International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

High-performance work practices, work social support and their effects on job embeddedness and
turnover intentions
Osman M. Karatepe
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Osman M. Karatepe, (2013),"High-performance work practices, work social support and their effects on job embeddedness
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High-
High-performance work performance
practices, work social support practices
and their effects on job
903
embeddedness and turnover
intentions Received 21 June 2012
Revised 13 September 2012
14 November 2012
Osman M. Karatepe 25 January 2013
Accepted 10 February 2013
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Faculty of Tourism, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to propose and test a research model that examines whether
job embeddedness mediates the effects of high-performance work practices and work social support on
turnover intentions.
Design/methodology/approach – Based on data gathered from 174 full-time frontline employees
in the four- and five-star hotels, with a time lag of two weeks in Iran, the relationships were tested
using LISREL 8.30 through structural equation modeling.
Findings – Results suggest that job embeddedness fully mediates the effects of high-performance
work practices and work social support on turnover intentions. Specifically, frontline employees with
high-performance work practices and work social support are more embedded in their jobs, and
therefore, are unlikely to display intentions to leave the organization.
Research limitations/implications – Testing hope as a moderator of the effects of
high-performance work practices and work social support on job embeddedness in future studies
would add to the existing knowledge base. The time lag used in this study provides limited support for
causal inferences. Therefore, future studies should use a longer time lag than it was done in this study.
Originality/value – The present study adds to the current literature by investigating the
antecedents of job embeddedness. This study also adds to the current knowledge base by examining
job embeddedness as a mediator of the effects of high-performance work practices and work social
support on turnover intentions through data collected in the hotel industry in Iran, a developing
non-Western country.
Keywords Iran, Hospitality management, Hotels, Human resource management, Employees turnover,
Working practices, Employee retention
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
In a market environment where there are competitive pressures, hospitality managers
realize that acquisition and retention of high performing frontline employees is a key to
delivery of service quality. Job embeddedness (JE) which is an employee retention
International Journal of
strategy has three dimensions: links, fit, and sacrifice (Mitchell et al., 2001). Links are Contemporary Hospitality
defined as “formal or informal connections between a person and institutions or other Management
Vol. 25 No. 6, 2013
people”, while fit refers to “an employee’s perceived compatibility or comfort with an pp. 903-921
organization and with his or her environment” (Mitchell et al., 2001, p. 1105). Finally, q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-6119
sacrifice refers to “the perceived cost of material or psychological benefits that may be DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-06-2012-0097
 IJCHM forfeited by leaving a job” (Mitchell et al., 2001, p. 1105). JE may enable hospitality
25,6 managers to acquire and retain quality employees in the workplace.
Studies have focused on high-performance work practices (HPWPs) that influence
employees’ motivation to have high-performance in the workplace (e.g. Tang and
Tang, 2012). Human resource activities which are performance-enhancing are regarded
as HPWPs. For example, training (TRA), empowerment (EMP), rewards (REW),
904 work-family balance, employee selectivity, and/or employment security seem to be the
potential indicators of HPWPs (e.g. Boselie et al., 2005; Huselid, 1995). Social support
refers to “an interpersonal transaction that involves emotional concern, instrumental
aid, information, or appraisal” (Carlson and Perrewé, 1999, p. 514). Social support
received in the workplace refers to work social support (WSS). Employees with HPWPs
and WSS appear to be more embedded in their jobs (cf. Bergiel et al., 2009). Such
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employees in turn are expected to have low levels of intentions to leave the
organization. Accordingly, JE seems to mediate the effects of HPWPs and WSS on
turnover intentions (TI).

Purpose and contribution

Grounded in this backdrop, this study proposes a research model that examines
whether HPWPs and WSS influence TI indirectly through JE. Specifically, this study
tests (a) the impacts of HPWPs and WSS on JE; (b) the relationship between JE and TI;
and (c) JE as a mediating variable between HPWPs and WSS and TI.
The present study contributes to JE research in the following ways. First, an
examination of the current literature demonstrates that the antecedents of JE have been
largely ignored. This can be observed through limited recent studies. For instance,
Wheeler et al. (2010) argue that JE is an important employee retention strategy in
human resource management and researchers need to learn much about JE as a key
mediating variable. Ng and Feldman (2011) discuss that what causes employees to
become embedded in their jobs needs to be investigated. Holtom et al. (2012) also
discuss that empirical studies should go beyond past studies that focus on the
consequences of JE by examining its antecedents.
Since JE is an employee retention strategy that hampers employees’ cognitive or
behavioral withdrawal, it is important to investigate and explicate factors that foster
employees’ JE. With this realization, this study tests the effects of TRA, EMP, and
REW as the indicators of HPWPs and supervisor support and coworker support as the
indicators of WSS on JE.
Second, what is already known about HPWPs and JE is largely dependent on the
findings of the Western-based studies (cf. Karatepe, 2011a; Zhang and Li, 2009).
Therefore, the relationships mentioned above are tested using data obtained in the
hotel industry in Iran, a developing non-Western country.
Finally, the findings associated with this study may enable hospitality managers to
acquire and retain quality employees. For instance, if found viable, managers can take
decisive steps to invest in HPWPs and WSS to increase their employees’ JE.

Research model and hypotheses

Research model
According to the model in Figure 1, the first hypothesis refers to the effects of HPWPs
on JE. That is, TRA, EMP, and REW as the indicators of HPWPs stimulate employees’
 High-
performance
practices

905
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Figure 1.
Research model

JE. There are at least two reasons for selecting these HPWPs. First, TRA, EMP, and
REW are among the most effective human resource management practices (Boselie
et al., 2005; Tang and Tang, 2012). The simultaneous emphasis on TRA, EMP, and
REW is a signal of management commitment to service quality (Babakus et al., 2003;
Karatepe and Karadas, 2012). Additionally, TRA, EMP, and/or REW have been
consistently recommended as the effective management practices for the hospitality
industry (e.g. Baum, 2006; Henry et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2012; Lo et al., 2010). Second,
there appear to be only two empirical studies which have examined the effects of TRA,
EMP, and/or REW on JE (Bergiel et al., 2009; Karatepe and Karadas, 2012). With this
realization, this study goes one step further by treating HPWPs (i.e. TRA, EMP, REW)
as a second-order latent construct. This helps determine the most important indicator
of HPWPs and the joint effects of these HPWPs on JE.
The relationship between WSS and JE represents the second hypothesis. WSS in the
form of supervisor support and coworker support reduces stressors and strain (Deery,
2008; Hammer et al., 2004) and leads to desired employee outcomes (Ito and
Brotheridge, 2005). Moreover, there is still a high turnover rate in the hotel industry
(Crick and Spencer, 2011; Lub et al., 2012). Employees with TI impede the quality of
customer service, have low morale, send negative signals to their coworkers
concerning the nature of their jobs and the organization, and weaken business
reputation (Lucas, 2004; Magnini et al., 2011). However, empirical research about the
 IJCHM effect of WSS on JE is sparse (cf. Bergiel et al., 2009; Karatepe, 2011a). In the current
25,6 study WSS (as manifested by supervisor support and coworker support) is treated as a
second-order latent construct. This helps determine the most important indicator of
WSS and leads to a prediction of the joint effects of the indicators of WSS
(i.e. supervisor support, coworker support) on JE.
The third hypothesis indicates that JE decreases employees’ TI. The fourth
906 hypothesis shows that JE fully mediates the effects of HPWPs on TI. Likewise, the fifth
hypothesis demonstrates that JE completely mediates the relationship between WSS
and TI. Specifically, this study posits that HPWPs aligned with WSS increase JE that
in turn reduces TI. Consistent with recent studies (Harris et al., 2011; Wheeler et al.,
2010), JE is treated as a key mediating construct between HPWPs and WSS and TI.
The aforementioned relationships are tested via data collected in the hotel industry
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in Iran. The Iranian work environment is devoid of modern human resource

management practices (e.g. Yeganeh and Su, 2008). Although managers believe that
TRA programs are important for employees, they do not allocate adequate time to
planning, preparation, and evaluation stages (Yeganeh and Su, 2008). It seems that
such employees are devoid of adequate authority to manage customer problems
successfully. The compensation policies are not linked to performance appraisal
process and the compensation practices are not transparent (Namazie and Frame,
2007). This appears to be due to nepotism, unfairness, and subjectivity (Namazie and
Frame, 2007). Under these circumstances, the existing compensation policies and
practices do not motivate employees for displaying better performance in the
workplace (Yeganeh and Su, 2008).
Poor human resource management practices, coupled with nepotism and high labor
turnover, are among the most important problems in the Iranian work environment
(e.g. Karatepe, 2011b; Namazie and Frame, 2007). Such problems in the workplace
result in poor services. It is not surprising that service standards, especially in the
major state and quasi-state hospitality businesses, are very poor (O’Gorman et al.,
2007). In short, extension of JE research to the developing non-Western countries and
different service settings is important for gaining richer insights.

Direct effects
The hypothesized relationships pertaining to the effects of HPWPs and WSS on JE are
developed based on guidelines provided by social exchange theory (SET). According to
SET, “social exchange relationships tend to involve the exchange of socioemotional
benefits. They are associated with close personal attachments and open-ended
obligations” (Cropanzano et al., 2003, p. 161). While economic exchanges are based on
transactions, are tangible, and seem to be more short term, social exchanges are based
on trust and unspecified future obligations (Konovsky and Pugh, 1994). If frontline
employees find that management of the hotel invests in HPWPs in the form of TRA,
EMP, and REW, they feel obliged to respond via elevated levels of JE. Similarly, if
frontline employees work in an environment where there are trusting and quality
relationships between managerial employees and non-managerial employees, they feel
obliged to respond via high levels of JE.
Hospitality firms investing in human resources in terms of TRA, EMP, and REW
are likely to retain quality frontline employees. For example, these practices are
important at Ritz-Carlton for retention of employees (Kotler et al., 2010). When frontline
 employees find that they are trained to enhance the knowledge, skills, and abilities, are High-
empowered to handle customer requests and complaints promptly, and are given performance
financial and non-financial REW based on fair performance appraisal, they reciprocate.
Such employees feel obliged to respond by showing high levels of JE. Employees with practices
elevated levels of JE find that their future plans and career goals fit well with the job
and organizational culture and they do not sacrifice benefits and opportunities
provided by the organization. Under these circumstances, they are highly embedded in 907
their jobs.
Bergiel et al. (2009) reported that compensation and TRA positively influenced JE.
Recently, Karatepe and Karadas (2012) found that TRA, EMP, and REW stimulated JE
among frontline hotel employees in Romania. In short, the availability of HPWPs
makes employees become embedded in their jobs. Accordingly, the first hypothesis is
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as follows:
H1. HPWPs are positively related to JE.
Consistent with guidelines provided by SET, employees who have trusting and quality
relationships with their supervisors and coworkers are embedded in the social web of
the organization. Such trusting and quality relationships with supervisors and
coworkers indicate that employees have good connections to individuals in the
organization. The presence of adequate and quality WSS also signals that the
organization amply invests in employees in terms of learning and skill acquisition.
Accordingly, employees who receive emotional support and instrumental aid from
their supervisors and coworkers when things get difficult in the workplace reciprocate
via JE.
It was reported that supervisor support triggered JE (Bergiel et al., 2009). Recently,
Karatepe (2011a) demonstrated that supervisor support enhanced JE among frontline
hotel employees in Cameroon. Therefore, the second hypothesis is as follows:
H2. WSS is positively related to JE.
Employee withdrawal behavior represents disengagement from the organization (Somers,
2009). Employee withdrawal behavior in the form of tardiness, absenteeism, or voluntary
turnover is costly for employers. Intention to leave the organization that represents
cognitive withdrawal is also costly for employers (Fugate et al., 2012). The hospitality
industry has been characterized by such cognitive and behavioral withdrawals (e.g.,
Magnini et al., 2011). Employees with intention to leave the organization deliver poor
services and impede successful service recovery efforts (cf. Aksu, 2008).
In this study, TI that represents cognitive withdrawal is treated as an outcome of JE.
There is evidence that JE reduces cognitive withdrawal such as TI. For example, Jiang
et al.’s (2012) meta-analytic inquiry showed that JE was negatively associated with TI.
Other empirical studies also provided evidence that JE was an antidote to TI (Bergiel
et al., 2009; Crossley et al., 2007; Karatepe, 2011a). Therefore, the third hypothesis is as
follows:
H3. JE is negatively related to TI.

Mediating effects
JE theory proposes that JE is a key mediator in the relationship between organizational
factors and employee retention (Mitchell et al., 2001). HPWPs and WSS are among
 IJCHM these factors that enhance JE, and therefore, lead to low levels of TI. The simultaneous
25,6 implementation of TRA, EMP, and REW increases JE, because the organization widely
invests in human resources through TRA programs that increase the knowledge,
skills, and abilities of employees. Such employees have high levels of JE when the
organization moves decision-making authority through EMP to non-managerial
employees in frontline service jobs and has fair reward policies in place. These
908 employees feel that their future plans and career goals fit well with the requirements of
frontline service jobs and organizational culture and believe that leaving the current
organization gives rise to potential loss of benefits and opportunities associated with
their career and advancement. Also consistent with the internal fit perspective, the
simultaneous implementation of such HPWPs results in synergy and helps managers
to retain quality employees (Karatepe and Karadas, 2012).
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In addition, employees who receive emotional support and instrumental aid from
their supervisors and coworkers have quality links and get connected to the job and
organization. When employees obtain such quality links in the workplace, they do not
sacrifice them by displaying voluntary turnover. This is not surprising, because these
quality links may be missing in the new organization employees are willing to work
for. Under these circumstances, employees with adequate support emanating from
their supervisors and coworkers are more embedded in the job, and therefore, are less
inclined to leave the organization.
The extant literature provides limited empirical findings regarding the mediating
role of JE in this process. Specifically, Bergiel et al. (2009) demonstrated that
compensation and growth opportunity influenced TI only via JE. They further showed
that the impact of supervisor support on TI was partially mediated by JE. It was shown
that the impact of human resource management effectiveness on TI was fully mediated
by JE (Wheeler et al., 2010). In Harris et al.’s (2011) study, it was shown that employees
having high quality relationships with their supervisors were embedded in their jobs,
and therefore, displayed low levels of TI. Karatepe (2011a) reported that JE functioned
as a full mediator of the impact of supervisor support on job outcomes such as service
recovery performance and TI. However, Karatepe and Karadas (2012) found that JE
acted as a partial mediator of the effects of EMP and REW on service recovery
performance. Accordingly, this study proposes that HPWPs and WSS influence TI
indirectly through JE. This prompts the hypotheses that:
H4. JE fully mediates the effects of HPWPs on TI.
H5. JE fully mediates the effect of WSS on TI.

Method
Sample
Consistent with works of Ariffin and Maghzi (2012) and Karatepe (2011b), this study
used judgmental sampling, which refers to “picking cases that are judged to be typical
of the population in which we are interested, assuming that errors of judgment in the
selection will tend to counterbalance one another” ( Judd et al., 1991, p. 136).
Accordingly, data were collected from frontline employees (e.g. front desk agents, food
servers, door attendants, guest relations representatives, reservations agents) in the
four- and five-star hotels in Iran. The selection criteria were that these frontline
employees had a high degree of interaction with customers, were responsible for
 handling customer requests and complaints, and had full-time jobs. Detailed High-
information about procedure is presented in the Appendix. performance
A total of 270 questionnaires were distributed to frontline employees at Time
I. There were 215 questionnaires obtained by the cut-off date for data collection. practices
However, one questionnaire was eliminated because of incomplete information. Of the
questionnaires, 214 were returned, providing a response rate of 79.3 percent. In total,
214 Time II questionnaires were then distributed to the same frontline employees. 909
There were 175 Time II questionnaires returned by the cut-off date for data collection.
Again one questionnaire was removed due to incomplete information. In total, 174
questionnaires were obtained with a response rate of 64.4 percent of the sample at
Time I and 81.3 percent of the sample at Time II.
The results of independent samples t-test showed that the mean difference between
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respondents filled out the Time I and Time II questionnaires (M ¼ 2.41) and the ones
who filled out only the Time I questionnaires (M ¼ 3.18) was significant in terms of
REW ( p , 0.05). That is, respondents who did not fill out the Time II questionnaires
had a significantly higher mean score for REW than the ones who filled out the Time I
and Time II questionnaires. The rest of the results revealed no significant differences.

Measurement
All perceptual variables depicted in Figure 1 were measured via scales in the current
literature. In this study, the Time I and Time II questionnaires were prepared in light of
the back-translation method (Parameswaran and Yaprak, 1987). Broadly speaking, the
Time I and Time II questionnaires were prepared in English. Then, individuals who
were fluent in Persian and English managed the translation process. The Time I and
Time II questionnaires were pre-tested with senior employees who were responsible for
coordinating data collection with the researcher. As a result, no changes were deemed
necessary in the Time I and Time II questionnaires.

Data analysis
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is used to “analyze interrelationships among a large
number of variables and to explain these variables in terms of their common
underlying dimensions (factors)” (Hair et al., 2010, p. 16). In this study, the measures
were initially subjected to EFA using principal components with varimax rotation.
Then, this study employed a two-step approach in order to test the psychometric
properties of measures and assess the relationships (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).
First, in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), “the researcher must specify both the
number of factors that exist for a set of variables and which factor each variable will
load on before results can be computed” (Hair et al., 2010, p. 693). In the present study,
all measures were subjected to CFA via LISREL 8.30 to provide support for convergent
and discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Fornell and Larcker, 1981;
Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996). Reliability for each variable was evaluated via composite
reliability (CR) (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988).
Second, two models (i.e. fully and partially mediated models) were compared using
the x2 difference test ( p , 0.05). The partially mediated model included the direct
impacts of HPWPs and WSS on TI. It also included the indirect impacts of HPWPs and
WSS on TI through JE. The fully mediated model consisted of the indirect effects of
HPWPs and WSS on TI only through JE. If the partially mediated model does improve
 IJCHM fit, the fully mediated model is considered for analyzing the relationships. The
25,6 relationships in the research model were tested via structural equation modeling
(SEM). The sample size of the study seems to be in line with a number of suggestions
about the sample size requirement (i.e. 150) needed for employing SEM (Hair et al.,
2010).

910 Results
Respondents’ profile
Table I presents respondents’ profile. It was not feasible for the researcher to obtain
data regarding the demographic profiles of all employees in 11 hotels. This is a
common problem in various empirical studies in the hospitality management literature
(e.g. Magnini et al., 2011). However, the demographic profiles of the respondents
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(e.g. age, education) reported in this study appears to be similar to that of a recent
study conducted among frontline hotel employees in Iran (Karatepe, 2011b).
In addition, one-way analysis of variance and Scheffe tests were employed to
investigate significant differences between respondents in terms of age, education, and
organizational tenure regarding the indicators of HPWPs. Independent samples t-test

Frequency %

Age
18-27 69 39.7
28-37 70 40.2
38-47 31 17.8
48-57 4 2.3
Total 174 100.0
Gender
Male 136 78.2
Female 38 21.8
Total 174 100.0
Education
Primary school 7 4.0
Secondary and high school 97 55.7
Two-year college degree 45 25.9
Four-year college degree 24 13.8
Graduate degree 1 0.6
Total 174 100.0
Organizational tenure
Less than 1 year 27 15.5
1-5 88 50.6
6-10 48 27.6
11-15 8 4.6
16-20 2 1.1
More than 20 1 0.6
Total 174 100.0
Marital status
Single or divorced 84 48.3
Married 90 51.7
Total 174 100.0
Table I.
Respondents’ profile Note: n ¼ 174
 was also employed to examine significant differences between respondents in terms of High-
gender, marital status, and hotel category (i.e. four- and five-star hotels) concerning the performance
indicators of HPWPs. The results demonstrated that the mean differences between
frontline employees with ages ranging from 18-27 years ðM ¼ 2:41Þ; 28-37 years practices
ðM ¼ 2:50Þ; and 38-47 years ðM ¼ 2:25Þ and those with age ranging from 48-57 years
ðM ¼ 4:42Þ regarding REW were significant at the 0.05 level. These results suggest
that employees in age between 48-57 years report higher perceptions of REW than 911
those in other age groups. In other words, older employees seem to be more interested
in obtaining financial and/or non-financial REW in the organization. The rest of the
results showed no significant differences.

Measurement results
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Several items that had factor loadings below 0.50 or heavily cross-loaded were dropped
during EFA. That is, one item each from the coworker support, JE, and TI measures
and two items each from the TRA, EMP, and REW measures were dropped. As shown
in Table II, the results of EFA yielded a seven-factor solution that accounted for 70.9
percent of the variance in item scores. The magnitudes of the factor loadings ranged
from 0.67 to 0.92 and all items heavily loaded on their underlying factors.
The same items retained as a result of EFA were subjected to CFA. The results
showed that the proposed seven-factor measurement model fit data acceptably:
x2 ¼ 519:28; df ¼ 303; x 2 /df ¼ 1:71; Comparative fit index ðCFAÞ ¼ 0:90;
Incremental fit index ðIFIÞ ¼ 0:90; Root mean square error of approximation
ðRMSEAÞ ¼ 0:064; Standardized root mean square residual ðSRMRÞ ¼ 0:059: As
depicted in Table II, all standardized loadings were greater than 0.50. Specifically, the
magnitudes of the loadings ranged from 0.58 to 0.98 and were significant (t .
2.00). The results in Table II suggested that the measures were reliable (CR .
0.60) and that there was evidence of convergent validity (i.e. significant loadings, average
variance extracted . 0.50) (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Fornell
and Larcker, 1981). The results also provided evidence of discriminant validity, because
none of the shared variances (F2) between pairs of constructs was larger than the
average variance extracted by each construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
Means, standard deviations, and correlations of study variables are provided in
Table III. The results reveal that the overwhelming majority of the correlations are
significant (e.g. REW and JE, supervisor support and TI, JE and TI).

Model test results

Information about model comparison is presented in the Appendix. As illustrated in
Figure 2, REW ðg31 ¼ 0:86; t ¼ 7:60Þ is the most reliable indicator of HPWPs,
followed by TRA (g11 ¼ 0:54; t ¼ 5:47Þ and EMP ðg21 ¼ 0:37; t ¼ 3:52Þ: The results
in Figure 2 also reveal that coworker support ðg52 ¼ 0:76; t ¼ 6:47Þ appears to be the
most reliable indicator of WSS, followed by supervisor support ðg42 ¼ 0:70; t ¼ 6:63Þ:
H1 predicts that HPWPs are positively related to JE. The results indicate that
HPWPs are significantly and positively related to JE ðg61 ¼ 0:26; t ¼ 2:30Þ:
Accordingly, the simultaneous implementation of TRA, EMP, and REW increases
employees’ JE. Hence, H1 is supported. H2 suggests that WSS has a positive
relationship with JE. H2 is supported, because WSS has a significant positive
relationship with JE ðg62 ¼ 0:48; t ¼ 3:99Þ: This result suggests that employees who
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25,6

912

Table II.
IJCHM

analyses results
and confirmatory factor
Scale items, exploratory
Exploratory factor analysis resultsa Confirmatory factor analysis resultsb
Factor % of variance Standardized
Scale items loadings Eigenvalue explained loadings t-values AVEc CRd

Training (Boshoff and Allen, 2000) 2.80 10.39 0.67 0.89

I received continued training to provide good service –a –a –a
I received extensive customer service training before I came
into contact with customers –a –a –a
I receive training on how to serve customers better 0.81 0.78 11.92
I receive training on how to deal with complaining
customers 0.85 0.85 3.62
I receive training on dealing with customer problems 0.92 0.95 16.25
I was trained to deal with customer complaints 0.76 0.67 9.78
Empowerment (Hayes, 1994) 1.22 4.51 0.52 0.76
I am empowered to solve customer problems –a –a –a
I am encouraged to handle customer problems by myself –a –a –a
I do not have to get management’s approval before I handle
customer problems 0.75 0.64 8.38
I am allowed to do almost anything to solve customer
problems 0.80 0.77 10.25
I have control over how I solve customer problems 0.80 0.75 9.95
Rewards (Boshoff and Allen, 2000) 1.33 4.94 0.67 0.86
If I improve the level of service I offer customers, I will be
rewarded 0.82 0.91 14.44
The rewards I receive are based on customer evaluations of
service 0.74 0.65 9.11
I am rewarded for serving customers well 0.83 0.87 13.43
I am rewarded for dealing effectively with customer
problems –a –a –a
I am rewarded for satisfying complaining customers –a –a –a
Supervisor support (Karasek et al., 1982) 3.26 12.08 0.60 0.88
My supervisor encourages employees he/she supervises to
develop new ways of doing things 0.77 0.72 10.56
My supervisor shows me how to improve my performance 0.82 0.79 12.04
(continued)
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Exploratory factor analysis resultsa Confirmatory factor analysis resultsb

Factor % of variance Standardized
Scale items loadings Eigenvalue explained loadings t-values AVEc CRd

My supervisor encourages employees he/she supervises to

work as a team 0.82 0.87 13.84
My supervisor offers new ideas 0.78 0.72 10.44
My supervisor encourages employees he/she supervises to
exchange opinions and ideas 0.75 0.76 11.42
Coworker support (Hammer et al., 2004) 2.09 7.74 0.56 0.83
I receive help and support from my coworkers 0.76 0.66 9.25
I feel I am accepted in my work group –a –a –a
My coworkers are understanding if I have a bad day 0.80 0.83 12.67
My coworkers back me up when I need it 0.73 0.88 13.70
I feel comfortable with my coworkers 0.68 0.58 7.94
Job embeddedness (Crossley et al., 2007) 7.25 26.84 0.53 0.87
I feel attached to this hotel 0.72 0.70 10.08
It would be difficult for me to leave this hotel 0.80 0.72 10.53
I am too caught up in this hotel to leave 0.73 0.77 11.53
I feel tied to this hotel 0.72 0.74 10.81
I simply could not leave the hotel that I work for 0.75 0.75 11.10
It would be easy for me to leave this hotel ( *) –a –a –a
I am tightly connected to this organization 0.67 0.71 10.19
Turnover intentions (Singh et al., 1996) 1.19 4.39 0.66 0.79
It is likely that I will actively look for a new job next year 0.86 0.60 6.58
I often think about quitting –a –a –a
I will probably look for a new job next year 0.82 0.98 8.66
Notes: Responses to items in all variables were rated on five-point scales ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Higher scores
demonstrated higher levels of study variables. ( *) denotes reverse-scored item. aItems were dropped during exploratory factor analysis and were not
included in confirmatory factor analysis. Training, empowerment, rewards, supervisor support, coworker support, job embeddedness, and turnover
intentions accounted for 70.9% of the variance as a result of exploratory factor analysis; bAll loadings were significant at the 0.01 level. Model fit statistics:
x2 ¼ 519:28; df ¼ 303; x2 =df ¼ 1:71; CFI ¼ 0:90; IFI ¼ 0:90; RMSEA ¼ 0:064; SRMR ¼ 0:059: cAverage variance extracted; dComposite reliability
performance
practices
High-

Table II.
913
 IJCHM
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
25,6
1. Training 1.000
2. Empowerment 0.214 * * * 1.000
3. Rewards 0.453 * * * 0.200 * * * 1.000
4. Supervisor
914 support 0.151 * * 0.004 0.268 * * * 1.000
5. Coworker support 0.146 * * 0.327 * * * 0.247 * * * 0.449 * * * 1.000
6. Job embeddedness 0.155 * * 0.303 * * * 0.398 * * * 0.350 * * * 0.432 * * * 1.000
7. Turnover
intentions 0.024 20.121 * 2 0.122 * 2 0.116 * 20.127 * * 20.396 * * * 1.000
Table III. Mean 3.06 3.13 2.46 3.49 3.72 3.27 3.09
Means, standard Standard deviation 1.18 1.09 1.12 1.06 0.97 1.00 1.06
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deviations, and
correlations of study Notes: Composite scores for each variable were computed by averaging respective item scores.
variables *
p , 0.10, * *p , 0.05, * * *p , 0.01 (one-tailed test)

Figure 2.
Model test results
 receive support from their supervisors and coworkers are embedded in their jobs. H3 High-
proposes that JE is negatively related to TI. There is also empirical support for H3,
because JE depicts a significant negative impact on TI ðb76 ¼ 20:48; t ¼ 24:10Þ:
performance
Such a result suggests that employees with higher JE display low levels of TI. practices
The indirect effects of HPWPs on TI via JE are significant based on Sobel test
ð20:13; t ¼ 22:07Þ: This result leads to empirical support for H4 and suggests that JE
fully mediates the effects of HPWPs on TI. Specifically, employees with higher HPWPs 915
are embedded in their jobs, and therefore, display lower propensity to leave the
organization. The indirect impact of WSS on TI through JE is also significant based on
Sobel test ð20:23; t ¼ 23.04). Such a finding suggests that JE completely mediates the
relationship between WSS and TI. That is, the presence of WSS in the form of
supervisor support and coworker support enhances employees’ JE, and therefore,
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mitigates their intentions to leave the organization. Hence, there is empirical support
for H5. The results explain 39 percent of the variance in HPWPs, 54 percent in WSS,
42 percent in JE, and 23 percent in TI.

Discussion
Strengths of the study
The first strength of this study is related to the examination of the antecedents of JE.
TRA, EMP, and REW as the indicators of HPWPs and supervisor support and
coworker support as the indicators of WSS are treated as the antecedents of JE based
on guidelines provided by SET. In addition, using guidelines given by JE theory, this
study contends that JE is a key mediating variable between HPWPs and TI and
between WSS and TI.
The second strength of the present study is related to the sample of the study.
Specifically, the existing knowledge base about HPWPs and JE is largely dependent
upon the samples of the studies in the Western countries. To expand the current
knowledge base, there is a need for more empirical research using data obtained in the
developing non-Western countries. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature
by examining JE as a full mediator of the effects of HPWPs and WSS on TI through
data collected from frontline hotel employees with a two-week time lag in Iran. Last,
management implications based on the results of this study can be used to acquire and
retain quality frontline employees in the organization.

Evaluation of findings
The results yield useful insights into the antecedents of JE and its full mediating role.
Specifically, HPWPs enhance employees’ JE. The simultaneous implementation of TRA,
EMP, and REW suggests to employees that the organization amply makes investment in
human resources to elevate their knowledge, skills, and abilities, relinquishes control in
most aspects of service delivery process, and provides REW in light of a fair performance
appraisal system. Under these circumstances, employees with these HPWPs reciprocate
through JE. Consonant with SET (e.g. Cropanzano et al., 2003), employees are embedded
in their jobs in response to HPWPs they obtain from the organization.
WSS also increases employees’ JE. That is, employees who have trusting and
quality relationships with supervisors and coworkers obtain emotional support and
instrumental aid. Then, these employees become embedded in their jobs in response to
support emerging from supervisors and coworkers. This result is also congruent with
guidelines given by SET that employees with WSS repay the organization via JE.
 IJCHM The results suggest that WSS depicts a stronger impact on JE than HPWPs. This
25,6 may be due to the fact that having informal connections to supervisors and coworkers
based on trusting and quality relationships may be more visible on a daily basis in the
workplace. This makes sense, because to make HPWPs become visible in the
workplace, the organization should continuously arrange TRA programs that focus on
the development of behavioral skills and EMP practices and give REW to employees in
916 response to employee performance.
As a key mediating variable, JE is a full mediating variable in the relationship
between HPWPs and WSS and TI. These results are not only in line with guidelines
provided by JE theory (Mitchell et al., 2001), but also lend empirical support to limited
studies regarding the full mediating role of JE (cf. Harris et al., 2011). Accordingly,
employees who take advantage of HPWPs and WSS display higher JE that in turn
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mitigates TI.
The results reported in this study show several similarities with the findings of
limited empirical studies conducted in the Western countries. Although other studies in
the current literature do not measure HPWPs and WSS as second-order latent
constructs, several comparisons can be made. For example, the results regarding the
effects of HPWPs on JE appear to be consistent with Karatepe and Karadas’s (2012)
study in Romania. The result concerning the impact of JE on TI appears to be in line
with other studies conducted in the US ( Jiang et al., 2012). In addition, the results
pertaining to the full mediating role in the relationship between HPWPs and WSS and
TI seem to be consistent with other limited studies conducted in the US that have
treated JE as a full mediating variable (e.g. Harris et al., 2011).

Limitations and directions for future research

Although this study has various limitations, it expands the current knowledge base
and highlights useful implications for future research. First, the present study that has
used data collected with a two-week time lag appears to provide some evidence for
temporal causality, but it is not adequate. Therefore, in order to make causal
inferences, future studies should collect data using a longer period of time than it was
done in this study. Second, inclusion of other important HPWPs such as employment
security, work-family balance, and employee selectivity in the research model would
enhance the understanding regarding JE as a mediator in the relationship between
HPWPs and various job outcomes (e.g. team performance, creative performance).
Third, hope is one of the dimensions of psychological capital (Luthans and Youssef,
2007). It may moderate the effects of HPWPs and WSS on JE. That is, the positive effects
of HPWPs and WSS on JE may be stronger among employees high in hope. This is
worthy of future research, since hope has been largely neglected in the hospitality
management literature. With this recognition, future studies should examine the
moderating role of hope to yield additional insights into JE research. Last, extension of JE
research to other developing non-Western countries via data obtained from frontline
employees in the hospitality and travel industry is essential for gaining richer insights.

Practical implications
The results of this study provide useful implications for managers in the hospitality
industry. A recent meta-analytic study suggests that JE can be used for retention of
quality employees, and therefore, leads to reductions in turnover (Jiang et al., 2012).
 Consistent with this meta-analytic study, the results reported in this study also suggest High-
that investment in human resources would pay off. performance
First, employees receiving continuous support from their supervisors and coworkers
would be more attached to the job, since frontline service jobs are stressful and require practices
long work hours. Therefore, management of the hotels should arrange TRA programs
that focus on the critical role of support emerging from supervisors and coworkers. In
these TRA programs, managers may use case studies to delineate the importance of 917
WSS. They may receive feedback from frontline employees about how to maximize
support arising from supervisors and coworkers. In such TRA programs, supervisors
should also be trained on how to deal with employees’ work- and family-related problems
and offer potential remedies. Having a work environment that facilitates social support
would foster a team spirit among supervisory and non-supervisory employees.
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Second, managers should keep in mind that the simultaneous implementation of

TRA, EMP, and REW stimulates JE. That is, managers should implement TRA, EMP,
and REW simultaneously. For example, TRA programs do not lead to intended
outcomes if REW and recognition are not in place. Therefore, TRA employees to
develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities, providing them with sufficient
responsibility and authority in service delivery process, and giving REW to them
through a fair performance appraisal mechanism would be helpful for retention of,
especially, quality employees in frontline service jobs. In addition, the presence of
HPWPs and WSS would send powerful signals to potential quality individuals who
can be interested in working for the organization in the near future. However, it should
be noted that relinquishing control in most aspects of service delivery process depends
on a full understanding of EMP and the conditions necessary for its effectiveness.
Third, obtaining feedback about the level of employees’ JE would be useful. With
this realization, managers can survey their employees on an annual basis to figure out
the level of JE. Fourth, it is very important to hire individuals who fit well with the
demands of frontline service job and organizational culture. Managers should pay
utmost attention to tools they are used to employing in this process. For example, they
can utilize video cases and experiential exercises to understand whether these
individuals are suitable for frontline service jobs.
Finally, providing frontline employees with attractive career and advancement
opportunities in the organization would pay dividends. For instance, it would be
possible for managers to retain quality frontline employees in the organization. It
would also be possible to create a pool of quality candidates for vacant frontline service
jobs using career and advancement opportunities. As a result, HPWPs and WSS,
coupled with such opportunities, would stimulate frontline employees’ JE.

Conclusion
Retention of employees has become a strategic issue for gaining a sustainable
competitive advantage. With this realization, the current study proposes and tests a
research model that investigates JE as a mediator of the effects of HPWPs and WSS on
TI. TRA, EMP, and REW are treated as the indicators of HPWPs. Similarly, WSS, as
manifested by supervisor support and coworker support, is treated as a second-order
latent construct. Based on data gathered from frontline hotel employees with a time lag
of two weeks in Iran, the results suggest that JE completely mediates the effects of
HPWPs and WSS on TI. That is, HPWPs and WSS mitigate TI only via JE. By
 IJCHM examining JE as a mediator in the relationship between HPWPs and WSS and TI in the
25,6 hospitality industry in Iran, this study contributes to JE research in the current
literature.
Investing in TRA, EMP, and REW simultaneously and providing supervisory and
non-supervisory employees with continuous TRA programs that focus on the
importance of WSS lead to elevated levels of JE. Managers have to hire individuals who
918 fit well with the specific requirements of frontline service jobs and organizational
culture through effective tools such as video cases and experiential exercises. They
also have to establish and maintain an environment where there are attractive career
and advancement opportunities so that they would be able to retain quality frontline
employees. Such practices would also be useful for hiring the most suitable individuals
for vacant positions in the organization. On a closing note, incorporating other critical
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HPWPs such as work-family balance and employment security into empirical studies
would extend the present understanding about JE as a mediating variable in the
relationship between HPWPs and various under-researched job outcomes such as team
performance and creative performance.

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Appendix
Procedure
Consistent with a recent study (Karatepe, 2011b), data were gathered from two important
destinations in Iran: Tehran and Kish Island. Tehran is the capital city, while Kish Island is one
of the most of important destinations that has many tourist attractions. According to the
information taken from Iran’s Cultural Heritage, Handicraft and Tourism Organization at the
time of this study, there were 11 four-star and 5 five-star hotels in Tehran. In addition, there were
7 four-star and 4 five-star hotels in Kish Island. Management of the hotels was contacted through
a letter that included information about the purpose of the study and permission for data
collection. Permission was obtained from management of 3 five-star and 5 four-star hotels in
Kish Island and 3 four-star hotels in Tehran. Each hotel management assigned a senior employee
to coordinate data collection with the researcher.
Common method bias is a serious risk and results in measurement error that leads to
problems associated with the validity of the conclusions (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Therefore, a
two-week time lag was used during data collection. In other words, the Time I and Time II
questionnaires were gathered at two points in time, two weeks apart. The Time I questionnaire
comprised the TRA, EMP, REW, supervisor support, coworker support, and JE measures. This
questionnaire also comprised items about respondents’ education, gender, organizational tenure,
age, and marital status. The Time II questionnaire included the TI items. The researcher
prepared a master list that included the name of each frontline employee in each hotel by paying
attention to the issue of confidentiality. An identification number that was assigned to each
employee was written on the Time I and Time II questionnaires. This was deemed necessary to
match the Time I questionnaires with the Time II questionnaires.

Model comparison
The results suggest that the fully mediated model ðx2 ¼ 535:49; df ¼ 313Þ appears to have a
better fit than the partially mediated model ðx2 ¼ 531:55; df ¼ 311Þ: That is, a comparison of the
fully mediated model with the partially mediated model leads to a non-significant change in fit
ðDx2 ¼ 3:94; Ddf ¼ 2Þ: Consequently, the results suggest that the fully mediated model fits data
acceptably ðx2 ¼ 535:49; df ¼ 313; x2 =df ¼ 1:71; CFI ¼ 0:90; IFI ¼ 0:90; RMSEA ¼ 0:064;
SRMR ¼ 0:068Þ:

Corresponding author
Osman M. Karatepe can be contacted at: osman.karatepe@emu.edu.tr

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