electronics

Review
Review of Solid State Transfer Switch on
Requirements, Standards, Topologies, Control,
and Switching Mechanisms: Issues and Challenges
Mohammad Faisal 1 , Mahammad Abdul Hannan 1, * , Pin Jern Ker 1 ,
Muhamad Safwan Bin Abd Rahman 1 , Mohammad Sazib Mollik 2 and Muhamad Bin Mansur 1
1 Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia;
fsl@gmail.com (M.F.); pinjern@uniten.edu.my (P.J.K.); asafwan@uniten.edu.my (M.S.B.A.R.);
muhamadm@uniten.edu.my (M.B.M.)
2 UNITEN R & D Sdn Bhd, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia;
sazib000mollik@gmail.com
* Correspondence: Hannan@uniten.edu.my




Received: 23 June 2020; Accepted: 31 July 2020; Published: 28 August 2020


Abstract: Large-scale industrial loads, sensitive loads, and electrical power distribution systems
suffer from power quality issues such as voltage interruptions, flickering, and sags which can cause
a significant financial loss. The semiconductor based solid-state transfer switch (SSTS) can utilize the
dual power feeders to protect the loads against these power disturbance issues. Conventional SSTS
often requires more than quarter cycles to complete the transfer process because of load dependent
commutation. Numerous researchers proposed the improved SSTS with impulse commutated
circuit, which can reduce the transfer time and provide better ride-through capability against voltage
sags. However, the SSTS specification depends on the application types and design procedure.
Recently, hybrid SSTS has been introduced by the researchers to overcome all these issues. It has
been investigated that not much papers are available in literature so far to aggregate all these issues.
Therefore, towards the novel contribution of research, this review critically described the requirements,
standards, and specifications of SSTS; control and switching mechanisms; and application of SSTS as
single or hybrid topology, to give a comprehensive idea to the future researchers about the design
of SSTS for a specific application. This paper also contributes to analyzing the key issues related
to the SSTS applications, which can provide an easy control strategy and reduce the transfer time
significantly. Overall, this research will strengthen the efforts of the researchers and industrialists to
select, develop, and design the appropriate SSTS for a particular application.

Keywords: solid-state transfer switch; switching control; SSTS standards; SSTS topologies; power
quality; technical requirements

1. Introduction
Transfer time of traditional mechanical switches to switch the fault power to the alternate power
during interruption approximately ranges between 6 to 36 cycles. These switches are applied in most of
the medium and high voltage applications previously. Mechanical switches are not ideal because of the
inherent characteristics, switching speed, and longer switch action [1]. In contrast, during switching of
automatic transfer switch (ATS), arcing phenomena or vibration takes place which may cause erosion,
heat, energy loss, and electromagnetic disturbance towards reducing the life expectancy of the switch.
If the heat does not release in time, they may damage the semiconductor devices. Hence, they need to
be equipped with a large capacity cooling system [2]. However, ATS is advantageous in improving the
power quality and reliability through voltage sag and power interruption minimization. There are four

Electronics 2020, 9, 1396; doi:10.3390/electronics9091396 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

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interruption minimization. There are four basic types of automatic transfer switches: break-before-
basic (open
make types of automaticmake-before-break
transition), transfer switches: break-before-make
(closed), delayed transition(open transition),
(center off),make-before-break
and solid-state
(closed), delayed transition (center off), and solid-state switch.
switch. Solid-state switches are often used in switch matrix systems for testing of semiconductor Solid-state switches are often used in
switch matrix
devices, wheresystems for testingspeed
high switching of semiconductor
is critical and devices,
powerwhere handlinghigh switching
requirements speed areis lower.
critical
and power handling
Applications of solid-state requirements are lower.
transfer switch Applications
to power of solid-state
the susceptible loadstransfer
effectivelyswitch
reducesto power the
the loss
susceptible loads effectively
induced by the switching devices [3]. reduces the loss induced by the switching devices [3].
Recentindustrial
Recent industrialfacilities
facilitiesconsist
consistof ofvarious
varioussensitive
sensitiveloads
loadswhichwhichrequire
requirehigh-quality
high-qualitypower power
for stable operation and reduce the rapid voltage interruption
for stable operation and reduce the rapid voltage interruption problems such as voltage sag, voltageproblems such as voltage sag, voltage
swell,flickering,
swell, flickering,etc. etc.According
Accordingto tothe
theAmerican
AmericanElectricElectricPower
PowerResearch
ResearchInstitute
Institute(EPRI),
(EPRI),98% 98%of oftotal
total
transient power
transient power qualityquality problem
problem occurs occurs due dueto tovoltage
voltagesags
sagswhich
whichmay maycause
cause huge
huge economic
economic losses
losses[4]
in the large industrial sectors. Impact of
[4] in the large industrial sectors. Impact of manual versus automaticmanual versus automatic transfer switching in
switching in industrialindustrial
plantshas
plants hasbeen
beendemonstrated
demonstratedinin[5]. [5].Using
Using zone
zone branch
branch methodology
methodology forfor
thethe reliability
reliability evaluation,
evaluation, it
isit observed
is observed that thatthethe annual
annual load
load point
point interruptionduring
interruption duringmanual
manualswitching
switchingisis1.2–3.1
1.2–3.1times timeshigher
higher
thanwhen
than whenautomatic
automatictransfer transferprocedures
proceduresof ofrestoration
restorationwere wereused.
used.An Anautomatic
automatictransfer
transferscheme schemeisis
established in
established in Tenaga
TenagaNasionalNasional Berhard
Berhard Distribution
DistributionNegeri Perak Perak
Negeri to perform the automatic
to perform switching
the automatic
safely to minimise interruption down approximately 1 s or
switching safely to minimise interruption down approximately 1 s or faster [6]. The proposed schemefaster [6]. The proposed scheme can
optimize
can optimizethe utilization
the utilization of manpower
of manpower and operational
and operationalcost, which can becan
cost, which implemented
be implemented in the existing
in the
control system.
existing controlWith the rapid
system. With development
the rapidof development
technologies onofwide bandgap semiconductor
technologies on wide bandgap devices,
such as silicon devices,
semiconductor carbide (SiC), such static induction
as silicon carbide transistors (SITs),
(SiC), static SiC metal
induction oxide semiconductor
transistors (SITs), SiC metal field
effect semiconductor
oxide transistors (MOSFETs), field effect andtransistors
SiC junction gate field effect
(MOSFETs), and SiC transistors
junction(JFETs) caneffect
gate field provide superior
transistors
switching
(JFETs) canperformance
provide superior and are much better
switching than the mechanical
performance and are much counterparts
better than to solver the power
the mechanical
quality issuesto[7].
counterparts Researchers
solver the power identify
qualitysolid-state
issues [7].transfer switches
Researchers (SSTS)
identify as a possible
solid-state transfer cost-effective
switches
solution
(SSTS) as to power quality
a possible problems
cost-effective [8,9] intoallpower
solution kinds quality
of small,problems
medium,[8,9] and in large scale industries.
all kinds of small,
Solid-state
medium, and circuit
largebreakers (SSCB) which
scale industries. is alsocircuit
Solid-state commonlybreakersknown (SSCB)as SSTS,
whichcan is be
also used to solve
commonly
the aforementioned
known as SSTS, can be disturbances
used to solve regarding the power quality
the aforementioned disturbancesissues.regarding
This typethe of power
customquality power
devices
issues. replaced
This type ofthe traditional
custom power solution techniques
devices replaced of using ferro-transformer,
the traditional solution techniques reactors,
of using toferro-
solve
the voltage flickering, voltage sags, etc. Study indicates that silicon-controlled
transformer, reactors, to solve the voltage flickering, voltage sags, etc. Study indicates that silicon- rectifier (SCR)-based
bypass switches
controlled rectifierhave a worse dynamic
(SCR)-based in turn-off
bypass switches characteristic,
have a worse dynamic so thatinthe criticalcharacteristic,
turn-off load may suffer so
from
that severe
the critical gridload faults
mayfor a long
suffer from time.
severeAngridSCR-based
faults fortransfer switch
a long time. AnisSCR-based
presented transfer
in a double-fedswitch
ismachine
presented (DFM) drive where
in a double-fed two sets(DFM)
machine of SCRs drivearewhere
proposedtwo for
setslow speedare
of SCRs (dc mode) and
proposed for high speed
low speed
(ac mode)
(dc mode).and This technique
high speed (ac minimizes
mode). This switching
technique losses withoutswitching
minimizes increasing harmonic
losses without distortions
increasing of
stator waveform
harmonic distortions [10].of stator waveform [10].
AAschematic
schematicof ofananideal
idealtransfer
transferswitch
switchfor forDFM
DFMthatthatpresented
presentedinin[10] [10]isisdepicted
depictedininFigure Figure1.1.
From the
From the figure,
figure,the DFM
the DFM can can
be connected
be connected with either
with ac or dc ac
either sources,
or dcdepending
sources, on the configuration
depending on the
of switch S1 or S2. A rectifier is used to convert the ac
configuration of switch S1 or S2. A rectifier is used to convert the ac source into a source into a dc source. The dc source supplies
source. The dc
resistive
source losses inresistive
supplies the stator of DFM.
losses in the Consequently,
stator of DFM. the power rating of the
Consequently, the transformer
power rating rectifier
of theis
a fraction ofrectifier
transformer the DFM is power
a fraction rating.
of the DFM power rating.

Figure
Figure1.1.Schematic
Schematicofofideal
idealtransfer
transferswitch
switchinindouble-fed
double-fedmachine
machine(DFM)
(DFM)[10].
[10].
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TheIEEE
The
The IEEEbenchmark
IEEE benchmarksystem
benchmark system
systemof of statictransfer
ofstatic
static transferswitch
transfer switch
switch(STS)(STS) STS-1
(STS)STS-1 (IEEE
STS-1(IEEE
(IEEEPES PES
PESTF TF2001)
TF 2001)isis
2001) isshown
shown
shown
in
in Figure
inFigure
Figure22in2 in which
inwhich it consists
whichititconsists
consistsof of
oftwotwo
twosets sets
setsofof three-phase
ofthree-phase
three-phasesolid-statesolid-state static
solid-statestatic switches,
staticswitches,
switches,one one
onefor for the
forthe main
themain
main
feederand
feeder
feeder andthe
and theother
the other
otheroneonefor
one forthe
for theback-up
the back-upfeeder.
back-up feeder.Each
feeder. Each
Eachswitch switch
switchisis arranged
isarranged
arrangedwithwith anti-parallel
withanti-parallel thyristors
anti-parallelthyristors
thyristors
having
having
havingfast fast transfer
fasttransfer characteristics
transfercharacteristics
characteristicsfrom from
fromthe the main
themain
mainfeeder feeder (after
feeder(after disturbance)
(afterdisturbance) to back-up
disturbance)totoback-up
back-upfeederfeeder [11].
feeder[11].
[11].
Generally,
Generally, the thyristors
Generally, the thyristors
thyristors of of the
of the main
themain
mainfeedersfeeders
feedersare are continuously
arecontinuously
continuouslyenergized energized
energized and
and
and while
while
while the
thethe thyristors
thyristors
thyristors of
of
of the
theback-up
the back-up
back-up feederfeeder
feeder are
areare in
in ain aade-energized
de-energized
de-energized position.
position.
position. If aIfIffault
aafault
fault occurs
occurs
occurs inthe
in in
thethe main
main
main feeder,
feeder,
feeder, the
the
the firing
firing
firing pulses
pulses
pulses of
of
of the
thethe thyristors
thyristors
thyristors in
in in the
thethemain main
main feeder
feeder
feeder stopped
stopped
stopped the
the the thyristors
thyristors
thyristors from from
from conducting
conducting
conducting at first
at first
at first natural
natural
natural current
current
current zero,
zero,the
zero,
and andthyristors
and thethyristors
the thyristors
of the ofback-up
of theback-up
the back-upfeeder feeder
feeder
are areareturned
turned turned ONON ON totransfer
to transfer
to transfer the
thethe
load load
load
from from
from the
thethemain main
main feeder
feeder
feeder to
toback-up
to back-up
back-up feeder.
feeder.
feeder. When
When
When the
the
the faultinin
fault
fault inthethemain
the mainfeeder
main feederis
feeder isiscleared,
cleared,the
cleared, theprocess
processisisreversed
reversedto
reversed totransfer
to transferthe
transfer the
the
loadto
load
load tothe
to themain
the mainfeeder
main feederagain.
feeder again.
again.

Figure 2. IEEEbenchmark
Figure benchmark systemSTS-1
STS-1 [11].
Figure2.2.IEEE
IEEE benchmarksystem
system STS-1[11].
[11].

Recently, integratedgate
Recently, gate commutatedthyristors thyristors (IGCTs)and and insulatedgate gate bipolartransistors
transistors
Recently, integrated
integrated gatecommutated
commutated thyristors(IGCTs) (IGCTs) and insulated
insulated gatebipolar bipolar transistors
(IGBTs)
(IGBTs) based solid-state switches have been reported in various researches [12]. Study shows that
(IGBTs) based
based solid-state
solid-state switches
switches have have been
been reported
reported in in various
various researches
researches [12].[12]. Study
Studyshows
showsthat that
the recent technological
the technological advancement in in power electronics
electronics and power power semiconductor devices devices like
the recent
recent technological advancementadvancement in power power electronics and and power semiconductor
semiconductor devices like like
thyristors,
thyristors, gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), triode for alternating current (TRIAC), and integrated gate
thyristors,gate gateturn-off
turn-offthyristors
thyristors(GTO),
(GTO),triodetriodefor foralternating
alternatingcurrentcurrent(TRIAC),
(TRIAC),and andintegrated
integratedgate gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
bipolar (IGBTs) allow
allow the the transfer
transfer time time within
within aa quarter
quarter of of aa cycle
cycle (equivalent
(equivalent to to 55 ms)
ms)
bipolar transistors
transistors (IGBTs) allow the transfer time within a quarter of a cycle (equivalent to 5 ms) [13,14].
[13,14].The
[13,14]. Thetransfer
transfertimetimeof ofRLRLloads,
loads,regenerative
regenerativeloads loadsand andcross
cross currentphenomena
phenomenaof ofthyristor
thyristor
The transfer time of RL loads, regenerative loads and cross currentcurrent
phenomena of thyristor based
based
based transfer
transfer switch have been studied in [15], where it is stated that the transfer system haslessless
transfer switchswitchhave beenhave studied
been studiedin [15],inwhere[15], where it is stated
it is stated that thethat the transfer
transfer systemsystem
has lesshas impact
impact
impact to the critical
to the critical loads. The transfer switch is used to protect sensitive loads from system side
to the critical loads. loads. The transfer
The transfer switchswitchis usedis to used to protect
protect sensitive
sensitive loads loads from system
from system side
side faults
faults
faults by swiftly
by swiftly transferring
transferring the
the to load
load to an alternate one. The consequence of the system side faults
by swiftly transferring the load an to an alternate
alternate one. one. The consequence
The consequence of the ofsystem
the systemside side
faults faults
may
maybe
may bethe
thevoltage
voltagesags,sags,voltage
voltageswells,
swells, orpower powerinterruption.
interruption.SPST SPSTandandSPDTSPDT basedbistable bistable relays
be the voltage sags, voltage swells, or or power interruption. SPST and SPDT based
based bistable relays relays
have beenproposed
have proposed astransfer transfer switchin in [16].The The disadvantageof of thisresearch
research is thatititdoes does not
havebeenbeen proposedas as transferswitch
switch in[16]. [16]. Thedisadvantage
disadvantage ofthis this researchisisthat that it doesnot not
match withthe
match the oldersystems.
systems. Authorsin in [17]proposed
proposed thehigh-performance
high-performance magneticrefrigeration refrigeration
matchwithwith theolder older systems.Authors
Authors in[17] [17] proposedthe the high-performancemagnetic magnetic refrigeration
using a solid-statethermal
using thermal switchinstead insteadof ofusing
usingthe thehydraulic
hydrauliccomponent.
component.When When amagnetic
magneticfield field
usingaa solid-state
solid-state thermal switch switch instead of using the hydraulic component. When aamagnetic field is
is applied
applied to
isapplied to the system,
system, the the thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of one one thermal
thermal switch
switch (connected
(connected to to the
the hot hot
to thethe system, the thermal conductivity of oneofthermal switch (connected to the hot reservoir)
reservoir)
reservoir) increases
increases to compare
compare to
toone alternate
alternate one (connected
one (connected to the cold reservoir), consequently heat
increases compare alternate (connected to the coldto the cold consequently
reservoir), reservoir), consequently
heat conduction heat
conductionoccurs.
conduction occurs.WhenWhenthe themagnetic
magneticfield fieldisisremoved,
removed,the thereverse
reverseprocess
processtakestakesplace.
place.Here,
Here,aasolid-solid-
occurs. When the magnetic field is removed, the reverse process takes place. Here, a solid-state
statethermal
state thermalswitch switchisisusedusedasasananalternative
alternativeto to thefluids.
fluids.Authors
Authorsin in[18]
[18]proposed
proposed touse usethyristors
thyristors
thermal switch is used as an alternative to the the fluids. Authors in [18] proposed to to use thyristors in
inin designing
designingSSTS SSTS as thyristors
SSTSasasthyristors
thyristorshave have
havehas has fewer
hasfewer conduction
fewer conduction
conduction losses losses compared
losses compared to GTO. In this research,
designing compared to to GTO.
GTO. In Inthis
thisresearch,
research,
anan electromagnetic
electromagnetic transient transient simulation
simulation program program (PSCAD/EMTDC)
(PSCAD/EMTDC) isis used used to observe
observe the the
an electromagnetic transient simulation program (PSCAD/EMTDC) is used to observeto the performance
performanceof
performance ofSSTS
SSTSin inprotecting
protectingthe thedistribution
distributionsystem. system.Here, Here,SSTSSSTStransfers
transfersthe thepower
powerto tothe
theloadload
of SSTS in protecting the distribution system. Here, SSTS transfers the power to the load from faulty
from
from faulty
faulty feeder
feeder to to a healthy
a healthy one
one in a short
in a short period
period (less
(less than
than half cycle or 10 ms). Figure 3 shows
feeder to a healthy one in a short period (less than half cycle or half cycle
10 ms). or 103ms).
Figure shows Figure 3 shows
the proposed
theproposed
the proposedSSTS SSTSfault
faultdetection
detectionand andtransfer
transfermechanism.
mechanism.
SSTS fault detection and transfer mechanism.
(dq) Faultsignal
signal
(αβ )
VV(αβ )(t)
(t) (t)
VV(dq)(t) Fault
VVabc (t)
abc(t)
33 αβ
αβ
22 dq
dq

Angle
Angle (dq)
detection θ(t) VV(dq)ref(t)
ref(t)
detection θ(t)

Figure
Figure3.3.
Figure Topology for
Topologyfor
3.Topology fault
forfault detection
faultdetection insolid-state
detectionin
in solid-statetransfer
solid-state transferswitch
transfer switch(SSTS)
switch (SSTS)[18].
(SSTS) [18].
[18].
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 4 of 30

According to the figure, equations for transforming the instantaneous three-phase voltages Va (t),
Vb (t), and Vc (t) into the αβ-coordinate system and then further conversion into rotating dq-coordinate
system can be expressed by

−√12 −√21  Va (t)

 
r  1
  
 Vα (t)  
2  3

− 23  Vb (t)
  
 Vβ (t)  =  0  , (1)
  3  1 2 
1 √1

V0 ( t ) √ √ Vc ( t )
  
2 2 2

V (dq) (t) = e−jθ(t) V (αβ) (t), (2)

where, V 0 (t) denotes the zero-sequence voltage component and θ (t) represents the transformation
angle which can be obtained by
Z t
θ(t) = θ(0) + ω(t)dt, (3)
0
now, to calculate the amplitude of the supply voltage vector, Vdq (t), in dq-cordinate
q
Vdq (t) = ν2 d(t) + ν2 q(t), (4)

where, the term v2 d(t) and v2 q(t) represent the d-component and q-component voltage. The amplitude
of the supply voltage is compared with the threshold voltage, V(dq) ref(t) in accordance with the sensitivity
of the load to detect the fault signal. It is noted that the fault detection time depends on the nature
of faults and the various types of voltage sag phenomena. Considering various load conditions and
having a higher cut-off frequency, it is proven that the proposed SSTS successfully detects the faults
faster in case of static RL load compare to the topology with induction motor load and hybrid load.
The authors in [10] extended their research for the same DFM applications where they have
proposed 8 thyristors instead of 12 [19]. Mitigating the voltage unbalance and to reduce the power
loss in bipolar low voltage dc distribution system is proposed in [20] where IGBT-based static load
transfer switch (SLTS) algorithm is used to generate the switching signals in reconfiguring the structure
of loads. Application of SSCB in 1 kV dc distribution system for shipboard applications has been
described in [21] which can isolate the fault with less than 50 µs. In this research, a switchboard-based
control (SBC) system is used as the back-up protection of SSCB to observe the undervoltage condition
and trip the breaker. The testbed is emulated with power hardware-in loop (PHIL) software. However,
overvoltage protection is avoided in this research. A logic gate based intelligent control of SSTS
on supplying the power has been discussed in [22], where multiple sources and multiple switches
are connected for managing the load and keep the uninterrupted power supply in the building.
This topology reduces the losses during the transfer time. To avoid the weak turn-off capabilities of
IGCTs, a mixer solid state switch (MSS) for a hybrid DC circuit breaker (HCB) has been proposed
in [23] to reduce the cost of traditional SSTS. Both the IGCTs and IGBTs have been are integrated for this
purpose. Figure 4 depicts the requirements of solid state switch in HCB and the model is developed in
Silvaco TCAD. When a fault occurs, the mechanical switch is triggered to isolate the system, and the
fault current is forced to commutate to the solid-state switch by the current commutation equipment
(usually a load commutation switch). Then, the solid-state switch continues to conduct the current
until the distance between the mechanical switch contacts is sufficient to withstand overvoltage.
Although these topologies have contributed to the development of SSTS based applications, authors
in [24] highlighted the asymmetrical characteristics of the high-voltage power devices as the barrier in
achieving bidirectional functionality. A diode-bridge bidirectional solid-state switch has been proposed
in [25] as a cost-effective solution for high voltage DC circuit breaker, where the solid-state switch is
used in conjunction with the mechanical switch and current commutation equipment. Hence, the cost
is an important determinant for the application of SSTS.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 30

Electronics
breaker, 2020, 9, 1396
where the 5 of 30
solid-state switch is used in conjunction with the mechanical switch and current
commutation equipment. Hence, the cost is an important determinant for the application of SSTS.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Requirements
Requirements of the solid-state
of the solid-state switch
switch in
in hybrid
hybrid circuit
circuit breaker.
breaker.

Two common processes,

Two processes,suchsuchasasbreak-before-make
break-before-make (BBM)
(BBM) andand
make-before-break
make-before-break (MBM),(MBM),are
generally
are generallyavailable forfor
available controlling
controllingSSTS. InIn
SSTS. the
theBBM
BBMmethod,
method,when whenthetheprimary
primarycurrent
current ceased then
transfer from the main feeder to alternate feeder takes place whereas when MBB mechanism is used,
the load
the loadtransfer
transferoccurs
occursbefore
beforethethe current
current hashas expired.
expired. TheThe benefit
benefit of MBB
of MBB over over
BBMBBMis thatisitthat it has
has faster
faster transfer
transfer time
time [8]. On [8]. On the
the other other
hand, hand,
MBB MBBfrom
suffers suffers from the generation
the generation of high surge of high surge
current, whichcurrent,
may
which may damage the system. Hence, overcoming this limitation of MBB
damage the system. Hence, overcoming this limitation of MBB mechanism is a prime concern of mechanism is a prime
concern
future of future researchers.
researchers. Various
Various studies havestudies have beenfor
been conducted conducted
SSTS controlfor SSTS control
strategies andstrategies
applications.and
applications. Although research on SSTS applications in distribution system
Although research on SSTS applications in distribution system [18], impulse commutation bridge [26], [18], impulse
commutation power
uninterrupted bridge supply
[26], uninterrupted
[3], double-fed power
machinesupply
drive[3],
[19],double-fed machine
etc. have been drive [19],separately,
demonstrated etc. have
been
no demonstratedreview
comprehensive separately, no comprehensive
has been found so far to review
describehasthebeen
SSTSfound
design sorequirements,
far to describestandards,
the SSTS
design requirements, standards, available SSTS specifications, control topologies, and
available SSTS specifications, control topologies, and their various applications. Thus, the significant their various
applications.of
contribution Thus, the significant
this paper contributionasoffollows:
can be summarized this paper can be summarized as follows:
(i)
(i) This
This study
study provides
provides aa comprehensive
comprehensive idea
idea about
about the
the requirements,
requirements, standards,
standards, and
and specifications
specifications
of SSTS towards the selection, development, and design of
of SSTS towards the selection, development, and design of SSTS. SSTS.
(ii) This
(ii) This research
research illustrates
illustrates the
the various
various SSTS
SSTS control
control strategies
strategies and
and switching
switching mechanisms including
mechanisms including
make-before-break,
make-before-break, break-before-make, and commutation
break-before-make, and commutation strategies.
strategies.
(iii) This work describes the various applications of SSTS, SSCB as SSTS, hybrid SSTS and addresses
(iii) This work describes the various applications of SSTS, SSCB as SSTS, hybrid SSTS and addresses the
the issues and challenges towards the development of SSTS. The key findings will benefit
issues and challenges towards the development of SSTS. The key findings will benefit researchers
researchers and industrialists for the future scope of applications.
and industrialists for the future scope of applications.
2. Requirements,
2. Standards and
Requirements, Standards and Specifications
Specifications
IEC has
IEC has stringent
stringent requirements
requirementsfor for transfer
transferswitches
switchesin in IEC
IEC 60947-6-1
60947-6-1and and IEC
IEC 60947-6-3.
60947-6-3. ULUL 1008
1008
requires that the fourth pole of a transfer switch be tested and proven to have
requires that the fourth pole of a transfer switch be tested and proven to have ratings equal to its phase ratings equal to its
phase contacts
contacts if not ofif the
notsameof the same construction
construction [27]. When [27].switching
When switching
medium mediumvoltages andvoltages
high and high
currents,
currents, circuit breakers having electronically controlled and interlocked
circuit breakers having electronically controlled and interlocked characteristics need to consider. characteristics need to
consider. These schemes usually employ protective relays, fast communication
These schemes usually employ protective relays, fast communication protocols, and extensive check protocols, and
extensive
and lockoutcheck
logic.and
Anlockout
electricallogic. An electrical control/interlocking
control/interlocking bypass system using bypass system
properly ratedusing properly
mechanisms
rated mechanisms can be a better choice than a single transfer switch, however,
can be a better choice than a single transfer switch, however, it is costly [28]. The solid state switch it is costly [28]. Theis
solid state switch is advantageous compared to electromechanical or mechanical
advantageous compared to electromechanical or mechanical switches as it has no moving parts and switches as it has
no movingthe
eliminates parts andand
noise eliminates
transients.the noise
SSTS is and transients.
employed SSTS is employed
to provide to provide
faster transfer of sourcefaster transfer
(preferred
of source (preferred source to alternate source) or load in case of system fault,
source to alternate source) or load in case of system fault, which occurs in a fraction of power cycle. which occurs in a
fraction of
Besides, thepower
SSTS cycle.
needs Besides, the SSTS
to be designed orneeds
rated to be designed
considering theorsteady
rated state
considering the steady
or transient voltage state
in
or transient voltage in the transmission and distribution system during
the transmission and distribution system during load transfer or when any voltage disturbance load transfer or when anyis
voltage disturbance
detected is detected
in the preferred source.inForthe long
preferred source.
distance For long distance
transmission systemstransmission
where the higher systems where
voltage is
the higher voltage is required, the AC system is usually preferred as it is easier
required, the AC system is usually preferred as it is easier to generate higher frequency AC voltage by to generate higher
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 6 of 30

using a transformer and can be controlled or protected by a transfer switch mechanism. This system
provides the safe transmission with reduced losses. On the other hand, in the case of a DC grid system,
the conversion is easier and hence the conduction loss and material costs are reduced. Moreover, the
DC grid is genuinely uninterrupted in nature, has evenly distributed current density, and the loads and
sources can be operated in a plug and play role. Besides, the AC harmonic oscillation problem, skin
effect, and reactive power losses also can be avoided in a DC system. For lower voltage applications,
the storage facilities and uninterrupted power supplies can be provided by the batteries, hence the
bypass or transfer switch is no longer necessary for these types of application. Medium scale static
transfer switches range from 5 kV to 38 kV, which are capable of switching a large amount of power in
less than a quarter cycle [29]. Optimal design of high capacity transfer switches is proposed in [25]
for high voltage application to reduce the cost of the transfer switch. According to IEC standard,
in domestic/international regulations, the range of DC voltage is higher than AC; however, the technical
difficulties such as arc, overcurrent, and short circuit phenomena need to be considered for protecting
the DC system in high voltage applications [30]. The requirements, standards, and specifications of the
SSTS are described below:

2.1. SSTS Requirements

The requirements of designing the SSTS can be classified as general requirements, environmental
requirements and life expectancy testing can be tabulated as Table 1:
Table 1. Requirements for designing the SSTS.

I. Constraints of General Requirements:

(i) Switch logic operation Functions
One source needs to be select as the preferred source, and another source which will be
Input selection
deemed to an alternate source.
Detection of undervoltage and overvoltage conditions.
Voltage sensing Maintain the connection between a viable voltage source and critical load.
Follow the voltage level and timing setpoints.
Detection of overcurrent, shorted and open circuit conditions in all phases and neutral for
Current sensing
both sources
Phase and neutral Order of switching phase and neutral: (1) Failed phases OFF, (2) New neutral ON, (3) New
transfer requirements phases ON, (4) Failed neutral OFF
Measurement, decision,
Noise immune and direct measurement system, digital logic switching for decision and action
and action
Phase angle difference between preferred and alternate sources, overvoltage, undervoltage,
Adjustment
overload for source, frequency detection, retransfer time to the preferred sources
Lamp test, reset, source selector, auto retransfer of the selector switch, control enable key
(ii) Control
switch, alarm
(iii) Indicator Switch status, availability of source and load, selection of preferred source
(iv) Communication Serial port having standard baud rate and no parity in the data, shunt trip capability
(v) Cooling requirements Fans, filters, over-temperature detection, convection cooling
II. Constraints of Environmental Requirements:
Storage temperature −40 ◦ C to +70 ◦ C
Operating temperature 0 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C for cabinet operation and 0 ◦ C to 45 ◦ C for panel operation
Relative humidity 0% to 95% (noncondensing)
Audible noise Not greater than 55 dB outside a radius of 6 feet
Magnetic fields No appreciable magnetic fields
Seismic Shall be rated for installation in Seismic Zone 4.
III. Life Expectancy:
Mean time between failure Must be greater than 300,000 h of continuous operation without failure
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 7 of 30

2.2. SSTS Standards

The SSTS shall be designed, manufactured, tested, and installed in compliance with the following
standards (Table 2):

Table 2. Standards in designing the SSTS.

Table Head Standards

Safety UL 1008 (Standard for transfer switch equipment) and UL924 for load control relay [16]
National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA) ICS 10, ANSI C62.41E, Low-voltage
Switchgear and Control gear; Multifunction equipment; (IEC 947-6-1), National Electrical Code
(NFPA 70) in collaboration with Emerge Alliance, Essential Electrical Systems for Health Care
Facilities (NFPA 99), Emergency and Standby Power Systems (NFPA 110), IEEE Recommended
Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Commercial and Industrial
Electrical
Applications (IEEE Standard 446), Fast Transient Immunity Severity Level 4 (EN61000-4-4),
Surge Immunity Class 4 (EN61000-4-5), IEC Specifications for EMI/EMC Immunity (CISPR 11,
IEC 1000-4-2, IEC 1000-4-3, IEC 1000-4-4, IEC 1000-4-5, IEC 1000-4-6, IEC 1000-4-8, IEC
1000-4-11), Limits and Methods of Measurement of Radio Interference Characteristics of
Industrial, Scientific and Medical Equipment (EN55011).
Software ANSI, IEEE

2.3. SSTS Specifications

The solid-state transfer switches have superior characteristics compared to the traditionally used
electronic switches in terms of fast switching or faster response time, resistance to shock, vibration,
and mechanical wear. Thus, these switches are proven to be more reliable and exhibit a longer life span.
Although the innate ON resistance of SSTS and hence the insertion loss is greater than the electronic
switches, SSTS has become more suitable and widely applicable due to their faster response time and
longer lifetime. The specifications of some widely used SSTS, in both academic and commercial sectors,
have been represented in Table 3. In academic sectors, some SSTS model have been developed and
some real time SSTS have been used in conjunction with simulation model or program. There are
also many SSTS models developed for commercial purpose to use in the industrial sectors. From the
table, it shows that the cost of the IGCT is only about 55% of that of the IGBT [23]. It is also seen that,
for high system capacity, the response time is around 2–3 ms in the simulation model, although the
response time varies with different SSTS model when it is implemented for experimental work. From
the analysis and available data of the commercially viable SSTS model, it can be observed that the SSTS
models are developed for small to large scale application and to operate in wide temperature region.
The transfer time and environmental impact also need to consider for commercial SSTS which is the
main barrier towards the development of SSTS model. The solid-state transfer switch is designed for
minimal operator intervention and control during normal operation. The RRS11 switch monitors the
fault status from each modulator. Each modulator is capable of powering the switch through a current
limited diode or power signal [31].

Table 3. Specifications of various SSTS models.

SSTS Model Features Specifications/Available Data

I. SSTS Model Developed/Applied for Academic Purpose
Response time: 2–3 ms
Influence of the fault on switching
Model: System capacity: 10 MVA
has been analyzed, designed for
Not specified [1] Rated voltage: 10 kV
medium voltage
Rated frequency: 50 Hz
Aluminum radiator is used to fix the Rated voltage: 2800 V
Model:
thyristor and nature cooling system Rated current: 5490 A
5STP 45Q2800 [2]
is used for cooling purpose. Designed capacity:1000 kVA
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396
Table 3. Cont.
SSTS Model Features
Model: More common and satisfy the needs
TBBQ-3-16/4P-III [2] of neutral wire
Although the gate driving power of
IGBT is low, the complementary
Model: advantage of IGBT and IGCT can be
5SNA 2000K452300 [23] obtained with the inverse
relationship of surge capability and
turn-off capability of IGBT.
Have enhanced conductivity
modulation effect and a more
preferred technology for large
Model:
capacity applications. IGCTs is
5SHY 42L6500 [23]
simple, low cost and maintain a high
degree of reliability and can be
turned ON and OFF by gate control.
Diode-bridge bidirectional IGBT based switch and cost
switch [25] reduced significantly
Modular solid state switch [32] IGCT based transfer switch
Model:
-
Static switch [33]
Balancing circuit and series
Modular transfer switch [34]
power devices
SCR based Bidirectional circuit Ensure higher operating efficiencu
breaker [35] in dc microgrid
30% reduction in energy loss
Thyristor based switch [36]
compare to IGBT based topology
II. Commercially Developed SSTS Model
Model: IF or L-Band switching for
STS11(70/140 DM240XR modulators. Easy access
MHz)/STS11L(L-Band) to connectors and LEDs. The small
Solid-State Transfer size makes installation easy and
Switches [37] convenient with included brackets
Provides solid-state transfers
Model: between two in-phase AC sources in
eSTS [38] quarter cycles. Performs
open-transition transfer as well.
Monitors voltage and controls the
Model:
transfer to and from the normal and
LX-450 [39]
emergency sources.
8 of 30
Specifications/Available Data
Rated current: 1600 A
Short time withstand current: 32 kA
Opening time: 17–20 ms
Closing time: 110–140 ms
Voltage ability: 4.5 kV; IRMS : 2000 A;
On-state voltage: 5.8 V; Surge ability:
14 kA; Turn-off ability: >13 kA; Cost:
1.6 p.u.
Voltage ability: 6.5 kV; IRMS : 2030 A;
On-state voltage: 3.8 V; Surge ability:
26 kA; Turn-off ability: 3.8 kA; Cost:
1 p.u., System capacity: 25 kV/20 kA
System capacity: 500 kV/25 kA
Voltage rating: 4.5 kV
Current rating: 2 kA
System capacity: 1100 MW
Voltage rating: Same as AC output;
Temperature: 0–50 ◦ C;
Humidity:0–95%, noncondensing;
Altitude: Up to 1500 m above sea level;
Communication interface: RS-232,
RS-485; Frequency: 50 Hz/60 Hz
System capacity: 100 kV/25 kA
Response time: 50 us
Voltage rating: 400 V
Current rating: 100 A
Voltage rating: 400 V
Prime power: +12 VDC
Operating temperature: 0 to 50 ◦ C, 95%
humidity, non-condensing
Storage temperature: −20 ◦ C to +40 ◦ C,
99% humidity, non-condensing; Switch
time: 50 ms maximum; IF: 20 dB; L
band: 14 dB
No. Of inputs: 2/3; No. Of poles: 3;
Frequency: 50 Hz/60 Hz; Phases:
3 phases, 3 or 4 wires; Transfer time:
Nominal 1/4-cycle for in-phase sources;
Cooling: Convection
No. of poles: 2, 3, 4; Short circuit rating:
100 A, 200 A, 260 A, 400 A, 600 A, 800
A, 1000 A, 1250 A; Control voltage:
120 V AC; Pick up voltage: 90% of both
normal and emergency source voltage;
Drop out voltage: 84% of both normal
and emergency source voltage;
Auxiliary contact: 10 A,125/250 V AC
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 9 of 30

Table 3. Cont.

SSTS Model Features Specifications/Available Data

Frequency: 70/140 MHz
(L-band system)
Offers IF or L-Band redundancy in a
Switch time: 50 ms maximum;
simple straight forward plug and
Model: Prime power: +12 V DC; Operating
play design. Allows the user access
RRS11 [31] temperature: 0 to 50 ◦ C, 95% humidity,
to the online and offline ports. No
non-condensing; Storage temperature:
external power source required.
−20 to +40 ◦ C, 99% humidity,
non-condensing
No. Of poles: 2, 3, 4; Frequency:
50 Hz/60 Hz
Model:
Voltage rating: 120–600 V;
Cutler-Hammer Transfer Reliable, rugged, versatile,
Current rating: 30–1000 A
Switches [40] self-protected.
Fuse type: J, T, L (based on
Sector: Commercial
ampere rating)
System capacity: 100 kVA
Superior performance in terms of Frequency: 100 MHz to 8 GHz;
isolation, insertion loss and return Isolation (dB): 80
Model: loss across a broad operating Insertion loss (dB): 3.5; Return loss for
P9400A frequency range. Suitable for ON port (dB): 15; Switching speed
high-speed radio frequency and rise/fall: 200 ns; Input power (average)
microwave switching applications. (dBm): 23; Driving voltage (VDC): 5
Frequency: 100 MHz to 18 GHz;
Isolation (dB): 80
Model: Insertion loss (dB): 4.2; Return loss for
-
P9400C ON port (dB): 10; Switching speed
rise/fall: 200 ns; Input power (average)
(dBm): 23; Driving voltage (VDC): 5
Frequency: 300 kHz to 8 GHz; Isolation
(dB): 100; Insertion loss (dB): 3.5;
Model: Return loss for ON port (dB): 15;
-
U9400A Switching speed rise/fall: 4/0.5 µs;
Input power (average) (dBm): 29;
Driving voltage (VDC): 11 to 26 V
Frequency: 300 kHz to 18 GHz;
Isolation (dB): 90; Insertion loss (dB):
Model: 6.5; Return loss for ON port (dB): 10;
-
U9400C Switching speed rise/fall: 5/1 µs; Input
power (average) (dBm): 27; Driving
voltage (VDC): 11 to 26 V

3. Overview of SSTS Topologies

Some significant contributions towards the development and applications of SSTS topologies have
been described in the following subsections. As mentioned earlier, the studies on SSTS technology
are very limited, and there is no such review has been found to highlight and aggregate the selection
criterion of SSTS, standards, currently available and widely used models/specifications, key technologies,
working principal, reliability, and costs. Hence, aiming to give a comprehensive idea to the future
researchers and industrialists about the scope of SSTS technologies, the authors of this article have
identified the significant researches to include in this review. Selection of those articles is performed
based on the available data, modeling, application type, and contributions of the authors towards
the development of SSTS applications. Study shows that, although not all the papers highlighted all
these issues, most of the available studies have contributed to technological development in various
applications to increase the system reliability and reduce the costs. Moreover, there are very attractive
features for the industrialists to develop a low cost and reliable SSTS which is the main aim of the
researchers. Thus, considering the above-mentioned issues and based on the reliable data, this review
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 10 of 30

analyzes the features, modeling, structures, working principal, advantages, and limitations of those
selected studies.

3.1. Forced Current Commutation Based SSTS in Improving Power Quality and Reliability
To ensure the superior characteristics with higher reliability, faster response time, and strong
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30
protection capability, intelligent microprocessor-based forced current commutation technique has been
Electronics
studied 2020,The
9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30
beeninstudied
[1]. inproposed topologytopology
[1]. The proposed is presented in Figurein5 Figure
is presented [1]. The
5 advantage of this topology
[1]. The advantage of this is
that topology
it can reduceis that the switching
it can reduce loss, and
the switchinghas the characteristics of high reliability, low loss, and
low fast
been studied in [1]. The proposed topologyloss, and has the
is presented in characteristics
Figure 5 [1]. Theof high reliability,
advantage of this
switching,
loss, and
topology
which
isfast
will greatly
thatswitching,
solve
which
it can reduce thewill
the problem
greatly
switching
ofthe
solveand
loss,
power supply
problem
has
voltage
of power
the characteristics
dropvoltage
supply
of high
and instantaneous
drop low
reliability, and
powerinstantaneous
interruption, power interruption,
improving the improving
reliability of the
power reliability
supply of
and power
power supply
supply
loss, and fast switching, which will greatly solve the problem of power supply voltage drop and and power
quality, thussupply
ensuring
quality, thus
the instantaneous
continuity ofensuring
power the continuity
power supply of power
of important
interruption, improving supply
power of important
places.
the reliability power
of power places.and power supply
supply
quality, thus ensuring the continuity of power supply of important power places.

Figure5.5.System
Figure System scheme
scheme of
ofATS
ATS[1].
[1].
Figure 5. System scheme of ATS [1].
To explain
To explain thethe operation
operation ofofthe theproposed
proposedsystem system underundernormalnormalmode, mode, initially,
initially,thethe mainmainswitch
switch
remains
remains To closed closed
explainkeeping keeping the
the alternate
the operation alternate
of theone one disconnected.
disconnected.
proposed system under Current Current flows
flowsmode,
normal through through the
the mechanical
initially, mechanical
the main switch switching
switching branch. Here, the theresonant
branch.
remainsHere, the resonant
closed keeping capacitor C iscapacitor
alternate pre-charged C is pre-charged
one disconnected. with a Current
certainwithflows
a certain
voltage. voltage.
The
through theThe
switching switching
operation of
mechanical
operation of the switches is reversed if any fault occurs or the voltage drop becomes too high. Again,
the switching
switches is branch.
reversed Here, the resonant
if any fault occurs capacitor
or theC voltage
is pre-charged with a certain
drop becomes voltage.
too high. Again,The switching
the switching
the switching
operation of thecommand is reversed
sent to the mechanical switch. If voltage
the contact distance oftoo the mechanical
command is sent toswitches is
the mechanical if any
switch. fault
If the occurs
contact or the
distance ofdrop
the becomes
mechanical high. switchesAgain, comes
switches
the switchingcomes within
command 2–3
is mm,
sent tothen
the the SSTS
mechanical is turned
switch. ON.
If the Inductor
contact L and
distance capacitor
of the C of the LC
mechanical
within 2–3 mm,
resonant then
circuit the SSTS
generate the is turned
resonant ON. Inductor
current, L and capacitor C of the LC resonant circuit
switches comes within 2–3 mm, then the SSTSwhichis turned is superimposed
ON. Inductoron L the
andmechanical
capacitor Cswitch. of the The
LC
generate the
SSTS is turnedresonant current,
OFF if the which is superimposed on the mechanical switch. The SSTS is turned
resonant circuit generate themechanical
resonant current, switchwhich can withstand
is superimposedthe corresponding
on the mechanical transient recovery
switch. The
OFFvoltage.
if the mechanical
During this switch
time, can withstand
metal oxide the corresponding
varistor (MOV) absorbs transient
the energy recovery
of the linevoltage.
and the During
current this
SSTS is turned OFF if the mechanical switch can withstand the corresponding transient recovery
time,ofmetal
the mainoxide varistor
switch (MOV) absorbs the energy of the line and the current of the main switch is
voltage. During thisistime,
reduced metal tooxide
zero. varistor (MOV) absorbs the energy of the line and the current
reduced to zero.
Application of thyristor-based
of the main switch is reduced to zero. SSTS in the uninterrupted power supply has been studied in [3].
Advantage
Application
Applicationof the
of of thyristor-based
thyristor-basedSSTS
thyristor-based SSTSisin
SSTS that
in theituninterrupted
the can reduce thepower
uninterrupted conduction
power loss.
supply
supply hashasHowever,
been been as natural
studied
studied in [3].in [3].
commutation
Advantage of the prolongs
thyristor-based the overall
SSTS transfer
is that process,
it can forced
reduce commutation
the
Advantage of the thyristor-based SSTS is that it can reduce the conduction loss. However, as natural conduction technique
loss. is
However, used in
as this
natural
study.
commutation Figure 6 shows the forced commutation-based transfer
commutation prolongs the overall transfer process, forced commutation technique is used in thisstudy.
prolongs the overall transfer process, forced process
commutation of the
techniqueproposed
is usedsystem.
in thisThe
rectifier
Figure
study.6 showsis taken
Figure the as a dcthe
forced
6 shows source to commutation-based
commutation-based
forced meet the demands transferoftransfer
the inverter.
process of theInproposed
process the normal
of the grid, system.
system.
proposed the
Theloads are is
rectifier
The
directly
rectifier powered
is taken from
as toa dc the
source grid via the SSTS, v SSTS = 0, and SSSTS = 1, and the inverter is on standby.
taken as a dc source meet thetodemands
meet the demands
of the inverter.of the inverter. In the normal
In the normal grid, thegrid,loads
the loads are
are directly
Once the grid fault is detected, the control unit turns0,off theSgate-signal ofthe
theinverter
SSTS and activates the
directly
powered powered
from the grid from viathe thegridSSTS, via vthe
SSTS =
SSTS, 0, v SSTS =
and S SSTS
and = 1, and
SSTS = 1,
theandinverter is on is on
standby. standby.
Once the
forced
Once thecommutation,
grid fault is S STS = 0 and FC = 1, and the inverter fast takes over the load current.
detected, the control unit turns off the gate-signal of the SSTS and activates the
grid fault is detected, the control unit turns off the gate-signal of the SSTS and activates the forced
forced commutation,
commutation, SSTS = 0 and SSTS =FC 0 and
= 1,FC and = 1,the
and the inverter
inverter fast takes
fast takes overoverthe the
load load current.
current.
v
SSTS

Thyristor-based
vSSTS SSTS
iL = i2 + iSSTS
i1 Thyristor-based SSTS
iL Susceptible
= i2 + iSSTS
i1 L2 load
L1 Susceptible
Cg L2 Cf load
L1 Rectifier Inverter
Cg Cf
Grid fault Rectifier Inverter
Grid fault
Figure 6. Forced commutation topology of thyristor-based SSTS [3].
Figure
Figure6.6.Forced
Forcedcommutation topologyofofthyristor-based
commutation topology thyristor-based
SSTS SSTS
[3].[3].
Where vSSTS and iSSTS are the voltage and the current of the SSTS, and i1, i2, and iL are, respectively,
the currents
Where vSSTSof the
andrectifier, thevoltage
iSSTS are the inverter,
andand
thethe loads.ofBesides,
current the SSTS,SSTS
andstands foriLthe
i1, i2, and are,gate signals of
respectively,
the S SSTS, and FC is the state signals of the forced commutation.
the currents of the rectifier, the inverter, and the loads. Besides, SSTS stands for the gate signals of
the SSSTS, and FC is the state signals of the forced commutation.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 11 of 30

Where vSSTS and iSSTS are the voltage and the current of the SSTS, and i1 , i2 , and iL are, respectively,
the currents of the rectifier, the inverter, and the loads. Besides, SSTS stands for the gate signals of the
Electronics
SSSTS , and 2020,
FC9,isx FOR PEER signals
the state REVIEW of the forced commutation. 11 of 30

Simplified Forced Commutation Based SSTS for Commutation BRIDGE Using

3.2. Simplified Flux Estimation
using Flux Estimation Scheme
Scheme
In [26], an impulse commutation bridge (ICB) SSTS system is proposed to further simplify the
forced commutation
commutationtechnique technique(Figure
(Figure 7).7).
Using
Usingoneone setLCofresonant
set of circuitcircuit
LC resonant in eachinphase,
each the desired
phase, the
outcomeoutcome
desired can be achieved.
can be achieved.In the proposed
In the proposedtechnique, duringduring
technique, the normal operating
the normal mode,mode,
operating the main
the
thyristors—indicated
main thyristors—indicated as T1p as, T1p
1n,, TT1n2p
,T, 2p
and T2nT—take
, and 2n—take the
theoverall
overallload
loadcurrent,
current, while
while the auxiliary
thyristors (T1111, ,TT1212
thyristors (T , T, 21T,21and T22T
, and ) 22 ) perform
perform thisthis
tasktask when
when the forced
the forced commutation
commutation method
method comescomes
into
into operation.
operation.

T2p
valt
ialt
T2n
Alternate feeder
Lr Cr

vc iLoad
ir
Critical
T11 T12 vLoad load
Δ Y
T21 T1p T22
vpri
ipri
T1n
Primary feeder

Figure 7.
Figure One-line diagram
7. One-line diagram of
of the
the ICBSTS
ICBSTS system
system [26].
[26].

As indicated
As indicated in
inthe figure,irirdenotes
thefigure, denotesthe
theresonant
resonant current. Lr L(resonant
current. inductor) is responsible for
r (resonant inductor) is responsible
preventing the rate of rising of resonant current in auxiliary thyristors.
for preventing the rate of rising of resonant current in auxiliary thyristors. Thus, Thus, the condition for Lfor
the condition r can
Lr
be written as
can be written as  !−1
dir 
Lr ≥ VC0 ,
−1
(5)
dt  critical
 di 


L r ≥ V C(di0 r/dt)|critical
where VC0 denotes the pre-charge voltage,
r
 , the critical rate of rising of(5)
represents the
dt
 inductor 
critical current,
auxiliary thyristor current. After determining the taking the stored charge Qrr as
considering factor, condition for capacitor sizing (Cr ) can be expressed as
where VC0 denotes the pre-charge voltage, (dir/dt)|critical represents the critical rate of rising of the
auxiliary thyristor current. After determining
 sthe inductor current, ! taking
!2  the stored charge Qrr as
I
!
L r peak 2 Q
 sizing (Cr) can berr expressedV
considering factor, condition
Cr for
≥ capacitor + tq C0 as,
 
1 + 1 + (6)
2 VC0  Lr Ipeak Ipeak 
 2 
L r  Icurrent
Now, the peak resonant peak  
 2auxiliary
ir,peak which the  Q r r thyristor
 must  
V C 0 withstand during the
C ≥   1
 by + 1 +   + t  
 
, (6)
r
commutation process, can
2 be Vexpressed
  L  I

q  I
C0  r  peak  peak  
 
ir , peak ≥ Ipeak + ∆irr , (7)
Now, the peak resonant current ir,peak which thes auxiliary thyristor must withstand during the
commutation process, can be expressed by 2Qrr 2Qrr didtr
∆irr = = , (8)
trr (1 + s)
ir , peak ≥ I peak + Δ irr , (7)
where ∆irr is the reverse-recovery current, and the S is the snappiness factor of the main thyristor.
The operation of the proposed system can detect voltage sags within a quarter cycle, and then
it engages the impulse commutation for fast line transfer di
2 Qtor rmeetr the industrial standard SEMI (8)
F47.
2 Q rr d t
Δ irr = = ,
t rr (1 + s )
where Δirr is the reverse-recovery current, and the S is the snappiness factor of the main thyristor.
The operation of the proposed system can detect voltage sags within a quarter cycle, and then it
engages the impulse commutation for fast line transfer to meet the industrial standard SEMI F47.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 30
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 12 of 30

However, the main drawback of this research is that the proposed system is not suitable for high-
voltage industrial
However, the main applications.
drawback of this research is that the proposed system is not suitable for high-voltage
industrial applications.
3.3. SSTS Topologies for a Switched Doubly-Fed Machine Drive
3.3. SSTS Topologies for a Switched Doubly-Fed Machine Drive
Various researches on SCR-based transfer switch topology with a different number of thyristor
Various
switches have researches on SCR-based
been described transfer
in [19]. Figure switch topology
8 depicts such topology with afor different number of
the application in thyristor
a double
switches have been described in [19]. Figure 8 depicts such topology
fed machine (DFM) where Figure 8a represents the 12-thyristor based (TTB) transfer switch that for the application in a double
can
fed machine
be used (DFM)
in both where Figure
the low-speed 8a represents
induction topology the (LSI)
12-thyristor based (TTB)
and low-speed transfer switch
synchronous topology that(LSS)
can
be used in[41].
topology bothThethe transfer
low-speed induction
switch topologytopology (LSI)aand
resembles low-speedstatic
conventional synchronous
transfer topology
switch used (LSS)in
topology
providing[41]. The transfer
back-up power toswitch
critical topology
loads from resembles
multiple a conventional
ac sources [28,42]. staticEach
transfer switch
of the used in
anti-parallel
providing back-up power to
SCR modules-per-phase critical loads
confirms from multiple
the bidirectional ac sources
current [28,42].
carrying andEach of the anti-parallel
bidirectional voltage
SCR modules-per-phase confirms the bidirectional current carrying and
blocking capability as required by the transfer switch. The SCR commutation requirements during bidirectional voltage blocking
capability as required
mode transitions by the
are based ontransfer
the neutral switch.
of theTheacSCR
sourcecommutation
as the reference requirements
potential.during mode
SCR voltage
transitions
rating should arebebased on thetoneutral
sufficient withstand of the
theacacsource
sourceas the reference
phase voltages. potential.
The proposed SCReight-thyristor-
voltage rating
should be sufficient
based (ETB) transfertoswitch
withstand
is shown the acin source
Figure phase voltages.toThe
8b. According theproposed
figure, theeight-thyristor-based
A phase of both the
(ETB)
DFM transfer switch is
and ac source shownisinconnected
voltage Figure 8b. permanently.
According to the Whenfigure,
DFM theoperates
A phase of in both the DFMSCRs
high-speed, and
ac source voltage is connected permanently. When DFM operates in high-speed, SCRs T B , T B
T high,F, T high,R, T high,F, and T high,R are turned ON to connect the rest two phases of the high,F
B B C C DFM stator to,
high,R
C
Tthehigh,F C
, and T Each arethese
turned ON to connectfor the half
rest two phases
ac source. high,R of SCRs conducts of the time,ofcorresponding
the DFM statortotothe the ac source.
source
Each of these SCRs
fundamental conducts
frequency. for half ofduring
However, the time,
thecorresponding
low-speed mode to theofacoperation,
source fundamental
SCRs TBlow,F frequency.
, TBlow,R,
However, B TB low,R TC low,R are
TClow,F,andduring the turned
TClow,R are low-speed ON modeeither of operation,
to connect theSCRs
statorTtolow,F
the, dc source, TC the, LSS
inlow,F and topology or
turned
to shortON themeither to connect
together in thetheLSIstator to the dc
topology. source inthe
Similarly, theB LSS
phasetopology
and C or to short
phase of thethem together
ac source in
also
the
canLSIbe topology.
taken as the Similarly,
referencethe for
B phase and C phase
the transfer switch ofoperation.
the ac source Thealso can be
future scopetakenof as
thistheresearch
reference is
for the transfer switch operation. The future scope of this research is
that it can be extended to other arrangements to provide convenient transfer switch properties forthat it can be extended to other
arrangements
any application. to provide convenient transfer switch properties for any application.

Figure 8. SCR-based
Figure 8. SCR-based transfer
transfer switch
switch topologies. (a) TTB—the
topologies. (a) neutral of
TTB—the neutral of the
the ac
ac source
source voltage
voltage is
is the
the
reference
reference for
for the
the transfer
transfer switch
switch operation;
operation. (b)
(b) ETB—A
ETB—A phase
phase of
of the
the ac
ac source
source is
is the
the reference
reference for
for the
the
transfer
transfer switch
switch operation
operation [41].
[41].

3.4. MOV-Based Modular SSTS Topologies in DC Chopper

3.4. MOV-Based Modular SSTS Topologies in DC Chopper
According to [43], in case of AC chopper, the required number of semiconductor devices increases
According to [43], in case of AC chopper, the required number of semiconductor devices
with the increase of the voltage in a wind farm, causes the serious voltage equalization problem
increases with the increase of the voltage in a wind farm, causes the serious voltage equalization
due to the inconsistent turn-off transient process of the series-connected devices. Addressing this
problem due to the inconsistent turn-off transient process of the series-connected devices. Addressing
issue, authors in this paper proposed the modular DC chopper (DCC) which contains the fully
this issue, authors in this paper proposed the modular DC chopper (DCC) which contains the fully
controlled power devices. However, the reliability of the proposed method is reduced due to the use of
controlled power devices. However, the reliability of the proposed method is reduced due to the use
a water-cooling system. To overcome this problem, a novel direct current chopper (DCC) with modular
of a water-cooling system. To overcome this problem, a novel direct current chopper (DCC) with
solid-state switches and a concentrated resistor (MC-DCC) is demonstrated in [32] for an Offshore
modular solid-state switches and a concentrated resistor (MC-DCC) is demonstrated in [32] for an
Wind VSC-HVDC System (Figure 9).
Offshore Wind VSC-HVDC System (Figure 9).
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 13 of 30
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 30

SM-1 SM-n
Static voltage
balancing circuit
RP RP
Dynamic voltage
threshold circuit
MOV MOV
Series power
devices

RD Energy absorbing

Figure9.9.MOV
Figure MOVbased
based modular
modular solid-state
solid-state switches
switches andand a concentrated
a concentrated resistor
resistor (MC-DCC)
(MC-DCC) topology
topology [32].
[32].
In this research, the energy dissipation resistor (RD ) adopts a concentrated design to mitigate
In this
the heat research,
diffusion the energy
problem dissipation
and replace resistor (RD) adopts
the water-cooling a concentrated
system. Each submodule design to mitigate
(SM-1 to SM-n)the
heat diffusion problem and replace the water-cooling system. Each submodule
contains MOV and static equalizing resistor (RP ) which modularize the series-connected solid-state (SM-1 to SM-n)
contains[34].
switches MOVWith andthis
static equalizing
MC-DCC resistor
system, the (R P) which
voltage modularize
unbalance the series-connected
problem in traditional DCC solid-state
can be
switches [34]. With this MC-DCC system, the voltage unbalance problem in traditional
overcome as the MOV exhibits a voltage threshold characteristic, and it can effectively replace DCC canthebe
overcome
storage DC as the MOV
capacitor. exhibits the
Moreover, a voltage
size of threshold characteristic,
this proposed MC-DCC is and it can effectively
estimated replace
about one-half fromthe
storage
the DC capacitor.
previous traditional Moreover,
modular the size which
DCCs, of this further
proposed MC-DCC
reduces the is estimated
cost about one-half
of the overall system withfrom
the previous
increased traditional
reliability. Study modular DCCs,
shows that the which
modular further reduces
solid-state the costare
switches ofdesigned
the overall system
such with
that they
increased
must turn ONreliability.
and OFFStudy shows that
continuously at athe modular
specific solid-state
frequency withinswitches are designed
1.5 s by using such switches
MOV. When that they
must turn ON and OFF continuously at a specific frequency within 1.5 s by
turn OFF, the voltage threshold characteristic of the MOV turns the overvoltage of the integrated using MOV. When
switches turn OFF, the voltage threshold characteristic of the MOV turns
gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) under the breakdown voltage. The MOV voltage EMOV can be the overvoltage of the
integratedby
calculated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) under the breakdown voltage. The MOV voltage EMOV
can be calculated by EMOV = 2Td f Vres Is , (9)

EMOV = 2Td fofVresswitches,

where, Td represents the time for asynchronization Is , f is the operating frequency (9)
of
modular DCC, Vres and Is are the residual voltage of the MOV and operating current of the modular
where,
DCC, Td represents the time for asynchronization of switches, f is the operating frequency of
respectively.
modular DCC,the
However, Vresmain
and drawback
Is are the residual voltage ofisthe
of this MC-DCC thatMOV
one ofand
theoperating
solid-statecurrent
switchof the modular
modules fails
toDCC, respectively.
operate in the proposed model during a fault condition. Therefore, a dual trigger unit in the gate
driverHowever,
of IGCT hasthebeen
mainproposed
drawbacktoofmitigate
this MC-DCC is that one of failure
the communication the solid-state switchsystem.
of the control modules fails
to operate in the proposed model during a fault condition. Therefore, a dual trigger unit in the gate
3.5. SSCB
driver of as SSTS
IGCT to been
has Ensure High Operating
proposed Efficiency
to mitigate in DC Microgridfailure of the control system.
the communication
Considering both ac and dc microgrid system, the dc microgrid is advantageous with having
3.5. SSCB as SSTS to Ensure High Operating Efficiency in DC Microgrid
better economic performance, bidirectional power flow capability and easier ‘plug and play’ operation
Considering
with various both acpower
distributed and dc microgridand
generation system,
loads.the dc microgrid
However, is advantageous
there are still some issueswith having
limiting
better
the economic of
improvement performance, bidirectional
the dc microgrid power
considering flow
fault capability
detection, and of
isolation easier ‘plugand
failures, and play’
arcs in
operation
fault withdevices
isolation various[44,45].
distributed power
Various generation
studies and loads.
on Z-source However,
circuit breakerthere are still someinissues
are highlighted [35].
limiting the
However, improvement
these bidirectional oftopologies
the dc microgrid considering
suffer from fault detection,
a large number isolationcomplex
of components, of failures, and
circuit
structure, substantial current feedback to the source, and no common ground between the loadin
arcs in fault isolation devices [44,45]. Various studies on Z-source circuit breaker are highlighted
[35].power
and However,
supply.these
Tobidirectional
mitigate those topologies
problems, suffer from
a novel a large number
bidirectional of components,
dc solid-state complex
circuit breaker
iscircuit structure,
proposed in [35]substantial current
to realize the feedback flow
bidirectional to theofsource,
energy,and no ensures
which commonthe ground
higherbetween
operatingthe
load and of
efficiency power
the dcsupply.
microgridTo (Figure
mitigate10).
those problems,
In this a novel
research, bidirectional
turn OFF dc solid-state
time of thyristor circuit
is chosen as
50breaker
us. Theisadvantage
proposed of in this
[35]proposed
to realizetopology
the bidirectional flow
is that it can beof energy,
applied as which ensurescircuit
the protective the higher
and
operating the
improving efficiency
power of the dc microgrid (Figure 10). In this research, turn OFF time of thyristor is
quality.
chosen as 50 us. The advantage of this proposed topology is that it can be applied as the protective
circuit and improving the power quality.
 Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 14 of 30
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30

D2 D1

L1 L3

SCR1 SCR2
L2
Rfault
Vsource Rload

C ifault

Figure
Figure10.
10.Novel
Novelbidirectional
bidirectional dc
dc circuit breaker[35].
circuit breaker [35].

Here,
Here, thyristor SCR1, primary
thyristorSCR1, primarycoil coilL1L1
andand
DiodeDiode D1 constitute
D1 constitute the forward flow of energy,
the forward flow ofwheras,
energy,
thyristor
wheras, SCR2, primary
thyristor coil L3, diode
SCR2, primary D2diode
coil L3, constitute the reverse the
D2 constitute flowreverse
of energy.
flow When the faultWhen
of energy. occurs,
the
capacitor C is discharged, current generated by the capacitor flows through
fault occurs, capacitor C is discharged, current generated by the capacitor flows through the the secondary coil L2 of
the transformer
secondary coil L2 to
ofcompensate the fault
the transformer current. At the
to compensate thesame time,
fault the primary
current. At the coil
same causes
time,the
thethyristor
primary
current to be zero due to the mutual inductance and induced current opposite
coil causes the thyristor current to be zero due to the mutual inductance and induced current oppositeto the original current,
so that
to the the thyristor
original is turned
current, so that theOFF by theisreverse
thyristor turned OFF voltage. The
by the inductor
reverse voltage
voltage. Theacross L2 can
inductor be
voltage
considered equal to the power supply voltage, applying KVL equation of Vsource can be expressed by
across L2 can be considered equal to the power supply voltage, applying KVL equation of Vsource can
be expressed by di f ault
Vsource = i f ault R f ault + L2 , (10)
di
dt
fault
source =and
where ifault and Rfault are the faultVcurrent i faultfault
R fault + L2 respectively.
, (10)
resistance,
dt
To solve the above differential equation under the initial condition: t = 0, ifault = 0
where ifault and Rfault are the fault current and fault resistance, respectively.
Vsourcethe initial
− Lt

To solve the above differential equationi f ault =under 1−e 2 ,condition: t = 0, ifault = 0 (11)
R f ault
V  −
t
L2

= source
Based on the first-order Taylor iexpansion 1 − e , (11)
fault
R fault  

Vsource 
i f ault = t, (12)
Based on the first-order Taylor expansion R f ault L2

From the Taylor expansion, it can be seen that the value of the fault current is proportional to the
V source The current generated by capacitor C flows
fault =
time ‘t’. When a fault occurs, capacitor iC is discharged. t, (12)
R fault L 2 the fault current.
through the secondary coil of the transformer to compensate
Now, considering the equivalent circuit of the proposed topology, the transfer function of the
input
Fromand output
the voltages
Taylor of theitcircuit
expansion, can becanseen
be derived
that the value of the fault current is proportional to
the time ‘t’. When a fault occurs, capacitor C is discharged.
√  The current generated by capacitor C
V0 L 2 − k L1 L2 C2s + 1
flows through the secondary coil
= LL of the transformer to compensate
√ the fault current.
, (13)
L
 
V 1 2 2 3 2
Cs + R 1 sthe
Rload (1 − k circuit
)s + Lof 1+ L2 proposed
− 2k L1 L2topology, + 1transfer function of the
i
Now, considering the equivalent the load
input and output voltages of the circuit can be derived
where, Vi and V 0 are the input and output voltage of the equivalent circuit, k is the coupling coefficient

V
limitation of this 0study.
=
L 2 − k (
of the two coupling coils; it is assumed the coupling resistance
L 1 L2 Cs 2
+ 1 )
of the inductor is zero, which is the
,
L1 L2
( L1
)
(13)
Vi
3.6. Commutation Based CS-MCT
Rload
(
k 2 s 3 + to
1 − Evaluation )+ L2 − 2the
L1Interrupt k Fault Cs 2 +in SSCB
L1 L2Current
Rload
+1
sApplications
Compared with commonly used semiconductor devices, metal oxide-semiconductor
(MOS)-controlled
where, Vi and V0 arethyristor
the input(MCT) featuresvoltage
and output an ultra-low
of theon-state resistance
equivalent high
circuit, k issurge current capability,
the coupling coefficient
of the two coupling coils; it is assumed the coupling resistance of the inductor is zero, which is the
limitation of this study.

3.6. Commutation Based CS-MCT Evaluation to Interrupt the Fault Current in SSCB Applications
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 30

Compared with commonly used semiconductor devices, metal oxide-semiconductor15(MOS)-

Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 of 30
controlled thyristor (MCT) features an ultra-low on-state resistance high surge current capability,
which could be a potential candidate for SSCB applications. In [36], SSCB based on cathode-short
MOSwhich could be athyristor
controlled potential(CS-MCT)
candidate for hasSSCB
beenapplications. In [36],can
described which SSCB based on cathode-short
successfully interrupt the MOSfault
current for a targeted dc protection application. Corresponding results reveal that SSCB based onforCS-
controlled thyristor (CS-MCT) has been described which can successfully interrupt the fault current
MCTa targeted
attainsdc a protection
30% reductionapplication.
in energy Corresponding
loss compared results reveal
with that SSCB
another based on CS-MCT
semiconductor device,attains
such as
a 30% reduction in energy loss compared with another semiconductor device, such as insulated gate
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). Also, it is stated that the fault current interruption capability
bipolar transistor (IGBT). Also, it is stated that the fault current interruption capability of SSCB can be
of SSCB can be enhanced by suppressing the mistriggering of CS-MCT. The excellent device
enhanced by suppressing the mistriggering of CS-MCT. The excellent device performances coupled
performances coupled with the inherent reliability of solid-state power switch make CS-MCT a good
with the inherent reliability of solid-state power switch make CS-MCT a good candidate for future dc
candidate for future dc SSCB applications.
SSCB applications.
Figure 11 reflects the SSCB topology developed in MEDICI TCAD software. Here, Ca and La
Figure 11 reflects the SSCB topology developed in MEDICI TCAD software. Here, Ca and La
denote
denote thethepre-charged
pre-chargedcapacitor
capacitorand and loop
loop inductance
inductance in incommutation
commutationpath, path,respectively.
respectively. D1Dacts
1 acts as
as
a free-wheeling diode, and D 2 as a rectifier to avoid long-term resonance process in commutation
a free-wheeling diode, and D2 as a rectifier to avoid long-term resonance process in commutation
path.
path.InInthis
thisconfiguration,
configuration, considering
considering the thehigh
highsurge
surgecurrent
current performance
performance andand inherent
inherent low turn-
low turn-off
offcapability
capabilityofofCS-MCT
CS-MCT under
under hard-switching
hard-switching condition,
condition, a force
a force commutation
commutation circuitcircuit is adopted
is adopted in the in
theSSCB
SSCB to interrupt the fault current. According to this study, with a larger C
to interrupt the fault current. According to this study, with a larger Ca , duration of fault current a , duration of fault
current
through through
the dcthe dc power
power supplysupply
will bewill be longer,
longer, whichwhich
causescauses
a morea serious
more serious electrical
electrical stress. stress.
On theOn
theother
other hand, a higher triggering current can also be employed to enhance
hand, a higher triggering current can also be employed to enhance the fault current interruption the fault current
interruption
capability. capability.
However, this However, this may
may increase increaseresistance,
the on-state the on-state resistance,
leading to highleading
power loss to high power
in SSCB.
loss
In in SSCB.
this SSCB, Inboth
this device
SSCB, both
M1 and device
M2 areM1CS-MCTs.
and M2 are CS-MCTs.M
Specifically, Specifically,
1 is used to M is
deliver
1 used
a to
low deliver
energy a
lowloss in the loss
energy maininpath, and Mpath,
the main 2 is adapted
and M2toisprovide
adapteda high currentaincrease
to provide rate (di/dt)
high current increaseperformance
rate (di/dt)
in commutation path, which is beneficial for the fast elimination of fault current
performance in commutation path, which is beneficial for the fast elimination of fault current through through the loads.
theThus,
loads.CS-MCT
Thus, can be a promising
CS-MCT can be acandidate
promising as acandidate
power switchas ainpower
an SSCB with high
switch in anenergy
SSCBefficiency
with high
and fault current interruption capability. However, SSCB has a large inherent
energy efficiency and fault current interruption capability. However, SSCB has a large inherent on- on-state resistance,
andresistance,
state hence suffers andfrom largesuffers
hence energy loss
fromand finiteenergy
large fault interruption capability.
loss and finite fault Therefore,
interruption an advanced
capability.
controlling mechanism of SSTS is required to overcome this limitation.
Therefore, an advanced controlling mechanism of SSTS is required to overcome this limitation.

Ls

Commutation
path
Ca Current
La sensing &
Main VA1
feedback
path
D2
M1 VG1
CS-MCT

DC
M2 VG2 Gate
D1 Control

Shorted load
IL

Figure11.
Figure SchematicofofSSCB
11.Schematic SSCBbased
based on
on CS-MCT
CS-MCT using
usingmixed-model
mixed-modelsimulation [36].
simulation [36].
3.7. Static Load Transfer Switch in Bipolar Low Voltage DC Distribution System
3.7. Static Load Transfer Switch in Bipolar Low Voltage DC Distribution System
Authors in [20] proposed the centralized mode of load transfer by using a static switch from
Authors
a DC-DC in [20] proposed
converter. Figure 12the centralized
represents the mode of load
schematic transferthe
illustrating by operational
using a static switchoffrom
concept the a
DC-DC converter.
static load Figure
transfer switch12(SLTS)
represents the Here,
method. schematic illustrating
the local thecollects
substation operational concept data
the measured of the static
from
load transfer switch (SLTS) method. Here, the local substation collects the measured data from each
DC-DC converter that measures voltage and current to control the internal switch in buck mode. The
 Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 16 of 30

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 30

each DC-DC converter that measures voltage and current to control the internal switch in buck mode.
control centercenter
The control carries out out
carries decisions regarding
decisions regardingthe theproper
proper load configurationand
load configuration andSLTS
SLTS signal
signal
generation
generation for reconfiguring unbalanced loads. Then, SLTSs within the DC-DC converter are triggeredare
for reconfiguring unbalanced loads. Then, SLTSs within the DC-DC converter
triggered according
according to the switching
to the switching signal transmitted
signal transmitted by the substation.
by the substation.

Figure12.
Figure Schematic of
12.Schematic of the
the static
static load
load transfer
transferswitch
switch(SLTS) method
(SLTS) [20].
method [20].

Figure 13 illustrates the flow diagram of the proposed method to decide the initiation of the
Figure 13 illustrates the flow diagram of the proposed method to decide the initiation of the
SLTS method and to generate the control signals of the SLTSs at all load points. First, the control
SLTS method and to generate the control signals of the SLTSs at all load points. First, the control
center, acquires load voltages and currents from DC-DC converters, which are placed at all load points.
center, acquires load voltages and currents from DC-DC converters, which are placed at all load
In addition, the limit of percent voltage unbalance (%VU), and the number of load points is set. Since
points.
voltageInand
addition,
currentthe havelimit of percent
a ripple voltage
component, theunbalance
mean of voltage (%VU), andand the number
current of load
is calculated, andpoints
%VU is
set. Since voltage and current have a ripple component, the mean of voltage
at each load point is computed using the mean value. If any %VU exceeds the limit value defined by and current is calculated,
and
the%VU
systematoperator,
each load point
then the is computed
value of IN and using thecalculated.
IN-k are mean value. If any
IN and IN-k%VU is theexceeds
sum of loadthe limit value
currents
defined by the system operator, then the
of two poles at N-th and (N-k)-th LPs, respectively. value of IN and IN-k are calculated. IN and IN-k is the sum of
load currents of two
Considering thepoles
numberat N-th andpoints
of load (N-k)-th
(LPs)LPs, respectively.
is equal to 3, i.e., N = 3, and k is integer (0 ≤ k < N),
SLTSConsidering
operation atthethenumber
second LP of (3-k, = 1) is (LPs)
loadkpoints is equalThen,
determined. to 3,the
i.e.,trends
N = 3,ofand k is integer
increasing (0 ≤ k < N),
or decreasing
SLTS operation
of neutral currentatarethedecided.
secondInLP the(3-k,
latter kcase,
= 1)theiscontrol
determined.
signal toThen, operatethe thetrends
SLTS atof theincreasing
second LP or
decreasing
should be of neutral current
generated. Next, theare samedecided.
processInisthe latterat
repeated case, the control
the first = 2). Since
LP (3-k, ksignal to operate the SLTS at
this computing
process
the secondisLP
repetitive,
should be thegenerated.
head and tail Next,parameters
the same with processrespect to the input
is repeated at thecurrent
first LPof(3-k,
eachk DC-DC
= 2). Since
converter have been used, and the values of two parameters are changed
this computing process is repetitive, the head and tail parameters with respect to the input current according to the value of of
k. The
each current
DC-DC which was
converter havecalculated
been used, at the
andfirst
the LP
valuesbecomes
of two theparameters
current of the are head (Iheadaccording
changed ), and the to
neutral current at the second LP becomes the current of tail (I ). Following
the value of k. The current which was calculated at the first LPtailbecomes the current of the head this, all control signals
(Ihead),
arethe
and transmitted to eachatDC-DC
neutral current converter
the second to operate
LP becomes thethe SLTS.of
current The tailproposed SLTS method
(Itail). Following this, allcan be
control
applicable where rapid load variations and disturbances exist. The
signals are transmitted to each DC-DC converter to operate the SLTS. The proposed SLTS methodoutcome of this study reveals that
additional
can switch where
be applicable gears torapid
transfer
loadthevariations
load connection are not required,
and disturbances and
exist. Thetheoutcome
neutral current
of thiswith
study
this technique also would be reduced greatly to ensure the low cost, high efficiency, and improved
reveals that additional switch gears to transfer the load connection are not required, and the neutral
power quality for LVDC distribution system.
current with this technique also would be reduced greatly to ensure the low cost, high efficiency, and
improved power quality for LVDC distribution system.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 17 of 30
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 30

START

Data acquisition from measurement system

(load voltage and current)

Initialization
Set %VU_limit, the number of LPs (N), and k-1

Calculation of mean value (voltage and current)

and %VU

No
%VU > %VU_limit ?

Yes
Calculation of sum (IN-K, IN) of load currents at N-th LP
and at (N-K)-th LP, where
Ihead = IN-K, Itail = IN

No
| Ihead + Itail | > | Ihead - Itail |

Yes

Signal generation of SLTS

Operation at (N-K)-th LP K=k+1, Itail = Itail + Ihead
K=k+1, Itail = Itail - Ihead

Calculation of IN-K at (N-K)-th LP, where

Ihead = IN-K

No
k>N–1?

Yes

Transmission of switch control signals

END

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Flowchart
Flowchart of
of proposed
proposed SLTS method [20].
SLTS method [20].

3.8. SSTS to From Hybrid ATS in Identifying the Fault

Fault Location
Location
A 400 V/1000 kVAkVA hybrid
hybrid ATS
ATS (thyristor
(thyristor switch
switch in parallel
parallel with mechanical switch) (HATS) to
realize low power consumption under the normal situation with fast transfer characteristics has been
proposed in [2] The proposed HATSHATS has
has the contribution in realizing the overlapping transfer of the
neutral wire, and deciding on source or load side transfer according to the fault locations. According
to this study,
study, conventional
conventional SSTS
SSTS usually
usually does not transfer the neutral wire, but it may not be suitable
when the system contains
contains a single-phase
single-phase load.
load. From the safety point of view for both equipment and
the operator, it is not
not recommended
recommended to cut-off the the neutral. grounding,
neutral. Hence, to ensure the proper grounding,
the overlapping transfer of the neutral wire is mandatory. Therefore, the faster transfer of neutral
wire needs to be guaranteed in the source side.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 18 of 30

the overlapping
Electronics transfer
2020, 9, x FOR PEER of the neutral wire
REVIEW is mandatory. Therefore, the faster transfer of neutral wire
18 of 30
Electronics
needs to 2020, 9, x FOR PEER
be guaranteed inREVIEW
the source side. 18 of 30

The structure
The structure of the HATS
HATSisisillustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure14.
14.Here,
Here,the thyristor
the thyristorswitches, TS1
switches, andand
TS1 TS2TS2
are
The structure of the HATS is illustrated in Figure 14. Here, the thyristor switches, TS1 and TS2
connected
are in aninanti-parallel
connected systemsystem
an anti-parallel with both theboth
with preferred source andsource
the preferred alternate
andsource, respectively.
alternate source,
are connected in an anti-parallel system with both the preferred source and alternate source,
ATS1 is a mechanical
respectively. ATS1 is aswitch with three
mechanical switchcontacts; twocontacts;
with three static contacts are contacts
two static connected
aretoconnected
each source,
to
respectively. ATS1 is a mechanical switch with three contacts; two static contacts are connected to
whilesource,
each the moving
whilecontact is connected
the moving contacttoisthe load. QS1,
connected toQS3, and QS5
the load. QS1,areQS3,
isolating
and switches. QS2 and
QS5 are isolating
each source, while the moving contact is connected to the load. QS1, QS3, and QS5 are isolating
QS4 are bypass
switches. QS2 andswitches.
QS4 are bypass switches.
switches. QS2 and QS4 are bypass switches.

Figure
Figure14.
14.The
Themain
maincircuit
circuitstructure
structureof
ofHATS
HATS[2].
[2].
Figure 14. The main circuit structure of HATS [2].

The
Theblock
blockdiagram
diagramof ofthe
theproposed
proposedHATS HATS(Figure
(Figure15)
15)consists
consistsof ofaaavoltage
voltagesag sagdetection
detectionmodule,
module,
The block diagram of the proposed HATS (Figure 15) consists of voltage sag detection module,
aacurrent
current swell
swell detection
detection module,
module, a apower
power calculation
calculation module,
module, a parameter
a parameter management
management module,
module, a
a current swell detection module, a power calculation module, a parameter management module, a
decision
a decision logic module,
logic module, a transfer
a transferlogic
logicmodule,
module, and
and ananevent
event record
record module.
module. The
The decision
decision logic
logic
decision logic module, a transfer logic module, and an event record module. The decision logic
module
moduledecides
decidesthethedecision
decisionforfortransfer
transferbased
basedononthe
theparameters
parametersand andsignals
signalsgiven
givenby bycorresponding
corresponding
module decides the decision for transfer based on the parameters and signals given by corresponding
modules.
modules. IfIfthe
thetransfer
transfer signal
signal given
given by
by the
thedecision
decision logic
logic module
module isisvalid,
valid, the
the transfer
transfer logic
logicmodule
module
modules. If the transfer signal given by the decision logic module is valid, the transfer logic module
starts the
starts the transfer
the transfer and
transfer and control
and control process.
control process. The
process. The event
The event record
event record module
record module records
module records
records thethe real-time
the real-time data
real-time data during
duringthe
data during the
starts the
transfer
transfer process
process and
and sends
sends the
the data
data to
to the
the host
host computer
computer for
for further
further analysis.
analysis. After
After this,
this,aacompleted
completed
transfer process and sends the data to the host computer for further analysis. After this, a completed
signal
signalisis
issent
sentto tothe
thedecision
decisionlogic
logic module, and the system prepares for the next transfer.
signal sent to the decision logic module,
module, and and the
the system
system prepares
prepares for for the
the next
next transfer.
transfer.

Figure 15. Block diagram for HATS [2].

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Block
Block diagram
diagram for
for HATS
HATS [2].
[2].
4. SSTS Control Methods
SSTS Control
4. SSTS Control Methods
Methods
The detailed control scheme for the operation of the SSTS has been illustrated in [18]. As shown
The detailed
detailed control
controlscheme
schemefor
forthe
theoperation
operationofofthe
theSSTS
SSTShashasbeen illustrated
been in in
illustrated [18]. AsAs
[18]. shown
shownin
in Figure 16, the control methods can be categorized into four parts. They are, (a) voltage detection
Figure
in 16, 16,
Figure the the
control methods
control can be
methods categorized
can into four
be categorized intoparts. They are,
four parts. They(a)are,
voltage detection
(a) voltage transfer
detection
transfer signal, (b) current direction and zero-crossing detection signal, (c) synchronizing signal, and
signal, (b)
transfer current
signal, (b)direction and zero-crossing
current direction detectiondetection
and zero-crossing signal, (c)signal,
synchronizing signal, and
(c) synchronizing (d) firing
signal, and
(d) firing control logic.
control
(d) logic.
firing control logic.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 19 of 30
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 30

ia A
Order = 1 b
id Comparator
Va Va Theta X2 √X
ib RMS Low pass
PLL ia B
Vb ThetaVb abc to filter
dq iq 2 Threshold
ic X √X
limit
Vc Vc
A db
Order = 1 Order = 1 Comparator
Vds1 O
Comparator
RMS Low pass
Vds B Low pass ia1 B
A filter F filter
Threshold
VTL Vref limit
(a) (b)
Vds Vds Vds1 Vds1
Va alpha Dblck Dblck Dblck Dblck
db db db db
PLL H H H H
Vb Theta
alpha L alpha L alpha L alpha L
Vc
2 2 2 2
t1 t2 t3 t4

(c) (d)

Figure 16. Control

Figure scheme
16. Control of SSTS
scheme signal
of SSTS (a) voltage
signal detection;
(a) voltage (b) current
detection direction
(b) current and and
direction zero-crossing;
zero-
(c) synchronizing; (d) firing control
crossing logic [18].
(c) synchronizing (d) firing control logic [18].

This SSTS
This SSTScontrol
controlscheme
schemeis is a modification
a modification of IEEE
of the the IEEE Benchmark
Benchmark STS-1STS-1
controlcontrol
systemsystem
(IEEE
(IEEE PES TF 2001) where both the Park’s transformation and the three-phase PI
PES TF 2001) where both the Park’s transformation and the three-phase PI controlled phase-lockedcontrolled
phase-locked
loop (PLL) areloop (PLL) are
considered. PLLconsidered. PLL
is used to get theisfast
used to get the fast
synchronizing andsynchronizing
accurate firingand
logicaccurate
signals
firing logic signals which makes the transfer
which makes the transfer process faster. process faster.

4.1. Voltage Detection

4.1. Voltage Detection
Figure 16a depicts the voltage detection circuit where the logic depends on Park’s transformation
Figure 16a depicts the voltage detection circuit where the logic depends on Park’s
theory. The ac system voltages are used as the input into the PLL to produce synchronizing signals
transformation theory. The ac system voltages are used as the input into the PLL to produce
which are fed into the abc to dq transformation block. The output of the transformation block (Vdq )
synchronizing signals which are fed into the abc to dq transformation block. The output of the
is the voltage vector which is compared with the dc reference (Vref ) to calculate the error. The error
transformation block (Vdq) is the voltage vector which is compared with the dc reference (Vref) to
signal is then passed through a first-order low pass filter to attenuate the impact of voltage transients.
calculate the error. The error signal is then passed through a first-order low pass filter to attenuate
The filter output is then compared to the voltage tolerance limit, V to determine the comparator
the impact of voltage transients. The filter output is then compared toTLthe voltage tolerance limit, VTL
output, which is considered as the voltage detection transfer signal. The obtained signal is used to
to determine the comparator output, which is considered as the voltage detection transfer signal. The
initiate a feeder transfer process if the main feeder fails.
obtained signal is used to initiate a feeder transfer process if the main feeder fails.
4.2. Current Detection
4.2. Current Detection
Figure 16b demonstrates the current detection and zero-crossing circuit which is responsible for
Figure
turning 16b demonstrates
ON/OFF the current
the thyristor switches detection
and and
selects the zero-crossing
correct switch tocircuit
triggerwhich
whichisfurther
responsible for
prevents
turning ON/OFF the thyristor switches and selects the correct switch to trigger which
the source paralleling during the transfer process. To accomplish this task, firstly, the system current is further
prevents the source
passed through the paralleling
smoothing during the transfer
first order low passprocess. To subsequently,
filter, and accomplish this task,
the firstly,
output of the
the system
filter is
current
compared is passed
with thethrough the smoothing
zero current first orderlimit
crossing threshold low to
pass filter, and
generate subsequently,
the current detectionthesignal.
output of
the filter is compared with the zero current crossing threshold limit to generate the current detection
signal.
4.3. PLL Synchronizing Scheme
TheSynchronizing
4.3. PLL system voltages are fed to the three-phase PI controlled phase locked loop (PLL) as shown
Scheme
in Figure 16c. The aim to use the PLL is to generate the synchronizing signal (alpha value) that
The system
synchronize voltagesbetween
the voltage are fed to
thethe three-phase
load PI controlled phase locked loop (PLL) as shown
and the feeder.
in Figure 16c. The aim to use the PLL is to generate the synchronizing signal (alpha value) that
4.4. Firing Control
synchronize Logic between the load and the feeder.
the voltage
Aiming to faster load transfer and preventing source paralleling, the switching strategy of the
4.4. Firing Control Logic
firing control block, as shown in Figure 16d, provides the selective switching signals to the thyristor
Aiming
switches to faster
depending onload transferdirection.
the current and preventing sourcesignals
The switching paralleling, the switching
are generated strategy
for both of and
the main the
firing control block, as shown in Figure 16d, provides the selective switching signals to the thyristor
switches depending on the current direction. The switching signals are generated for both the main
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 20 of 30

back-up feeder depending on the current direction. In case of faults in the main feeder, the thyristor
switches of the main feeder are turned OFF, and thyristor switches of the back-up feeder are turned ON.
If one switch of the main feeder remains conducting during the time of fault detection, one switch of
the back-up feeder is gated, and the transfer process starts. If the commutation occurs and main feeder
current drops below the certain limit, and back-up feeder current exceeds the zero current threshold
limit, then both switches of the main feeder turned OFF and the second switch of the back-up feeder is
gated. Thus, the transfer process is completed.

5. Transfer/Switching Strategies
The SSTS control system transfers the loads from the main feeder to the back-up feeder when
a fault occurs. Based on the literature, two ways of transferring loads: make-before-break (MBB)/closed
transition and the break-before-make (BBM)/open transition transfer process are widely available.
Depending on the SSTS control method, it is possible to gate the alternate-side thyristors before
the zero-current crossing on the preferred side is reached, thus allowing the alternate side to ‘force’
the preferred side to commutate (turn off). This transfer is known as a make-before-break transfer.
In typical emergency systems, there is an inherent momentary interruption of power to the load
when a load is transferred from one source to another. In most cases, this outage is inconsequential,
particularly if less than one-sixth of a second. MBB is also known as parallel transfer or hot transfer.
This strategy has gained wide acceptance because the transient on the load bus is eliminated. However,
the cross-current, determined by the voltage difference between the two sources, may be very high
and exceed the short-term withstand ratings of the transformers and switches, so this transfer strategy
demands that two sources are in phase. The MBB strategy also satisfies the seamless transfer demand
of the loads [2]. On the other hand, an SSTS can be operated to perform a ‘break-before-make’ transfer,
which means that during the transfer process, the preferred and alternate sources are never paralleled.
This type of transfer allows the current to go to zero in each phase of the preferred-side thyristors
before the alternate side begins conducting. In this process, the electrical load will be interrupted
during the shift from the normal source to the emergency source. A break-before-make switch breaks
contact with one source of power before it makes contact with another with a momentary interruption
of power.

5.1. MBB Transfer Strategy

The SSTS model based on MBB transfer method is proposed in [8], which consists of two modules:
the voltage detection module and the transfer strategy gating module. The former is responsible for
detecting the voltage sags, while the task of the latter is to execute the load transfer from the primary
feeder to the alternative feeder upon detection of sag. It is shown that the longest delay caused by
the MBB controller is no longer than half a cycle. Hence, MBB’s transfer time is much shorter than
that of BBM’s. Successful implementation of the MBB algorithm requires accurate, current direction
measurement and, consequently, proper thyristor triggering. Due to the low impedance between the
two feeders, the resulting current surge can reach an unsafe level and may cause damages. This problem
is defined as the cross current phenomena. Therefore, this limitation needs to be overcome by proper
selection of the gating instant, tk . The following criteria are proposed to perform this task:

• The voltage difference, ∆vpa (t), in the vicinity of tk keeps decreasing, which can be expressed by
   
∆νpa (n) > ∆νpa (n + 1), (14)

here ∆vpa (n) and ∆vpa (n + 1) are the voltage differences between two feeders, ∆vpa (t), at instants
t = nTss , and t = (n + 1)Tss , respectively, and Tss is the controller’s sampling time.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 21 of 30

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 30

• Condition for determining the upper limit of tk , (tkmax ): The voltage difference, ∆vpa (tk ), should be
smaller than the voltage difference threshold, ∆Vth , which can be written as
2 R p I cth
Δv pa ( tk ) ≤ Δvth =

( ( −Tp Icth
2R
∆νpa (tk ) ≤ ∆νth = 1 − e s
 4τ )

1 − e(−Ts /4τ),
)
,
(15)
(15)

Here, the threshold voltage, ΔVth, is determined by the maximum allowed cross current, Icth. Here τ
Here, the threshold voltage, ∆Vth , is determined by the maximum allowed cross current, Icth .
is the time constant, Rp is the equivalent resistance of the proposed model.
Here τ is the time constant, Rp is the equivalent resistance of the proposed model.
•• Condition for for determining
determining the
thelower
lowerlimit
limitofoftkt,k,(t(tkmin difference, ∆v
kmin): The voltage difference, Δvpapa(tkk), needs to
larger than
be larger than aa certain
certain value
value to
to allow
allow sufficient
sufficienttime timefor forsuccessful
successfulcommutation.
commutation.
To ensure
To ensure the
the successful
successful transfer,
transfer, SSTS
SSTS have
have to
to possess
possess aa fired-based
fired-based onon the
the line
line current
currentpolarity.
polarity.
The polarity can be determined based on the difference between the line current and the zero-current
The polarity can be determined based on the difference between the line current and the zero-current
threshold (ZCT)
threshold (ZCT) [46].
[46]. Study
Study shows
shows that
that SSTS
SSTS performance
performance can can bebe improved
improved and the cross
and the cross current
current
problemlimited
problem limitedbyby enhancing
enhancing the the traditional
traditional makemake
beforebefore break strategy
break (MBB) (MBB) strategy
with the with the safe-
safe-triggering
triggering region (STR)
region (STR) approach. approach.

5.2. Communication Strategy

To illustrate
To illustratethethe commutation
commutation process,
process, authors
authors in proposed
in [10] [10] proposed an SCR-based
an SCR-based three-phasethree-phase
transfer
transferconnected
switch switch connected to the
to the stator of stator of the doubly-fed-machine
the doubly-fed-machine (DFM) as(DFM)
shownasinshown
Figurein17.
Figure 17. Two
Two kinds of
kinds of one
sources, sources, oneare
and ac, and ac,in
used are used
this in this topology.
topology. The positiveThe positive
side of the side
onlyof
dcthe only(V
source dcdcsource (Vdc) is
) is connected
connected
to A-phase,toand A-phase, andgrounded
it is then it is then grounded by connecting
by connecting all the
all the other otherThe
phases. phases. The
three ac three
sources ac sources
(Va , Vb ,
(Va, V
and Vbc,)and
are V c) are connected
connected in threeinphases,
three phases, A, C,
A, B, and B, respectively.
and C, respectively.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Schematic
Schematic for
for three-phase
three-phase SCR-based
SCR-based transfer switch connected
transfer switch connected to
to double
double fed
fed machine
machine [10].
[10].

5.2.1. Transition from DC

DC to
to AC
AC Source
Source
To
To accomplish
accomplish thethe transition
transition of
of the
the source
source from
from DC to AC, initially,
initially, the
the stator
stator of DFM is assumed
to be connected
connected with the dc dc source.
source. In the steady-state condition,
condition, the stator current in A phase is
positive,
positive, while
while in the B and C phases, the stator current is negative.
negative. Taking
Taking the A-phase
A-phase asas aa reference,
reference,
a commutation
commutationdiagram
diagramcan bebe
can portrait as depicted
portrait in Figure
as depicted 18. According
in Figure to the diagram,
18. According the dashed
to the diagram, the
line represents
dashed the magnitude
line represents
  the of the
magnitude dc source
of thevoltage.
dc Prior
source to the
voltage. transition,
Prior to the
the stator voltage
transition, the vector
stator
(Vdc , where, Vdc  = (2/3)Vdc ) and the stator current vector (Is ), both remain stationary and aligned
voltage vector ( V d c , where, Vdc = (2 / 3)Vdc ) and the stator current vector ( I s ), both remain
toward the reference axis. On the other hand, the incoming ac voltage vector shows the rotating
stationary and at
characteristics aligned toward the
the frequency, ωacreference
. axis. On the other hand, the incoming ac voltage vector
shows the rotating characteristics at the frequency, ωac.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 22 of 30

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30

Figure18.
Figure 18.Commutation
Commutationdiagram
diagram during
during dc-to-ac
dc-to-ac source
source transition
transition[10].
[10].
Figure 18. Commutation diagram during dc-to-ac source transition [10].
Considering
Considering AA phase,ififthe
phase, theacacsource
sourcevoltage
voltage becomes
becomes higherhigher than than the thedc dcvoltage,
voltage,the thegategatesignal
signal
of Considering
SCR T A phase,
Adc,F is turned OFF, ifwhile
the acthesource
firing voltage
of SCR becomes
T is higher than
activated. This thecondition
dc voltage, the gate
shows by signal
the byarc
A Aac,F
A
of SCR T dc,F is turned OFF, while the firing of SCR T ac,F is activated. This condition shows the
of SCR
PP’, TAdc,Fmeans
which is turnedthatOFF,
the while
ac the firing
source voltage of SCR
vectorTAmust
ac,F is activated.
be within This
this condition
arc to showsthe
confirm by natural
the arc
arc PP’, which means that the ac source voltage vector must be within this arc to confirm the natural
PP’, which means
commutation of SCR thatTAthe
dc,F. ac source operation
A similar voltage vector is validmust for be
B andwithin this arc
C phases in totheconfirm
negativethe natural
half cycle,
commutation of SCR TA dc,F . A similar operation is valid for B and C phases in the negative half cycle,
commutation
where the arc of can SCR T dc,F. A similar
A
be represented operation
as QQ´ and RR´, is valid for B and C phases in the negative half cycle,
respectively.
where the arc can be represented as QQ´ and RR´, respectively.
where the arc can be represented as QQ´ and RR´, respectively.
5.2.2.
5.2.2. Transition
Transition fromAC
from ACtotoDC DCSource
Source
5.2.2. Transition from AC to DC Source
In this transition, the assumption of connecting the stator of DFM is reversed, it means, the stator
In this transition, the assumption of connecting the stator of DFM is reversed, it means, the stator
In this transition,
is assumed to be connectedthe assumption
with ac source.of connecting
The ac sidethe SCRs
stator(T ofADFM
ac,F, T Ais
ac,Rreversed, it means,
, TBac,F, TBac,R the stator
, TCac,F, and TCac,R
C ) ,
is assumed to be connected with ac source. The ac side SCRs (TAAac,F , TBA ac,R ,B TB ac,FC , TB ac,R , T Cac,Rac,F
is assumed
operate on to
180°be connected
conduction with
mode, ac source.
based The
on ac
the side
magnitudeSCRs (T
ofA , T
voltage
ac,F ,
ac,Rand T , T
current
ac,F ac,R, Tof the
ac,F , and T
stator. In)
and TC ac,R ) operate on 180◦ conduction mode, based on the magnitude of voltage and current of the
operate
case of theon A 180° conduction
phase, when the mode, based
ac source on thebecomes
voltage magnitude lower of than
voltage the and currentthe
dc voltage, of the
gatestator.
signal In of
stator.
case
InAthe
of
caseAof the Awhen
phase,
phase, the
when
ac
the ac
source
sourcebecomes
voltage
voltage becomes
lower than
lower
the dc
than the dc
voltage, the
voltage,
gate
the gate
signal of
SCR T ac,F is turnedA OFF, while the firing of SCR T dc,F is activated.
A The natural commutation of stator
signal
SCR of
TASCR is Tturned
ac,F is turned OFF, thewhile the firing
SCR Tof SCR TA dc,F is activated. The natural commutation
current occurs
ac,F fromOFF,ac towhile
dc source. firing
This ofcondition Adc,F is activated.
shows by theThe arcnatural
PP´. which commutation
means that of the
stator
ac
of current
stator current occurs
occurs vector
from ac from
to dc ac to dc source. This condition shows by PP´.
the arc PP´.means
which means that
source voltage must besource.
within thisThisarc condition
to confirm shows by
the naturalthe commutation.
arc which A similarthat the ac
operation
thesource
isac source
valid for voltage
voltage and Cvector
B vector must
phases bemust
within
in thebe this
within this
arc to
positive arc
confirm
half to the
cycle, confirm
natural
where the
SCRs natural
commutation.
TBac,R and commutation.
A
TCsimilar A similar
ac,R can operation
naturally
operation is valid forC Bphases
and Cin phases in theandpositive half cycle, where SCRs B C
is valid for
commutate B and
the stator current to the
SCRs positive
TBdc,R halfTCcycle,
dc,R. The where
arcs SCRs
can beTrepresented
Bac,R andTTCac,R ac,R and naturally
as can
QQ´ T
andac,RRR´,can
naturally commutate the stator current to SCRs T B and T C . The arcs can be represented as QQ´
commutate
for B and C the stator
phases, current to SCRs
respectively, T dc,R andinTFigure
B
as illustrated C dc,R. The
dc,R 19.arcs can be represented as QQ´ and RR´,
dc,R
andforRR´,
B andforCBphases,
and C phases,
respectively,respectively, as illustrated
as illustrated in Figurein 19.Figure 19.

Figure 19. Commutation diagram during ac-to-dc source transition [10].

Figure 19.Commutation
Figure 19. Commutation diagram
diagram during
during ac-to-dc
ac-to-dcsource
sourcetransition
transition[10].
[10].
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 23 of 30

Table 4 concludes the characteristics of SCRs mentioning the conducting and succeeding banks at
the instant of transition depending   The angle ε in Table 4 depends upon
  on the stator-current polarity.
the magnitudes of the dc- Vdc  and the ac-source voltage Vac  vector, which can be expressed by
 
Vdc 
ε = cos−1   (16)
Vac 

According to the information in the table, the common requirement for simultaneous natural
commutation of the ac-side SCRs is that the stator power factor angle θ must be between 120◦ and 240◦
irrespective of the location of the stator current vector. It is also seen that the complementary region of
natural commutation of the conduction bank SCRs between the two-mode transitions, i.e., dc-to-ac
and ac-to-dc, is due to the relative magnitude of the source voltages.
Table 4. Classification of outgoing AC-side and incoming dc side SCRs for an AC to DC source
transition based on the stator current vector location

Location of Stator Required AC Source

Conducting Bank (AC Side)
Current Vector
−30◦ < ∠IS < 30◦
30◦ < ∠IS < 90◦
90◦ < ∠IS < 150◦
150◦ < ∠IS < 210◦
210◦ < ∠IS < 270◦
270◦ < ∠IS < 330◦
Succeeding Bank (DC Side)
Voltage Vector
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,F ac,R ac,R
Tdc,F dc,R dc,R 150◦ < ∠Vac < 210◦
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,F ac,F ac,R
Tdc,F dc,F dc,R 210◦ < ∠Vac < 360◦ − ε
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,R ac,F ac,R
Tdc,R dc,F dc,R 360◦ − ε < ∠Vac < 330◦
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,R ac,F ac,F
Tdc,R dc,F dc,F −30◦ < ∠Vac < 30◦
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,R ac,R ac,F
Tdc,R dc,R dc,F 30◦ < ∠Vac < ε
A , TB , TC A , TB , TC
Tac,F ac,R ac,F
Tdc,F dc,R dc,F ε < ∠Vac < 150◦

5.3. BBM Transfer Strategy

The BBM transfer strategy has been illustrated in [2]. During the transfer process of BBM,
the load current had been cut off by thyristor in the preferred source, so there is no arc between the
mechanical switch contacts; this is very helpful for increasing the life span of the switches. Furthermore,
paralleling of the sources can be avoided strictly in this method, so it exhibits good safety to the
feeders. This strategy is suitable for the loads which can endure a long transfer time (about 30–40 ms).
It means the transfer process through BBM strategy is slower, which is the main limitation of this
technique. BBM strategy for CMOS inverter to reduce short circuit current and power overhead has
been studied in [47], where the delay is considered for low to a high transition period with NAND type
edge detection technique. In this research, the time-skewed input signals are merged back into a signal
output signal by this BBM process. This strategy saves 50% switching energy. The final propagation
delay (TP ) calculated in this study can be expressed by
!
k6 C + CLN
Tp = + k8 RD LP , (17)
β1 VDD 2

This equation can be used to obtain the charge consumption of the transfer switch. It is noted that
charge consumption has a linear relationship with propagation delay. Equation of charge consumption
(Q) can be shown as 2
2β1 VDD
Q= Tp , (18)
k6 + k8 RD β1 VDD
where VDD id the supply voltage, RD is bidirectional relay resistor, β1 denotes the gain factor of the
first stage, k6 and k8 are constants, CLP and CLN are the charging and discharging capacitive loads.
According to the study, BBM strategy is suitable for low power low precision delay elements due
to its combined delay and direct path current elimination properties in one single stage. However,
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396
the transfer time of the transfer switch needs to be reduced to protect the system with improved
performance and reduced cost. Hence, this strategy has limited application in the current study of the
solid-state transfer switch.
Based on rigorous studies, a comprehensive review of control and switching strategies of the
transfer switches has been tabulated in Table 5. It has been seen that the SSTS is mostly performed in
reducing the power loss [20], overcoming the limitation of voltage sags [26,48] to improve the voltage
stability [49]. Moreover, it is also observed that the hybrid transfer system is demonstrated in various
studies to improve the transfer time of SSTS [2].
Table 5. Comprehensive review on SSTS control and switching strategies.
Purpose
Identifying the fault location
and fast transfer process
Suppressing cross current in
static switch with less than
one cycle transfer time
Alter the connection
between ac and dc source
based on speed
Using the solid-state breaker
as a transfer switch in the
distribution system
Reduce the power loss and
mitigate voltage unbalance
by using SLTS
Reducing voltage sag
Reducing voltage sag
Improving voltage stability
and transfer capability of a
transfer switch
Effect of regenerative load
on the static transfer switch
Performance evaluation
of SSTS
Analysis of the static
transfer switch
High voltage pulse
power supply
Blocking the short circuit
current within 4 ms in
dc microgrid
Analyzing the switching
condition of a
transfer switch
Control Scheme
Realizing the overlapping
transfer of neutral wire
in HATS
Safe-triggering region control
scheme with MBB technique
SCR control scheme
Firing logic
Modified percent voltage
unbalance system and EMTP
are used.
Forced commutation technique
Safe gating strategy
Eliminate the voltage difference
by adding shunt capacitors
Voltage detection and
gating strategy
The peak value of
voltage waveform
Park’s transformation
Voltage balancing
Current differential
protection strategy
MBB strategy with voltage and
current conditions
24 of 30
Features Ref.
Cost-effective solution for maximum power
transfer reliability. Reduce the forward voltage
drop of thyristors. BBM, natural communication, [2]
mechanical switch breaking the circuit and MBB
strategies are possible
Limit the cross current surge and minimise the
current stress in the system. Enhance system
[8]
reliability, and it does not require any
additional components.
Current commutation of SCRs and bumpless
transition in shaft behavior are both controlled [10]
from the rotor
Detect a voltage disturbance within one-fourth of
a cycle. Mitigating the effect of voltage sags on [13]
sensitive loads.
SLTS algorithm is used to determine the position
of the load considering the neutral current at each
[20]
load point. Reconfigure the structure of loads on
the basis of data measured by a dc-dc converter
Control the phase difference between
feeder voltage [26]
Hardware reconfiguration is difficult
Phase voltage and line current in both feeders are
of the same sign. No evaluation of the worst-case [48]
time was given
Control the phase difference between
feeder voltage
Application is difficult as hardware [49]
reconfiguration needs to match with
system parameters
Current direction and zero-crossing detection
logic, gating pattern logic, zero voltage back up [50]
transfer logic are considered
Abnormal condition is detected if the peak value
exceeds the prescribed range and thyristor is [51]
activated to transfer the load to a healthy feeder
Does not have an impact on the operation of the
[52]
distribution system
IGBT based 12 stages Marx generator is reduced
[53]
to 3 stages
Eliminate the short circuit current
Limit the overvoltage
[54]
Does not require an additional power supply
Reduce the cost and size
When current direction detection errors occur, the
voltage condition prevents false triggering of
[55]
thyristors. The system reverts to BBM if both
voltage and current conditions do not satisfy
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 25 of 30

6. Issues and Challenges

6.1. Selection of Transfer Switch

Selecting the right transfer switch is difficult yet challenging as each installation has many
variables such as switching delay, correct grounding, and neutral bonding for proper ground fault
protection, contact rating/mechanical structure, maintenance, and testing with minimal power system
disruption. Wrong bonding and wrong grounding in the power system can cause unwanted transients
or multiple hazardous grounds based on the selection of transfer switches. Typically, when selecting
a transfer switch, the main concerns are the power disturbance time versus the cost of the transfer
equipment. Local authorities via standards, like the IEC 60947-6-1 standard, National Electrical Code
(NEC) [56] also specify the manner of switching for particular applications. The application’s sensitivity
to a power interruption during switching helps determine the transfer-switch selection. The transfer
switch can be contactor or circuit breaker based, or it can be a bypass design. From less costly
break-before-make switches to more expensive paralleling and synchronized transfer switches, power
system protection methods must safeguard both the load and the generation system. At medium
voltage, special requirements must be considered. Therefore, a transfer switch must be chosen for
robust operation and maintenance at the beginning of the design process [28].

6.2. Grounding Location and Neutral Bonding

The correct arrangement of transfer switch must be chosen depending upon grounding
locations and neutral bonding. Incorrect power system bonding and grounding can cause unwanted
transients or multiple hazardous grounds (improper ground-fault protection) depending upon
the transfer-switch selection. Improper design can create unintentional current paths and defeat
ground-fault protection [28]. Hence, steps must be taken for grounding location and neutral bonding
in designing the transfer switch.

6.3. Safety and Reliability

To avoid the damage of both human health and equipment, the delay in ground fault protection
is not entertained. To be specific, systems with line-to-neutral loads and solid grounding, for quick
operation of SSTS, ground-fault protection must be ensured [57]. Thus, human life is kept safe, and the
maintenance of costly equipment are avoided. Besides, all motorized and automatic switches can also
be operated manually in emergency situations and may require to be padlocked to protect it from
unwanted manual or remote operations or enable safe maintenance work. It is also important to have
a time delay or zero crossing detector during the transfer phenomena to check the availability of new
connections. According to [16], no system is currently available which has all these safety features.
On the other hand, the inclusion of transfer switch controller replacement process may improve the
reliability of the transfer switch operation. Therefore, including all these features, a new generation
SSTS can be designed for improved reliable SSTS operation.

6.4. Testing
Testing of the SSTS is important to check the code compliance and maintenance of the switch.
The test can be of three types: integral test switch chooses the testing feature; dry contact test can
be used for remote testing, and auto testing provides the monthly or annual test options to keep the
record of the data in the memory. The testing does not hamper the life expectancy of the switches.

6.5. Phase Difference, Fast Commutation, and Transfer Time

Study on the impact of a phase difference between the sources of transfer switch has been
studied in various researches [15]. From the literature, it was discovered that a 25◦ phase difference
increases the load transfer time by about 2 ms. Besides, a fast commutation gating strategy also has a
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 26 of 30

significant impact on reducing the transfer time where the control system does not wait for the current
zero-crossing. Hence, proper adjustment of phase difference and commutation need to be adjusted for
fastening the transfer process.

6.6. Memory, Materials and Costs

A memory configuration can be added with the transfer switch to keep the transfer record of the
transfer switches. The memory can be interfaced with external communication tools [58]. Besides,
all switches need to be designed for easy and cost-efficient installation, maintenance, and use. Modular
design and smaller dimensions save precious space and significantly reducing material, handling,
and installation costs.

6.7. Fault Location Identification

Fault location identification is also important because the transfer switches have to decide to
transfer or not according to the different fault locations. If the fault happens on the source side,
the transfer operation is required immediately, and on the other hand, if the fault occurs on the
load side, the transfer operation should be forbidden. According to different load types, different
phenomena will be observed to identify the fault location [2].

6.8. Uncertainties
Parameter uncertainties of switching devices have strong influence on the performance of SSTS [59].
Innovative and careful design of SSTS can result in exceptional isolation of the system, reducing the
sources of random errors in the measurement path, and thus improves the measurement uncertainties of
the transfer switches. Switching ratio of thermal SSTS needs to be adjusted for the application in a wide
temperature range [60]. Uncertainties of the load resistance, load inductance, and load capacitance also
need to be minimized by controlling the switching devices of the converter. Furthermore, SSTS should
have strong fault clearing capabilities to protect the system from any mechanical or electrical damages.
Although various strategies including the top-level differential protection strategy have been proposed
to block the short circuit current, response time, size of SSTS, and the switching losses can further be
reduced by developing the improved optimized neuro-fuzzy controlling mechanism of SSTS. However,
the effect of uncertainties of the environmental impacts still have not been solved with the present
existing technologies. Therefore, to obtain the combined advantages of high surge ability, strong turn-off
ability to control the short circuit current, the high capability to withstand the overvoltage (according
to voltage tolerance standard IEEE 1346), low weight, and increased performance of transfer switches
with a faster response time under various environmental conditions, optimal hybrid SSTS topology
can be a feasible solution in the future scope of small-, medium-, and large-capacity household and
industrial applications.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

This paper gives a comprehensive idea for SSTS design requirements, standards, and available
specifications towards achieving the goal of mitigating the power quality issues, reducing the transfer
time and losses. Available control strategies and switching mechanisms also have been discussed in
this paper. From the rigorous studies on SSTS, many variations on the transfer switch are possible in
different applications to reduce steady-state power consumption. Using semiconductor devices to
construct the transfer switch, while allowing instantaneous transition without shorting the sources
or impairing the load currents, enables significant reduction of controlled power electronics and
associated passive-auxiliary components. The implementation of SSTS reduces the size of the controller,
thus providing a suitable solution for low-, medium-, and high-power applications. From the analysis
of the topologies, it is apparent that the magnitude and duration of the cross current can be controlled
by proper timing of triggering signals, according to the voltage difference and its position. However,
very few studies have been found on hybrid SSTS topologies which can reduce both the cost and transfer
Electronics 2020, 9, 1396 27 of 30

time. Thus, progressive research is essential to improve and implement hybrid SSTS technologies
in future applications. Overall, this research can provide future researchers and industrialists with
a pathway for the future development of SSTS.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.H.; Data curation, M.F. and P.J.K.; Formal analysis, M.F.; Funding
acquisition, M.A.H., P.J.K., M.S.B.A.R., M.B.M.; Investigation, M.F. and M.A.H.; Methodology, M.F. and M.S.M.;
Project administration, M.A.H. and P.J.K.; Resources, M.F. and M.S.M.; Supervision, M.A.H; Validation, M.A.H
and M.B.M; Visualization, M.A.H.; Writing—original draft, M.F.; Writing—review and editing, M.A.H. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received funded by the Tenaga Nasional Berhad under UNITEN R & D Sdn Bhd, Universiti
Tenaga Nasional using grant no. U-TD-RD-19-20.
Conflicts of Interest: Authors declare no conflict of interest.

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