Fire and Gas (F&G) Detection

Safety Engineering Training – Paris La Défense – September 2010

Risk Management Hierarchy

ELIMINATE hazards at source (or substitute)

PREVENT hazards from arising (robust design - inherent safety

approach, operating procedures..)

CONTROL ignition (distances, detect loss of confinement as early as

possible and de-energize)

MITIGATE effects/intensity of the phenomemom and PROTECT targets

against its consequences (detect incipient fire and toxic hazards,
shutdown and isolation, depressurisation, passive and active fire
protection...)

EVACUATE personnel from hazards (Temporary Refuge, EER..)

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Session Objectives

Discuss the purpose of F&G detection and where it fits into the risk
management hierarchy.

Describe the technology available for F&G detection

Discuss the relative merits of the different technologies

Provide guidance on the selection and installation of F&G detection

equipment

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Purpose of F&G Detection and Alarm Systems

Detection of fire or gas releases and initiation of preventative actions:

 Initiate pre-alarms & alarms (local and remote)
 Make safe the installation :
 Emergency Shutdown (ESD 1) of affected Fire Zone
 Initiate emergency isolation(s)
 Initiate depressurisation of hydrocarbon inventories
 Trip power generation and electrical equipment
 Make safe buildings and enclosed areas :
 Stop or Increase ventilation in enclosures
 Close dampers in HVAC air intakes
 Activate Active Fire Protection systems :
 Starts FW pumps
 Activate fire water deluge system(s)
 Activate foam based extinguishing systems
 Initiate gaseous (CO2, clean agent) or dry powder fixed fire extinguishing
systems

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Fire and Gas Detection Requirements
Some key points are:
 Intent is to minimize loss of life, property and business due to fire and / or explosion
 A F&G system is systematically installed as part of the global safety shutdown
system as far as HC, fire and/or toxic (H2S, smoke…) hazards are present.
 F&G system is functionally separate from Emergency Shutdown (ESD) system
 F&G deals only with ESD1 and ESD0 shutdown levels
 Notion of Emergency Shutdown = Loss of Containment as opposed to process
S/D (SD2 & 3).
 Safety Integrity Level (SIL) of F&G system logic solver must be equal to that of the
Emergency Shutdown (ESD) system (normally SIL3 for permanently manned
installation).

[Since 2001, there have been 858 fires and explosions in the Gulf of Mexico
according to the federal Minerals Management Service].

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Fire and Gas (F&G) Detection System – An Overview

Field Control Room Field

F&G Systems & Equipment

ESD
Control Panel shutdowns
Fire 0 or 1
Logic
Detection 2ooN
N sensors Alarms
I O Initiate Protection
Logic Systems e.g. Deluge
Gas
Detection Logic
2ooN
N sensors
Electrical isolations

I = Inputs

O = Outputs on confirmed voting by 2 out of N detectors

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Gas Detection

Types & Theory of operation

Safety Engineering Training – Paris La Défense – September 2010

Gas Detection

Hazards may arise as a result of loss of containment

of toxic gases and/or flammable gases.

There are three main methods of detecting flammable

(hydrocarbon) gases:

 Catalytic means Direct detection (detects

gas accumulation prior to
 Infra-red absorption reaching LFL)

 Cold Temperature (as a result of liquefied gas vaporisation)

And a method of leak detection

Indirect detection (detects
 Ultrasonic leak signature detection (for info, not yet mentioned phenomenon associated
in referential) with leak)

[+ optical methods of HC, SO2, H2S of fugitive

emissions detections (modified IR cameras, laser
based) – Not the object of this presentation]

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Flammable Gas Detection

Catalytic gas detectors

Based on catalytic oxidation of the gas at low temperature, which takes
place on the surface of a sensor element slightly heated by reaction.

Infrared (IR) gas detectors

Based on the absorption peaks typical of hydrocarbon gases
 Detection of a change in infrared radiation as higher gas concentrations absorb
more infrared radiation.

Low temperature detectors

Based on the principle that a cold spill of liquefied gas is generally
below ambient.

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 Infra-red Hydrocarbon Gas Detectors - measure

10 % LEL

30 % LEL 10 metres

100 % LEL

Reading point device Reading open path device

 100 % LEL  %LEL/100 x d = 0.1 x 10 = 1 LEL.m

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 Application of Point Gas Detection

Set Points for Flammable Gas Detectors based on % of LFL / LEL

Two-tiered approach:
 One alarm for warning & manual response,
 Plus higher set-point and alarm to initiate executive actions, e.g.
 Single Detector at 20 % LEL - Alarm
 Two Detectors at 20 % LEL - Alarm
 Single Detector at 50 % LEL - Alarm
 Two Detectors at 50 % LEL - Alarm and Automatic Executive Actions
Set Points for Toxic Gas Detectors
 Single Detector at 10 ppm - Alarm and Personnel to Muster Stations
 Single Detector at 50 ppm - Alarm and possible evacuation of Personnel
Performance = Response time
 T90 = time to give 90% reading when sensor is in contact with a gas at 100% LEL
Voting arrangement for Flammable Gas Detectors to initiate Automatic
Executive Actions
 Two out of N ( N= normally three) Detectors at 50 % LEL
 Point detectors can be used with Beam Detectors to initiate Automatic Executive
Actions

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 Some potential problems …

Catalytic detectors are subject to catalyst poisoning, meaning exposure

to silicones and other materials (grease …) can quickly make detectors
inoperable;

Calibration of detectors can also be problematic since calibration of

many detectors is dependent on the specific gas to be detected:
 Catalytic type detectors exposed to hydrocarbons such as ethane, ethylene,
propane at 20% of their LFL will give different results for each gas.

Absorption of infrared radiation by a gas depends on the gas’s

molecular structure … IR detectors are designed for use with specific
gases:
 Concentrations indicated by detectors may not be accurate when several gases
may be released or a gas mixture is present;
 Some detectors are also sensitive to changes in humidity or temperature.

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 Toxic Gas Detection

Toxic gas detectors are spot detectors that are selective towards to a
particular type of gas.

The most commonly encountered encountered toxic gas in the

upstream business is H2S - other toxic gases include Sulfur dioxide and
carbon monoxide.

Detection of H2S is generally based upon either

 semi-conductor technology
 electrochemical reaction

Semi-conductor types are generally preferred for H2S detection

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Gas Detection

Location and siting

Safety Engineering Training – Paris La Défense – September 2010

 Location of Flammable Gas Detectors

Inside RA(*) Outside RA(*)

Ventilation or combustion air intakes
- HVAC Yes No
- Turbines, fired heaters Yes No

Rooms containing elec. equipment

- Technical rooms, Control rooms Room + Air L No
- Workshops and offices Yes No

Encl. areas containing fuel sources

- Gas turbine enclosures Yes Yes
- Battery room, laboratory Yes (H2) Yes (H2)

Partially enclosed areas

- WH area, HP gas manifold etc. Yes NA
- Pits, trenches Yes NA

Open areas Yes NA

- Around LPG/LNG rotating equipment Yes NA
- Around gas compressors seals- Yes No

(*) flammable gas restricted area

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 Location of Toxic Gas Detectors

On the air intakes of occupied buildings e.g. control room, living

quarters, instrument rooms, workshops..

In open areas, generally close to sources

 around vessels and equipment where gas containing H2S may be released
 along flanged lines where there is scope for gas leakage

Main access ways to the restricted area

 boat landings and helidecks
 bridges and stairways

Along escape and evacuation routes and at the muster area

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 Gas Sensor Locations and Placement

Methodology
 Produce a Hazard mapping (colour coded) of the installation to clearly identify :
 Sources of releases by nature (flammable / toxic / hydrogen etc…)
 Sources of ignitions
 Critical targets (e.g. control room)

Common requirements
 Ensure routine access to sensors is possible
 Evaluate specific properties of the gas and
application
 Use sensor protection accessories where
appropriate (e.g. splashguard).
 Identify problems, i.e. vibration, heat, moisture,
sensor poisons, barriers, etc

Enclosed Areas
 Sensors must contact gas of interest (gas buoyancy predominant)
 Smoke generator test useful to identify indoor air current patterns and outdoor
prevailing winds
 Minimum three point detectors for ventilation inlet monitored, with maximum
separation distance between detectors to be less than 1 meter

Open Areas
 Different methods of detectors siting :
 At source :near sources of gas release - flanges , valves , compressor /pump
seals, ventilation inlets , airlocks of buildings
 Square grid ruling
 Perimeter

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 Detectors siting in open area : examples

1. AT SOURCE
2. SQUARE PITCH
3. PERIMETER

Legend :
Point flammable
Linear flammable
Point toxic

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Fire Detection

Safety Engineering Training – Paris La Défense – September 2010

 Introduction
What is fire?
 Standard definition:

“a process of combustion characterised by the emission of heat and light

accompanied by smoke or flame”

(Definition does not distinguish between controlled combustion and

uncontrolled development of a fire situation …)

Combustion is a chemical (exothermic) reaction between a fuel and oxygen:

 When molecules from a fuel react with oxygen, they combine in a fixed ratio called the
stoichiometric ratio,
 Which means that in any mixture of gases containing fuel volatiles and oxygen there is
always either an excess of fuel to combine with all of the oxygen or an excess of oxygen
to combine with all of the fuel.

Reaction between fuel and oxygen releases chemical energy, mainly as heat
…
 The amount of heat released by combustion of a specific amount of fuel is known as its
calorific value, measured in units of energy per unit mass (kJ/g, J/mol).
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 Detection - General

Many fires begin small …

The actions taken in the first minutes are usually the most important …

Therefore it is important to detect fire (or adverse conditions that could

lead to fire) as quickly as possible so that action can be taken – activate
alarms, extinguishing systems, smoke control ...

Fire affects its environment in many ways and fire detectors respond to
radiant energy / particulates (smoke) / heat, meaning:

 Optical detection (UV/IR).

 Smoke detection,
 Thermal detection.
 Fixed temperature detection

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 Fire Detection

There are three basic means of detecting fire, sometimes referred to as

fire signatures …

 FLAME

 SMOKE

 HEAT

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 Location of Fire Detectors : Examples

Well-heads FP
Process UV/IR or IR3 or CCTV

Machinery
- Gas turbine enclosure UV/IR or IR3 + RoR
- Any equip. in open area UV/IR or IR3
- Non HC equip. driven by elec. mot. I + RoR

Buildings
- Living quarters (I or O) + RoR
- Utilities in enclosure I
- Electrical room I + TS
- Shops & warehouses (I or O) + TS

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 Types of Fire Detection

Flame Detectors
 Optical sensors that respond to electromagnetic radiation and can observe flame
and/or hot CO2 emissions in various wavelengths (UV – Visible – IR)
 UV/IR type = Ultra-Violet ray detector (UV) combined with an Infra-Red ray
detector (IR).
 IR3 = multiple IR detectors combined in one detector.
 Imaging-based flame optical detectors (CCTV detection in visible wavelengths
coupled with video pop-up in CCR) – implemented on most recent FPSO
projects (and, unlike UV/IR and IR3, are not just ‘radiation’ sensors).

 Provide prompt detection …

 … but are not always reliable as single source detection devices (primarily a line
of sight device and must ‘see’ the fire),
 In addition the sensors react to specific wavelengths and the fuel must emit
radiation in the bandwidth to be ‘seen’,
 E.g. an IR detector with a single sensor tuned to 4.3 microns (CO2 emission
peak) cannot be expected to detect a non carbon-based fire,
 … reducing false alarms from welding arcs, flickering sunlight, flashing lamps …

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 Optical flame detection : pros & cons
UV Detection IR Detection
 Detects all fires (H and/or C)
 High sensitivity, fast response
 Suitable for indoor and controlled
environments
 Avoid mounting in areas exposed to high
levels of airborne contaminants or
attenuating vapours or oil on optics
UV/IR Detection
 Automatic optical integrity
 Low susceptibility to spurious trips Triple IR
 Avoid mounting in areas exposed
to high levels of airborne
contaminants or attenuating vapours
 Not recommended for hydrogen
fire detection
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 Suitable for applications with:
 Hydrocarbon fires
 Industrial environments (hot, dirty,
industrial activities)
 Applications with high levels of
airborne contaminants
 IR detectors are not suitable for non-
hydrocarbon fires
 Sensitive to black body radiation (e.g. hot
exhausts)
 Certified performance for different
hazardous fuels
 Increased overall detection range
 Enhanced cone of vision means better off-
axis performance
 Heated optics enhance performance in
adverse conditions
 Excellent rejection of modulated,
background IR radiation
 Optical flame detection : Field of View
Cone of Vision
 Conically-shaped area extends out
from detector optics
 Center axis provides highest
sensor sensitivity
 Maximum detection range depends
on sensor & fuel type
 Optimum facility protection leaves
no gaps in COV layout.
BAD GOOD
Location of detectors is critical
whenever voting is employed, adhere to
manufacturers recommendations
(including threshold settings!).

Wide acceptance for enclosures where

suppression or inerting systems require
immediate actuation.

Voting logic utilised to enhance

reliability and sensitivity.

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 Confirmation of Flame Detection ‘coverage’

Similar to previous “gas detection coverage” discussions, Industry data

is also available to assess Flame detection coverage.

The Operator is required to identify the detection ‘objectives’ (the

required ‘alarm’ and ‘control’ functions), after which industry software
can then analyse if the coverage is adequate / compliant.

Typically, this is achieved by:-

 Identifying associated risk (say ‘high’, ‘medium’ or ‘low’);
 Setting an appropriate detection ‘target’ (e.g. distance of device / fire size);
 Assigning appropriate detector quantities and locations;
 Mapping the plant, including obstructions, to ensure design compliance.

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 Area Grades / targets (typical) for Flame Detection

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 Grading Map (typical)

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 Mapping assessment of Flame Detection coverage

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 Smoke Detection

Smoke detectors
 Point devices
 Visible or invisible particles - Ionisation detector (I)
 consist of two chambers in which air is ionised by radio-active sources. The reference
chamber is sealed. When the properties of the ionised air in the sampling chamber is
modified by smoke particles the electrical balance is modified and smoke is detected.
 Good for ‘flaming’ fires.
 Visible particles - Optical / Photoelectric detectors (O)
 are based on the detection of scattering light reflected by the smoke particles.
 Good for smouldering / slow developing fires that generates smoke.

 Commonly located in:

 Control rooms,
 Computer rooms,
 Instrument rooms,
 Office areas,
 Electrical equipment rooms.

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 Heat Detection

Heat detectors
 The sensor reacts to either fixed temperature or temperature rate of rise using
one, or a combination of the following phenomena : a fixed volume of gas or
liquid to burst a bulb, an eutectic metal alloy to melt, a thermocouple, a
thermistor, a bi-metallic strip etc.
 Thermo-Static detectors (TS) are instruments measuring ambient
temperature and detecting when a set temperature threshold is reached.
 Rate-Of-Rise detectors (ROR) are measuring the rise of ambient
temperature and detect when a set temperature rate-of-rise is reached
and/or a fixed temperature threshold limit is reached. May not detect a
slowly developing fire.
 Fusible Plugs (FP) are fusible element consisting of a metal alloy on a
stainless steel loop, pressurised with instrument air (or N2) and melting at
a set temperature. The low pressure of the instrument air is used to initiate
various actions.
 Linear Fusible Plugs (FT) consist of fusible tubes, made of plastic or any
other equivalent material, filled with instrument air (or N2) at 2 or
3 bars and connected to a pressure switch. They are a profitable
alternative to networks of spot FP’s, where general area detection is more
suitable than multi-spot detection.
 Frangible bulbs/Sprinklers (SP) consist in a bulb bursting when the fluid it
contains expands and allowing water to flow.

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 Detector Selection and Layout
Selection based on a number of factors, including:
 Fuel characteristics,
 Fire growth rate,
 Ambient conditions,
 Distance from fire source to sensor,
 Obstructions to operability,
 Risk to life / escalation (dictating required ‘number/frequency’ of devices).

Best possible location – directly over the fire!

 Where specific fire hazards exist, locate detectors overhead or inside the hazard,
 In areas without specific hazards, space detectors evenly:
 Determine the maximum distance a detector can be located from a fire and still
respond within design goals,
 Determine possible sources of interfering radiation and select a device resistant to
such sources,
 Consider also potential for reduced sensitivity due to angular displacement,
temperature and humidity – follow manufacturers specific guidance for reductions
in sensitivity based on those factors.

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 A Word on F&G Alarm Audibility …
One objective of the detection system is to activate alarm(s):
 Purpose defeated if alarm is not heard or understood by personnel,
 Transmission of sound is a function of numerous factors – frequency of the signal,
background noise, construction of the facility etc.

Typical alarm systems consist of a combination of audible and visual

signals activated by F&G system:
 Audible devices can be horns, bells, speaker-based,
 Visual indicators are usually strobe lights.

Visual signals do help people decipher potentially confusing audible

alarms (number of, similarity of signals, high background noise levels),

Keep in mind people asleep will probably need to be alerted.

Frequency (Hz) and sound pressure level (dBA) of alarms is critical in

the successful design of such systems.

Standardisation of alarms, in accordance with industry practice.

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 Summary & Conclusions
Detection and alarm systems are required to provide prompt detection
of potentially hazardous conditions (commensurate to risk),

Type and design of the F&G system to be in line with the needs of the
facilities,

Dominant mode of heat transfer in process plants is radiation, detectors

that respond to radiant energy are used where fast response is critical,

If the intent is to detect specific events or ‘leaks’, location of detectors

(F&G) should take into account factors such as wind and atmospheric
conditions, potential flammable and toxic gas release sources, fire
locations and principally the manufacturers recommendations,

Inspection, maintenance and test of F&G system should be viewed as

‘safety-critical’ given the potential consequences of failure to detect,

Visual and audible alarms to be designed according to installation

location (process plant, accommodations, high & low points of
platforms …
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