Lok 2001

Journal of Managerial Psychology
Antecedents of organizational commitment and the mediating role of job satisfaction

Peter Lok, John Crawford,
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Journal of
Managerial Antecedents of organizational
Psychology
16,8
commitment and the mediating
role of job satisfaction
594 Peter Lok
Received October 2000 Australian Graduate School of Management, University of New South
Revised June 2001 Wales and University of Sydney, Australia, and
Accepted July 2001

John Crawford
University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Keywords Organizational cultures, Leadership, Job satisfaction
Abstract Investigates the relationships between employees' perceptions of organisational
culture and subculture, and job satisfaction and commitment. Questionnaires containing the
above measures were distributed to nurses employed in seven large hospitals and a total of 251
responses were obtained. Measures of leadership style and employee demographics were also
included in the questionnaire. Regression analysis was used to investigate the extent to which
nurses' job satisfaction and commitment to their wards are predicted by their perceptions of the
hospitals' cultures (or organisational culture), the cultures of their wards (or organisation
subculture), the leadership styles of their ward managers, and several demographic characteristics
including age, experience, education and job tenure. It was found that ward culture was more
predictive of commitment than was hospital culture. Also, statistically controlling for job
satisfaction did not substantially reduce the influence on commitment of any of the independent
variables included in this study. The results suggest that managers may need to focus more on
organizational subcultures in generating greater commitment among employees.
The topic of organizational commitment has received a great deal of interest in

the past decade and numerous studies have been directed at determining its
causal antecedents (for example, Bateman and Strasser, 1984; DeCotiis and
Summers, 1987; Iverson and Roy, 1994; Michaels, 1994; Mottaz, 1988; Williams
and Hazer, 1986; Taormina, 1999; DeConinck and Bachman, 1994; Dodd-McCue
and Wright, 1996; Russ and McNeilly, 1995; Clugston, 2000). The issue of
commitment is particularly important for managers in organizations (Tushman
and O'Reilly, 1997; Nadler, 1997; Limerick et al., 1998). With the increasing speed
and scale of change in organizations, managers are constantly seeking ways to
generate greater employees' commitment and competitive advantage.
Commitment, which is the dependent variable in this study, has been the
focus of extensive discussion and empirical investigation by many authors. A
well-known model proposed by Allen and Meyer (1990) proposes that there are
three components of organizational commitment, namely, affective, continuous
and normative. As defined by these authors, the affective component of
organizational commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to,
identification with, and involvement in, the organization. The continuance
Journal of Managerial Psychology,
Vol. 16 No. 8, 2001, pp. 594-613.
component refers to commitment based on the costs that the employee
# MCB University Press, 0268-3946 associates with leaving the organization. The normative component refers to
the employee's feeling of obligation to remain with the organization. Evidence Antecedents of
supporting the distinct nature of these three components has been presented by organizational
a number of authors (e.g. see Dunham et al., 1994). commitment
Although organizational commitment has been conceptualized as a multi-
dimensionsal construct, it is the measures based on the attitudinal approach
which have most frequently been validated and used in previous studies
(O'Reilly and Chatman, 1986; Price and Mueller, 1981; Steers, 1977). It is also 595
the one that has generally been found to be most strongly associated with other
variables of interest, such as absenteeism and turnover (Dunham et al., 1994;
McFarlane et al., 1993; Somers, 1995).

One possible antecedent of commitment that has remained relatively free of
empirical investigation is organizational culture. For example, organizational
culture was not included in a major review and meta-analysis by Mathieu and
Zajac (1990) of empirical research on the antecedents and correlates of
commitment. Such an omission is surprising in view of the large importance
given to culture in recent organizational writings (Alvesson and Berg, 1992;
Brown, 1995; Kotter and Heskett, 1992; Hofstede et al., 1990; Sackma, 1991;
Schneider, 1990; Trice and Beyer, 1993; Tushman and O'Reilly, 1997;
Zimmerman and Tregoe, 1997).
Although various writers have given differing precise definitions of
organizational culture, often influenced by their particular disciplinary origins,
a widely accepted definition was given by Schein (1985). Culture was defned as:
``The pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered
or developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and
internal integration, and have worked well enough to be considered valid, and
therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think
and feel in relation to these problems'' (Schein, 1985, p. 9). Prominent
organizational culture writers such as Deal and Kennedy (1982) and Peters and
Waterman (1982) have suggested that organizational culture could exert
considerable influence on the functioning of organizations, particularly in areas
such as performance and commitment. The lack of attention given to the
possible influence of organizational culture on commitment in previous studies
has highlighted a significant issue that requires further investigation.
More recent writings have addressed the issue of subcultures in
organizations (Hofstede, 1998; Martin, 1992; Sackman, 1992). It has been
suggested that organizational subcultures may exist independently of
organizational culture and that small work groups can have their own set of
values, beliefs and attributes, and that subcultures in organizations can affect
individuals differently in the work place (Brown, 1995; Bloor and Dawson,
1994; Martin, 1992; Martin and Siehl, 1983; Schneider, 1990; Sackmann, 1992;
Hofstede, 1998). Distinctive ideologies, cultural forms and substances, and
practices of subcultures make them differ noticeably from the overall
organizational cultures and from each other. Subcultures tend to develop in
larger organizations to reflect group values, attitudes, beliefs, situations and
experiences. They are typically defined by departmental designations and
Journal of geographical separation. The subculture of the group or unit can include the
Managerial core values of the dominant organizational culture (if it exists) plus additional
Psychology values unique to members of the group/department. Martin (1992) viewed
organizational culture under three different perspectives: integration,
16,8 differentiation and fragmentation. She defined subcultures in organizations
within the differentiation perspective. From the differentiation perspective,
596 organizational culture is not seen to be in unity or harmony but is seen in terms
of diversity and even inconsistency (Dunford, 1992; Meyerson and Martin, 1987).
The existence of subcultures can thus be regarded as a normal occurrence in
organizations. Despite this, the influence of organizational subcultures on

important organizational and employee variables, such as commitment, is an
area that has not been studied extensively in the organizational literature. It is
the intention of this study to investigate the relationships with commitment of
both organizational culture and subculture.
Although antecedents such as organizational culture and subculture are
noticeably absent in previous studies on commitment, some studies such as
those of McCaul et al. (1995) and of Mueller et al. (1992) have address similar
issues by examining the influence of various employee values and beliefs. They
found that a positive relationship existed between commitment and certain
values and beliefs of employees in the organization. Such findings highlight the
need for further investigation into the relationship between organizational
culture and commitment.
Other variables that have been linked to commitment or organizational
culture in previous writings were also included in this study. These include
measures of leadership style, job satisfaction and a number of employee
characteristics. Leadership has been given an especially important role by
many authors in influencing the culture of an organization and the attitudes of
its employees towards the organization. As defined by Stogdill (1974, p. 4):
``Leadership style refers to the behaviour which leaders use to influence a group
towards the achievement of goals''. Leadership can be seen as: ``The process of
influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal
setting and goal achievement''. Several studies have suggested the link between
organizational culture and leadership style (Schein, 1985; Tichy and Cohen,
1997; Sergiovanni and Corbally, 1984; Smith and Peterson, 1988; Hickman and
Silva, 1984; Peters and Waterman, 1982; Trice and Beyer, 1993). Hickman and
Silva (1984) concluded that sustained excellent performance could be achieved
when organizational culture and leadership strategies were working
harmoniously together. Peters and Waterman (1982) highlighted the functional
relationship between leadership style and organizational culture, arguing that
the leader has an important role in managing shared values that are the core of
organizational culture.
Brewer (1994) examined employees' commitment in relation to the level of
consent to, and conflict with, managerial strategy. In Brewer's (1994) model of
commitment, managerial strategy was seen to be driven by cultural and human
resource strategies. Also, commitment was highly dependent on managerial
strategies and the level of employees' participation. In this model, although Antecedents of
managerial strategy is not the same as leadership, the attributes and skills organizational
required in leadership could be seen as an essential part of managerial strategy. commitment
In the long history of leadership research and writings on the topic, a very
large number of ways of describing leadership styles have been proposed. One
of the most common and influential approach, was the use of the `ìnitiating
structure'' and ``consideration'' leadership dimensions, evolving from the Ohio 597
State studies (Stogdill 1963, 1974; Vecchio, 1995, p. 344). Similar leadership
style dimensions have been proposed by other writers, such as the ``task
orientation'' and ``relationship orientation'' behaviours in the Fiedler's (1967)

contingency model; the ``concern for people'' and ``concern for task'' behaviour
in the Hersey and Blanchard model (1977). Although there have been other
more recent and well-known approaches to the measurement of leadership style
(most notably that of transformational/transactional leadership; e.g. see Bass
(1985)), the measurement of leadership based on Stogdill's (1963) `ìnitiating
structure'' and ``consideration'' dimensions were in this study. These two
dimensions have been widely used and by researchers in numerous
organizational studies and have been found to produce highly reliable
measures (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Mukhi, 1982).
A variable closely associated with commitment in the research literature is
job satisfaction. A common interpretation of this construct is reflected in
Ivancevich et al.'s (1997) definition of job satisfaction as: `Àn attitude that
individuals have about their jobs. It results from their perception of their jobs
and the degree to which there is a good fit between the individual and the
organization'' (p. 91). Numerous studies have shown a strong relationship
between this closely related, but distinct, construct and commitment (Iverson
and Roy, 1994; Michaels, 1994; Price and Mueller, 1981; Taunton et al., 1989;
Williams and Hazer, 1986; Mathieu and Hamel, 1989).
A number of writers have also suggested that job satisfaction is of special
significance for an understanding of the influence of various other variables on
commitment. Causal models of organizational commitment and turnover
(Iverson and Roy, 1994; Michaels, 1994; Price and Mueller, 1981; Taunton et al.,
1989; Williams and Haze, 1986) have suggested that the effects of various
antecedents on commitment are mediated through job satisfaction. For
example, William and Hazer (1986), using a causal modelling approach,
concluded that a variety of variables (namely, age, pre-employment
expectations, perceived job characteristics, and the consideration dimension of
leadership style) all influence commitment indirectly via their effects on job
satisfaction. Similar results were obtained by Mathieu and Hamel (1989),
Iverson and Roy (1994) and Michaels (1994). However, Price and Mueller (1981)
have obtained somewhat different results. They concluded that the influence of
some, but not all, antecedents of commitment was mediated by job satisfaction.
Other antecedents (for example, professionalism and kinship responsibility)
had a direct effect on commitment. In the present study, the extent to which job
satisfaction might mediate the causal relationships between commitment and
Journal of the leadership, culture and subculture variables will be investigated. In the
Managerial present study, the role of job satisfaction as a possible mediator of the effects of
Psychology other variables on commitment will also be investigated.
A number of demographic variables, frequently included in previous
16,8 commitment studies, are also included in this study. Variables such as age
(Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Michaels, 1994; Williams and Hazer, 1986),
598 organizational tenure (Mathieu and Hamel, 1989; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) and
position tenure (Gregersen and Black, 1992; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) have
been found to be positively associated with organizational commitment.
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) concluded that age is considerably more strongly
related to attitudinal than to behavioural commitment. They further suggested
that older workers are more satisfied with their job, receiving better positions
and having ``cognitively justified'' their remaining in the organization. Mathieu
and Zajac (1990) also found that the number of years in a position is
significantly positively related to attitudinal commitment, and length of service
is significantly positively related to behavioural commitment. Similar results
were reported by Gregersen and Black (1992).
Another demographic variable which has attracted a great deal of attention
is level of education. Educational level has been reported to be negatively
correlated with organizational commitment (DeCotiis and Summers, 1987;
Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Mottaz, 1988; Mowday et al., 1982). It has been argued
that this inverse relationship is attributable to the fact that more highly
educated individuals have higher expectations. They are therefore more likely
to feel that they are not being rewarded adequately by their employers, and so
the level of organizational commitment is diminished (DeCotiis and Summers,
1987).
In summary, there has been little attention given to the effects of both
organizational culture and subcultures on organizational commitment in the
past. Hence, it is the intention of this study to address this issue. The relationship
between these variables and several other antecedents of commitment such as
leadership style, job satisfaction and certain demographic variables is also
investigated in this empirical study. This study follows the general framework
of other studies investigating the antecedents of commitment, such as those by
Price and Mueller (1981) and Williams and Hazer (1986).
Aims and hypotheses

The aim of the study is to investigate the role of organizational culture,
subculture, leadership style and job satisfaction as predictors of employee's
commitment. Of particular interest is an investigation of the relative
importance of organizational culture and the subculture of the employee's local
work environment, as this has received little attention in the past. As
participants in the study were nurses from a number of hospitals, for this
sample, the terms organizational culture and subculture refer to the culture of
the respondent's hospital and ward respectively, and leadership style is that of
the manager of the ward. Another aim of the study is to examine the extent to
which job satisfaction acts as a mediator variable for the influence of the Antecedents of
leadership, culture, subculture and demographic variables on commitment. organizational
On the basis of previous research findings and a consideration of the present commitment
research context, a number of hypotheses can be proposed. The first of these
relates to the main aim of the study and concerns the relative importance of
hospital and ward cultures (i.e. organizational culture and subculture) as
predictors of commitment. 599
H1. Measures of ward culture will have a greater effect on commitment than
hospital culture.
It has been suggested (Prestholdt et al., 1987) that nurses tend to identify
themselves more closely with their area of work rather than the hospital as a
whole. That is, nurses often exhibit greater loyalty and commitment to their
wards than to the hospital. This attachment can be seen as a form of
identification described in the attitudinal approach of organizational
commitment. Thus, it can be seen that the perception of nurses' local working
place and their fit with that environment should have a greater effect on
commitment than the hospital.
H2. Supportive and innovative hospital and ward cultures will have positive
effects on commitment.
H3. Bureaucratic hospital and ward cultures will have a negative effect on
commitment.
Health services and hospitals have often been seen as traditional and
bureaucratic (Clinton and Scheiwe, 1995). Professional nurses who work in
hospitals are naturally subjected to the bureaucratic forces and may have little
opportunity for innovation and creativity. Brewer (1994) and Kratina (1990)
concluded that bureaucratic practices often result in negative employee
commitment while a supportive work environment could result in greater
commitment and involvement among employees.
H4. A consideration leadership style will have a more positive effect on
commitment than an initiating structure leadership style.
Blau (1985) suggested that a consideration leadership style has a greater
influence than a structure-leadership style on commitment. Thus, Williams and
Hazer's (1986) model of organizational commitment had included only
consideration leadership style as one of its antecedents.
H5. Job satisfaction will have a positive effect on commitment.
Research on the determinants of commitment (for example, Michaels, 1994;
Mottaz, 1988; Williams and Anderson, 1991; Williams and Hazer, 1986) has
consistently found a significant and positive relationship between job
satisfaction and commitment.
H6. Age will have a positive effect on commitment.
Journal of Previous studies suggested that age (Hrebiniak and Alutto, 1972; Lawler, 1973;
Managerial Simpson, 1985; Steers, 1977) has a significant and positive impact on
Psychology organizational commitment. Weisman et al. (1981) found that age was a strong
predictor of job satisfaction among nurses employed in two hospitals. Since it
16,8 has been suggested that job satisfaction is an important determinant of
organizational commitment (Glisson and Durick, 1988; Morrow and McElroy,
600 1987), a positive association between age and commitment can also be
expected.
H7. The effects of the leadership and hospital and ward culture variables on
commitment will be significantly reduced after statistically controlling

for job satisfaction.
This hypothesis follows from the findings of a number of researchers (Iverson
and Roy, 1994; Michaels, 1994; Price and Mueller, 1981; Taunton et al., 1989;
Williams and Hazer, 1986) that the influence of various antecedents of
commitment operate indirectly via their influence on job satisfaction.
A summary of hypotheses showing the expected relationships between the
tested variables and commitment is listed in Table I.
Methods
A questionnaire survey was used to obtain measures of organizational culture,
subculture, leadership style, job satisfaction and commitment. The survey
Hypothesis Relevant variables, or group Hypothesized relationships with

number of variables commitment
1. Ward culture Ward culture will have a greater effect

Hospital culture on commitment than will hospital culture
2. Supportive ward culture These variables will have a positive
Innovative ward culture effect on commitment
Supportive hospital culture
Innovative hospital culture
3. Bureaucratic ward culture These variables will have a negative
Bureaucratic hospital culture effect on commitment
4. Consideration leadership style Consideration will have a more positive
Initiating structure leadership style effect on commitment than initiating
structure
5. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction will have a positive effect
on commitment
6. Age Age will have a positive effect on
commitment
7. Leadership variables Effect of leadership, ward and hospital
Table I. Ward culture variables culture variables, on commitment will be
Summary of Hospital culture variables significantly reduced after controlling for
hypotheses Job satisfaction job satisfaction
instrument used in this study contains four established instruments. These are Antecedents of
Wallach's (1983) organizational culture index (OCI), Stogdill's (1974) leader organizational
behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ), Mueller and McClosky's (1990) commitment
job satisfaction survey (JSS), and the Mowday et al. (1979) organizational
commitment questionnaire (OCQ). Scores obtained from these instruments
were used to define the variables listed in Table II. The above instruments, and
the measures derived from them, are briefly described below. 601
The rationale for using Wallach's (1983) OCI was that hospitals tend to be
more conservative and hierarchical. The dimensions used in Wallach's
dimension (bureaucratic, innovative and supportive) reflect the environment

and structure in hospital settings. Also, Wallach (1983) used the same
instrument in his original study and this instrument has strong reliability
estimates (bureaucratic 0.71, innovative 0.87, supportive 0.77). Although the
Goffee and Jones (1988) model of culture is more recent as compared to
Wallach (1983), it is considered to be unsuitable in the hospital context
because the dimensions of fragmented, mercenary, networked and
communal are more appropriate for organizations in the private sector. The
same Wallach's (OCI) instrument was used to obtain subjects' perceptions of
both the cultures of their hospitals and of the wards in which they are
working. For each item, a word or phrase is presented. For the version used
to obtain measures of hospital culture, subjects are requested to indicate the
extent to which that word or phrase describes their hospital on a four-point
numerical scale, ranging from ``does not describe my hospital'' (0) to
``describes my hospital most of the time'' (3). The instrument comprises 24
such items, with eight items corresponding to each of the three dimensions of
organizational culture. For each subject, three summative scale scores were
obtained by averaging ratings for the three appropriate sets of eight items, to
define the three variables: hospital culture (bureaucratic); hospital culture
(innovative); and hospital culture (supportive). Examples of words or
phrases used for items comprising the bureaucratic scale are ``power-
oriented'' and ``regulated''; for the innovative scale, examples are ``creative''
and ``challenging'', and for the supportive scale, examples are ``sociable'' and
``relationship-oriented''.
In a similar manner, the above instrument was also used to define the three
variables: ward culture (bureaucratic), ward culture (innovative); and ward
culture (supportive). For items in this version of the instrument the same words
or phrases were presented, but subjects indicated the extent to which that word
or phrase describes their nursing unit (or ward) on a four-point numerical scale,
ranging from 0 (does not describe my unit) to 3 (describes my unit most of the
time). The two versions of the OCI were presented in locations well separated
within the questionnaire (in the first and last sections of the questionnaire) so
as to minimize the problem of cross-contamination in answering these
questions by participants.
Stogdill's (1974) LBDQ was used in this study because it is a popular and
reliable instrument despite its age. This instrument has strong reliability
16,8
602
Table II.
Journal of
coefficients and
Managerial
Psychology
intercorrelations
alpha reliability,
Means, standard
between variables
deviations, Cronbach
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Commitment 4.98 0.98 (0.85)

2. Leadership style ± consideration 3.29 0.92 0.45** (0.81)
3. Leadership style ± structure 2.81 0.55 0.20** 0.37** (0.84)
4. Hospital culture ± bureaucratic 2.24 0.45 0.05 0.03 0.16* (0.72)
5. Hospital culture ± innovation 1.70 0.49 0.24** 0.14* 0.12* 0.38** (0.74)
6. Hospital culture ± supportive 1.53 0.58 0.22** 0.17** 0.11* 0.19** 0.50** (0.84)
7. Ward culture ± bureaucratic 1.92 0.48 ±0.10 0.02 0.32** 0.51** 0.20** 0.15* (0.74)
8. Ward culture ± innovative 1.74 0.46 0.49** 0.41** 0.32** 0.25** 0.37** 0.17** 0.11* (0.67)
9. Ward culture ± supportive 1.95 0.56 0.47** 0.45** 0.13* 0.11* 0.24** 0.31** 0.02 0.49** (0.83)
10. Job satisfaction 3.33 0.49 0.44** 0.40** 0.25** 0.15* 0.27** 0.27** ±0.02 0.33** 0.35** (0.83)
Notes: ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients are shown in parentheses on the diagonal
estimates (consideration 0.82, initiating structure 0.78). An important Antecedents of
consideration in selecting this instrument for this study was that the two organizational
dimensions in this instrument reflect a clear separation of bureaucratic and commitment
non-bureaucratic leadership style which is often seen in managers in hospital/
nursing settings. This instrument has 40 items assigned to ``consideration'' and
`ìnitiating structure'' categories of leadership style.
Subjects responded on a five-point scale, ranging from ``not at all'' (1) to 603
`à great deal'' (5). The variables leadership style (consideration) and
leadership style (initiating structure) were formed as summative scales by
averaging an individual's responses for items assigned to these two

categories.
Mueller and McClosky's (1990) job satisfaction survey (JSS) was used in this
study because it is specifically related to the hospital/nursing setting. Mueller
and McClosky (1990) used this instrument in their original study and it has a
strong overall reliability index of 0.78. This instrument comprised 31 items that
relate to different aspects of the work or work environment, and contains items
of particular relevance to the nursing profession and hospital environment.
Subjects indicate their level of satisfaction with each of these aspects by
responding on a five-point rating scale ranging from ``very dissatisfied'' (1) to
``very satisfied'' (5). For the purposes of this study, an overall measure of job
satisfaction was obtained for each subject by averaging his or her responses for
all items in the instrument.
The Mowday et al. (1979) organizational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) is
a well-established scale and has been used extensively by other researchers
such as Koch and Steers (1978) and Cook and Wall (1980). It has an overall
reliability index of 0.9. For each of the 15 items a statement is given (for
example, `Ì really care about the fate of this ward'') and subjects respond using
a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from ``strongly disagree'' (1) to ``strongly
agree'' (7). After reverse coding the responses for items whose statements
represent a lack of commitment to the ward, an overall commitment score was
derived for each subject by the averaging of the subject's item ratings to define
the variable, commitment.
In addition to the measures derived from the above instruments, basic
demographic data such as age, the number of years of experience as a nurse,
the number of years in their present position, and educational qualifications,
were also collected in the questionnaire. This information was used to define
the variables: age (measured in years), clinical years, position years, and
qualifications. The variables clinical years and position years measured the
number of years of clinical experience possessed by the subjects and the
number of years that they had been in their present positions respectively. The
variable, qualifications, was measured on a four-point scale from 1 to 4,
representing increasing levels of nursing qualifications (1 = diploma; 2 =
bachelor degree; 3 = masters degree; 4 = PhD or other degree higher than
masters).
Journal of Sampling and data collection
Managerial A pilot study to evaluate the suitability of the questionnaire was carried out
Psychology using 32 nurses participating in a management workshop (22 participants were
from a general hospital, six from a private hospital and four from a psychiatric
16,8 hospital). Permission to conduct the survey and support from management
were obtained for this study. The instrument was structured to have six
604 sections. Section A: the hospital culture survey (Wallach, 1983); section B: the
leadership style survey (Stogdill's LBDQ, 1974); section 3: the job satisfaction
survey (Mueller and McClosky, 1990); section 4: the commitment survey
(Mowday et al., 1979); section 5: the ward culture survey (Wallach, 1973);
section 6: demographics (inclusive of gender, age, education, tenure, years in
position, etc.). The rationale to place the ward culture survey in section 5 away
from hospital culture in section 1 was to minimize the chance of contamination.
The returned questionnaires and the participants' comments showed that they
were clear about the content of the questions and instructions. No change was
necessary for the questionnaire to be used in the main study.
The sample for the main study consisted of 251 nurses drawn from seven
large hospitals (200 or more bed hospitals) located in the Sydney metropolitan
region. A selection of hospitals (general, private and psychiatric) was used to
reflect the broad range of hospital environments and nursing staff practices in
these hospitals. Only wards in which the nurse unit manager had held that
position for over 12 months were used. This was done so that the wards
sampled were more likely to have a more stable ward culture and leadership
style. A total of 61 wards satisfied this criterion. A random sample of 26 wards
was taken which resulted in 11 general hospital wards, seven private hospital
wards, and eight psychiatric hospital wards being selected for the final sample.
All nursing staff in the selected wards were invited to participate in the
questionnaire survey. Permission to conduct the survey was given by the
various ethics committees in these hospitals. Questionnaires were sent out to
the selected wards and a collection box was provided in each ward for their
return. The return questionnaires were collected after five days by a researcher.
A reminder was sent out to the wards to encourage non-participants to take
part in the survey. The second round of returns were collected after another
five days. A total of 258 returns were obtained from the 398 questionnaires
distributed. Seven returned questionnaires were incomplete and were
discarded. A total of 251 questionnaires were used for the final analysis, which
represents a response rate of 63 per cent. Of the 251 usable questionnaire, 43
per cent were obtained from nurses in general hospitals, 21 per cent from
private hospitals and 27 per cent from psychiatric hospitals. These figures
represent a balanced return from participants in these three hospital groups.
Data analysis
Survey questionnaires were collected and subjects' responses to items defining
the study variables were entered into the SPSS for Windows (version 8.0)
program for statistical analysis. Where appropriate, summated measures were
calculated by the averaging of sets of items to form the study variables, as
described above. Means, standard deviations were calculated for all variables, Antecedents of
as well as their intercorrelations. Cronbach alpha estimates of reliability were organizational
calculated for all variables derived as summative scales. Regression analyses commitment
were used to investigate the relationship between the variables, with analyses
with commitment and job satisfaction as dependent variables being performed.
In particular, multiple regression was used to examine the extent to which the
data collected are consistent with causal models in which various antecedents 605
of commitment operate indirectly via their influence on job satisfaction. This
was done by examining the extent to which the relationship between
commitment and the culture, subculture, leadership style and demographic

variables were reduced after statistically controlling for job satisfaction. A path
diagram was used to illustrate the results of the multiple regression analyses
(Figure 1).
Results
The following results were obtained from the 251 returned questionnaires.
Very few of the questionnaires contained items which were not completed, with
the missing responses for each of the items representing less than 3 per cent of
Figure 1.
Path analytic model of
commitment
Journal of the sample. A list of the variables used in this study, their means, standard
Managerial deviations, intercorrelations, and where applicable, Cronbach alpha reliability
Psychology estimates, are shown in Table II. All variables derived as summative scales
showed adequately high Cronbach alpha coefficients, varying from 0.72 for
16,8 hospital culture (bureaucratic) to 0.85 for commitment. It can also be noted that
correlations between the variables are consistently lower than the
606 corresponding Cronbach alpha values, providing evidence for the distinctness
of the constructs measured by the summative scales.
A series of multiple regression analyses were carried out to investigate the
influence of the selected variables on commitment in this study. These are

shown in Table III. The numbers displayed here are the standardised
regression coefficients, or beta weights.
The first analysis in column 1 shows the regression of commitment on all
other variables in the study. Here it can be seen that six of the 13 independent
variables have statistically significant independent influences on commitment.
Two of the ward culture variables (innovative and bureaucratic) have
statistically significant regression coefficients (betas = 0.34, p < 0.01 and ±0.16,
p < 0.05 respectively). Thus, when statistically controlling for the other
independent variables, an innovative ward culture is positively related to
Dependent variable
1 2 3
Independent variables Commitment Commitment Job satisfaction
Hospital culture
Bureaucratic 0.03 0.06 0.16
Innovative ±0.13 ±0.12 0.04
Supportive 0.09 0.10 0.08
Ward culture
Bureaucratic ±0.16* ±0.20** ±0.21*
Innovative 0.34** 0.36** 0.06
Supportive 0.01 0.04 0.13
Leadership style
Consideration 0.25** 0.29** 0.21*
Initiating structure 0.04 0.05 0.07
Job satisfaction 0.19**
Demographics
Age 0.23** 0.25** 0.13
Clinical years 0.07 0.07 0.00
Position years ±0.17* ±0.18* ±0.08
Tertiary qualifications 0.06 0.07 0.01
R2 0.47** 0.44** 0.23**
Multiple R 0.69** 0.67** 0.48**
Table III.
Regression analyses Note * p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01
commitment, while a bureaucratic ward culture has a small but statistically Antecedents of
significant negative relationship with commitment. Statistically significant organizational
beta coefficients were not found for any of the hospital culture variables.
commitment
H1, that ``Measures of ward culture will have a greater effect on commitment
than hospital culture'' is therefore supported. Two of the ward culture
variables, but none of the hospital culture ones, have statistically significant
effects on commitment. Also, H2 is partially supported. An innovative ward 607
culture has, as hypothesised, a positive and statistically significant effect on
commitment. However, a supportive ward culture, and neither an innovative
nor a supportive hospital culture, had statistically significant independent

effects on commitment. H3 is also partially supported. A bureaucratic ward
culture had a small but statistically significant negative effect on commitment.
H4 is supported. The leadership style variable, consideration, was found to
have a statistically significant positive effect on commitment (beta = 0.25,
p < 0.01), while initiating structure has no significant effect on commitment. Job
satisfaction and age were also found to have statistically significant positive
effects on commitment (betas = 0.19, p < 0.01 and 0.23, p < 0.01), thus
supporting H5 and H6 respectively.
It is also interesting to note that, after controlling for all other independent
variables, the number of years that the subject has been in their present
position has a small negative influence on commitment (beta = ±0.17, p < 0.05).
H7 relates to the possible role of job satisfaction as a causal mediator
between commitment and its antecedents. A number of authors have proposed
causal models of commitment in which the effects of the various independent
variables on commitment are fully mediated (e.g. Williams and Hazer, 1986) or
partly mediated (e.g. Price and Mueller, 1981) via their effects on the job
satisfaction. While the independent variables used in this earlier research are
not the same as in the this study, it is nevertheless of interest to examine the
extent to which the results of this study are consistent with such a model with
the present set of independent variables. Following the prescription given by
Barron and Kenny (1986), two further regression analyses were performed to
examine the possible role of job satisfaction as a mediator variable that
mediates the influence of the other independent variables on commitment.
These are shown as analyses 2 and 3 in Table III. Analysis 2 consists of a
regression of commitment on all other variables, except job satisfaction, while
analysis 3 is the regression of job satisfaction on the remaining independent
variables. According to Barron and Kenny (1986), evidence for the mediating
effect of job satisfaction between a particular independent variable (say X) is
provided if the following conditions hold. First, in a regression of job
satisfaction on the independent variables (analysis 3, in Table III), X has a
statistically significant influence on job satisfaction. Second, in a regression of
commitment on the set of independent variables not including job satisfaction
(analysis 2), X has a statistically significant effect on commitment. Third, in a
regression of the independent variables, plus job satisfaction (i.e. the possible
mediator variable), on commitment (analysis 1), job satisfaction has a
Journal of statistically significant influence on commitment. Finally, the regression
Managerial coefficient of X for the prediction of commitment is smaller in the regression
Psychology model with job satisfaction included in the equation (analysis 1) than in the
regression model with job satisfaction not included in the equation (i.e. analysis
16,8 2). (Note: If the inclusion of job satisfaction in the regression model reduces the
beta coefficient of X to near zero, job satisfaction is said to totally mediate the
608 relationship between X and commitment. If, however, its value is reduced but a
statistically significant influence remains, job satisfaction can be said to
partially mediate the relationship between X and commitment.)
Inspection of the three regression analyses shown in Table III shows that the
first three conditions hold for only two of the independent variables, namely,
ward culture (bureaucratic) and the leadership style variable, consideration.
However, in relation to the fourth condition, for both these variables there are
only very small decreases in the beta values for the prediction of commitment
when job satisfaction is included in the equation (beta values change from
±0.20 to ±0.16 and from 0.29 to 0.25, for the variables ward culture
(bureaucratic) and consideration respectively). It can therefore be concluded
that, for the independent variables included in this study, their influence on
commitment is not substantially mediated via their influence on job
satisfaction. Therefore, H7 is not supported.
A path analytic diagram was drawn to represent the results of the regression
analyses displayed in Table III, and is shown in Figure 1. (Note that, for clarity,
only variables with statistically significant beta coefficients have been included
in this diagram.)
It is clear from this diagram that the effects on commitment of the
independent variables is primarily direct with only small indirect effects
existing for the variables ward culture (bureaucratic) and consideration. The
indirect effects for these two variables on commitment, equal to ±0.04, and 0.04,
respectively, can be compared to the much larger direct effects equal to ±0.16
and 0.25 respectively. (The indirect effect is calculated as the product of betas
for paths leading from the independent variable to the dependent variable (for
example, see Cohen and Cohen (1983, p. 67)).
Discussion
The main finding of this study was that subculture had a greater influence on
commitment than organizational culture. This is an important finding, and is a
substantial contribution to the theory development of organizational
commitment. Previous literature has suggested that organizational culture and
subculture could have differential effects on individuals in the work place
(Brown, 1995; Krausz et al., 1995; Martin, 1992; Trice and Beyer, 1993).
However, these ideas have not led to empirical studies to examine these ideas.
These findings suggest that greater attention and resources might be need to
be given to the influencing of subcultures in organizations.
Another important finding from the results of this study was that innovative
subcultures had the strongest positive effects on commitment, while a
bureaucratic subculture had a negative effect on commitment. This finding is Antecedents of
compatible with previous results which suggested that a bureaucratic organizational
environment often resulted in a lower level of employee commitment (Brewer, commitment
1994; Kratina, 1990; Wallach, 1983) and performance (Krausz et al., 1995; Trice
and Beyer, 1993). These results provide support for previous suggestions that
factors such as hierarchical decision making, autocratic working environment,
and the lack of employee empowerment would produce negative employee 609
commitment in the workplace (Brewer, 1994; Brewer and Lok, 1995; Mueller
and Mcclosky, 1992). Note that a supportive subculture, although positively
correlated with commitment, did not have a significant independent effect on

commitment after having controlled for the other independent variables in the
study.
The results of this study confirm earlier findings on the relationship between
leadership style and commitment (Bateman and Strasser, 1984; DeCotiis and
Summers, 1987) and the positive association between job satisfaction and
commitment (Mowday et al., 1979; Vandenberg and Lance, 1992). The positive
effect of age on commitment found in this study also confirms the findings of
previous research (Battersby et al., 1990; Williams and Hazer, 1986). That is, the
older the participant, the greater level of commitment at work was found in
these studies. It is also consistent with Mathieu and Zajac's (1990) suggestion
that older and longer tenured employees would tend to ``cognitively justify''
their remaining in the organization by reporting higher levels of satisfaction
and commitment.
A number of writers have suggested models of commitment in which the
causal effects of a range of antecedent variables on commitment were mediated
either totally or partially via their effects on job satisfaction. In the model
described by Williams and Hazer (1986), the influences of the antecedent
variables were assumed to be totally mediated via the effects of job satisfaction.
However, Price and Mueller (1981) concluded that these influences were only
partially mediated via job satisfaction, with some of the antecedents having
significant direct effects on commitment. The results obtained from this study
were more similar to those obtained by Price and Mueller (1981), namely that a
significant proportion of the effects of the antecedents on commitment operate
directly on commitment, rather than indirectly via their effects on job
satisfaction.
This study has certain limitations. The results of this study may not be
transferable outside the Australian national context. Various cultural
dimensions in different nations can affect the commitment outcome of
individuals in organizations (Hofstede et al., 1990; Vandenberghe, 1999). For
example, the negative effect of a bureaucratic culture on commitment may not
be present in high power distance countries (e.g. China, Russia). Also, a high
power distant country like China may prefer to have hierarchy and a
bureaucratic approach at work (Min Chen, 1997; Hofstede et al., 1990).
According to Hofstede (1998), Australia is a relatively low power distant
country and bureaucratic culture should have a negative effect in
Journal of organizations. The present study was carried out in a hospital environment
Managerial where nurses tend to spend relatively long periods in the one ward. In
Psychology organizations where employees are more mobile within the organization, there
may not be time to form a well-defined subculture that can have significant
16,8
impact on commitment. These issues would require further investigation.
Further studies should also be done using a similar approach to assess the
610 generalizability of these findings on the importance of subcultures in other
public sector organizations as well as in private organizations.
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Lok 2001

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Journal of Managerial Psychology

Antecedents of organizational commitment and the mediating role of job satisfaction

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Accepted July 2001

The topic of organizational commitment has received a great deal of interest in

McFarlane et al., 1993; Somers, 1995).

organizations. Despite this, the influence of organizational subcultures on

orientation'' and ``relationship orientation'' behaviours in the Fiedler's (1967)

Aims and hypotheses

commitment will be significantly reduced after statistically controlling

Hypothesis Relevant variables, or group Hypothesized relationships with

1. Ward culture Ward culture will have a greater effect

dimension (bureaucratic, innovative and supportive) reflect the environment

1. Commitment 4.98 0.98 (0.85)

averaging an individual's responses for items assigned to these two

commitment and the culture, subculture, leadership style and demographic

influence of the selected variables on commitment in this study. These are

nor a supportive hospital culture, had statistically significant independent

correlated with commitment, did not have a significant independent effect on

[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Science 14:8, 23-33. [Crossref]

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