Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

2008, 110, 655–661 655

Review Article
Virgin hemp seed oil: An interesting niche product

Bertrand Matthäus, Ludger Brühl

MRI – Max Rubner-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Münster, Germany

Virgin hemp seed oil is not widespread on the market, although it is characterised by an interesting fatty
acid composition with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Linoleic acid is the predominant fatty
acid, which comes, together with a-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), to approximately 80% of the total fatty acids.
From a nutritional point of view, up to 7% g-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) and 2.5% stearidonic acid (18:4n-3)
are very interesting. The total amount of tocopherols is high between 80 and 110 mg/100 g, with g-toco-
pherol as the main tocopherol (85%). Due to the high amount of unsaturated fatty acids, hemp seed oil is
very susceptible to oxidative deterioration, which results in a fast impairment of the oil during storage. In
addition, the high amounts of chlorophyll in the oil due to harvesting of high amounts of immature seeds
require light protection, which is often neglected because of merchandising purposes. The virgin oil is
characterised by a nutty taste with a slightly bitter aftertaste. The use of virgin hemp seed oil is recom-
mended during mild processing of food without heat.

Keywords: g-Linolenic acid / Hemp seed oil / Stearidonic acid / Virgin oil
Received: December 17, 2007; accepted: March 7, 2008
DOI 10.1002/ejlt.200700311

1 Introduction served historically as a source for food [2], and in the

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is probably one of the oldest field
crops used in nutrition, but also for the production of fibres
for clothes, ropes or canvas. In the middle of the 20th century,
the cultivation of the crop was prohibited in Germany, and
also in some other Western European countries, because of
the possible production of drugs from special resin glands in
the leaves. Since 1996, the cultivation of low-tetra-
hydrocannabinol (THC) hemp varieties is allowed in Ger-
many with an amount of THC between 0 and 0.2%, which led
to a revived interest in the utilisation of this crop. Only few
varieties are currently available for the cultivation of low-THC
hemp as a result of the prohibition. These varieties are opti-
mised for the production of fibre and straw, with a high yield
for stem and bast.
However, not only the straw is interesting for further
utilisation, but also the seeds can be used in different appli-
cations. Oomah et al. [1] pointed out that, in addition to
fibre, seeds become an interesting by-product. The seeds
Correspondence: Bertrand Matthäus, MRI – Max Rubner-Institute, Fed-
eral Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Piusallee 68/76, D-48147
Münster, Germany.
E-mail: bertrand.matthaus@mri.bund.de
Fax: 149 251 519275
meantime also the high nutritional value has been recog-
nised. The seeds contain about 20–25% protein, providing
reasonable amounts of eight amino acids essential to human
nutrition, but also up to 35% of oil with an interesting fatty
acid composition from a nutritional point of view. They also
contain 20–30% carbohydrates, 10–15% insoluble fibre [3]
as well as different minerals important for various enzyme
systems in humans.
2 Processing
Hemp seed oil is a product of a niche market; it is mar-
keted directly by farmers, by health-food shops or via
internet. Thus the extraction nowadays is not carried out
in huge facilities with extraction by solvent and purifica-
tion of the oil by refining, but the virgin oil is extracted
from the seeds by a screw press only. In the following, the
paper will describe in detail the characteristics of this type
of oil. The result is a product with an intensive green col-
our, because of the high amounts of chlorophyll co-
extracted with the oil.
A problem during processing is that most varieties are
developed for the production of straw and fibre and are not
optimised for the production of oil. Therefore, the material

© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

656 B. Matthäus and L. Brühl
harvested from the field shows a very heterogeneous quality,
resulting in mature seeds together with green unripe ones.
This leads to high chlorophyll contents due to the unripe
seeds. Additionally, unripe seeds contain higher amounts of
moisture, which influences the moisture content of the whole
material stored together and at least the taste and smell of the
resulting oil.
High-quality virgin hemp seed oil is distinguished by a
light to dark green colour and has a pleasant nutty taste,
sometimes accompanied by a slightly bitter aftertaste. As a
result of the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, the oil
often shows a rancid aroma resulting from the deterioration of
the fatty acids. Therefore, a very fast bottling together with the
use of nitrogen is recommended to improve the storage sta-
bility of this highly sensitive virgin oil.
3 Oil content
One important criterion to assess the economical value of an
oilseed is the oil content, because this value defines the
amount of oil extractable by certain extraction methods. In
hemp seed, the amount of oil is between 28 and 35 g/100 g [4–
6], depending on the variety, the year of cultivation, the cli-
matic conditions and the location. The oil content is a little bit
lower than in rapeseeds with an oil content of about 45 g/
100 g, which has been deeply improved by breeding research
over decades of years, but it is higher than in soybeans with an
oil content of about 20 g/100 g.
Therefore extraction of hemp seeds by a screw press for
the production of virgin oil is worthwhile from an economical
point of view, with an average oil content of more than 30%
oil. By this method, 60–80% of oil can be extracted from the
seed material, depending on the settings of the screw press.
Taking into account the high average price for this niche oil on
the market, which is remarkably higher than the average prices
© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008, 110, 655–661
for olive oil, extra-virgin or virgin rapeseed oil, the production
of virgin hemp seed oil can be interesting.
4 Fatty acid composition
The fatty acid profile is another important criterion for the
evaluation of an oilseed crop, because it characterises the
suitability of the oil for certain applications more than any
other parameter of an oilseed.
Hemp seed oil is unusually high in unsaturated fatty
acids and the predominant fatty acids are linoleic acid and
a-linolenic acid, which amount to up to 80 g/100 g of the
total fatty acids [6–9]. Figure 1 shows the average variation
of the fatty acid composition of the hemp seed varieties
given in Table 1. The ratio between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids
is 3 : 1. On the other side, the oil is low in saturated fatty
acids, which consist mainly of palmitic and stearic acid in
amounts of approximately 9g/100g, with palmitic acid as the
predominant saturated fatty acid.
In addition to the fatty acids found in most of the com-
monly used edible oils, hemp seed oil contains remarkable
amounts of g-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) and stearidonic acid
(18:4n-3). Both fatty acids act in the human body as pre-
cursors for the synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids and of
eicosanoids. In the literature, the amount of g-linolenic acid is
described as in the range from 0.34 to 6.8 g/100 g, depending
on the variety, the growing conditions and the field site [6–8].
Higher amounts of this fatty acid are synthesised in evening
primrose (Oenothera macrocarpa) (8.5 g/100 g) and borage
(Borago officinalis) (16.3 and 20.5 g/100 g, respectively) [10,
11]. The occurrence of stearidonic acid is limited to a few
plant families. Mölleken and Theimer [7] and Callaway et al.
[12] found stearidonic acid in hemp seed oil in amounts up to
2.5 g/100 g, while Matthäus et al. [6] specified the amount of
stearidonic acid between 0.4 and 1.5 g/100 g in 2000 and 0.5
Figure 1. Fatty acid composition of hemp seed oil
from different cultivars harvested in 2000 and 2001
(Table 1). The fatty acid composition was determined
according to DGF method C-VI 10a (00) [39]. Unpub-
lished data from the authors’ laboratory.
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008, 110, 655–661 Hemp seed oil 657

and 1.6 g/100 g in 2001, with a mean amount of about 1.0 g/ 5 Tocopherols
100 g in both years. The amount of the monounsaturated fatty
acid oleic acid ranges between 7 and 16 g/100 g [6, 9]. The amount and composition of tocopherols and tocotrienols in
With respect to optimised nutrition, hemp seed oil obtained the oil is a further important feature of oilseeds. In hemp seed oil,
from seeds either after cold pressing by a screw press in form of Matthäus et al. [6] found total tocopherols in amounts ranging
virgin oil or after extraction by solvent is a very interesting between 41 and 102 mg/100 g in 2000, with a mean amount of
supplementation to commonly used edible oils. In addition to 77 mg/100 g, and between 66 and 111 mg/100 g in 2001, with a
high amounts of linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid, it also con- mean amount of 80 mg/100 g (Fig. 2). Tocotrienols were not
tains significant amounts of g-linolenic acid and stearidonic detected. Similar amounts were described by Oomah et al. [1]
acid. Both fatty acids have some special relevance for human with a total amount of 79.7 mg/100 g. The predominant toco-
nutrition, because g-linolenic acid is normally derived from pherol in the oil is g-tocopherol representing about 85% of the
linoleic acid and serves as an intermediary for the formation of total tocopherols. The amount of the other tocopherols is low,
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids. Eico- with about 5% for a- and d-tocopherol and less than 1% for b-
sanoids are short-lived, hormone-like substances that play an tocopherol and plastochromanol-8 [6]. Oomah et al. [1] found
important role in the control of vital processes ranging from the the ratio between the tocopherols in hemp seed oil as 5 : 2 : 90 : 3
control of inflammation and vascular tone to initiation of con- for a/b/g/d-tocopherol, respectively.
tractions during delivery [13, 14]. In mammals, the conversion Tocopherols act as natural antioxidants against oxidative
of linoleic acid to g-linolenic acid is slow, especially during deterioration of the oil, but also as vitamin E in human nutri-
stress, ageing or diseases (hypertension, diabetes, etc.). If the tion [22–24]. They are able to reduce the risk of cardiovas-
conversion from linoleic acid to g-linolenic acid by the enzyme cular diseases, cancer and age-related macular degeneration
D-6-desaturase is disturbed, a dietary supplementation with g- [25]. In nature, four different derivatives of tocopherols and
linolenic acid can help to improve the situation [15, 16]. Posi- tocotrienols (a-, b-, g-, d-) can be found, differing in the
tive effects of g-linolenic acid have been observed on patients methylation of the chroman ring. The antioxidant activity
with rheumatoid arthritis and atopic dermatitis [17, 18]. increases for tocopherols and tocotrienols in the order a to d,
From recent studies it became obvious that dietary stear- whereas the biological activity is opposite to the antioxidant
idonic acid increased eicosapentaenoic acid more efficiently activity [26, 27]. Another member of this class of compounds
than a-linolenic acid. This conclusion leads to the assumption is plastochromanol-8 (P-8). Its structure is similar to that of g-
that vegetable oils containing this fatty acid may present an tocopherol, but its basic molecular structure is a chromanol-6
interesting source of n-3 fatty acids that is more effective in ring in which methyl groups are located at positions 2, 7 and
increasing tissue n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentra- 8. The number of isoprene units on the side chain of posi-
tions than the current a-linolenic acid-containing vegetable tion 2 is variable. Plastochromanol-8 is described as being
oils [19]. Stearidonic acid is also interesting for people who more effective against oxidative deterioration than a-toco-
suffer from a deficit in their D-6-desaturase function. An ad- pherol [28], while tocotrienols are less helpful in inhibiting
ditional supplementation of stearidonic acid can improve the autoxidation than tocopherols [29].
formation of eicosanoids for people with such a deficit [20].
The ratio between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids is even lower
than the recommendations of the nutrition societies of Ger- Table 1. Origin of the different genotypes.
many, Austria and Switzerland (D-A-CH recommendations
for nutrition), which define the optimal ratio as 4 : 1 to 5 : 1 No. Genotype Origin Sex type Source
[21]. The Western European diets show more or less a ratio of
1 52092 Turkey dioecious BAZ
10 : 1. Therefore, implementation of hemp seed oil into the 2 52137 Turkey dioecious BAZ
diet would shift the ratio towards the D-A-CH recommenda- 3 Beniko Poland monoecious Saatbau Linz
tions. On the other hand, it has to be taken into consideration 4 Bialobrezeskie Poland monoecious Saatbau Linz
that linoleic acid is highly susceptible to oxidation, resulting in 5 Dneprovskaya Ukraine monoecious IBC
the favoured formation of oxidised LDL-cholesterol respon- odnodomnaya 14
sible for the development of arteriosclerosis. The increased 6 Epsilon 68 France monoecious LAP
propensity of polyunsaturated fatty acids to oxidation leads to 7 Fasamo Germany monoecious FAL
an uptake of oxidised LDL by macrophages, which settle in 8 Fédora 19 France hybrid FAL
the arteries as foam cells. This is the basis for arteriosclerosis. population§
9 Fédrina 74 France hybrid FAL
Additionally, oxidation products from polyunsaturated fatty
population§
acids play an important roll in aging processes and develop-
10 Félina 34 France hybrid FAL
ment of tumours. Thus, nowadays it is recommended to lower population§
the uptake of linoleic acid and to increase the uptake of 11 Férimon France monoecious FAL
monounsaturated oleic acid. From this point of view, a mod- 12 Fibrimon 56 France monoecious BAZ
erate consumption of hemp seed oil is recommended.

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658 B. Matthäus and L. Brühl Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008, 110, 655–661

Table 1. Continued 6 Phytosterols

No. Genotype Origin Sex type Source
A class of components usually accompanied by fat are
13 Futura France monoecious FAL phytosterols, which are known to reduce LDL-cholesterol
14 F6T Hungary monoecious FAL (Switzerland) in the blood. The American Heart Association recom-
15 CAN16 Slovakia dioecious IPK mended the uptake of phytosterols for lowering the risk of
16 CAN17 Hungary dioecious IPK atherosclerosis. Investigation of the phytosterol composi-
17 CAN18 Germany dioecious IPK tion revealed that hemp seed oil contains between 3.6 and
18 CAN20 Korea dioecious IPK 6.7 g phytosterols/kg oil, with b-sitosterol as the main
19 CAN21 Rumania dioecious IPK component corresponding to about 70% of the total phy-
20 CAN22 Georgia dioecious IPK
tosterol content (Table 2). Other phytosterols with some
21 CAN23 Korea dioecious IPK
importance are campesterol, D5-avenasterol and stigmas-
22 CAN24 Italy dioecious IPK
23 CAN26 Turkey dioecious IPK terol. In contrast to other oils high in linoleic acid like
24 CAN27 unknown dioecious IPK safflower or sunflower oil, hemp seed oil does not contain
25 CAN28 (‘Forose’) unknown dioecious IPK considerable amounts of D7-phytosterols. D7-Campes-
26 CAN29 Rumania dioecious IPK terol, D7-stigmastenol and D7-avenasterol amount only to
27 CAN30 (‘Bernburger’) Germany subdioecious IPK about 2% of the total phytosterols.
28 CAN31 Rumania dioecious IPK
29 CAN32 Rumania dioecious IPK
30 CAN33 Rumania dioecious IPK
Table 2. Phytosterol composition of virgin hemp seed oil from ten
31 CAN36 unknown dioecious IPK
different cultivars harvested in 2000 (Table 1: nos. 12, 14, 26, 29,
32 Glera Ukraine monoecious LAP
32, 43, 46, 47, 49, 51). Phytosterol composition and content were
33 Gluchivski-33 Ukraine monoecious IBC
determined according to DGF method F-III 1 [39]. Unpublished
34 Gluchivski-46 Ukraine monoecious IBC
35 Helvetica Switzerland dioecious FAL (Switzerland)
data from the authors’ laboratory.
36 Juso 14 Ukraine monoecious LAP
Phytosterol Average content Range
37 Juso 31 Ukraine monoecious FAL
[mg/kg] [mg/kg]
38 Kompolti Hungary dioecious GATE
39 Lipko Hungary hybrid GATE
Cholesterol 34 22–74
population
Brassicasterol 0 0
40 Lovrin 110 Rumania dioecious FAL
24-Methylene-cholesterol 40 25–81
41 P51 (T. belt6Sz. belt) Hungary unknown GATE
Campesterol 709 257–1001
42 P52 Hungary unknown GATE
Campestanol 11 0–19
(K.unisex6Kompolti)
Stigmasterol 133 97–181
43 P53 (F. belt6T. belt)) Hungary unknown GATE
D7-Campesterol 26 12–39
44 P54 Hungary unknown GATE
5,23-Stigmastadienol 0 0
(K. unisex6UnikoB)
Chlerosterol 36 23–74
45 P57 (Fibr.6(F6T)) Hungary unknown GATE
Sitosterol 3191 2704–4434
46 P59 (Kinai unisex) Hungary unisexual GATE
Sitostanol 76 39–127
47 P60 Hungary unknown GATE
D5-Avenasterol 336 209–572
(Fibr.6K. unisex)
5,24-Stigmastadienol 54 36–65
48 Ramo Germany dioecious BAZ
D7-Stigmasterol 30 19–47
49 Uniko-B (F1) Hungary unisexual GATE
D7-Avenasterol 51 32–79
50 Uso 14 Ukraine monoecious IBC
Total phytosterols 4727 3922–6719
51 Zolotonoshskaya 11 Ukraine monoecious IBC

§
Population with 50% monoecious and 50% female plants.
IPK: Genbank des Institutes für Pflanzengenetik und Kultur-
pflanzenforschung, Gatersleben, Germany; LAP: Landesanstalt für
Pflanzenbau, Forchheim, Germany; FAL Bundesforschungsanstalt 7 Oxidative stability
für Landwirtschaft, Braunschweig, Germany; FAL (Switzerland):
Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Agrarökologie und Landbau, Due to the fatty acid composition with a high amount of
Zürich, Switzerland; BAZ: Genbank der Bundesanstalt für Züch- polyunsaturated fatty acids, hemp seed oil is very susceptible
tungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen, Braunschweig, Germany; GATE to oxidative deterioration during storage but also during the
“Fleischmann Rudolf ” Landwirtschaftliches Versuchsinstitut, Kom-
polt, Hungary; IBC: Institute of Bast Crops of the Ukrainian Acad-
preparation of food by means of heat. Thus, hemp seed oil is
emy of the Agrarian Sciences, Glukhov, Ukraine; Saatbau Linz, Linz, not suitable for the preparation of food if it is exposed to
Austria; DSV: Deutsche Saatveredelung Lippstadt-Bremen GmbH, higher temperatures over a longer period of time. Virgin hemp
Lippstadt, Germany. seed oil shows a significantly shorter oxidative stability in the

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008, 110, 655–661
Rancimat test at 120 7C in comparison to virgin oils from
rapeseed or olives. While virgin rapeseed oil and olive oil have
an oxidative stability of about 4 and 6 h, respectively, virgin
hemp seed oil is clearly oxidatively deteriorated after less than
1 h (unpublished data from the authors’ laboratory).
It is important that the oil is consumed within a short time
after opening of the bottle, because oxidative deterioration
proceeds very fast during storage (Fig. 3). Figure 3 reveals, as
a measure for oxidative deterioration, that the increase of the
peroxide value depends on the fatty acid composition of the
oil. While rapeseed oil, having a high content of mono-
unsaturated oleic acid, shows a moderate increase during
storage, this increase was more pronounced for sunflower oil
and even much more for hemp seed oil, the latter consisting of
up to about 80% of polyunsaturated linoleic and linolenic
acids. Due to these oxidatively susceptible fatty acids, the sta-
bility of hemp seed oil during storage in a bottle is small in
comparison to the stability of virgin rapeseed or sunflower oil.
This deterioration becomes already noticeable by a varnish-
like smell, which reminds of linoleum or putty. Virgin hemp
seed oil stored for more than 2 months in opened bottles
should not be used for human consumption. Especially in the
case of virgin hemp seed oil, it is practical to provide only
small-sized bottles containing amounts of oil that are more
easily manageable by the consumer.
In comparison to the oil, the seeds are not susceptible to
oxidative deterioration during storage, because within the
protective seed hull the oil is storable over a long period of
time. Thus, it is recommended to store the seeds under dry
and cool conditions and to process only amounts of virgin
hemp seed oil manageable on the market.
Usually, no oligomer triacylglycerols should be detectable
in virgin oils that were not treated by heat during production.
For virgin olive oil, the detection of oligomer triacylglycerols
© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Hemp seed oil 659
Figure 2. Tocopherol composition of hemp seed oil
from different cultivars harvested in 2000 and 2001
(Table 1). The tocopherol composition and content was
determined according to DGF method F-II 4a (00) [39].
Unpublished data from the authors’ laboratory.
serves as a positive proof for a heat treatment. The limit for
olive oil given as 0.15 g oligomer triacylglycerols/100 g is not
suitable for virgin hemp seed oil. As a result of the high con-
tent of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which form polymers
during storage more readily than the monounsaturated fatty
acids in olive oil, certain amounts of oligomer triacylglycerols
can be found in virgin hemp seed oil not treated by heat during
production. Oligomer triacylglycerols in virgin hemp seed oil
were found in amounts between 0.02 and 0.21 g/100 g, which
would indicate a heat treatment in the case of olive oil
(unpublished data from the authors’ laboratory).
Chlorophyll as a photosensitiser even increases the sus-
ceptibility to oxidation. Therefore, virgin hemp seed oil has to
be stored in the dark and provisions have to be taken to protect
the oil from light. An insufficient protection of the virgin oil
can be detected easily by a change from the green colour of the
oil to yellow. However, in many cases, hemp seed oil is mer-
chandised in clear glass in order to attract the consumer’s
interest. In many cases, this results in a fast oxidative dete-
rioration of the oil in the bottle, resulting in a rancid aroma.
8 THC in hemp seed oil
Hemp varieties grown for fibre or seeds and licensed for
farming in the European Union (EU) and Canada should
have a THC content of less than 0.2% (measured in the upper
third of the plant). In Germany, the Federal Institute for Risk
Assessment (BfR) estimated a provisional tolerable THC
intake of 1–2 mg/kg/day [30], and from this estimation a pre-
cautionary guidance value for THC in hemp seed oil of
5000 mg/kg was defined in the year 2000 [31].
In general, THC, a sticky resin produced primarily in the
flowering tops of female plants with certain psychoactivity,
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660 B. Matthäus and L. Brühl
should be no problem for virgin hemp seed oil, but a market
survey regarding the quality of hemp seed oils in the USA
from 1997 revealed THC levels from 11 to 117 mg/g [32]. All
samples exceeded the limit defined by the BfR in the year
2000. Also other investigations showed that the oil can contain
measurable amounts of THC [33, 34].
If THC is found in the oil, it results from the external
contact of the seed hulls with cannabinoid-containing resins in
bracts and leaves during maturation, harvesting and proces-
sing. Several papers showed that THC is located on the out-
side of the seed hulls [35–37].
During the refining process, THC is removed from the
oil, but for the producer of virgin hemp seed oil, it is
highly recommended to carefully control the seed cleaning
in order to securely hold the limit. The use of low-THC
cultivars and thorough seed cleaning are effective in re-
ducing THC levels in the oil. A study on the effectiveness
of various dry and wet cleaning methods showed that it is
possible to reduce the levels of THC in the oil in the range
of 5 mg/g [38].
9 Conclusion
Virgin hemp seed oil has a niche market, but as a result of the
unique fatty acid composition the oil seems to be interesting
for human nutrition, and also for pharmaceutical and cos-
metic applications. Especially because of the fatty acid com-
position with certain amounts of g-linolenic acid and stear-
idonic acid, hemp seed oil is an interesting supplementation
for humans with deficits in the enzyme system for the pro-
duction of eicosanoids. The co-occurrence of g-linolenic acid
and stearidonic acid in domesticated plants is rare. Only in
black currant seed oil, gooseberry seed oil and oils of seeds
from the genus Echinum high amounts of both fatty acids are
found.
© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2008, 110, 655–661
Figure 3. Development of the peroxide value of virgin
hemp seed oil (n), sunflower oil (r) and rapeseed
oil (m) during storage at room temperature. Peroxide
values were determined according to DGF method C-
IV 6a Part 1 (05) [39]. Unpublished data from the
authors’ laboratory.
The recommended use of virgin hemp seed oil is in the
preparation of cold dishes like salads, because the oil is very
susceptible to oxidative deterioration adversely affecting the
taste and smell of the oil. Even the relatively high amount of
tocopherols, consisting mainly of the antioxidatively active g-
tocopherol, does not lead to a high storage stability of the oil.
After a short storage time, the oil is no longer suitable for hu-
man consumption.
Conflict of interest statement
The author have declared no conflict of interest.
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