6. MECHANICAL SEPARATIONS.

Separations are extremely important in chemical manufacture. In fact, much processing equipment is devoted
to separating one phase or one material from another. Separation are divided into two classes, first diffusion
operations, involves the transfer of material between phases. Second mechanical separation- mechanical
separations are applicable to heterogeneous mixtures, not to homogeneous solutions. The techniques are based
on physical differences between the particles such as, size, shape, or density. They are applicable to separating
solids from gases, liquid drops from gases, solids from solids and solids from liquids. Two general methods
are the use of a sieve, septum, or membrane, such as screen or filter, which retains one component and allows
the other to pass and the utilization of differences in rate of sedimentation of particles or drops as they move
through liquid or gas. For special problems other methods, not discussed here are used. These special methods
exploit differences in wettability or the electrical or magnetic properties of substances.

6.1. Survey of operations and the separation effects.

Objectives: a) Classification of solid disperse phases into two or more fraction on the basis of classification by
mechanical method.
a) Separating one phase from one another phase more or less completely by mechanical methods.

::: ::::: ::::::: ::::::::

:::::: :::::::::::::::::
separation
separation

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a) Classification
Normally the original substance contains particles of different sizes or density. Objectives of classification is
to obtain all the particles of size or density smaller than Xc (c=constant size) in one fraction A and all particles
of a size or density greater than Xc in the other fraction B. In reality classification cannot be carried out
absolutely or sharply. Therefore in both fractions greater particles obtained in fraction A and smaller particles
in fraction B.
In order to demonstrate this fact, the fractional efficiency of separation "η s" is used. It gives the separation
efficiency to be expected for a given particle size, that means the probability for obtaining a particle of a
certain size in one or the partial streams A or B. The cut size is that particle size for which this probability is
50 %, that means half of the particles of that size are obtained in the one stream, 50% in the other one.

1.0
1.0
feed 1.0 A
0.5 B

0 0
0 dc d dc dc
Actual separation Theoretical separation

Screening
Definition: screening is the separation of a mixture of various size of grains into two more particles by means
of a screening surface, the screening surface acting as a multiple co-on -go gauge and the final portion consists
of grains of more uniform size than those of original mixtures. Material that remains on a given screening
surface is the one size, material passing through is the under size. The screening surface may consist of woven
wire silk, or plastic cloth, perforated or punched plate, grizzly bars or wedge wire surface. Dry and wet
screening is possible.
Type of screening machines, there are five main classes of screening machines.
- Grizzly screens: used primarily for scalping at 0.05mm and coarser
- Revolving and shaking screens: are generally used for separations above 0.013m
- Vibrating screens: covers the coarse range and also sown to the fine meshes
- Oscillating screens: finer meshes below 4 mesh
In most screens particles are drop through the screen opening by gravity in few types by using mechanical
methods such as centrifugal force. Coarse particles drop quickly and easily through large opening in a
stationary surface. In case of finer particles the screening surface must be agitated in same way. Common
methods are by revolving a cylindrical screen about a horizontal axis or with flat screen by shaking, gyrating
or vibrating them mechanically or electrically.
To characterize this operation m F  m A  m B , mass of the feed is equal to the sum of both fractions.

Material balance- Simple material balance can be written over screen. The equations are useful in calculating
the ratio of feed oversize and undersize from the screen analysis of the three streams and knowledge of the
desired cut diameter.
F- mass flow rate of feed,
D- mass flow rate of overflow,
B- mass flow rate of underflow;
XF - mass flow rate of material A in feed.
XD- mass fraction of material A in overflow,
XB - mass fraction of material A in underflow.

The mass fraction of material B in the feed, overflow and underflow are; 1-XF, 1-XD and 1-XB respectively.

Since the total material fed to the screen must leave it either as overflow or as underflow, then;

F  DB
The material A in the feed must also leave in these two streams, and

FX F  DX D  BX B
Eliminating B from both,

D XF  XB

F XD  XB
Eliminating D from both,

B XF  XD

F XB  XD

Screen effectiveness- the effectiveness of screen often called screen efficiency is a measure of the success of
screen in closely separating materials A and B. If the screen functioned perfectly; all material A would be in
overflow and all of material B would be in underflow. A common measure of screen efficiency is the ratio of
oversize material A that actually in the overflow to the amount of A entering with the feed. These quantities
are; DX D and FX F , thus;
 DX D
EA 
FX F

The undersize material EB is given by;

B (1  X D )
EB 
F (1  X F )

A combined over all efficiency can be expressed as the product of the two individual ratios.

BDX D (1  X D ) X D ( X D  X F )( X F  X B )(1  X D )
E 
FFX F (1  X F ) X F ( X D  X B ) 2 (1  X F )

mA m
V1  Rm1 A  ,V2  Rm1 A  B , V1  V2  Rm1 A  Rm1B  1
m F mF
mi
i 
The feed material can be characterized by the mass ratio for every class mtotal
Screening efficiency: is the ratio of amount of undersize obtained to the amount of undersize in the feed based
on the undersize or the ratio of the amount of oversize obtained to the amount of oversize in the feed.
m i mass flow rate of class i in stream A
  A1 
Efficiency: i mF 1i mass flow rate of class i in stream F
m F - mass flow rate of total feed.
m F 1i - feed rate for a certain class i
m
 A1i - flow rate of class i in stream A
m A1i
 A1i   stream A
mass ratio m A
m i
 B1i  B1  stream B
mB
m i
 F 1i  F 1  stream F
mF
Substituting efficiency formula
 i m  i
 Ai  A1 . A  A1 Rm1 A
 F 1i m F  F 1i based on undersize
 B1i m A  B1i
Bi  .  Rm1B
 F 1i m F  F 1i , overall
 A1i. B1i
   A1.B1     A1i.B1i    Rm1 AxRm1B
(  F 1i) 2
Screening operations at optimum conditions
operation of screen at optimum condition is desired:
- variables attributable to the material to be screened includes; particle shape, bulk material
specific gravity, moisture content, static charge generation, percentage of particle size near the screen's
aperture size 0.7 to 1.5w , particle attrition.
- screen operation condition, screen amplitude and vibration, angle of inclination, length and
width, direction of vibration, rate of feed onto the screen.
- screen variables, screen aperture size, free area, uniformity, material construction type of
screen, square, circular, rectangular.
The quantity of particles near aperture is specially significant irregularly shaped particles  0.7w pass
quite readily solids in overflow  1.5 w (aperture size). Particles near the aperture wedge (fix firmly) into
the apertures and cause most of the blinding difficulties. In general, optimum operation is attained when
the feed is vibrated violently but not thrown so high above the screen that particles jump down the screen
 in great bounds. Capacity and efficiency in screening are inversely related. Where capacity must be large
the efficiency is tolerated then the capacity may be large. Capacity of screening is measured by the mass of
material that can be fed per unit time to a unit area of the screen.
Capacity and effectiveness are opposing factors. To obtain maximum effectiveness the capacity must be
small, large capacity can only be small. Large capacity can only be obtained at the expense of reduced
efficiency and effectiveness. In practice, a reasonable balance between capacity and effectiveness is
desired. The capacity of a screen is controlled simply varying the rate of feed to the unit. The effectiveness
obtained for a given capacity depends on the mature of the screening operation.
The overall chance passage of a given undersize particle is a foundation of the number of times the particle
strikes the screen surface and the probability of passage during a single contact. If screen is over loaded,
the number of contact is small and the chance of passage on contact is reduced by interference of other
particles. Efficiency can only improved on the expense of capacity.

PROBABILITY APPROACH TO SCREENING

Another model of screening process is derived from the concept that particle- mesh interaction dominates
the entire process. The probability Ps that a fine particle X going over the screen will pass through an
opening of width w depends on the dimensionless parameter x/w and d/w as well as geometric
configuration. In the case of square mesh screens the probability is ;

( w  x) 2
Ps 
(w  d ) 2
The reciprocal of 1/p of the probability gives the number n of vibration necessary for fine particles to pass
through the screen.

The passage of fine particles through a screen is impeded not only by the wire mesh but also by the coarse
particles and their own volume fraction VF. The letter decreases steadily along the length of screen. For
particles that are not directly on the screen surface, the probability P H decreases with increasing thickness
w
H of the bed as follows; PH 
H
L
N n

N - number of trials (siebwart), n - frequency, L - length of screen,  - flow velocity
Sharp classification would be possible;
- high frequency of screen
- increasing the length of screen
- reduction of the flow rate (velocity)
The probability "p" if passage of a particle through a screen is given by;
( D  Dp )2
p , where D is aperture diameter, Dp is particle diameter.
D2
The probability of particle remaining on the screen is then;
( D  Dp )2
1 p  1
D2
If for i trials at passage through a screen (one trial) up from and land on the screen are made by a material
of particle Dp conete (pass) through a screen with aperture D the fraction retained ri is given by;
( D  Dp )2 i Dp )2 i
ri  [1  ]  [1  (1  2 ]
D2 D

i=1

i=2
 ri i=5

i=20

i=100

0.4 1

It can be easily seen that a particle considerably smaller than the screen aperture has a good chance of passage
in a few trials.
Dp )2
ln ri  i ln[1  (1  ]
D2
Dp
Since 1   1 log term on the right hand side when expanded in series from which all the terms of 4th
D
power or higher are dropped, can be shown to be approximately equal to
Dp D D 2
 i (1  ) 2 , ln ri  i (1  p ]2 , if 50% retained D=D50, ln 0.5  i (1  0.5 ]
D D D
0.83321
D50  D 
i

Example: A quartz mixture having the screen analysis shown in table 1 is screened, the cumulative screen
analysis of overflow and underflow are given in table1. Calculate the mass ratio of the overflow to feed and
the overall effectiveness of the screen.
Cumulative fraction smaller than Dp
mesh Dp mm feed overflow underflow
4 4.699 0 0
6 3.327 0.025 0.071
8 2.326 0.15 0.43 0
10 1.651 0.47 0.85 0.195
14 1.168 0.75 0.97 0.58
20 0.833 0.885 0.99 0.83
28 0.589 0.94 1.00 0.91
35 0.417 0.96 0.94
65 0.208 0.98 0.975
pan 1.00 1.00

X F  0.47, X D  0.85, X B  0.195

D 0.47  0.195 B D
  0.42,  1  1  0.42  0.58
F 0.85  0.195 F F
( X F  X B )( X D  X F )(1  X B ) X D (0.47  0.195)(0.87  0.45)(1  0.195)0.85
E   0.669
( X D  X B ) 2 (1  X F ) X F (0.85  0.195) 2 (1  0.47)0.47 Example 2:
 F  2000kg / h, m
m  A  710kg / h, Rmi A  0.35
mA
SA  R
 AF Ami
m
particle size interval in, mm mass feed, mF mA, coarse fraction S, %
<0.1 13.1 - -
0.1-0.63 32.0 0.7 0.8
0.63-1.0 13.9 11.5 29.0
1.0-1.6 10.6 29.9 98.7
1.6-2.5 14.9 42.3 99.7
>2.5 5.5 15.7 100
 m A 710 mAi 0.7
RmiA    0.355 miA  RmiA   0.35  0.8
m F 2000 , mFi 32

6.2. Hydro and aero classification in mechanical separation.

The separation of solid particles into several fraction based upon their terminal velocities is called
classification. Suppose for example that two particles having different settling velocities are placed in a rising
current of water. If the water velocity is adjusted to a value between the terminal velocities of the particles
separation will result. The slower settling particle move upward with the water, while the faster settling
particles will simultaneously settle out to the bottom. Another way to separate the particles would be to feed
the suspension through a tank of large cross sectional area. When the fluid stream inters the tank, the
horizontal velocity component decreases, and the particle start to settle. The faster settling particles will be
carried further and will concentrate near the exit.

A
A K2
K2 FL

K1

K2
K1
A A
F

K2
F

FL K1
K2

Suppose two different materials "a" and "b" are present in a solid particulate mixture with "a" more dense than
"b:. if the size range of the two material is large, no complete separation is likely because the terminal velocity
of the largest particles of "b" may greater than the smallest particles of "a". The range of sizes that will result
from a separation can be calculated from the ratio of sizes of particles of 'a' and 'b' which have the same
terminal velocities. The quantity of terminal velocities occurs when;
4(  a   ) gDa 4(  a   ) gDb Da (  b   ) CDa
Vt   or 
3CDa 3CDb Db (  a   ) CDb ...............1,2
For high value of Reynolds CDa = Cdb, then

Da ( b   )

Db (  a   )
Under laminar condition
CD =24/Re = 24μ/ρvD, CDa =24μ/ρvDa and CDb =24μ/ρvDb
Da ( b   ) Db Da (  )
  ( )2  b
Db (  a   ) Da Db (a   )
Separation is possible only if a separation ratio defined as the ratio of size of the smallest particle 'a' to that ot
Da   n
the largest particle 'b' is greater than [ b ] , where n = 1/2 for laminar flow n= 1 for turbulent flow
Db a  
1/2 <n <1 for transition flow. Examination of the above equation indicates that, by choosing a fluid with a
density very nearly equal too that of one of the solid material, the size ratio of the separation can be made
larger or smaller. Example if ρ approaches ρa the settling ratio approaches zero and particles of any range can
be separated. This is the base for 'heavy medium separation' which can be much more effective than hydraulic
classification.

Classification equipment.- gravity settling tank, spitzkasten, elutriation, double cone classifier.
Such that thickening and clarifying is carried out by gravitational sedimentation or settling of solid particles in
a liquid continuous phase to the differential densities of liquids and solids. The objectives of thickening is to
obtain solids in underflow as dry as possible (ρF2 small realizable if ρF2 = 0.5 - 0.7) and in clarifying the liquid
in overflow must be as pure as possible (  s1  )
Continuous thickener (Dorr Type, vertically acting.

feed pipe

overflow
clarifying zone
free zone
settling zone

compression zone

revolving rake
discharge zone

underflow

Thickening for a given feed rate the underflow is chosen so that the solid concentration in the underflow is as
high as possible. The underflow is controlled by means of diaphragm pump. Clarifying the center flow rate is
chosen so that for a given feed rate there are no solids in the overflow.
For free discharging of the sludge in the underflow the cone should have to be too acute increasing of height.
Therefore revolving rakes are used containing blades, which hold the sludge to the center of underflow pipe.
The rakes are driven either by a central shaft or in the case of greater diameter by wheels rolling on the wall of
the thickener. Existing common size or thickeners are; diameter 5 to 100 m and total height 2 to 7 m.

feed V overflow
1

V2
Comparison between both types

Vertical type: continuous discharging of sludge therefore application for great solid amounts.
Horizontal type: discontinuous discharging of sludge applicable only for small solid amounts.
Additional clarifying effect. Example applied for separating potassium chloride crystals from saturated
solution in producing mineral fertilizers (potassium chloride) salt fraction of different size may be obtained.
The vertical type is more common one; important for the possible throughput trough a thickener and clarifier.
Criterion for the separation: any particle may be settled in that case, if its settling velocity Vs in a steady,
unmoved medium is greater than liquid velocity directed to the top of thickener Vf (Vs >Vf)
V V V V
Vf   Vs  1 , Acy  1 , Amin  1
Continuity equation Acy Acy Vs Vs
Amin - minimum clarifying area which is necessary to settling a single particle of settling rate Vs.
In reality a) there is no single particle sinking, but big number of particles, which influence each other (i.e.
by collision between the particles, since the concentration of particles is high, , there is a displacement of
fluid opposite to the direction of motion of the solid resistance against particles motion is increased.
b) the particles are shaped other than spherically, the settling velocity of the collection of particles
in reality is different from the velocity of single one.

Differential settling and separation of solids in classification.

1) Sink and float methods:- devices for the separation of solid particles into several fractions based upon their
rate of flow or settling through fluids are known as classifier.
There are several separation methods to accomplish this by sink and float and differential settling in the sink
and float method, a liquid is used whose density is intermediate between that of the heavy or high density
material and the light density material. In this method the heavy material will not float but settle from the
medium, and the light particle float.
This method is independent of the size of particles and dep0ends only on the relative density of the two
materials. This means liquids used must have densities greater than water since most solids have light
densities. Unfortunately, few such liquids exist that are cheap and non- corrosive as a result pseudo liquids are
used, consisting of a suspension in water of very fine solid materials with high specific gravities such as
galena (sg=7.5) and magnetite (sg=5.17).
Hindered settling is used and the bulk density of the medium can be varied widely by varying the amount of
the fine solid particles in the medium. Common applications of these techniques are concentrating ore
materials and cleaning coal. The fine solids materials in the medium are so small in diameter that their settling
velocity is negligible giving relatively stable suspension.
2) Differential settling methods: - The separation of solid particles into several size fractions based upon the
settling velocities in a medium is called differential settling or classification. The density of the medium is
less than that either of the two substances to be separated.
In differential settling both light and heavy materials settle through the medium. An advantage of this method
if the light and heavy materials both have a range of particle size is that the smaller, heavy particle settle at the
same terminal velocity as the larger, light particles.
Suppose that we consider two different materials heavy density material A (such as galena, with specific
gravity sg = 7.5) and light density material B (such as quartz with a specific gravity sg = 2.65) the terminal
settling velocity of components A and B the equations can be written as;
4(  A   ) gD pA 12 4(  B   ) gD pB 12
VtA  [ ] ...........1 VtB  [ ] .......... .....2
3C DA  , 3CDB 
For particle of equal settling velocity VtA  VtB
(  A   ) D pA (  B   ) D pB
.............3
C DA  = C DB 
(  B   ) C DA D pA
 ........................4
(  B   ) C DA D pB
For spherical particles at high Reynolds CDB  C DA - constant
D pA  B   1. 0
( ) ..................5
D pB A  
24  24 
C DA  , C DB  V  VBt
For laminar Stokes' law D pAVtA  D pBVtB  For At
D pA  B   .0 .5
( ) .....................6
D pB A  
D pA B   1
( )n ,  n 1
For transition flow between laminar and turbulent flow, D pB A   2
For particles settling in turbulent range the above equation holds for equal settling velocities. For particles
where DpA =DpB and settling is in turbulent Newton's law region combining equation 1and 2.
VTA    .0.5
( B ) .........................7
VTB A  
If both A and B are settling in the same medium equation 5 and 7 used to make the plots.

terminal
settling
Vt, m/s

Dp1 Dp2 Dp3 Dp4

particle diameter Dp
Dp1 to Dp2 pure B, Dp3 to Dp4 pure A Dp2 to Dp3 mixture of A and B

Example: separation of mixture of silica and galena having a size range of 5.21 x 10 -6 to 2.50 x 10-5 m is to be
separated by hydraulic classification using free settling condition in water at 293 K (20 0C) specific gravity of
silica is 2.65 and galena 7.5. Calculate the settling if the settling range is in the laminar region the drag
coefficient is reasonably close to that for sphere.
Solution. Dp =5.21 x 10-6 to 2.50 x 10-5 m, ρpA = 7500kg/m3, ρPB = 2650kg/m3
gD p (  pA   )
2

-3 VtA  , DPA  2.50  10 5 m

μH2O = 1.005 x 10 pa.s, Re < 1 Stokes' law 18
9.807(7500  2650)(2.5  105 ) 2 m
VAt  3
 0.0547
18  1.005  10 s
Referring to the graph the largest size is Dp4 =2.5 x10-5m and the smallest size is Dp1=5.21x10-6m
The pure fraction of DpA4 =2.5x10-5m consist of DpA4 to DpA3 particles in this range are related by having the
same settling velocity.
1
D pA3 2650  998 2
5
 ( )  1.26  10 5 m  D pA3
2.5  10 7500  998
Size range of pure B is DpB2 to DpB1 = 5.21x10-6m, DpB2 and DpB1 are related by having equal settling velocity.
1
5.21  106 2650  998 2
( )  1.033  10 5 m  D pB 2
D pB 2 7500  998
The three fractions recovered are as follows: the size range of the first of pure galena D pA3 =1.26x10-5m toDpA4
=2.5x10-5m,
The mixed fraction size range is as follows: DpB2 =1.033x10-5m to DpB4 =2.5x10-5m,
DpA1 =5.21x10-6m to DpA3 =1.26x10-5m,
The size range of the third fraction or pure B(silica) is as follows
DpB1 =5.21x10-6m to DpB2 =1.033x10-5m,

Sedimentation and thickening

Sedimentation involves separation of a suspension or slurry into a supernatant clear liquid that is essentially
free from particles and a thick sludge containing a high concentration of solids. It is thus a process of phase
separation. The sedimentor is called thickener if the concentrated sludge is our primary desired product and it
is called clarifier if the objective is to recover the clear liquid from the suspension. Industrial sedimentation is
conducted as a continuous process in thickeners or gravity sedimentation tanks that are usually shallow tanks
several meters in diameters that receive the slurry at the center or side, permit the overflow of the supernatant
liquid and produce a thick sludge from the bottom. The tank bottom is often made conical to facilitate the
discharge of the underflow sludge. The tanks are also fitted with rakes positioned slightly above the tank
bottom. The rake scrap or sweep the tank floor, thereby directing the sludge towards the central discharge.
When a suspension containing very fine particles is being handled, the rate of sedimentation will be extremely
low. Adding an electrolyte, which causes precipitation of colloidal particles and the formation of flocs, can
artificially increase the rate. The suspension may also be heated to lower the viscosity of the liquid. Slow
agitation of the slurry can also help in reducing the apparent viscosity of the suspension as well as assist in the
consolidation of the sediment.

A sedimentor has a two-fold function. Firstly, it must produce a clarified liquid that is as free from particles as
possible. This called the clarifying capacity of the sedimentor. If the overflow liquid must be free from
particles, then the upward velocity of the liquid must be always less than the settling velocity of the particles.
Thus, for a given throughput, the clarifying capacity depends on the diameter or cross-sectional area of the
tank. Secondly, it must produce a thick sludge that is as concentrated with solids as possible. The degree of
thickening of the sludge is controlled by the time of residence of the particles in the tank and hence by the
depth of the tank below the feed inlet. Since industrial thickeners are constructed in large sizes, even a minor
over-design of the tank could fetch significant financial loss to the concern.

Mechanism of sedimentation: when a dilute slurry is settled by gravity into a clear fluid and a slurry of higher
solids concentration the process is called sedimentation or sometimes thickening. To illustrate the method of
determining settling velocities and the mechanism of settling, a batch settling test is carried out by placing a
uniform concentration of the slurry in graduated cylinder at the start as shown blow all the particles settle by
free settling on suspension zone B. The particles in zone B settle at a uniform rate at the start and clear liquid
zone A appears in figure b. The height Z drop at constant rate. Also zone D begins to appear which contain the
settled particle at the bottom. Zone C is transition layer whose solids content varies from that in zone B to
zone D. After further settling, zone B and C disappears as shown in figure c. Then compression first appears
this moment is called the critical point. During compression liquid is expelled upward from zone D and
thickness of zone D decreases.

a b c
A A
B
B Z
Z C
D Z D
 d

Z0
constant rate
Z
C
Zi
Z1

t1 time

Determination of settling velocity in fig d the height Z of clear liquid interface height is plotted versus time.
As shown, the velocity of settling, which is the slope of the line is constant at first. The critical point is shown
at point C. Since sludge vary greatly in their rates. Experimental settling rate of each sludge is necessary.
Kynch (K1) and Tatmage and Fitch (T1) describe a method to predict thickener sizes from the batch settling
test.
The settling velocity is determined by drawing a tangent to the curve on fig d at a given time t1 and slope
-dz/dt = V1 at this point the height is Z1 and Zi is intercept of the tangent to curve, then;
Zi  Z1
V1 
t1  0
The concentration C1 is therefore, the average concentration of the suspension Zi is the height of the slurry.
This is calculated by;
CZ
C1Zi  C0 Z 0 or C1  0 0
Zi
Where C0 is the original slurry concentration in kg/m 3 at zone Z0 height and t=0. This is repeated for another
times and a plots of settling velocity versus concentration is made.

Measurement of effective settling velocity

The solids to be settled in a thickener or clarifier can be flocculated or extremely poly-disperse and highly
concentrated. Then some times the particle collection sinks like porous body, that means all particles are of the
same velocity. For such cases the equation for calculating settling velocities, which ere mentioned above are
not applicable, since they are valid only for particles with a marrow size distribution and not for floccules.
Therefore in many cases the settling velocity of particles collection has to be investigated experimentally, that
may be done by a batch settling test in glass cylinder which results in so called settling curve.

]
 H0
clear zone
suspension zone H(t) ΔH settling curve
compression
Δt
sedimentation

t(H) t

At first a suspension in the cylinder is uniformly mixed, then the settling operations starts. Several zones
appear as indicated above. the settling curve is graph of the height of interface between clean zone and
suspension zone versus time. The straight part represents the steady settling and may be used for calculating
the settling velocity according to; Vseff  H t .

Calculation of the clarifying area.

V
Amin 
a) By calculating settling velocity Vseff
V - mostly unknown, Vseff -for the smallest diameter. Determination of V . Connection V V
1
may be described by material balance as follows.

V
V  V1  V2 , V F 2 since  
  V  V F
F F1 
V
 FV   F 1V1   F 2V2 substitute 1 into 2
 FV   F 1V1   F 12 (V  V1 )
  F 2    F
V1  V F , V2  F 1
 F1   F 2  F1   F 2
In order to compare disturbance during the separation and in accuracities of seizing the effective
clarifying area Aeff should be greater tan the minimum area Amin it is common to chose Aeff = 1.3Amin =
1.3 V1 V seff
b) By measuring settling velocity; especially for relatively high concentrated and flocculated
suspension. Basis for determining the clarifying area is the solid flux curve according to (Kynch) that
demonstrates the influence of solid concentration Cs  m s VF on the solid flux s .
sm
 s A  Cs Vs (C s ) or R  V
 A
s
Characterizing the flow of solids through a cross section of settling container during settling.
 S

Cs

The main idea of that method is as follows the capacity of a continuous thickener is determined by the fact
that, the solids initially present in the feed must be oblate to settle trough all tones of slurry concentration from
feed to underflow at a rate equal to that at which they are introduced into the thickener. By means of settling
tests the minimum solid flux. Smax which is possible can be determined. On the other hand the mass rate of
solids ms entering the thickener is known consequently the minimum clarifying area is;
Amin  m s S max and the area to be selected A eff = 1.3Amin. Details of this method may be read in the working
instruction experimental methods for design of thickener and clarifier.
Height of thickener and clarifiers; total height is 2 to 7 m, height of clarifying zone h cl 100mm. Height of
feed zone as large as necessary for avoiding vertexes (tests are necessary). Height of compression zone should
be sufficient for a sufficient residential time for compression of sludge. By tests the necessary residential time
s  Vc
for compression is to be determined from volume necessary for compression. Vc   C Vtres H c  A
s eff

Increasing efficiency of sedimentation operation

On principle only possible by increasing Vs, V by two possibilities;

-flocculation (making aggregates from fine particles by adding flocculants such as certain inorganic dielectrics
or organic compounds increasing particle size results in higher Vs, but mostly average concentration in
compression zone is high
-the gravitational acceleration "g" may be replaced by a higher centrifugal acceleration 'z.g' z>1 increasing
velocity; cyclone separation and centrifuging.

6. 4. FILRATION IN SOLID LIQUID SEPARATION.

In filtration suspended solid particles in a fluid or gas are physically or mechanically removed by using a
porous medium that retains the particles as a separate phase or cake and passes the clear filtrate. Commercial
filtrations have a very wide range of applications. The fluid can be gas or a liquid. The suspended solid
particles can be very fine in micrometers range or much larger, very rigid or plastic particles, spherical or very
irregular in shape agglomerates of particles or individual particles. The valuable product may be the clear
filtrate or the solid cake. In some cases complete removal of the solid particles is required and in other cases
only partial removal is needed.
The feed or slurry solution may carry a heavy load of solid particles or a very small amount. When the
concentration is very low, the filters can operate for a very long periods of time before the filter needs
cleaning. Because of the wide diversity of filtration problems a multitude of types of filters have been
developed. Industrial filtration equipment differs from laboratory material handling and the necessity for low
cost operation. Atypical laboratory filtration apparatus is shown below, which is similar to Buchner funnel.
The liquid caused to flow through the filter cloth or paper by a vacuum on the exit end. Support with relatively
large hoes is used to hold the filter cloth, the particles form cake in the porous as filtration proceeds, and the
build up cake itself also act as filter for the suspended particle. As the cake build up resistance to flow also
increases.

:: :: : : : :
:: :: : : : : slurry solution
:: :: : : : :
 cake
filter cloth or paper
porous support

Type of filtration equipment

1) Classification of filters, there are a number of ways to classify type of filtration equipment and
it is not possible to make simple classification that includes all type of filters. May be by the desired
product either cake or clarified filtrate.
- filters can be classified by operating cycle. Batch where the cake is removed after a run or
continuous where cake is removed continuously.
- may be gravity type, pressure or vacuum to increase the flow rates.
- an important method of classification depends upon the mechanical arrangement of the filter
media. The filter cloth can be in a series arrangement as flat plates in an enclosure, as individual leaves
dipped in slurry, or on a rotating type rolls in the slurry.
2) Bed filters - the simplest type of filter used mainly in case where relatively small amount of
solid are to be removed from large amount of water in clarifying the liquid.

inlet fluid

baffle

fine particles
coarse particles

perforated or
slotted plate clarified liquid

The filtration continuous until the precipitate of filtered particles has clogged the sand so that the flow rate
drops. This time by back washing the precipitate can be carried away. Open tank filters are used in municipal
water supplies.
3) Plate and frame filter press - these filters consist of plates and frames assembled alternatively
with a filter cloth over each side of the plates. The plates have channel cut in them so that clear filtrate
liquid can drain down along each plate. The feed slurry is pumped into the press and flows through the
duct into each of the open frame so that slurry fills the frames. The filtrate flows through the filter cloth
and the solids build up as a cake on the frame side of the cloth. The filtrate flows between the filter
cloth and the face of the plate through the channels to the out let.
- filtration proceeds until the frames completely filled with solids
- in many case the filter press have separate discharge to the open for each frame for simplicity
of inspection, performance. When the frame are completely full, the frames and plates are separated
and the cake removed. Then the filter is reassembled and the cycle is repeated.
- wash type separate channel is needed for wash water inlet, which has port opening behind the
filter cloth at every other plate of the filter press. The wash water then flows through the filter cloth at
the other side of the frames and out the discharge channel.
The plate and frame press suffer from the disadvantage common to batch processes. The cost of laboratory
for removing cake and reassembling plus the cost of fixed charge for downtime can be appreciable part of
the total operating cost. Some newer type of plate and frame press have duplicate sets of frame mounted
on a rotating shaft half of the frames are in use while the others are being cleaned, saving downtime and
laboratory costs. Other advance in automation have been applied to these type of filters.
 Filter presses are used in batch processes but cannot be employed for high throughput processes. They are
simple to operate, very versatile and flexible in operation, and can be used at high pressure, when
necessary, if viscous solutions are to be used or the filter cake has high resistance.

4) Leaf filters - the filter press is useful for many purpose but is not economical for handling large
quantities of sludge or for efficient washing with a small amount of wash water. The wash water often
channels in the cake and large volume of slurry and more efficient washing. Numbers of these leaves
hung on parallel in a closed tank, the slurry enter the a tank and forced under pressure through the filter
cloth. Cake deposits on the outside of the leaf. If the cake is not needed it can be washed by water jet
without opening the shell. Sometimes air is blown in the reverse direction into the leaves to help
dislodging the cake. Leaf filters also suffer from disadvantage of batch operation. They can be
automated for the filtering, washing and cleaning cycle. However they are still cyclical and are used
for batch process and relatively modest throughput processes.
5) Continuous rotary filters - continuous rotary vacuum drum filter. Filters, washes, discharge the
cake in a continuous repeating sequence. The drum is covered with suitable filtering medium. The
drum rotates and an automatic valve in the center serve to activate the filtering, drying, washing and
cake discharge function in the cycle. The filter leave through the axe of the filter.
The automatic outlet provides separate out lest for the filter and the washout liquid. Also if needed air
is blowback to ease the removal of cake with scraper (knife) the maximum pressure deferential for the
vacuum filter is 1 atm. Hence this type is not suitable for viscous liquids or for the liquids that must be
enclosed.
- Continuous rotary disk filter - consist of concentric vertical disks mounted on horizontal
rotating shaft. The principle is the same as vacuum filter each disk is covered with a filter cloth and
partly submerged in the slurry.
- Continuous rotary horizontal filter- this type is vacuum filter with rotating annular filtering
surface divided into sectors. As a horizontal filter rotates it successively receives slurry.

FILTER MEDIA AND FILTER AIDS

1) Filter media - the filter medium for industrial filtration must fulfill a number of requirements.
First and for most, it must remove the solids to be filtered from the slurry and give a clear filtrate.
- the pores should not become plugged, so that the rate of filtration becomes too slow.
- the filter media must allow filter cake to be removed easily and cleanly. Obviously it must have
sufficient strength to not tear and must be chemically resistant to the solution used.
- some widely used filter media are: twill or Duckweave heavy cloth, woven heavy cloth, woolen
cloth, glass cloth, paper, felted pads of cellulose, metal cloth, nylon cloth, Dacron cloth and other
synthetic clothes.
- the ragged natural material is more effective in removing fine particles than smooth plastic, or
metal fibers. Sometimes the filtrate come out cloudy until cake start to build upon the filter media,
which should have to be refiltered by recycling.
2) Filter aids - sometimes certain filter aids nay be used to aid filtration. These are often incompressible
diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr, which is composed of primarily of silica. Also used are wood cellulose,
asbestos and other inert porous solids can be precoated before the slurry is filtered to prevent gelatinous
type solids from plugging the filter medium and also give a clear filtrate or mixing with the slurry this will
increase porosity of the cake and reduce resistance of the cake during filtration. In rotary drums the filter
aids can be applied as a precoat and subsequently thin slices of this layer are sliced often with the cake.
The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the precipitate cake is discarded or to cases where
the precipitate can be separated chemically from the filter aid.

Basic theory of filtration

Pressure drop of fluid through filter cake

filter cake
 filter medium

slurry flow
db filtrate

The above fig is a section through a filter cake and filter medium at a definite time t sec from the start of flow
of filtrate. At this time the thickness of the cake is L m. The filter cross sectional area is A m 2 and the linear
velocity of the filtrate in the "L" direction is V, m/sec based on the filter area A, m2.
The flow of the filtrate through the packed bed of cake can be described by and equation similar to Poiseuille's
law, assuming laminar flow occurs on the channels (straight tubes).
P 32 v
  .........1
L D2
ΔP- pressure drop, N/m2, V- open tube velocity, m/sec, D - diameter in, m, L-length in m, μ - viscosity in
Pa.sec, kg/m.sec.
For laminar flow in a packed bed of particles the Carman Kozeny relationis similar to eq. 1 and to the Blake-
D p v D p G
Kozeny eq.  and has been shown to apply to filtration.
(1   )  (1   ) 
Pc K1v(1   ) 2 .S 2 0
  ...........2
L 3
Where K1 = constant = 4.17 for random particles of definite size and shape.
v - linear velocity based on filter area, m/sec, ε - void fraction or porosity of the cake, L - thickness of cake in,
m , S0 - specific surface area of particles in, m2 of particle area per m3 of solid particle, Pc - is pressure drop
in the cake, N/m2.
dv
V  dt ....................3
A
A - filter area in m , and V - total m3 of filtrate collected up to time t, sec. The cake thickness "L" may be
2

related to the volume of filtrate "V" by material balance. If Cs is kg solid/m3 of filtrate a material balance
gives.
LA(1   )  p  C s (v  LA)............4
Where ρp is density of solid particles in the cake kg/m 3 solid. The final term of eq. 4 is volume of filtrate held
in the cake. This will be small and will be neglected. CsLA  0
By substituting equation 2 into 3 and using 4 to eliminate L
dv  Pc  Pc
  .......... ....5
Adt K i (1   ) S 0 Cs v  CsV
2
.
 p 3 A A
Where α is the specific cake resistance m/kg
K (1   ) S0
  i .......6
 p 3
For the filter medium resistance we can write by analogy with equation 5
dv  Pf
 ...................7
Adt Rm
Rm - resistance of the filter medium to filtrate flow in m-1 and ΔPf is the pressure drop.
Where Rm - is treated as empirical constant it includes the resistance to flow of the piping leads to and from
the filter and the filter medium resistance. Since resistance of cake and filter medium are in series equation 5
and 7 can be combined.
 dv  P
 ...................8
Adt Cs v
(  Rm )
A
where ΔP = ΔPc + ΔPf sometimes equation 8 is modified as.

dv  P
 ...................9
Adt Cs v
(v  vc )
A
Where vc - is a volume of filtrate necessary to build up a fictitious filter cake whose resistance is equal to R m.
The volume of filtrate can also related to W, the kg of accumulated dry cake solids.
Cx
  Cs v  .v..................10
1  mCx
Cx - is mass fraction of solid in the slurry, m- mass ratio of wet cake to dry cake, ρ - density of filtrate in
kg/m3.

Specific cake resistance- from equation 6 we see that the specific cake resistance is the function of void
fraction ε and S0. It is also a function of pressure, since pressure can affect ε. By conducting constant pressure
experiments at various pressure drops the variation of α with ΔP can be found.
Alternatively compression, permeability experiments can be performed. A filter cake at low pressure drop and
atmospheric pressure is built up by gravity filtering in a cylinder with porous bottom. A piston is loaded on
top and the cake compressed to a given pressure then filter fed to the cake and α is determined by differential
from of equation 9. This is then repeated for another compression pressure (G1). If α is independent of -ΔP,
the sludge is incompressible. Usually, α increase with -ΔP since most cakes are some what compressible. An
empirical equation often used is;
   0 (  P ) S ....................11
Where α0 and s are empirical constant. The compressibility constant s - is zero for incompressible sludge or
cake. The constant s usually falls between 0.1 to 0.8 sometimes the following is used.
   0 [1   ( P ) S  ]................. 12
where  0 ,  , S are empirical constants. Experimental data for various sludge are given by Grace (G1).
The data obtained from filtration experiments often do not have a high degree of reproducibility. The state of
agglomeration of the particles in the slurry can vary and have an effect on the specific cake resistance.

Filtration equations for constant pressure filtration.

1) Basic equations for filtration rate in batch process often filtration is done for conditions of
constant pressure equation 8 can be inverted and rearranged to give:
dt Cs 
 2 .v  Rm  K p v  B................13
dv A ( P) A( P)
Where Kp is in s/m6 and B is in s/m3
CS
Kp  2 .............14
A (  P )

B  Rm .............15
A(  P )

determination of constants
t s
t v , m3 in a constant pressure run
slope Kp/2
 intercept

0 filtrate volume, v m3
For constant pressure, constant α and incompressible cake, v and t are the only variables in equation 13
integrating to obtain the time of filtration t in sec;
t v

 dt 
0
 (K
0
p v  B ) dv.......... ......16

K pv2
t   Bv.......................17
2
dividing by v
t K pv
  B.......................18
v 2
Where v is total volume of filtrate in m3 collected in time t sec. To evaluate equation 17 it is necessary to
know α and Rm. This can be done by using equation 18 data of v collected at different time "t' obtained. Then
the experimental data is plotted as t/v versus v. Often the first point on the graph does not fall on the line and
is omitted the slope of the line is K p/2 and the intercept B Then using equation 14 and 15, values of α and R m
can be determined.
Example: evaluation of filtration constants for constant pressure filtration. Data for laboratory filtration of
CaCO3 slurry in water at 25 0C, -ΔP +338 kN/m2 the filtration area of frame and plate pres was = 0.0439 m 2
and the slurry concentration was Cs = 23.47 kg/m3 calculate the constants α and Rm from the experimental data
given where t is time in s and v filtrate volume in m3 .

t v t/v t v t/v t v t/v

4.4 0.489x10-3 8.84 34.7 2.498 x10-3 13.89 89.4 4.502 x10-3 19.864
9.5 1.0 x10-3 9.50 46.1 3.001 x10-3 15.36 107.3 5.009 x10-3 21.425
16.3 1.501 x10-3 10.86 59.0 3.506 x10-3 16.83
24.6 2.00 x10-3 12.30 73.6 4.004 x10-3 18.38

Solution: Plot the data find intercept

B = 6400s/m3, Kp = 6x x106s/m64at 25 0C  H 2 O  8.937 x10 Pa.s
4

 C 8 . 937 x10 xx 23. 47

K p  6 x106  2 s
 ,   1.863x1011 m / kg
A (  P ) 2 3
(0.0439) x338 x10
Rm 8.937 x104 xRm
B  6400   , R m  10.63x1010 m 1
A(P ) 0.0439 x338 x103
Example2: Time required to perform filtration. The slurry in example one is to be filtered in a plate and frame
press having 20 frames and 0.837 m2 area per frame (-ΔP) = 338 kN/m 2 the same filter cake properties and
filter cloth; calculate the time to recover 3.37m 3 filtrate area A = 0.0439 m 2, Kp = 6x106 s/m6, B = 6400 s/m3,
since α and Rm will be the same as before Kp can be corrected from equation 14. Kp is proportional to 1/A2.
The new area is 0.837x20 = 17.46m2
6 x106 (0.0439) 2
Kp   37.93s / m 6
(17.46) 2
The new B is proportional to 1/A
6400 x 0.0439
B  16.10 s / m3
17.46
Substituting into equation 17
K pv2 37.93
t  Bv , x(3.37) 2  16.10 x3.37, t  269.7sec
2 2
Equations for washing of filter cake and total cycle time- The washing of a cake after the filtration cycle takes
place by displacement of the filtrate and diffusion. The amount of wash liquid should be sufficient to give the
desired washing effect. To calculate washing rates, its assumed that the conditions during washing are the
same as those that existed at the end of the filtration. It is assumed that the cake structure is not affected when
wash liquid replaces the slurry liquid in the cake.
In filters where the wash liquid follows the flow path, similar to that during filtration as in leaf filters, the final
filtering rate gives the predicted washing rate. For constant pressure filtration using the same pressure in
washing as in filtering the final filtering rate is the reciprocal of equation 13.
dv 1
( )f  ........................19
dt K pv f  B

dv
Where dt ) f is rate of washing in m3/sec and vf is total volume of filtrate for the entire period at the end of
filtration in m3. For plate and frame filter press, the wash and area only half as large as in filtering so the
predicted washing rate is 1/4 of the final filtration rate.
dv 1 1
( )f  ........................20
dt 4 K pv f  B
In actual experience the washing rate may be less than predicted because of cake consolidation, channeling,
and formation of cracks. Washing rates in small plate and frame filter were found to be from 70 to 92 % of
that predicted.( M1)
After washing is completed, additional time is needed to remove the cake, clean the filer and reassemble the
filter. The total filter cycle time is the sum of the filtration time plus the washing time, plus the cleaning time.

Example: Rate of washing and total cycle time- At the end of filtration cycle in example 2 a total filtrate
volume is 3.37 m3 collected in total time t=269.7 sec the cake is to be washed by through washing in the plate
and frame press using a volume of wash water equal to 10 % of the filtrate volume. Calculate the time of
washing and total filter cycling time. If cleaning filter takes 20 min.
Solution: Kp = 37.93, B= 16.10, vf = 3.37
dv 1 1 1
( )f    1.737 x10 3 m3 / sec
dt 4 K pv f  B 4 x37.93x3.37  16.10 x3.37
The time of washing is then as follows: for 0.1(3.37) or 0.337 of wash water.
0.337m3
t  194 sec
1.737 x10 3 m3 / sec
Total filter cycle is
269.7 194
tc    20  27.37 min
60 60
Equations for continuous filtration - In filter that is continuous in operation, such as a rotary drum vacuum
type, the feed, filtrate, and the cake move at steady, continuous rates. In rotary drum the pressure drop is
held constant for the filtration the resistance of the filter medium is generally negligible compared with the
cake resistance so in equation 13 B = 0. By integrating the following equation we can obtain;
t v
K pv 2
 dt  K p  vdv, t 
0 0 2
..................21

t-time required for formation of the cake. In rotary drum the filter time t is less than total cycle time t c by f
fraction of cycle used for cake formation.
t  ftc .......................22
In rotary drum f is the fraction submergence of the drum into the slurry. Substituting equation 14 and 22
into 21 and rearranging ;
1
v 2 f ( P ) 2
flow rate  [ ] .......... ........ 23
At c tc Cs
If the specific cake resistance varies with pressure, the constant in equation11 are needed to predict the
value of α to be used. Experimental verification of equation 24 shows that the flow rate varies inversely
with the square root of viscosity and the cycle time (N1) when short time cycle are used in a continuous
filtration and/or the filter medium resistance is relatively large, the filter resistance term B must be
included and equation 22 becomes;
 v2
t  ftc  K p  Bv.......................24 , then
2
1
 Rm R2m
 [ 2  2Cs ( P ) ftc ] 2
v t tc
flow rate   c ...............25
At c Cs
Example: Filtration in a continuous rotary drum filter 33% submerged in slurry of CaCO 3, ΔP =67.0 Pa.s,
Cx = 0.191kg/m3 solid concentrate in slurry, m= kg wet cake/kg dry cake = 2, μ - 0.8973x10 -3 Pa.s the
same as water at 650C, ρ - 996.9kg/m3, tc = 250 s, α = 4.37x10 9(-ΔP)0.3, Q = 0.778kg slurry/sec. Find the
area to filter.
C x 996.9 x0.191
Cs    308.1kg / m3 of filtrate
1  mC x 1  2 x 0.191
solving  ,   4.37x109 (67 x103 ) 0.3  1.225x1011 m / kg
To calculate the flow rate of filtrate
v C kg slurry kg solid 1
 0.778( x )  0.778 (0.191 )( 
tc Cs s kg slurry 308.1 kg solid filtrate
m3
 4.823 x10  4 m3filtrate/s 1
v 4.823x104 2(0.33)67 x103
 [ ] 2
B= 0 from eq. 23, Att A 250(0.8973 x10  3 ) x1.225 x1011 (308.1)
hence A = 6.60 m2

Constant rate filtration equation -in some cases filtration runs are made under conditions of constant rate
rather than constant pressure. This occurs if the slurry is fed to the filter by a positive displacement pump
equation (8) can be rearranged to give the following for a constant rate (dv/dt) m3/s.
C dv Rm dv
 P  ( 2 s )v  )  K vV  C.......... ......... 26
A dt A dt
Cs dv R m dv
Kv  2
, C
A 5dt A dt2
Kv is in N/m and C in N/m
Assuming that the cake is incompressible Kv and C are constant characteristics of the slurry cake, rate of filtrat
flow, and soon. Hence a plot of pressure, -ΔP versus the total volume of filtrate collected, V, gives straight line fo
a constant rate dv/dt. The slope of the line is K v and the intercept is C. The pressure increase as the cake thicknes
increases and the volume of the filtrate collected increases. The equation can also rearranged in terms of (-ΔP) an
time t,vtot is related to ttot at any moment of filtration.
dv
vt ...............27
dt
Substituting equation 27 into 26

Cs dv 2 Rm dv
 P  [ 2
( ) ]t  )............................28
A dt A dt
For the case where the specific cake resistance α is not constant varies equation (11) this can be substituted for
α in equation (26) to obtain final equation.