses several examples o f STMs for dapped-e nd be.ams.
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 51

8 -
v
<

r r
i,, ..-1,
I
' / ,,. /
s~
, / /
"""-'-
1-<
I /
F
.. , ~~-
IJ...
/
/
/
, .. I:::-

C
v lii7 C
II
1 /
/
v
/
/
/ I, /

TJ
, / / /
/ I , / / i,
G
D D

_,
Dap Dap

(a) Strut-and-tie model {b) Adjusted m odel

Fig. 7. 5.2a-Strut-a11d-tie model ofdapped-e11d beam.

7.5.2 Common model types-One common STM for a
dapped-end beam is s hown in Fig. 7.5 .2a . As illustrated in
Fig. 7.5.2a(a), the vertical reaction is tnmsfen-ed through
Strut AB to the hanger reinforce ment represented by
Tie BC. In this example, Stm t AB forms an angle of less
than 25 degrees with respect to Tie BC, which violates
Section 23.2. 7 of AC I 318- 19. The upper hanger reinforce-
ment node is lowered to po int B' in Fig. 7.5.2a(b) s uch that
the angle between Strut AB' and Tie B'C is greater than
25 degrees. This change satisfies ACI 31 8-1 9 Section 23.2.7
and more closely follows the flow of compression stTesses
from the bearing, a lthough the tension force in Tie AC is
increased . The compressive stress in the nib is usually
inclined at approximate ly 45 deb'Tees from the horizontal,
which ca n be veiified using an elastic finite e lement model.
(The nib is the extended e nd above the dap, as illustrated in
Fig. 7.5 .2a.)
Including Strut CE in the model decreases the force in
the lower segment of the hanger re inforcement (Tie CD)
but increases the force in the horizontal ties exte nding from
the bearing (Tie CF). Of course, the horizontal tie extending
from the bearing at Node A s hould be developed at the
point where it exits the nodal zone. In practice, these ties
are usually developed by welding the reinforcing bars lO
the bearing plate. The configuration of Stm t OF results in
an increased forc.e in the FG segment of Tie EFG compared
to Tie EF. An alternate solution could include an additional
diagonal strut extending from F toward the top of the beam at
the section cut to give a more uniform EFG force, but addi-
tiona l analyt ical effort will be needed to solve 1he required
angle for this additional strnt to achieve force equilib1ium a t
each node.
In tests of <lapped T-beams (dap heights equal to half
the tee he ight and reinforcement configuration similar 10
that illustrated in Fig. 7.5.2a), Ma11ock and Thcryo (1986)
measured the forc.e in the hanger re inforcement just below
the dap and found it to be about equal to or sl ightly less than
the vertical reaction. In a similar testing program, Klein et al.
(2015) found that the measured hanger reinforcement force
varied from about 60 to I05 percent of the ve,tical reaction
and averaged 78 percent of the vertical reaction. The lower
measured forces may be result of hanger re in forcement
Ac,::l!i....--+-.!C,C1
i.fD_ H.~ O'I t
:, i
- !!.
(44.5)
V~43.6"
~ - - - 1 / 194) '----------I ---I-
3•
(78)
•·· I ,• l
(102) (102}
7•
(178)
s·
(127)
Fig. 7.5.2b-S1ru1-a11d-1ie model ofdapped-e11d beam from
SP-208 Example 2.
strain gauges that were not at cracks. These resu Its suggest
that if Strut CE is included in 1he model. it should be consid-
ered to carry only a small fraction of the vertical react ion.
Exa mple 2 of AC I SP-208 e mployed the STM shown
in Fi g. 7.5 .2b. A similar STM is used by Mitchell et a l.
(2002) in the ir discussion of experimental verification of
STMs, also in ACI SP-208. Due to the inclusion o f Strut BO,
these models predict forces in the hanger reinforcemen< that
are substantially greater than the vertical reaction.
In Example 7 of ACI SP-273, an STM with curved-bar
nodes was developed for dap1>ed beams with Z-shaped
hanger reinforcement bent in the plane o f the webs. This
STM is s hown at the right in Fig 7.5.2c. The detenn i11a1e
truss model used for the ana lysis is shown a t the Jell a nd
features a 1ig id link hinged at Node B. By using the rigid
link, the model is determinate and the ties represented by
the vertical legs o f the Z-shaped bar are properly located.
Although not checked in Example 7 o f ACJ SP-273, Node B
should be located s uch that the angles between struts and ties
at the bearing are at least 25 degrees.
Figure 7.5.2d illush·ates an STM that can be used for the
case where the primary hanger reinforcement is inclined.
Similar to the model shown in Fig. 7.5 .2a, Strut CE would be
expected to carry only a small fraction oflhe vertical s hear.
Design of dapped e nds requ ires special attention to
several factors: I) anchorage of horizontal bar at the nib;
2) anchorage of ha nger reinforceme nt; 3) d istributed

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52 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

F
Rigid
Unk
I
I
I
,.,,,,
A 11.tr
- ~ -+-----DE (f10.fJ

~"'
~ ;,,~

/'
Cd D
''·"

Fig. 7.5.2c-Strnt-and-tie model of dapped-e11d beam Ji-om SP-273 Example 7. (Note:

Forces are in kip [kN].)

reinforcement a nd shear in the nib; 4) transition to the

B-region; and 4) crack control.
Each of these factors is discussed in Section 7.5.3 through
7.5.7, respectively. Refer to Example 14 from ACI SP-273
for a discussion of the evolution of design details for dapped-
-- - - -
/
-✓
/
E

end beams and a comparison of the e ffectiveness of various /

details based on an experimenta l testing program. /
7.5.3 Anchorage of horizontal bar at the nib-Anchorage /
F
of the horizontal re in forcement at the nib is similar to
anchorage of horizontal corbe l re in forcement. Refer to I
Section 7.4.2 for a discussion of this issue. I
1.5.4 Anchorage oflumger rei11forceme111 I
CCT node at 101> of section (Node 8 in Fig. 7.S.2a): In I
conventional beams, hanger re inforcement usually consists G
ofseveral closely spaced stim,ps. Anchorage can be provided Dap
by a standard hook around longitudinal reinforcement as
permitted by ACI 318- 19 Section 25.7. 1. As discussed in
Example 14 from SP-273, c losed stiJTLJps perfo1med belier Fig. 7.5.2d-Strut-c111d-tie model ofa clapped-end beam with
than U-stirrups with 135-degree hooks at the Lop. The c losed i11c/i11ed hanger rei11forceme11t.
stirrups prevented breakout failure of the top strut because
the horizontal legs confine the strut reaction. Tie
CTT node at bottom of section: Refer to Fig. 7.5.4. For
conventional beams with s tirrups for hanger re inforcement, t
anchorage of the hanger reinforcemem is provided by a stan- Sllrrups (A.J
Headed
dard bend around longitudinal reinforcement. Anchorage Bars (AJ,--'~
of the longitudinal reinforcement is more challenging. The
longitudinal bars can be welded to an end plate. Alterna- . . . Tie
tively, headed bars can be used, provided they are developed
before they exit the extended nodal zone. If the hanger rein- Limits of
forcement is bent in the plane of the web as illustrated in --<►~-=-""'--14- Extended Nodal
Zone
Fig. 7.5.2a and 7.5.2c, the CTT node is a c urved bar node,
and the recommendations discussed in Section 4.6.7 apply. Fig. 7.5.4-Development length ofheaded bars (EdJ at CCT
1.5.5 Distributed reinforcement and shear in the ni~ node.
Distributed reinforcement meeting the ACI 3 18- 19 require-
menLS described in Section 4.4.4 is required for typical The PC! Handbook (PC I MNL- 120) recommends shear
(noncontinuous) daps because the inclined s trut is not late r- friction reinforcemem between the nib and the full section.
ally restrained. The strut factor J3, for the inclined inte1ior AC! 318- 19 Section 23.2. 11 requires consideration of shear
strut with distributed re inforcement may be taken as 0.75, as friction where appropriate, as described in Section 4.4.4 of
prescribed by ACI 318- 19 Table 23.4.3(a), and a shear stress this guide. Shear friction reinforcement is not necessarily
check is not required. Usually. distributed reinforcement is required when using an STM to design a dapped end. Even if
placed horizontally in the nib. s hear friction reinforcement is not needed, its use in the fonn
of distributed horizontal re in forcement is recommended

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Fig. 7.5.5-Strut-a,ui-tie model of a dapped slab connection (cut-away section).
beca use ii can a lso serve as the d istributed re inforcement
required by ACI 3 18- 19 Section 23.5. 1.
Tests of precast double-tee beams indicate that the STM
can be unconservative for design of lhe nib for s hear (Klein
er al. 20 17). The hanger reinforcement induces tension in
the end region, and diagonal tension fai lures of the nib
are possible even if distributed horizontal re inforcement
is provided. Compared to a corbel, the stress flow is less
steeply incl ined because the bearing load is suspended by
the hanger reinforcement. A check of maximum shear force
in a<.:<.:onlam:c with E4. (4.4.5) is, thc:r~roret rccomrm:ntlcd.
Node Bin Fig. 7.5.2a s hould be lowered such that Strnl AB
is inclined al approximalely 45 degrees and the hanger rein-
forcemenl is fully developed at Node B. This adj ustment
effeclively limits the allowable s hear stress in the nib to
5.Jj/. This check is not needed if inclined hanger reinforce-
ment is used as shown in Fig. 7.5 .2d.
A dapped slab-lo-slab connection is a special case. As can
be seen in Fig. 7.5.5, the discontinuity region is continuous
perpendicular to the plane of the STM. As such, the inte-
rior stmts would be considered laterally restrained, and
distributed reinforcement is not required (or practical). In
1his special case, shear force in the nib should be checked in
accordance with Eq. (4.4.5) as described above.
7.5.6 ·n-ansitio11 to B-regio11s- Sectional design proce -
dures can be used for the 8-region, which starts a distance
It from the e nd of the full section. In current practice, some
designers use sectional procedures to proportion the s hear
reinforcemem in the encl region represemecl by Tie EG in
Fig. 7.5.2a. Tests of dapped beams indicate !hat sectional
design procedures overestimate shear strength in the e nd
region a nd can be unconservative (Kle in et al. 20 I 7). In the
D-region, vertical reinforcement, w hich can be conserva-
tively proportioned using the strut-and-tie method, should
be provided.
7.5.7 Crack control- Inclined cracking exlending upward
from the bearing is common in dapped ends of both nonpre -
stressed and pres1ressed beams. Such cracks should be
expecled between the nib and full section given relatively
high stress levels. nolch effects, and section change. For
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53
Laterally Restrained Struts
(Distributed Reinforcement
Not Required)
nonprestressed members, these cracks can be effectively
controlled by proportioning the re in forcement near the reen-
trant corner using an STM. Rein forcemenl inclined on a
diagonal across this crack is particularly effective (refer to
Fig. 7.5 .2d). For prestressed members, end region cracking
can be reduced or eliminated by extending pretensioning
strand through the nib.
As discussed in Section 6.3, distributed re inforcement
helps control cracks in discontinuity regions, including
dapped ends, and is required by ACI 318-19 Section 23.5
unk::;:; ~Lruls arc laLtrdll y n::;Lrained.
7.6-Beams supporting beams (indirect supports)
7.6. t Overview-in cast-in-1>lace consh11ction, beams
frequenlly frame into the side face of other beams o r g irders,
as shown in Fig. 7.6. 1. This results in an indirecl support
condition where the reaction for the supported member
induces localized forces into the supporting member. Refer
to discussion in Paper 15 of AC! SP-273 by Reineck (2010).
laboratory testing by Leonhardt el al. ( 1968, I971 ),
Baumann and Rusch ( 1970), Mattock and Kumar ( 1992),
Mattock and Shen ( 1992), and others has shown 1ha1 the load
transfer depends on factors including the relative dimensions
of the supported and supporting members, the average s hear
stress in the members, and the deta iling of the longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement.
For a suppo1ted member reinforced for high shear stresses
wilh stirrups, its reaction force s hould be carried to the top
face of the supporting girder by hanger re inforcement. Wight
(2015) and CSA A23.3 (201 4) provide presc1iptive detail ing
m ies for the hanger reinforcemenl when s hear sh·esses
are grealer than approximately ¢3'if/ a nd indicate that no
hanger reinforcement is required for lower stresses when
certain geometric limi ts are met. Also refer to ACI 318- 19
Seclion R9. 7.6.2 for a description of conditions where hanger
reinforc-e ment is not required. Alternatively, an STM can be
used to directly solve for the reinforcement require ments.
The connection o f the beam and girder resu lts in O-regions
in each member. The STM is an effective approach to visu-
alize the overall load palh lhrough Lhe connection and design
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54 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

(a) Wide beam supported by (b) Beam supported by /c) Beam supported by
girder of same depth deeper girder shallower girder

Fig. 7.6.1- Common co11.fig11ratio11s ofindirect beam supports.

- G
- --
••r
-
/7--1
SUPPORTED
b.-• (-?
I I BEAM, 81
~ GIRDER.GI

(o) 3-0 perspective /b) Use of orthogonal models

OUTLINE OF" EQUIVALENT FORCE FROM
~ SUPPORTING GIRDER G 1 SUPPORTED BEAM 81
B ••••• ••
D
,# _,,,' - I
A # C ,_... E -,, . ~

I
4\_ TIE A--C 0€.VELOPEO HERE 1.-J
EQUIVALENT REACTION
••
ALL HANGER S TIRRUPS
PROVIDED BY GIRDER G 1 WITH ZONE b0

(c) STM for Beam Bl (d) STM far Girder Gl

Fig. 7.6.2-Mode/sfor beam end supported by girder ofsame depth.

these D-regions. In general, planar STMs are developed for
the beam and girder at the connection. Common nodes are
used in the models, and the analysis should therefore consider
the interaction between the models. TI1e STMs can be used to
detennine the quantity and configuration o f so-called "hanger
reinforcement" required at the j oint region as well as the
appropriate detailing and anchornge of the rein forcement in
the members. Ties acting as hanger reinforcement should be
anchored at e ither end in the same manner as typica l shear
stirrups (refer to AC I 3 18- 19 Section 25.7. 1).
It is noted that the examples in this section of the guide
assume that the suppo,ting g irder is not subjected 10 torsion.
If torsion is required, a seiies ofjoined planar STMs for each
face of the girder in a tube configuration could be devel-
oped to consider the combined action of torsion, s hear, and
flexure in the g irder. Some adjustment in node locations
for the STM of the s upported beam would also be required
to ensure geometric compatibility of all planar STMs at
the connection.
7.6.2 Beam of same depth as rite supporting girder-
Figure 7.6.2 defines the geometry o f a connection between
Beam B 1 tliat is supported by Girder G I having the same
overnll heig ht. The overnll STM for the connection, s hown
in Fig. 7.6.2(b), can be visualized as the intersection of two
planar STMs representing the e nd region of BI and side
face of GI in Fig. 7.6.2(c) a nd (d), respectively. Node A is
common to both models, with equal and opposite vertical
forces representing the equivalent reaction or imposed load
for B I and G 1, respectively.
The re in forcement configuration in both the beam and the
g irder should be considered when establishing the overall
geometry of the orthogonal STMs. The g irder longitudinal
re in forcement s hould be located below the beam longi-
tudinal reinforcement, w hich is reflected in the geometry
selected for the beam bottom chord (refer to Fig. 7.6.2(c)).
If the width of GI is s mall relative to the beam height,
Node A can be located at the girder cente rline and no flex-
ural restraint of the beam occurs. The dimension of ode A
is therefore taken as the g irder width, and Tie AC s hould
be developed before it exits the right edge of the girder in
Fig. 7.6.2(c). Different conditions may a pply in the case of

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
]~
f ~ ..
( SUPPORTED BEAM. 82
GIRDER, G2
(a) 3-0 perspective
••
:\Ol/TLINE OF
SUPPORTING GIRDER G2
EOUIVALE!llf REACTION
PROV10EO 8Y GIRDER G2
(c) STM far Beam 81
Fig. 7.6.3- Beam end supporied by deeper girdei:
very wide g irders where the diagonal strut from the beam,
described later, cannot e ngage the full w idth of the girder.
In F ig. 7.6.2(u), the equivalent reacti on force from the
beam at Node A (blue arrow) wil l be at the girder reinforce-
ment level. The induced vettical force can only be resisted
by direct ties extending to the top of the girder (that is,
Tie AG). Therefore, all the hanger reinforcement s hould be
placed w ithin the intersection o f the beam and g irder (Reineck
2005, 20 I0). The hanger steel should be detai led as additional
stirrups in the s upporting girder. Based on Section 4.4.3 of this
guide, the spacing of the hanger stim1p legs across the width of
Girder G I relative to the girder longitudinal bar sizes should
be cons idered to ensure an e ffective width for the bottom face
of Node A (dimension b, in View x-x ofFig. 4.4.3a) consistent
with the STM used for Beam BI .
While the use of orthogonal models with equal and oppo-
site forces at the common node allows the two models to
be solved sequentially, the intersecting models create a
comb ined stress condition at Node A that shou ld be directly
cons idered. Referring to Fig 7.6.2, Node A is subjected to
tension from Tie AC as well as from Ties AG and IAJ. The
relevant node efficiency factors, w hic h are more severe
than for either planar truss separately, w ill apply; refer to
Section 4.6. 1 in this guide. Fu1thermore, the lower e nd of
Strut AB is in a region of transverse tens ile stress from the
planar model in Fig. 7.6.2(d), which will lower the effec-
tive strength of the strut.
An example describing the analysis and detailing approach
for the indirect support of a beam by a member with the
same height is provided by Dewobroto and Reineck (2002)
(Example 5 in ACI SP-208).
American Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
55
(b) Use of orthogonal models
I' ..
l+-.J
.I
POTENTIAL ZONE OF
HANGER STIRRUPS
(d} STM for Girder Gl
7.6.3 Beam shallower than suppor1i11g girder-
Figure 7.6.3 defines the geometry of Be.am 82 that is
supportctl by the uccpcr Giruer 02. Simi lar to the conuition
described in Section 7.6.2, the connection can be solved by
the use of two 01thogonal STMs with equal and opposite
vertical forces placed at the common node, Node A.
It is recommended that all hanger reinforcement be placed
fully within the connection, and a solution process identical
10 that described in Section 7.6.2 can be followed. However,
if all hanger reinforcement c.annot be placed within the
connection, an STM for the girder simi lar to Fig. 7.6.3(d)
can be investigated. In this model for 02, the equi valent
beam reaction force at Node A is resisted by vertical Tie AH
(representing the main hanger steel) as well as the down-
ward-oriented Struts AL and AM. Additional hangers 10
support SrruLS AL and AM should be placed w ithin a region
determined by the re lative magnitudes of the beam height
/tb and the girder he ight lt8 (CSA A23.3- 14). The locations
of Nodes A, Land M as wel l as the relative proportion of
hanger steel in Tie AH compared to Ties GL and TM wi ll
influence the required longirudinal reinforcement required
for Tie LM.
The magnitudes of hb and '18 will also define whether
Node A is below the neutral axis of G irder 02, where a trans-
verse tensile strain from the girder will occur, decreasing the
node and strut efficiency factors that should be used.
7.6.4 Beam deeper than the girde,~ \1/hen the beam being
suppo1ted is deeper than the girder, it is observed in Fig. 7.6.4
that all the hanger reinforcement to suppot1 the equivalent
beam reaction by Tie ABC s hould be placed within the inter-
secting region s imilar to Section 7.6.2. For the beam STM.
the CTI node below the s uppor1ing girder (Node C) should
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56 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

--- -
PPORTED BEAM, 83
GIRDER. G3

(a) 3-D perspective (b) Use of orthogonal models

Fig. 7. 6.4-Beam end supported by shallower girder.
be delailed 10 anchor the force in Tie CD, typically using
headed bars due to the sh01t horizontal length of the extended
nodal zone. A detail that fonm a curved-bar node by using
continuous bent bars similar to the lower node of a dapped-
end connection provided in Section 7.5 might also be practical
in some situations. Note that the horizontal legs ofU1e s tim,ps
used in the girder are oriented parallel to the beam axis and
therefore cannot hook around and s upport the beam longitu-
dinal rein forcement. TI1us, hangers should be detailed as beam
stirrups that e ngage the beam top steel as well as the headed
bars at the bottom of the beam. The stirrups should be located
within the outermosl top reinforcing bars in the girder.
7.6.S Beam s upported by a cantilevered girder- T his
configuration can be considered as a special case of the
conditions described in Sections 7.6.2 thro ugh 7.6.4. In this
unique case, the primary difference is that both the girder
tension re inforcement and the hanger reinforcement are
anchored ai a common CIT node at the Lop of the g irder, and
both of these ties must be developed in relatively confined
space. A n example describing the analysis and detailing
approach is provided by Andermatt and Lubell (20 I0) in
Example 5 of AC I SP-273 .
7.7-lnverted T-beams
7.7.l fmroduction and common model types-I nverted
T-beams are commonly used in reinforced concrete bui lding
and bridge construction. Figure 7.7.1 a shows a n inverted
T-bent spanning over a highway and supporting a bridge
s uperstruc1t1re. The inverted T-beam is used to minimize
s uperstructure depth, allowing for better clearance under-
neath the structure. Inverted T-beams are well-suited to
design using the strut-and-lie method because the concen-
trated loads create discontinuities in both the transverse and
longitudinal directions.
Large concentrated loads imposed by the self-we ight of
the superstructure, as well as the live loads acting on the
deck, are n·ansferred into the lower 1}0rtion of the web of an
inverted T-beam. Consideration of a ll failure modes within
the context of the s trut-and-tie method allows a designer to
transfer the loads into the web. The loads that are applied
near the tension chord of the web should be hung up to the
compression chord by hanger reinforcement. Finally, the
Fig. 7.7. Ja- /11 verted T-beam bent spanning over highway.
loads that are transferred to the compression c hord need to
be taken to the supports.
The load lransfer mechanism involves lhe combina-
tion of a cross-sectiona l STM and a long itudinal STM,
as shown in Fig . 7.7. lb a nd 7.7.lc. While worki ng with a
3-D model is possible, working with two p lanar s trut-and-
tie model s is preferred by most designers a nd w ill faci li-
tate placing reinforcement in orthogona l directions, wh ich
is typical. The transverse mode l incl udes inc lined struts
that transfer load from the bea ring points of the supported
beams to the ties representing hanger reinforcement o n
each side of the inverted T-beam . The ledge rein force-
ment is represented by a horizontal tie extending through
the beam to the outside of each ledge. The longitudinal
truss model transfers the ledge loads (at the hangers) to
the columns via vertica l ties and inclined s truts withi n the
inverted T-beam web.
Design of inverted T-beams presents several chal lenges:
a) designing for unbalanced ledge loads
b) detailing of hanger and ledge reinforcement
c) s trength of transverse inclined s trut
d) anchorage of ledge re inforcement.
The last consideration-anchorage of ledge reinforcement-
is similar to anchorage of horizontal corbel re in forcement.
Refer to Section 7.4.2 for a discussion of this issue. The
re maining c hallenges are discussed in Sections 7. 7.2 to 7.7.4.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 57

Fig. 7. 7.1 b-Load transfer mechanism in a,1 invened T-beam.

Ledge
Ledge Tie Diagonal Strut Reinforcement

(a) Cross-sectional STM

45° Load Spread

(b) Longitudinal STM

Fig. 7. 7. Jc- Cross-sectional and lo11gitudi11al strut-and-tie models.

Two STM designs of an inverted T-beam bem cap are
presented in detail in Williams ct a l. (2011 ).
7. 7.2 Designing for unbalanced ledge loads- In
designing the hanger reinforcement, the loads on both sides
of the inverted T-be.am should be considered. In the stati-
cally detenn inate transverse model, the force in the hanger
reinforcement on Ll1e most heavily loaded side is reduced by
the reaction on the opposite side. Therefore, the maximum
hanger reinforcement force occurs with dead and live load
on the side of the T-beam under consideration and dead load
only on the opposite side. A diagonal strut in the web of the
T-beam (refer to Fig. 7.7. lc) is needed to equilibrate the
shear force from unba lanced loads.
The hanger re in forcement forces in the longitudinal model
are based on the maximum forces calculated from the trans-
verse model and exceed the corresponding ledge loads. In
this way, the longitudinal model is proportioned to resist
torsion from unbalanced ledge loads. If torsion exceeds the
threshold torsion given in Section 22. 7. I of ACI 3 I 8-1 9
(which is unusual for inverted T-beams), a 3-D model or
sectional desig n checks would be needed to proportion and
deta il the transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
7.7.3 Detailing of hanger and ledge rei1iforcement- In
deta iling the ledge and hanger re inforcement, the ledge
load may be assumed to spread longitudinally at an angle
of 45 degrees, as shown in Fig. 7.7. lc. With this approach,
both the ledge and hanger reinforcement are to be provided
over a length e,,, as shown in Fig. 7.7.3. If the ledge length
is cut short- that is, if a bearing pad is placed at the edge
of a ledge- that geometric constraint, a longside the need
to distribute the hanger reinforcement as centered on the

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58 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
~,- ~ - -- - - -,, - -- -
,, ~·
,~::- • ,,
t lh
Fig. 7. 7.3- Detailing ledge and hanger rei,iforceme/11 versus typical vertical ties.
vertical tie shown with the region e,, in Fig. 7.7.3 introduces
significant detail ing challenges.
As the height of a ledge becomes shallower in relation 10
the overall height of an inve11ed 1-..beam, detailing the ledge
re inforcement becomes increasingly more difficult. More
transverse ledge reinforcement is required and the effective
distribution length (region {1, shown in Fig. 7.7.3) narrows.
Also, minimum bend radii and c lear cover requirements
should be considered alongside the need 10 provide a s uffi-
cient quantity of reinforcement within a limited po1tion of
a ledge.
Research on punching shear stre ngth of ledger beams
by Nafadi et al. (2018) s howed that hanger reinforcement
more effecl ively captures the diagonal strut from the ledge
load if the lower leg of the hanger reinforcement is turned
outward; that is, hat-s haped stinups are used. Stirrups in this
configuration are depicted in the upper right of Fig. 7.7. lc.
Ledge punching shear failures are more likely if the hanger
reinforcement legs are turned inward because the potenlial
punching s hear crack avoids the hanger reinforcement.
7.7.4 Strength oftra11s11erse inclined s/rt11- The ledge of
the cross-sectional model shown in Fig. 7.7. lc exists in a
region of flexurnl tension at the bottom of the beam. This
transverse tension (due to the bottom-chord of the longitu-
dinal STM s hown in Fig. 7.7. lc) has an overall weakening
effect on the nodes and shu ts that exist in this region. The
ACl 318-1 9 Code requires use of a strut efficiency factor
~, of 0.4 in s uch cases. With that stated, a research study
by Larson et al. (20 13) showed that decoupl ing the cross-
secliona l STM from the longitudinal STM, and ignoring: the
weakening effects of the transverse tension discussed above,
did not result in unconservative strength estimates for all of
the 33 large-scale inverted-T specimens tested in that study.
7.8-Walls and beams with openings
7.8.J /111rod11ctio11- Large openings in walls and beams
are frequently needed for windows and doors, as well as
HVAC ducts. The openings create discontinuity regions for
which use of the STM is helpful for design of the region
a round the opening, if not the entire member.
Figure 7.8. la is taken from AC! SP-208 Example 8 and
s hows two of the five STMs used for design of a wa ll wilh
two large openings.
Figure 7.8. 1b is taken from AC I SP-273 Example IO and
s hows the st,ut-and-tie model used for a propped cantilever
with a large opening.
rcic'l1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
- ,_
. ~
.-
;
• -
I, • / I'- . .
....
~
I '
'
- .
When using the strut-and-tie method for walls and beams
with large openings, careful consideration should be given 10
developing a model 1ha1 is consistent with the elas1 ic stress
dishibution, especially the distribution of stresses around
openings. Also, different load cases are likely to require
different models, especially for walls resisting lateral loads.
Finally, minimum re in forcement that meets the requirements
of AC! 318-19 Section 23.5 musLbe provided . While these
considerations are generally addressed in previous chapters,
the following sections discuss these considerations within
the context of the design of walls and beams with openings.
Additional requirements for Specia l Structural Walls in
Seismic Design Categories B through F are covered in
ChapLer 18 of AC! 318- l 9 and a re nol discussed he rein.
Also, where the shu t-and-tie method is used specifically for
the design of Special Shuctural Walls in Seismic Design
Categories D through F, ACl 3 18-19 Section 23.11 lists
severnl additional requirements unique to those elements.
7.8.2 Co11formi11g lo the elastic stress distrib11tio11 aro1111d
openings- Figure 7.8.2a s hows the concrete compressive
stresses from a finite e lement analysis model used to develop
the STM of the propped canti lever with a large opening
s hown in Fig. 7 .8.1b. The compressive stresses are gener-
a lly consistenl with locat ions and inclinations ofslruts in the
model. Also note that shear forces are carried by compres-
sive stress fields above and below the opening. As can be
seen in Fig. 7.8.2b, a scale model of the propped cantilever
failed in shear above and below the opening. Consideration
of shear forces above and below openings in beams (and on
eilher side of openings in wa lls) is especially important.
Although 1echnically not required for strength design,
both linear and nonlinear finite e lement analysis models are
very useful to understand the flow of forces and develop the
most efficient model. As described in Section 5.2, a wide
variety of models are possible in complex O-regions. Strut-
aod-tie models thaLconform 10 the elastic stress distribution
require less reinforcement than those that do not (Schlaich
et a l. 1987). Furthennore, placement of reinforcement that
is consistent with the elastic stress distribution of tensi le
stress wi l.1 s ubstantially reduce cracking at service loads.
Refer 10 Section 5.3.2 for additional discussion on 1he use
of e las1ic stress trajectories for model seleclion. Also refer 10
Section 5.3.3 for discussion of use of topology optimization
for model selection. Finally, the service-level and ultimate
perfo11nance o f complex O-regions can be predicted using
non-linear finite e lement analysis methods.
 ... _
STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 ) 59

IO' 11(¥ 40" 20·

,.,. ....... ......,... ...
...... ,.,.
,.,.
170 ....
... 1'10q,t

100·

,..
17 0 -

,..
,,..

.
151.W ..,. ... 20"
145..,.
1<»8 klpa

(a) Vertical load plus lateral (b) Vertical load plus lateral
load from right load from left
Fig. 7.8. Ja-Stn1t-a11d-tie models of wall wi1h two ope11i11gs (fi-om SP-208 Example 8).
(Note: I i11. = 25.4 mm; I kip = 4.45 kN.)

P. = 7500 kN

E
E
!\,-
~
.J... ~ - - - - - - - - ~ I B C D E
, ,A~ -- - - ' -
L ---
T s ! -+ 36SOkN

,,
, , '' K ' ' --- ' ' ,
' M' ' , N'
''' .
''
-~
E
E
,,
, , '' '' i1
i , , , ' ' '' ' R
\0 '
F ,'
, ,
'' ''
'
' -- --- -- Q
' ', I u.:
- - -o-J - - - - - •· . . . . 82111:N
G H
~-----------------------~ : 50.3

4000 mm 1590 __101s__ 2030 mm _t_1l>1~1- 1350 -j'

mm mm mm mm
4090 kN

Fig. 7.8. I b-S1n1t-a11d-tie model ofa propped cantilever with large opening (from SP-273
Example 10). (Note: I mm= 0.0394 in.; I kN = 0.225 kip.)

7.8.3 Different models for different load cases-As is
evident from a comparison of Fig. 7.8. 1a(a) and (b), different
load cases used for tl1e design of walls will require different
models. In particular, a c hange in the direction of lateral load
will change the inclination of many of the primaiy stn1ts and
change the locations of some of the tie,s. Of course, stresses
in struts, ties, and nodes should be checked for all load cases.
7.8.4 Minimum reinji>rceme11t-Asdiscussed in Section4.4.4,
ACI 318-19 Section 23.5 requires a minimum amount of
distributed reinforcement in discominuity regions designed
by the strut-and-tie method. This re inforcement is sufficient
to satisfy the minimum requirements for walls given in
ACT 318-19 Section 11.6, as well as the minimum distrib-
uted rein forcement along the side faces of deep be.ams given

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60 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

in AC! 318 - 19 Section 9.9.3. Distributed reinforcement 7.9-Coupling beams

enhances ductility and helps control cracking. As described 7.9.l J11trod11ctio11 and common models- Figure 7.9. l(a)
in Section 5.2.1, the strength predicted by the lower-bound presents a coupled wall in which the left and right wall
theory of plastic ity inherent in the s trut-and-tie method may piers are connected by coupling beams. Due to wind and
not be real ized without s ufficient ductility to support the load seismic actions, the dominant lateral action on these beams
path envisioned by the STM. is reverse-cyclic loading in which there are simi lar magni-
tt1des of s hears that need to be transferred in e ither direc-
tion. The results of research (Paulay and Binney 1974) have
demonstrated that the use o f d iagonal reinforcement across
coupl ing beams, as shown in Fig. 7 .9. 1(b), is an effective
way to transmit forces across these typical ly stocky beams
(t,lh. < 4). This was s hown to be pa1ticularly beneficial for
seis mic resistance where it is necessary to mainta in force
Vital Siis: Fem transmission across the coupling beams, even after there has
=
-
0~= = =
- 811 - Bi~ - 8~ - UJ =si~ =~88
ooi W 021
025
W O
0•2
W OY
0!8
W
-
b Ii
075
c::a
-
O88
092
been extensive yielding o f reinforcement.
Figure 7 .9. I(c) presents the top three stories of a coupled
wall in which the forces are acti ng on the left side of the
Fig. 7.8.2a-Concrere compressive viral signs (ratio of wa ll as represented by concentrated forces in this figure.
compressive siress 10 compressive s1ress copocily) i11 the Section A-A, at the base of Fig. 7.9.l(c), should resist the
propped cantilever illustrated ill Fig. 7.8.lb.
overturning moment from these lateral forces. Th is internal
moment is the sum of a force-couple in the wall piers and
the moments in the two individual wall piers. The axial
load, moments, and s hear acting at A-A can be represented
by concentrated loads a long this boundaiy, as shown in
Fig. 7.9. l(c). An STM for the flow of forces in the top three
stol'ies of this coupled wall is a lso s hown in Fig. 7.9. l(c).
The force flow may be considered to z igzag a long diagonals
from the top of the wall to the interface at A-A. For loading
from the opposite direction (right to left), the STM would
be the mirror image of that in Fig. 7.9. I(c) about the center
vertical axis; this would lead to the symmetrical diagonal-
reinforcement bands presented in Figure 7.9. l(b). Gravity
loads have not been included in this presentation.
By this approach, the nominal s hear capacity of the
coupl ing beam is the vertical co1111)0nent of the yield
stre ngth of the two diagonal re inforcement bands. The wall
Fig. 7.8.2b-Shear failure above and below opening of pier segments are designed as planar wall s that are subjected
the scale-mode/ of the propped cantilever i/111s trated in to axial loads, shears, and moments in which confined
Fig. 7.8. lb (from SP-273 Example 10). boundary regions are required when compressive s tresses or
neutral axis depths exceed specific values.

(o/ Coupled wall subject (bl Diogonatty reinforced (c/ STM for diagonally
to reverse-cyclic foods coup/Ing beam reinforced coupling beams

Fig. 7.9.1- Examples ofcoupling beams ill reinforced concrete walls.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 ) 61

Horizontal beam re1nforcemen1 a1 wall

does 1101 develop f1
r each gro14>
Aw= total area of reiqorcement ln
of diagonal bars
rn,~P-cl-~

Note:
For clarity, onty part of the
required relnf-orcemont Is shown
on each side of the line of
symmetry,

Wall boondo.,y
reinforcement

,.
Elevation

(a) Strut confined as a column-distributed reinforcement across coupling beam

Hori2ontal beam - Spacing not exceeding

reinforcement at wall
do.. 1101 develop ,,
smaller ol 6 in. onct 6d1, Aww--= total area of reinforoement in
oi' B1 -~ ~ ..,..._,_~each groop of diagonal bars
~117 Note:
For ctarity, only part OI the
r•quirod reinf0tce:m•n1 is shown
on each side of the IIM of
symmetry.

Wall boUl1daly
reinforcement

{b) Heavy distributed reinforcement across coupling beam

Fig. 7.9. 2- ACl 318-19 Fig. R/8.10. 7 and R/8.10.6.2.
If seismic loadings dominate , the diagonal re in forcement
in coupling beams is expected to yield, and it should be
designed and deta iled in accordance with the STM-specific
provisions in Section 23. 11 ; this is required for Seismic
Design Categories O-F. These provisions refer to Chapter 18
for some reinforcement detailing requirements. For other
categori es, these beams can be designed for the required
load-carry ing capacity using the general STM provi-
sions in Chapter 23 of AC! 3 18- 19 (not including 23 .11).
Sections 7.9.2 and 7.9.3 of this guide introduce the require -
ments for these two different cases.
7.9.2 Coupling beams designed for Seismic Design Cate-
gories D-F- TheACI 3 18- 19 requirements in Section 23.11
perta in to structural walls in Seism ic Design Categories D-F.
With this, the compressive s tre ngth o f struts in Section 23.4
is to be multiplied by 0.8 to account for degrading effects
of cycl ic loading, as observed by Ruggiero et al. (20 16).
Also, ties are required 10 be anchored for a force based on
1.251,,, and nodes have a capacity reduction of 0.80 due LO
cycl ic loading. Section 23. 11 requires diagonal s truts to be
designed as columns with transverse and longitudinal rein-
forcement. For this, the Code specifies the minimum number
of bars in each band and the length that these longitudinal
(diagonal) bars need to be embedded into the wall p iers. The
Code also specifies minimum requirements for confinement
reinforcement a nd a distributed mesh of re inforcement.
The designer has two options for providing the necessary
confinement of the compressive s trut. O ne is by confinement
of the strnt using equivalent rules to the seismic design of
a column, along with distributed reinforcement throughout
the coupli ng beam; this is s hown in Fig. 7.9.2(a). Alterna-
tively, the designer may choose LO not directly confi ne the
strut, and instead to provide a larger amount of distributed
reinforcement that is more tightly spaced; this is shown in
Fig. 7.9.2(b). The specific amount and spacing limits for this
are described in ACI 318- 19 Sections 23. 11 and 18.7.5 a nd
any of their s ubsequent references.
7.9.3 Coupling beams designed for all other cases- The
special detailing and ductility requirements of 23. 11 do
not apply if the coupling beam is not designed for earth-
quake resistance. For example, a coupling beam designed
for lateral wind load only could be modeled as shown in
Fig . 7 .9.3. Horizontal ties are required at the top and bottom
of each c-o upl ing beam, and the vertica l reinforcement nea r
the middle of the coupling beam must be proportioned to
resist the tension in Tie BE. A grid of distributed reinforce-
ment in accordance with Section 23.5 of ACI 318- 19 is also
required. For this model to comply with AC! 318- 19, the

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62 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

I
I
Shear crack I
I
I
I
I
--~
, --1.---~L-----,---~
\ ... ~
I \ '
D ___ _______ ::•F ,' \ ',' ,......... d
I \ '- '

E I I \ ',

Fig. 7. 9.3-Stn,t-and-tie model of co11pli11g beam designed

for lateral wind only
coupling beam should be sized such that the strut a ngle is at
least 25 degrees from the horizontal.
In contrast to the Section 23. I I require ments, the design
of nodal regions in this STM consider a geometry defined by
stress limits for struts, ties, and nodes. This is similar w all
other elements of the coupling beam and wa ll piers. Further-
more, it is not necessary to use diagonal rein forcement for
transmitting forces across the coupling beam, making it
possible 10 use a parallel c hord truss model with vertical and
horizontal ties.
7.10-Footings
7.10.1 l11trod11clio11- A lthough footings are usually
proportioned using sectional design proced,u-es, the stmt-
and-tie method may result in more economical designs of
footings because direct struts between the supported member
and soil pressure near the edge of the footing are consid-
ered, allowing higher forces than would be determined
by the sectional shear desig n provisions (that is, V, in the
absence of shear reinforcement). Nevertheless, w hen using
the strut-and-tie method, the maximum shear stress limit that
applies to regions designed by the STM s hould nonnally be
satisfied as the limit accounts for a possible size effect in
thicker footings. An STM of a concentrically loaded footing
is illustrated in Fig. 7.10.1. Punching shear stTength s hould
also be checked for two-way footings in accordance with the
sectiona l procedures of Section 22.6 of AC! 318- 19.
7. 10.2 Eva/11atio11 ofsectional shear strength- Referring
to Fig. 7 .10.1, the soil pressure contributing to factored shear
force V,, may be calculated using the integrated soil pressure
beyond distanced from the face o f the supported column or
wall , as permitted by Section 13.2. 7.2 of AC! 3 18- 19. Calcu-
lation of s hear requires that the soil reaction be obtained
from factored loads. As can be seen in Fig. 7.10.1, soil pres-
s ure within d from the face of the supported column or wall
adds to the factored moment and horizontal tie force at the
face of the column or wall.
If the footing is subject lO overtuming moment, soil pres-
s ure is us ually assumed to vary linearly. In such case-s, the
maximum shear force and bending moment occur on the
side of the footing with maximum soil pressure.
Assuming d istributed horizontal or vertical reinforcement
is not provided, which is rypical for footings, the section
must be proportioned s uch that the maximum shear force
satisfies Eq. (4.4.5)
d
t Soil pressure
Soil pressure / \ Resultant of soil
contributing to Vu U pressure applied to
strut-and-tie model
Fig. 7.J0. ! - Co11ce11trical/y loaded footing a11d stmt-a11d-
lie model.
V,, $ ¢5tan8,J.., ..[j; b,.,d (lb)
V,, $ ¢0.420tan)J..,..[j; b,d (N)
Note that Eq. (4.4.5) includes the size e ffect factor A, (refer
to Section 4 .2.2.2 in this guide). Equation (4.4.5) need not
be satisfied if the str ut efficiency factor p, is taken as 0.4,
rather than 0. 75. Taking µ, as 0.4 requires a large increase
in the si.ze of the node connecting the s trut to the column
or wall, which decreases the s trut a ngle and thus increases
both the strut and tie force. Consideration of Eq. (4.4.5) is
recommended for pro1}0rtioning footings, es1lecially thick
footings, 10 assure that the size effect is considered and the
s hear strength of the footing cantilever is not exceeded.
Section 13.2.6.2 of AC! 318-19 pennits the size effect
factor to be neglected if sectional design procedures are
used in accordance with Chapter 22; however, the allowable
s hear strength by sectional provisions will be less than the
s hear stress lim it defined by Eq. (4.4.5) for some footings
of typical depth , even though the latier includes the size
effect. Also note that the allowable shear strength decreases
with decreasing strut angle. The allowable shear force co1Te-
Sf}Ollding to the minim,un allowable s trut a ngle of25 degrees
is ¢2.3 ..[j; b,,d (lb) [¢0 19 ..[j; b,,d (N)].
7.11 - Pile caps
7. 11 .1 /11trod11ctio11- A pile cap is a deep concrete mat
that supports a column or wall and disllibutes the load to
a pile g roup. Pile caps are relatively thick compared to the
d istance between the pi les; span-to-depth ratios are usually
less than 5. As such, they behave as discontinuity regions
and can be designed using the strut-and-tie method .
For concentrically loaded pile caps, the STM is simple.
A rypical model is illustrated in Fig. 7.1 I.la. Struts extend
d iagonally through the pile cap from the 1>iles to the column.
The horizontal component of the strut thrust is resisted by
ties located above the tops of the piles a nd oriented parallel
to tl1e sides of the pi le cap.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 ) 63

t t
Fig. 7. /1.lc-Modeling a pile cap using strw-and-tie
method (from SP-208 Example 9).
3. The struts and nodes are typically confined, which can
Fig. 7.11. l a- Co11ce111rically loaded pile cap and strut-and-
increase their compressive sn·ength.
lie model.
These considerations are discussed in the following
sections.
---,
','
... . ---,
L.J
7. J 1.2 location and anchorage of tie rei11forceme11t-
Historically, reinforcement at the bottom of pile caps was
distributed between piles near the bottom of the cap and
below the top of the pile. For pile caps designed using the
strut-and-tie method, the rein forcement shou ld be concen-
trated above the pile. This arrangement provides for a
clear flow of forces consistent with the STM; however,
the effective depth of the tension reinforcement is reduced
compared to the historical placement of re in forcement
(a) Plan (b) Clevation hetv.,ee.n pilt>s: To c:ontrol r.rnc:king. flexurn l re.in fnrc:ernent
is needed between the ties concentrated at the pi les. The
Fig. 7.11 . I b- Plan and elevation of.five-pile cap. maximum spacing of flexural reinforcement in one-way and
two-way slabs is specified in ACI 318-1 9 Sections 7.7.2.3
Figure 7.11. lb s hows a five-pi le cap subject to bending
and 8.7.2.2, respectively.
moment; however, all piles remain in compression. The
To develop the sn·ess distribution assumed in the STM, the
STM for this pile cap is shown in Fig. 7.11. lc. The over-
tie should be developed at the critical section, usually defined
tum ing moment compl icates the model. The bottom o f the
as the intersection of the tie a nd the extended nodal zone.
column is subdivided into tension and compression regions
ln three-d imensional (3-0) pi le caps, the geometry of the
that transfer force to each pi le. The dowels on the tension
nodal zone is complex because the ties are usually skewed
side of the column are represented by vertical ties that
relative to the struts. Due to the geometrical complexity, the
are intercepted by struts from the compression side of the
nodal regions and the extended nodal regions re main unde-
column. Struts from the compression side of the column
fi ned (Williams et a l. 2011 ). As a simpl ified procedure, the
extend diagonally through the pile cap to the piles. The ho_ri-
anchorage length can be assumed to start from the interior
zomal components of these struts are equilibrated by lies
face of the pi le cap as shown in Fig. 7. 11 .2 (Williams et al.
located above the piles and oriented parallel to the sides of
2011 ). lf a circular pile is used, the critical section can be
the pile cap.
assumed to stait at the face of a sq uare pi le having the same
The STMs are ftut her complicated in cases where the
area as the c ircular one.
overrum ing moment causes tension in some pi les because
7.1 1.3 Node geomet,y below colu11111- For concentri-
the pi le tension must be transferred to the top of the pile
cally loaded pile caps, the node at which the struts and
cap by ties representing vertical reinforcement welded to a
column intersect is generally assumed to be located at the
cap p late on top of the pile. An example was developed by
centroid of the column and at the top of the pile cap (refer to
Widianto and Bayrak (20 I 0) and is provided as Example 11
Fig. 7. 1I. la). The node may be somewhat below the top of
in ACl SP-273 .
the pile cap if the struts are inclined at an angle of less than
In addition 10 the c.o nsideration of overturning moment,
45 degrees from the horizo111al. ln these cases, a detailed
design of pile caps using the strut-and-tie method requires
investigation of the height of the node is wa1ranted, but it
careful consideration of design issues that are particular to
may be preferable to increase the depth of the pile cap to
pile caps:
avoid shallow sn1.1ts.
I. The location and anchorage of ties is critical.
The node geometry below the column is more complex if
2. Struts and nodes are geometrically d issimilar, espe-
the pile cap is s ubject to bending moment. Referring to the
cially at the column.

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64 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Available Le h
Fig. 7.11.2- Anchorage ofbollom tie in a pile cap (Williams
et al. 2011).
STM shown in Fig. 7.11. lc, the column base is subdivided
into regions that transfer tension to ties and compression to
struts. Refer to Sect ion 5.7 for discussion of node and strnt
stresses in 3-0 models.
7.11.4 Strength of confined nodes and struts- Adebar and
Zhou ( 1993) canied out analytical and experimental studies
of the strut strength o f deep members, such as p ile caps.
Their test results showed that strnts confined by concrete on
all sides were on average 93 percent stronger than prismatic
struts without confinement. These results indicate that the
compressive strength of pile cap nodes and struts is greater
than prismatic struts. Section 23.4.3 of ACI 3 18-19 includes
a confinement modification factor fl, that increases the effec-
tive compressive stTength of confined nodes and struts. The
confinement modification factor depends on the area of
concrete that confines a bearing s urface, such as the bearing
surface at the top of a pile. Where square piles are used, P,
may be taken as the maximum limit o f 2.0 if the distance
from the edge of the pile to the edge of the pile cap is at least
one-half the dimension of the pile. In such cases, ✓A,IA, 2:
2.0 (refer to Section 4.6.1 in this guide). The same is true for
the square of equ ivalent area used to represent round piles.
Edge distances to driven piles will generally be s ufficient to
justify p,. of 2.0, but ~- of less than 2.0 is likely for drilled
s hafts because the edge dista nce re lative to the s haft diam-
eter is usually less.
Where ~c can be taken as 2.0, the shut can be considered
laterall y restrained in accordance with 23.5.3(a). Accord-
ingly, distributed reinforcement is not required and P, for
interior stn,ts may be taken as 0.75, provided the shear
strength across the width of the pile satisfies Eq. (4.4.5). For
corner piles, s hear strength in accordance with Eq. (4.4.5)
s hould be checked based on an effective width b,., measured
a t mid-length of the strnt, as illustrated in Fig. 7. 11.4 ,
According to AC! 3 18- 19, shear strength checks are not
required if p, is taken as 0.4.
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
, '
,,
•, ~ ,!------'~'r----~
''
0- ()
,, ''
..0-'
,, '"'
~ - - - - - - - - - - -'-<')
I I
..... _. I ' - .,.I
Fig. 7./1.4- Effective width for sectional shear strength
check at corner piles.
7.12-Post-tensioned anchorage zones
7. 12.l Overview- Concentrated force introduction at
post-tensioning anchorages creates local sh·ess fields, as
s hown in Fig, 7. 12. la. In particular, spa lling and bursting
forces can lead to cracking and premature failure. ACI 318
(Section 25.9.1 in ACI 3 18- 19) and other codes distinguish
between a local and a general zone to determine tie and strut
requirements in these zones. The local zone is the zone imme-
dii.1tely s urrounding, and in front of, an anchorage device.
This zone is designed by methods other than the stiut-and-
tie method and wi ll not be discussed further. The general
zone is the region in front of the anchorage that extends
a long a distance in the direction of the tendon that equals or
exceeds the member depth. The general zone is a disturbed
region, which can be designed using STMs. Per AC! 318- 19
Section 23.2.8, post-tensioning effects are required to be
treated as external loads in designs using STMs.
There are several key considerations when using STM for
design of anchorage zone.s :
a) developing models consistent with the elastic stress
trajectories
b) load cases and support conditions
c) compatib il ity reinforcement in de.ad zones.
The design of post-tensioned girders usually requires eval-
uation of several load cases and possibly changing s upport
conditions du1ing the constn1ction stages of the member,
which can be evaluated in the anchorage zone using STMs.
These load cases correspond 10 several fabrication and
construction load cases as well as in-service configura-
tions. The highest prestressing forces occur during jacking
and will decrease at release and over time. Section 24.5 in
ACI 318- 19 gives the permissible prestressing stress limits.
Overall force equi librium s hould be achieved in the
STM. Figure 7.12. lb shows typical STMs for the general
zone for eccentric and concentric anchorage zone config-
urations with a post-tensioning force P both with and
without s upport reactions. Compaiing Fig. 7. 12.l b(a), (c),
and (e) with (b), (d), and (f) respectively, the additio n of
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21 )
......,,,.,
Strus Contoun
__.
"
. . . , . . . ,_ _ 1111 . . . . . . . , .
65

- ·- ·rc

., .,... i
Stn...-e•
!+------'-'-----
H

Principal TemU•
Sau• Contours
"·
'= 4 4 .... . ..
a) b)

Fig. 7.12.Ja-(a) elaslic slress lrttjectories; and (b) anchorage zone stresses and zone
definilions.

•l b)

0.03

c) d)
to.is P -
•
0.09
,Y!,.,
, --0.09 0.09
g
Q "'" ---- ··
C!
q 1
----·-
--0.50 0.50

-0.q 7ff
1:;.,. !'¥
:;/ --0.50
----- -
0.50

•l f)

Fig. 7. J2.1 b-Strut-and-tie models for selected anchorage zones (adapted, with modifica-
tions to slrut angles.from Rogowsf.y and Marti {1991]).

a suppol1 reaction-in this case, equal to 0.25P-cha nges
the equi li brium, the stress d istribution in the member, and
reinforcing requi rements. Simi larly, external loads can be
considered in the general zone models. Dependem on load
cases and construction sequence, severa l STMs, reflecting
different support and external load conditions, may need to
be considered in desig n.
Strut-and-tie models of the genera l zone can have dead
zones with li ttle force. In these regions, such as the top
and bottom left corners of Fig. 7.1 2.1 b(c), distributed
reinforcement is required to avoid extensive cracking. In
Fig. 7. l 2. lc, the top left corner shows a force whirl , similar
to the o nes proposed in Schl aich et al. ( 1987), that fills
the e mpty space a nd allow for design of reinforcement.

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66 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

Force Whirl

-0.14
- - - - ..
-0.50
..
..
0 0
r N
0 ~ I
p -----0.52
'-o.62 "'
N
0
' '
' '
-0·%
' - --0.50
--. .. Dcvctop "' foroo
over lhis lenplh
.....
Effective
ard>O<agG

(a) Flow of forces (b) End view

Truss node
Fig. 7.12. lc-Rei11forcing requireme11ts in dead zones
(adapted from Rogowsky a11d Marti [/99!}).

A simi lar stress force whirl should be applied also for the
bottom le ft corner (not s hown).
The force whirl shown in Fig. 7 .12. 1c is a technically
correct STM and one with close agreement to the results
of e lastic fi nite e lement analysis (refer to Fig. 7.12. la).
However, this level of refinement may be unnecessary
if typica l distributed rei nforcement is provided in this
region. Elastic a na lysis of stresses can be used to deter-
mine if the minimum distributed reinforcement required
by Section 25.3 of ACI 318-1 9 is sufficient for spall ing
stresses in these areas.
General zone reinforcement in post-tensioned members-
the reinforcement required to resist te nsion of the primary
tie shown in Fig. 7 .12. 1a(a)- us ua lly consists of re in-
forcing bars or additional prestressing in the zone of force
introductio n. In post-te nsioned beams, this reinforce-
ment is often provided by a reinforcing grid and closely
spaced stirrups.
Fu11her examples of anchorage zone STMs can be found
in the literature (Schlaich et a l. 1987; Rogowsky and Marti
199 1; AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
(eighth edition) rAASHTO 20 17]; FIP recommendations
(FIP 1999)).
Strut
comp"'"'°"
Tietoroe
(c) Stntt-and-tie model
Fig. 8.2. I-Stress fields for flow offorces and str11t-a11d-tie
model for a deep beam.
Highway and Transportation Officials' LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications 2014 and 2017 (AASHTO 20 14, 2017),
FlP Recommendations (FlP 1999), EN 1992- 1-I :20 I I and
EN 1992-1- 1:201 5, and the.lib Model Code for Concrete
Structures 20 IO (lib 20 13). Whereas this c hapter is aimed at
highlighting the simi larities and differences among the STM
design provisions, it is not intended to be a c-omprehensive
bibliography, nor does it present a complete survey on all
codes allowing the use of STMs.
A detai led comparison of the di fferent strength values
for struts and nodes is beyond the scope of this chapter,
especially because this topic is extensively covered by
MacGregor (2002) in AC I SP-208.

CHAPTER 8-OTHER STM DESIGN 8.2- Strut-and-tie design requirements in

SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND GUIDE
DOCUMENTS
8.1-lntroductlon
This chapter provides ACI 3 18-19 users with an introduc-
tion to strut-and-tie model (STM) provisions in other codes
and guideline documents. They are not inte nded as a supple-
ment to the provisions in AC! 3 18-1 9 or this guide.
Despite some differences in the design provisions and
strength values, designers using AC! 318-19 can benefit
from the different approaches presented in this Chapter as
well as strut-and-tie models for many D-regions and cases
not dealt with in ACI 318- 19.
The codes/guides compared are Canadian Standards
Association's CSAA23.3- 14, American Association of State
CSA A23.3-19
8.2.1 /1111vductio11- The code-of-practice for the de,sign
of concrete structures in Canada is the Canadian Standards
Association (CSA) A23.3. It first incorporated the STM in
1984 (CAN3-A23 .3-M84; Collins and Mitc hell 1986). The
1984 CSA provisions a lso formed the basis for the strut-and-
tie desig n provisions in the 1994 AASHTO-LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. This section summarizes the strut-
and-tie design provisions in CSA A23.3- I9.
Figure 8.2. 1 illustrates how a deep beam is designed
using an STM. As shown, straight line struts are assumed.
The nodal regions act at intersections of the struts a nd the
ties. The forces in the struts a nd ties are determined from
equi librium for the member s ubjected 10 factored loads.

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 67

t .. t

- -
-,II... d..
effective length of nOde. 18 x-x

(a) Strut anchored by reinforcement

::::: _J_
- o.sh.
T
~
t
(b) Strut anchored by (c) Stmt anchored by
bearing plate and tie bearing plate and strut
Fig. 8.2.2.2a-lnjlue11ce ofslrw anchorage conditio11s 011 strut dimensions.

8.2.2 Use of maleria/ resis1a11ce .factors and stre11g//1s of
s /rws, ties, and nodes
8.2.2.J Definitions of material resistance factors-
CSA A23 .3- 14 uses material resistance factors ins tead of
strength reduction factors <I> used in AC! 318-19. The mate-
rial resistance factors are-:
<l>c = 0.65 for concrete (0.70 for concrete produced in a
prequalified precast p lant)
<I>, = 0.85 for nonprestressed reinforcing bars
<l>P = 0.90 for prestressing te ndons
ACI 3 18-1 9 uses one value for the strength reduction
factor <j,-of 0.75-for struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing
areas. The CSA Standard uses differing material resistance
factors to account for the variations in resistances that result
from the variability of mechanica I properties, sectional
and placement tole rances, and model ing errors in the
design equations.
8.2.2.2 P,-oportionillg ofstruls-The factored resistance
of the strut is determined as <l>cl~,,A,,, where/~. is the limiting
compressive stress and A,., is the effective cross-sectional
area of the strut. Figure 8.2.2.2a illustrate.s the manner in
which the details of anchorage of the struts affect the effec-
tive strut area. The value of A,. is calculated by considering
the available concrete area and the anchorage conditions at
the ends of the strut. When a s trut is anchored only by rein-
forcement, the effective concrete area may be considered lO
extend a distance of up to e ight bar diameters from the bar
anchoring the closed s tirrups and the concrete cover should
be neglected, as shown in Fig. 8.2.2.2a(a).
The limiting concrete compressive stress depends on the
angle 8, between the st rut and the tie, and the tensile strain e,
in the tie where it crosses the strut. The limiting compressive
stress is given as
f - f,' :. 0.85J;' (M Pa) (8.2.2.2a)
'" 0.8 + I70F.,
For this evaluation, the principal tensile strain in the
concrete (E 1) (refer to Fig. 8.2.1(a)) is detem1ined from strain
compatibility as
&1 = e, + (c, + 0.002)cot28, (8.2.2.2b)
where 0., is the smallest angle between the s trut and the tie
(refer to Fig. 8.2.2.2a), and c., is the tensile strain in the tie.
For a tie consisting of reinforcing bars, F., can be taken as the
tensile strain due lo factored loads in the reinforcing bars.
As shown in Fig. 8.2.2.2b, the limiting compressive stress
;;., decreases s igni ficantly as the angle 0, becomes smaller. A
strain value of e., of 0.002 would correspond to a Lie yielding
in te nsion (/,, = 60,000 ps i [400 MPa)). For a tie consisting
of presb·essed steel, F.., can be taken as zero untiI the precom-
pression in the concrete due to the 1>restress is overcome.
Equation (8.2.2.2a) forI,. can be s impl ified. For example,
if it assumed that the steel strain &, corresponds to the yield

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68 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
.•
11::, 0.5
-2 0.4

0.3
a) M odeling of Fann ing Compression with
0.2
a Series of Struts - Tie at Narrow Part of Fan
o.,
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
8, degrees

Fig. 8.2.2.lb-lnjluence of stmt angle 011 the limifi11g

compressive stress in a stn,t.
s train of Grade 400 s teel (f,. = 60,000 ps i (400 Ml'a) ands., =
0.002), then the expression becomes
f = I; , $ 0.85J;'
,. 1. 14 + 0.68cot 0,
It is noted that the method for detennining the limiting
stress in strnts in CSA A23.3 - l 4 differs from the approach
in ACI 318-19.
8.2.2.3 Proportio11i11~ ofties-The factored resistance of a
reinforcing steel tie having an area A." is given as <l>./,A.,,. The
factored resistance for prestressing tendons having an area
AP is g iven as <!>p((,,., + 60,000)A in ps i and <l>p(/,,. + 400)Ap in
MPa, and J,,., is the s tress in the prestressing tendons w hen
the strain in the surrounding concrete is zero; it may be taken
as 0.7fp,, for bonded tendons outside the transfer length and
f,,, for unbonded tendons.
8.2 .2.4 Proportioning of 11odal zones- The calculated
concrete compressive stress in the node regions are limited
10 the fol lowing unless special confinement reinforcement
is provided:
a) 0.859, nif,' in node regions bounded by struts and
bearing areas
b) 0.75<1>, nif/ in node regions anchoring a tie in only one
direction
c) 0.659,11if/ in node regions anchoring ties in more than
one direction
where m is the confinement modification factor taken as
✓ A,IA, (refer to A Cl 3 I 8-1 9 Section 22.8.3.2) but not more
than 2.0. The factor III is taken as 1.0 unless reinforcement
capable of controll ing cracking is provided.
The stress limits in node regions may be considered satis-
fied if the bearing stress on the node regions produced by
concentrated loads or reactions does not exceed the s tress
limits specified above, and if the tie re inforcement is
uniformly distributed over a n effective area of concrete at
least equal to the tie force divided by the stress limits speci-
fied above (refer to effective anchorage area in Fig. 8.2. l(a)).
8.2.2.S Crnck comrol rei1iforceme11t- Members or
regions of members (other than s labs or footings) that have
P/12
b) Modeling of Fanning Compression with
(8.2.2.2c) a Series of Struts - Tie at Wide Part of Fan
wt/2 wt/2
L
c) Modeling each Fanning Area with a Single Strut
for members containing crack control reinforcement
Fig. 8.2.Ja-Srrut-mul-tie 111odeli11gfor uniform loading.
been designed using STMs should contain a n orthogonal
grid of rein forcing bars ne.ar each face. The ratio of re in-
forcement are.a to gross concrete area s hould be not le.ss than
0 .002 in each direction. The maximum spacing of this re in-
forcement is 12 in. (300 mm). The crack control re inforce-
ment may also be used as ties in the STM, provided that this
reinforcement is well anchored 10 develop the yield force of
the reinforcement.
8.2.3 Strut-and-tie 111odeli11g of members subjected to
uniform loads- For members subjected to W1iform loading,
a series of stn,ts is used to represent the areas where the
compressive stresses fan out from the bearing areas, as
s hown in Fig. 8.2.3a(a) a nd (b). Figure 8.2.3a(b) illustrates
the s preading of the compressive stre.s ses, assuming that the
unifom1 be.aring is represented by 12 point loads. For cases
w here the unifonn load is applied to the flexural compres-
s ion face and the member contains crack control re in force-
ment, the fanning compressive stresses can be modeled by a
s ingle strut located at the resultant of the loading, as s hown
in Fig. 8.2.3a(c).

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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
_/sine.+h cose..
0 4
t----•
I WslNl - 6
Fig. 8.2.Jb-Determiningareaforcritical s1rut i11ft111 region
having tie at narrow part offan.
When a fanning region with the tie at the narrow part of
fan is modeled by a series of struts, the area A,, is taken as
being equal for each strut and s hall be determined at the loca-
tion where the strut connects to the nodal region, as s hown
in Fig. 8.2.3b. As s hown in Fig. 8.2.3b, after dividing the
fanning compression into six equal parts, the effective strut
width w_ ,,,,,, can be determined. The critical strut is the strut
with the smallest angle 9, to the tie (refer to Fig. 8.2.3b). The
use of six equal pa11s provides a reasonable variation in the
strut angles for checking the compressive sn·en&>th of the
struts. Background and an example using this requirement to
design a thick footing is given by Mitchell and Collins (2013).
8.2.4 Refined strut-and-tie models-The 2014 CSA Stan-
dard (CSA A23.3- 14) permits reinforcement provided for
crack control to also be used as ties in the STM, provided
this re inforcement is well anchored. A simpl ified STM and a
refined STM using the vertical crack control re in forcement
as ties are shown in Fig. 8.2.4. Background in formation on
the shear behavior of deep beams is given by Mihaylov ct a l.
(2013) and an example of the design ofa deep beam using a
refined STM is g iven by Mitchell and Collins (2013).
8.3 American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
8.3.1 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
(AASHTO 20/4) - The dominant code for the design of
concre te bridge structures in the United States is the Amer-
ican Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications. Strut-and-tie provi-
sions were incorporated into the AASHTO LRFD specifica-
tions in its first edition in 1994 and have not changed through
to the publication of the seventh edition in 20 14 . Common
appl ications for these STM provisions are for post-tensioned
anchorage zones, bridge bents, pile caps, load transfer from
bridge decks to girders, in regions near openings, and in the
end region of flexural members.
The 20 14 AASHTO LRFD STM provisions were drafted
by the developers of the CSA A23.3 provisions (Collins
and Mitche ll 1986) and are nearly identical. The few minor
dilferenccs are as follows:
I. The minimum area of distributed re inforcement to gross
concrete area is 0.003 , and this s hould be provided in two
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69
(a) Simplified strut-and-tie model
~-,-,...,
,,,,. I \ '
,.,,. I \ ',
,,
, I \ '
I \
, I \ ''
, I \
''
,,
I \
,, I
I \
\ ''
I \ '
'
(b) Refined strut-and-tie model
Fig. 8.2.4-Simplified and refined srmt-and-tie models.
orthogonal directions; the current CSA A23.3 requirement
is 0.002 in both directions, reduced from 0.003 in its initial
1984 edition.
2. The AASHTO LRFD specifications use resistance
factors <I> that are 0.9 for reinforcing steel in tension
controlled structures, and 0. 70 for bearing in concrete s truts;
the CSA A23.3 provisions use material resistance factors
that have the effect of being slightly more conservative than
the AASHTO LRFD specifications.
3. The AASHTO LRFD specifications do not contain a
factor that increases the compressive s trength of s truts to
consider the benefits of confinement, as do the current CSA
A23.3 provisions.
8.3.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
(AASHTO 2017) -The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (AASI-ITO 2017) made c hanges in the STM
portion of the specificat ions. This included an increased
emphasis on differentiating D-regions from B-regions and
recommending the use ofSTM for D-regions. T hese revised
STM provisions were largely, but not completely, based on
research by (Birrcher et a l. 20 13, 2014; Tuchscherer et a l.
201 la,b, 20 14, 20 16).
The efficiency factors given in AASHTO LRFD
(AASHTO 20 I7) were deve loped by using non-hydrostatic
nodes. Implicit to the derivation of the AAS HTO LRFD
STM design provisions is the fact that the strength of a s trut
framing into a node is considered the same as that calcu lated
for the node face. WiU1 that understanding, the AASHTO
LRFD (AASHTO 20 17) requires that the factored resistance
P, of a node face and ties s hall be taken as follows
<acl)
70 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
-Table 8.3.2-Efficiency factors of AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO 2017) forNodenodal
type
zones
Face CCC
Bearing face
0.85
Back face
0.85 - 1:120 ksi
Strut-to-node interface
0.45 < V :', 0,65
Note: I MPa = 0.145 ksi.
P,. = ¢P,,
where P. is nominal resistance of a node face o r tie; and <I> is
the resistance factor.
Within this framework, and consistent w ith other codes,
the nominal strength of a tie is calculated as fol lows
P,, = J;,A,, + A,~[(p, + hl
where A_., is area of nonprestressed reinforcement; A,,. is area
of prestressing steel; f, is yield strengtl1 of nonprestressed
reinforcement; andf,,. is effective stress in prestressing steel
after losses.
The AASI-ITO LRFD (AAS HTO 20 17) limits the sum of
J;,,and/;. in the equation above by requiring that the tenn in
the brackets shall not be taken greater than the yie ld strength
of the prestressing steel.
In regards to anchorage, the AASHTO LRFD requires
that the tie re inforcement sha ll be anchored to transfer the
tension force within the nodal regions of the STM in accor-
dance with the requirements for reinforcement develop-
ment and provide addit ional discussion in the commentary
e mphasizing the impo11ance of anchorage.
The AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO 20 17) requires that the
nominal resistance of a node face s hall be taken as
where P,, is nominal resistance of a node face;J,, is li miting
compre.s sive stress at the node face; and A'" is effective
c ross-sectional area of the node face.
An increase of the nominal capacity of a node-to-strnt
inte1face is allowed in cases where that region contains
nonprestressed compressive reinforcement. In such cases,
the resistance given by the equation above may be increased
by adding a re inforcement contribution Lenn equal Lo the
product of the area of that reinforcement and the yield resis-
tance of that re inforcement. The value of A.,, s hall be deter-
mined by considering the detai ls of the nodal region. The
compressive stress at the node face (!;,,) shall be taken as
f,. = m·v •J;:
where /,' is compressive s trength of concrete; mis confine-
ment mod ification factor, taken as ✓Ai lA. but not more
than 2 .0; A1 is bearing area; A2 is notional area, as discussed
in the earlier sections of this document; and v is concrete
efficiency factor.
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
CCT CTI
0.70
0.85 - / / /20 ksi
0.45 :, V :, 0.65
0.85 - J.!120 ksi
0.45 :', V :', 0.65
·-- -- - - CCT Nodal Zone
'•· --.. · re 1(b)
Besrlno Face
Fig. 8.3.2a-Strut-mul-tie model of a deep beam.
The concrete efficiency factor can be taken as v =0.45 for
s tructures that do not contain crack control reinforcement
as specified in the specifications. For cases in which a s uffi-
cient amount of crack conh·ol reinforcement (that is, at least
0.3 percent each way) exists, the efficiency factors given in
Table 8.3.2 apply. The te nninology used in Table 8.3.2 is
explained in Fig. 8.3 .2a and 8.3.2b.
With regards to bond s tresses in nodal zones, the devel-
opment of tie reinforcement s hou Id be checked, but bond
stresses resulting from defonned bars outside the nodal zone
need not be appl ied to the back face of the CCT node, in the
fonn ofa concentrated force (Fig. 8.3 .2c).
The bearing stresses resulting from an anchor plate or
beaded bar, or an external indetenninacy such as that which
occurs at a node over a continuous support, are required
to be checked against the appropriate pennissible stresses
discussed above.
Crack control reinforcement in the vertical and horizontal
directions shall sat isfy the following conditions:
where A• is total area of horizontal crack control re in force-
ment within spacing s1,; Av is total area of ve1tical crack
control reinforcement w ithin spacings,.; b.,. is web width of
member: ands,, and sh are spacing of vertical and horizontal
crack control reinforcement, respectively.
Crack control reinforcement is required in an effort to
provide: I) an abil ity of redistribution of forces; and 2) a
sufficient level of crack comrol reinforcemem for cracks
that may fonn under service conditions. This amount of
crack control reinforcement has been required since the
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
(btCCT NO<le
Fig. 8.3.2b-Efficie11cy factors ofAASHTO LRFD (AASHTO 20/ 7) (Note: I ksi = 6.9 MPa).
Bond
........
Fig, 8.3.2c- Bond stress res11/ti11g from a11chorage of a
developed tie.
introduction o f STM provisions in AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications in I994.
8.4- FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999)
8.4.1 J11troductio11-The FIP Recommendations (FIP
I999) "Practical Design of Structural Concrete" were
developed as a gu ide for practitioners as an addition to the
CEB -FIP Model Code 1990. However, designers and espe-
cially practitioners using AC I 3 I8 will benefit from stn,t-
and-tie models presented for many D-regions and from
cases not dealt with in AC! 318- 19. The concept of these
recommendat ions is explained below, and it complies with
the proposal by MacGregor ( I 99 I) that, instead of a design
of sections (like, for example, in ACI 318), a "full member
design" should be performed, which comprises the consis-
tent transition from B-regions to D-regions. Because this
proposal is still val id for AC! 318, the FIP Recommendat ions
(FIP I 999) is a valuable document for the ACI co mmunity.
The structure of the FlP Recommendations (Fil' 1999)
"Practical Design o f Stn1ctural Concrete" is written in a
code format a nd technically based o n the CEB-FIP MC 90.
However, the overall concept is different because it is fully
based on the design using STMs, and this design concept is
consistently integrated in the code. The logic for this is that
the strengths of the basic elements for the design (that is,
struts, ties, a nd nodes) are defined prior 10 the applications in
the design of B-regions (with flexural a nd shear design) a nd
D-regions. The section on D-regions conta ins an extensive
collection of basic examples from buildings a nd bridges. It
is a sho1t code of only JOO pages and its applica tion was
demonstrated with many examples from practice in fib
Bulletin 16 (fib 2002) as well as infib Bulletin 61 (Iii, 2011 ).
The safety concept of the FIP Recommenda-
tions (FIP 1999) is that of the CEB-FIP MC 90, the
fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 20 IO (jib 2013),
Am erican Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
71
and the EC2 for which pa,t ial safety factors y, and y, for the
materials are used. The re levant va lues for the ultimate lim it
state (ULS) are:
a) for steel: Y,, = 1.1 5
b) for concrete general ly: y, = 1.5
c) for concrete tensil e strength: y, = 1.8
The design values are based on characterist ic values
defined by the 5 percent fmctile. For examp le, the design
value1,.,1 for the compressive strength is based on the charac-
teristic value..,;, for the cylinder strnngth
fed= fci-y,
This is differe nt from AC I 318-19 based on//, for wh ich
accord ing to MacGregor and Wight (2005) there is a "prob-
abi lity of not more than I in 11 that one test will fall be low
J..', This means that J;' is approximately equ ivalent to a
9%-fractile."
Accord ing to Reineck et ol. (2003 , 20 12, 20 17), the rela-
tionship between both values may be taken as
lex =// - 1.60 (M]'a) or/"' = le' - 232 (psi)
In Section 6. l of the FIP Recommendat ions (FIP 1999),
the general requirements are described and definitions given
for B- and D-regions. The basic requirement is that the
determination of the resistance s hall be based on physical
or mechanical models. The internal model shall represent
a coherent system of struts, ties, and nodes in equil ibrium
with the design loads a nd reactions. Compatibil ity should
be considered approximately, where it is advantegous if
the model is orientated by the stress fields determined from
a li ne.ar-elastic analysis. The model may be modified to
account for cracking and yielding o f reinforcement.
When detail ing, the reinforcement should comply with
the assumed nodes and ties. The axes of the re in forcement
should coincide with the axes of the correSJ}Onding ties in the
model. The reinforcement should also extend to the extreme
fibers o f the nodes.
8.4.2 Strength of ties- At the ULS, the tension reinforce-
ment normally yie lds so that the resisting force of a tie is
F,,,1 =A, ·.f,,1 + AP 'f,.,1
where A, is area for tension reinforcement;.!,,,= J;.ify_, is design
value for tension re in forcement; AP is area of prestressing
tendons; and J~,d = J;,J,l y, is design value for prestressing
tendons.
<acl)
72 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
r;--,- I. -I -1.. T
ff J tf! , O'c
--,--
1 • I
I I I the stmt, as in compression chords of beams or in columns.
I · I
I I I Likewise, the capacity of a strut and especial ly its ductil ity
I · I
I I Tot I
\ I I. //
I I /
I . /
I I /
~-4
Pa
C/2 C/2
a) stress tra;ectories b) s1n11-and-lie model
Fig. 8.4.3- Bollle-shaped rension-compression _field for
determining cracking loads (adaptedji·o m FIP [1999)).
In cases where the prestress is applied as an external load
in the analysis o nly, the reserve capacity at decompression
beyond the stress o p.PO = Pr)Ap due to the prestressing force
Po, can be us ed .
8.4.3 Strenglh of concrete tie:.~ The ultimate capacity
of structural concrete members often rel ies on the concrete
tensi le strength, as in the case of members w ithout transverse
reinforcement or for bond and anchorage. For uncracked
O-regions models such as in Fig. 8.4.3 may be used. It is
oflcn collc-0 o bottlc-shopcd s trut, but it is octuolly on STM
with a concrete tie. Its capacity rel ies on the concrete tensi le
stre ngth and depends on the ratio alb. For alb = 0.5, the
lowest value for the cracking load is attained with a pressure
P« on the load ing plate ofPu= 0.6/,d-
The capacity of the model in Fig. 8.4.3 may be increased
by placing appropriate amounts of rein forcement for the tie.
Then the capacity Pu is limited by either the biaxial compres-
s ive strength_/ir,1 or the triaxial strengthh,,., of the compres-
s ion node directly below the loading plate, as further
explained in Section 8.4.5 .
8.4.4 S1re11g1h of s/mts- The capacity of a parallel
compression field or a prismatic strut is
where i,;J..-ff = v 1 • f «1 o r ./cJ.,11 = v2 • f,.d; and A, is the area
of strut.
The reduction factor v1 appl ies to a strut of a compression
zone w ith a linear strain distribution . !fa stress-block is used
over the full depth of the compression zone, then
v 1 =(I - j,;/250)(MPa) o r v 1 = (I - (fci/145)/250)(psi)
The factor v2 accotmts for seveml infl uencing effects:
a) v2 = I.0 for uncracked stmts with a uniform strain
distribution
b) v2 = 0.8 for struts parallel to cracks and w ith bonded
transverse re inforcement
c) v 2 = 0.6 for struts crossing cracks with normal crack
widths such as, for example, in webs of beams
rcic'l1 American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
d) v2 = 0.45 for struts crossing cracks w ith large crack
widths such as, for example. in members with axial
tension or flanges in tension.
Re inforc ing bars incre.ase the capacity if placed parallel to
can be enhanced by appropriate amounts of c.onfining trans-
verse re in forcement.
For struts crossed by bars or ducts, re lationships are g iven
for reduced w idths to account for the reduced available
section to transfer compression and to consider the effects
of transverse tension.
For the strength of struts crossing imerfaces, values arc
presented in Section 5 .5 of the FlP Recommendations
(Fl P I 999) based on shear friction requirements for the
transfer of forces across interfaces.
8.4.5 Strength of nodes~ ln CCC nodes connecting
only s truts, the b iaxial or triax.ial hydros tatic compre-ss ive
strengths can be used:
a) for biaxial compression:.ficJ = 1.2 · / ,.,,
b) for triaxial compression: hc,1 = 3 .88 · /,,1
When using such high strengths, the values for the stresses
sball be criticall y examined so that the magnitude of the
transverse compression is secured.
The capacity of a triaxially s n·essed node may be checked
by the local pressure o,<> under the loaded area A,<> (refer to
Fig. 8.4.5a)
w here Ac1 is max imum area inscribed with same shape and
centroid as the loaded area A,o.
CCT nodes contain a s ingle tie, which has to be anchored
in the node area. The most common CCT node is at end
supports of beams. In contrast to ACI 318-1 9, the anchorage
length starts at the inner face of the support plate.
The e ffective compressive strength for CCT nodes is
However, the check of the compressive stresses is oflen
not critical at CCT nodes because mostly the anchorage
length governs for the g iven node dimensions.
Al CTT nodes, a strut is anchored by two ties, as s hown
in Fig. 8.4.5b. If the angle 0 is not equa l to 45 degrees, the
difference in tie forces is anchored at the node. The compres-
sive stress of the s trut is governed by the d iameter of the
mandrel (d1,) (bar bend diameter)
The bar bend diameter should be such to avoid cracks
and crushing or splitting of the strut under the effect o f the
bearing pressure inside the bend. These requirements a re
met if d0 compl ies with the va lues listed in Table 8.4.5.
The minimw,1 bar bend diameters d1, of prestressing
tendons are usually defined in technical approval docu-
ments, but approximate values are given in Section 5.6.3.2
of the FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999).
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
Table 8.4.5-Minimum diameter of mandrel (bar bend diameter) for hooks, loops, and curved reinforcing
bars
Bar diameter 0
<20 mm (0.8 in.) :;:20 mm (0.8 in.) >100 mm (4 in,) and > 7 0
d, 40 70
Fig. 8.4. 5a- Defi11ilio11s ofareasfor local pressures {adapted
fi·om FIP [/9991).
Tt ,le
~T
(a) definilio11 ofa CIT-node (t,) stress field and geometry
Fig. 8.4.5b-CTT node at a bend of a reinforcing bar
{adapted from FIP [19991).
8.4.6 Design of D-regions
8.4.6.J Static disco111i1111ities of beam-ln Section 6.5
of the FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999), the most frequent
O-regions of beams are deall with including end suppo11s,
intennediate supports, and indirecl suppo11s. For each case,
lhe STM and its associated stress fields are s hown and lhe
relevant design relationships are given. Thereby, the lran-
sil ion from slender beams to deep beams is consistently
treated wilhout defining artificial limits for the slenderness
of deep beams.
For a point load near an end support, the model shown
in Fig. 8.4.6.1 a is presented. A portion F 2 of the load F is
directly 1ransfen-ed to rhe support by an inclined strut, and
the remaining portion F 1 is indirectly transfen-ed by truss
action. This model is internally statically indetenninate and
for the relationship between Ft a nd F2 , the following expres-
sion is given
American Concrete lnstttute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
73
Concrete cover perpendjcular to plane of bead
>50 mm (2 in.) ond >3 0 :,50 mm (2 in.) and :,3 0
100 150 200
-i----- a
x/2
Fig. 8.4.6. la- Strut-and-tie model a11d stress fields for a
point load near an end support (adaptedfi-0111 FIP [I 999)).
F 1IF = (2 · alz- 1)13 for zl2 :5 a :5 2 · z
where a is distance between the point load and the support
axis. and z is inner lever arm.
This model describes the transition from slender beams
to corbels with low values for alz or aid. By analyzing the
data collected from strain gauges installed in longitudinal
and transverse reinforcing bars, researchers (Tuchschcrc r c t
al. 2016) confinned the fact that FIP Recommendations (FIP
1999) as presented above are conservative. More specifi-
cally, for an aid of 1.2, the external load was can-ied over to
the near support a lmost exclusively by a direct strut. At an
aid of 1.85 approximately, two-thirds of the external load
was carried by a direct strut. At an aid of 2.5, only one-third
of the load was canied by the direct strut, signaling the tran-
sition to beam action.
Todisco et al. (20 16) pe,formed comparisons of the model
in Fig. 8.4.6. 1a with tests on non-slender beams with stir-
rups collected in the ACI-DAfStb Shear Database in ACI-
DAfStb 617 (2017). The model was clearly conservative and
the scatter was remarkably lower than that for using the rules
of the Eurocode EC2 (EN 1992-1-1:201 5).
The simple STM recommended in ACI 31 8-19 with an
inclined strut directly transfen-ing the total load to the
support is limited lO the loads near the s upport in distances
a :5 z/2 (that is, for corbels). For corbels and for point loads
very near or over the suppo1t, hod zontal reinforcement is
required, as shown in Fig. 8.4.6.1 b. Unless a more refined
analysis is made, according to FIP (1999), the horizontal
reinforcement may be designed for a force
<acl)
74 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)

l a-t
F F
o--o\
,,
m
\ I
\
i;.,'

I
I
~-
I
I

'
'
~
\
\,I
,.,..(1

(a) load close to support (b) load over end support (c) load over intermediate
support
Fig. 8.4.6.Jb-Strut-and-tie models for a point load near or over a support (adaptedfrom
FIP [1999)).

T1 ,,, ,
,,
'
',,.
..,.,,______
\ I ,
_

__ jJ
!+-z2 +t
(a) model for case z, > zz
Fig. 8.4.6.2-Strut-a11d-tie models for frame corners with closing moments and different
depths ofbeam a11d co/1111111 (adapted.from FIP [ 1999}).
Finally, in Section 6.5 of 1he FIP Recommendations
(FIi' 1999), the STMs for common deep beams subjected to a
distributed load are presented, such as a simple deep beam on
two supports, a deep beam on three supports, and a continuous
deep beam. For a ll these cases, the forces for the ties are given
as well as the distribution of 1he relevam reinforcing bars.
Thereby, the tie forces are based on the linear-elastic theory,
so that these models may be used for the design at the ultimate
limit state (ULS) as well as for the serviceability limit state
(SLS), for example, for checking crack widths.
8.4.6.2 Frame corners and co11nection~~ sec1ion 6.5.5 of
the FIP Recommendat ions (FIP 1999) provides examples for
the most frequently occurring D-regions of beam-column
connections a nd frame corners. One example provided is a
frame corner with closing (negative) moments and differe nt
depths of beams and columns. The recommended STM is
provided as shown in Fig. 8.4.6.2, and it indicates that hori-
zonta l re inforcement is required at the beam end.
In Section 6.5.6 of the Fil' Recommendations (Fil' 1999),
STMs are presented for half-joints (dapped beam ends) and
steps in beams.
8.4.6.3 Co11ce11trated loads in direction of member
axis- In Section 6.5.7, the FIP Recommendations (FIP
1999) provide examples for the most frequent D-regions of
members loaded in the direction of the member axis. These
<cicl'1 American Concrete lnslilute - Copyrighled © Material - www.concrete.org
(b) model for case z, >> z2
include anchorage zones of prestre.ssing tendons of beams
with rectangu lar c ross section as well as ofT-beams. As an
example, Fig. 8.4.6.3 s hows the STM for the force F applied
at an interior anchorage of a te ndon in a slab. The model
was found by applying the load-path method explained by
Schla ich c1 a l. ( 1987). All forces are given, and it is impor-
ta nt to note that 0.25F has to be transferred back into the
zone behind the anchor by ties besides the anchor.
In these cases, the prestressing force is often applied as
an extema l force. All anchorage and deviation forces s hould
be considered at 1heir exact locat ions. This is demonstrated
in the FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999) by an STM in a
dev iator P for two external te ndons of a box boidge.
8.5-Eurocode 2
Throughout Europe, the Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:20 11,
2015) is valid and used by designers, and i1 has an impact
even beyond Europe. It is also re levant for designers in
North America working internationally who need to know
codes other than ACI 318 or AASHTO.
The EC2 considers many aspects of the CEB-FIP MC 90.
In EC2 Section 5.6.4, the ana lysis with STMs is defined.
Strut-and-tie models may be used for the design in the
ultimate limit state (ULS) of 0-regions as well as for
B-regions. Verifications in the serviceability limit state
 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21) 75

D - region

t I
I
I ,
,,
,, --------------
u.
M
- F/8

r-------
4a u.
,,
~
I M

,,,, - 3· F/8
0
I 0.125F ci
1-a
I
I
f- Ill(
, u.
M
N
u.
a,
-
ci,,
T
I d
I '
u.
I
I
0.125F
''
M
0 ~ ...... --------- - 3· F/8
4a I ' 0 ~
I ',, ci

-4---
I
-------------- - F/8

Fig. 8. 4. 6.3-Strut-and-tie model and all forces for an interior anchorage of a tendon in a
slab (adapted from FJP [/999)).
(SLS) may also be carried oul if approxima1e compa1-
ibi li1y is ensured; in particular, the position and d irection
of important struts should be o riented accordi ng to linear
elasticity theory. In addition, the definitions for struts, ties,
and nodes are g iven, and the principle stated that the ties of
an STM s hould coincide in position with the direction of
lhe corresponding reinforcemeni.
The rules for dimensioning a re stated in Section 6.5 of
£C2 (EN I 992- 1- I :20 I 5). Thereby, in many cases, recom-
mended values are g iven allowing that in differe nt countries
other values may be defined in "National Appendices."
The recommended values for the strength of struts are
<JRJ.• ,., = 0.6 · ( 1 - f.../250)j"', where/.,, is in MPa
aRd.,..., = 0.6 · ( I - (/j l45)/250)f.d, where};, is in psi
The recommended values for the compressive strengths
of nodes are:
a) <1Rd.max = 1.0 · ( I - f.,,1250) · ftd [MPa] and <1Rd.m~, =
1.0 (I - (/;/ 145)/250) ·/"'[psi] for CCC nodes
b) <JRd...wx = 0.85 · ( I - /,../250) · f,,1 [l\llPa] and <JRd,mu =
0.85·( 1 - (/;.,/145)/250) /,.,J [psi] for CCT nodes
c) o•"·"''" = 0.75 · (I - / ,,1250) · f.-d [MPa] and <J11J,m«, =
0.75 ·( I -(fc.;/ 145)/250) · f,d [psi] for CTT nodes
These values may be increased by IO percenl under certain
condilions listed in Section 6.5.4 (5) of EC2. This especially
appl ies to triaxially stressed CCC nodes, and, depending on
the lateral compressive stress cr2, the following strengths
may be assumed
a)/~•.,=J~,( 1.00 + 5.00 · cr2/j~,) for o 2 ::: 0.05 ·ft•
b)fc1;., = f,.( 1.125 + 2.50 · 02ifct) for cr2 > 0.05 · J,,.
For partially loaded areas, the same rule is given as in
Section 6.7 of FIP ( 1999).
The upper limit for all these cases of triaxially stressed
nodes is
aRd••,., = 3.0 · (I - fc;/250) · /.,,1, wheref,, is in MPa
,,,,= 3.0 · ( I -
<JRJ... (l;,J t45)/250) ·/c,1, where_/,, is in psi
8.6-ftb Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010
(fib 2013)
Like the fonner CEB-FJP Model Codes, the fib Model
Code 2010 (fib 201 3) was developed as a guide for code
makers and served as the basis for the Eurocodes on Concrele
Sm,ctures. New concepts for the design were presented s uch
as, for example, the safety concept with partial safety factors
and the integration of re inforced concrete and prestressed
concrete in one code instead of di fferent codes. It is a lso rele-
vam for imemai iona lly working designers in Norm America
who often foce cht11lenging proj ects exceeding the present
state of codes.
l.n Section 7.3.6 o f.fib Model Code for Concrete Strnctures
2010 (jib 2013), the design with STMs and stress fields is
defined. The definitions and principles are very similar to
those staled in the FIP Recommendations (FIP 1999) and
£C2 (201 5).
The stre ngth of the struts is defined similar to the FIP
Recommendations (FJP 1999):
a)f,,.,0 = 1.0 · '1 •}~d for uncracked struts with a uniform
sirain distribution
b) /td.,ff = 0.7 5 · ri · f..,1 for struts para lle l to cracks and
tension re in forcement perpendicular to the strut
c)J;.,,_,J)' =0.55 · 11 ·.t:.•<1 for struts with re inforcement rnnning
obli quely to the strut-for example, in webs of beams
For th is, the factor '1 is defined as
11 = (30/J;*)"3 5 1.0, where J,.., is in MPa
11 = (30 · 145/J.'.,) 113 5 1.0, where_/,., is in psi
The effective compressive sh·engths for nodes are
a) J',,1,qJ· = I .0 · ri · f..,1 for CCC nodes
b)j~d,u= 0.75 · ri ·f,dfor CCTorCTT nodes
CHAPTER 9-REFERENCES
Committee documents are listed first by document number
and year of publication followed by authored documents
listed a lphabetically.

Am erican Concrete lnstttule - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org <acl)

76 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDELINES FOR ACI 318-19-GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
9.1-Referenced standards and reports
America11 Concrete brstirwe (AC!)
AC( 3 18-02-Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (AC! 3 18-02) and Commentary (AC) 3 I8R-02)
AC! 318-14-Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (AC! 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 3 l 8R-14)
ACI 3 18-19- Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (AC! 3 I8-1 9) and Commentary (ACI 3 I 8R- 19)
AC! ITG-4 .3R-07-RepononStnictu ral Desig nand DetaiIing
for High-Strength Concrete to High Seismic Applications
ACI SP-208- Examples for the Design of Structural
Concrete with Sb11t-and-Tie Models
ACI SP-273- Further Examples for the Design of Struc-
tural Concrete with Strut-and-Tie Models
Canadian Sta11dards Association (CSA Gro11p)
CAN3-A23.3-M84-Design of Concrete Structures
CSA A23.3-94- Design of Concrete Structures
CSA A23.3- l4-Design of Concrete Structures
Comite E11ro-!11ternatio11al du 8 eto11 (CEB)
CEB-FIP Model Code 90-Design of Concrete Strnctures
European Commiueefor Sra11dardization (CEN)
EN 1992- 1-1 :2011-Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete
Structures-Pan 1- 1: General Rules and Rules for Bui ldings
EN 1992- 1-1:2015- Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete
Strucbires- Pa1t 1-1 : Geneml Rules and Rules for Buildings
Germa11 brstirutefor Standardisation (DIN)
DCN 1045- 1E:200 1- Plain , Rein forced and Prestressed
Concrete Struc1ures- Part I: Design and Construction
Precast/Prestressed Co11crete Institute (PC[)
MNL 120-17-Design Handbook: Precast and Prestressed
Concrete, Eighth Edition
9.2-Authored references
AASHTO, 1994, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Speci-
_fications, first edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
1091 pp. Including interim revisions for 1996 and 1997.
AASHTO, 1998, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Desig11 Speci-
_ficatio11s, second ed ition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
1116 pp. Including interim revisions for 1999 through 2003 .
AASHTO, 2004, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Speci-
ficatio11s, 1hird edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transpo1tation Officia ls, Washington, DC.
AASHTO, 20 I0, LRFD Bridge Design Specificatio11s,
fifth edition, with 20 IO Inte rim Revisions, American Associ-
ation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Wasb-
ing1on DC, 1822 pp.
AASHTO, 2014, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Speci-
_ficatio11s, seventh edition, Ameiican Association of State
1-l ighway and Transpo1tation Officia ls, Washington, DC.
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted© Material - www.concrete.org
AASHTO, 2017, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Desig11 Speci-
fications, e ighth edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officia ls, Washington, DC.
ABAQUS, 2006, A11alysis Users Manual, ABAQUS
Ver. 6.6, ABAQUS, Inc.
ACI-DAfSTB 617, 2017, "ACI -DAfStb Databases 2015
on shear Tests for Evaluating Relationships for the Shear
Design o f Stl'uctural Concrete Members without and with
St irrups." Report for Research Project DAjStb V479, K.-H.
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Adebar, P.; Kuchma, D.; and Collins, M . P., 1990, "Strnt-
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Adebar, P., and Zhou, Z. , 1993, ··Bearing Strength of
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Aguilar, G.; Matamoros, A. B.; Parra-Montesinos, G. J.;
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Almasi, J., 1992, ··Cracks as Important Constituents of
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Alshegcir, A. , and Ramirez, J. A., 1992, "Computer
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am See, Austria, April 4-6, pp. 539-550.
Anderman, M. F., a nd Lubell, A. S., 2010, "Stepped Beam
with Mult ip le Load Combinations," Further Examples
for the Design of Structural Co11crete with Strut-a11d-1ie
Models, SP-273, K. -H. Reineck and L. Novak, eds., Amer-
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Andermatt, M. F., and Lubell, A. S., 2013a, "Concrete
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 STRUT-AND-TIE METHOD GUIDE FOR ACI 318-19- GUIDE (ACI PRC-445.2-21)
ment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
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Baker, J. F.; Horne, M. R.; and Heyman, J., 1956, The
Sieel Skele1on: Volume II, Plastic Behaviour and Design,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Barnes, R. W., 2002, "High Wall with Two Openings,"
Examples .for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strlll-
and-Tie Models, SP-208, K.-H. Re ineck and L. C. Novak,
eds., American Concrete Institute, Fann ington Hills, Ml,
pp. l 95-212.
Bathe, K.-J., 1996, Fini1e Element Procedures, Prentice-
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