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The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes: An examination among senior managers
Abraham Carmeli
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To cite this document:
Abraham Carmeli, (2003),"The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior
and outcomes", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 18 Iss 8 pp. 788 - 813
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JMP
18,8 The relationship between
emotional intelligence and
788
work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes
An examination among senior managers
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Abraham Carmeli
Graduate School of Business Administration, Department of Political
Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Keywords Job commitment, Job satisfaction, Altruism, Family friendly organizations
Abstract The literature suggests that managerial skills in general, and emotional intelligence in
particular, play a significant role in the success of senior managers in the workplace. This argument,
despite its popularity, remains elusive. This can be attributed to the fact that although a few studies
have provided evidence to support this argument, it has not received an appropriate empirical
investigation. This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically examining the extent to which
senior managers with a high emotional intelligence employed in public sector organizations develop
positive work attitudes, behavior and outcomes. The results indicate that emotional intelligence
augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior and work outcomes, and moderates the effect of
work-family conflict on career commitment but not the effect on job satisfaction.
Introduction
What makes a senior manager successful has been a central research question
of organizational scientists for decades. Underlying this interest is the
assumption or observation regarding the impact of upper-echelon managers on
important issues of strategic vision, strategic positioning, strategic and tactical
moves, among others aimed at improving overall organizational performance
(Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Although over
the years we have been exposed to various approaches (e.g. management style)
for studying this elusive question, it still remains unanswered.
Studying managerial skills, however, seems to be one promising stream of
research that has potential for providing answers or at least shedding some
light on this enigma. As Whetten and Cameron (2001, p. 6) noted “management
skills form the vehicle by which management strategy, management practice,
tools and techniques, personality attributes and style work to produce effective
outcomes in organizations”.
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Vol. 18 No. 8, 2003 The author wishes to thank Sidika Nihal Colakoglu for her assistance, the editor and two
pp. 788-813 anonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable comments and suggestions, and the
q MCB UP Limited
0268-3946
participants who made this study a reality. The study was supported, in part, by a grant from
DOI 10.1108/02683940310511881 Schnitzer Foundation of the Faculty of Social Science at Bar-Ilan University.
In the last decade or so, we have been witness to a particular growing body Emotional
of research regarding the importance of emotional intelligence for successful intelligence
leadership. Underlying this research interest is the view that people with high
emotional intelligence competencies are more likely than less emotionally
intelligent people to gain success in the workplace. Particularly, scholars have
noted that social skills are essential for executive level leaders; as individuals
ascend the organizational hierarchy, social intelligence becomes an
789
increasingly relevant determinant of who will and will not be successful
(Hooijberg et al., 1997; Zaccaro, 2001). Though growing evidence indicates that
emotional intelligence competency has the potential to improve performance on
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both personal and organizational levels, we are still only in the initial phase of
understanding the extent to which members with high emotional intelligence
would be more valued assets than less emotionally intelligent members of their
organization. As Cherniss (2000) pointed out “it is more useful and interesting
to consider how important it is for effective performance at work”.
Furthermore, one of the criticisms of the influential work of Goleman (1995,
1998) is that the main argument stating that managers with high emotional
intelligence competencies are likely to provide their organizations with a
unique contribution has not yet received much empirical attention and support,
particularly with regard to various important work-related attitudes, behavior
and outcomes that may serve as good indexes for such investigation. As
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000, p. 341 and p. 351) indicate “little research has been
conducted in an organizational context” and “there is a need for rigorous
research to underpin the assertion in an organizational setting”.
This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically testing the degree to
which emotionally intelligent senior managers, employed in public sector
organizations, develop high job satisfaction, career commitment, job
involvement and effective commitment, diminish continuance commitment
and work-family conflict, display altruistic behavior, withdrawal intentions
and better job performance. In addition, this study examines the moderating
role of emotional intelligence for the relationship between work-family conflict
and job satisfaction and career commitment.
This article is organized as follows: the next section presents the importance
of managerial skills and stresses the concept of emotional intelligence and its
key components followed by the development of the research hypotheses. The
research method is presented in the following section and the results of this
study follow. Finally, the study’s results and limitations are summarized.
social creatures who, through job involvement, fill the need for emotional
experience. Managerial work is often complex and challenging and senior
managers with a high emotional intelligence often get extremely involved in
challenging experiences and complex situations that may not occur elsewhere.
Senior managers, for example, often remain beyond the required working
hours. They do this not for economic reward; but because it allows them to cope
with those complexities that yield an intense emotional experience. The
following hypothesis is suggested:
H4. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
involvement of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is defined
as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from work and
family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is,
participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of
participation in the family (work) role” (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985, p. 77).
Because this study attempted to explore the role of emotional intelligence in the
workplace, we concentrated on family interference with work exploring a
combination of three forms of work-family conflict (time, strain, and behavior)
suggested by Carlson et al. (2000). The form of time-based family interference
may occur when time devoted to one role makes it difficult to get involved in
another role. The form of strain-based family interference proposes that strain
in one role intrudes into and interferes with participation in another role.
Behavior family interference with work occurs when specific behaviors
required in one role are incompatible with behavioral expectations in another
role (Carlson et al., 2000).
Eliminating work-family conflict is the responsibility of both the
organization and its employees. Keith H. Hammonds (1996) quoted Ellen
Galinsky saying that “Companies are seeing they have all these programs (i.e.
work-family policies), but people are still really stressed out. . .Certainly,
employees bear some responsibility for determining their own family balance.
But they need help. Companies that recognize the need and adapt work to
peoples’ lives will win workers’ loyalty – and, with that, a competitive edge.
JMP With respect to the role of the individuals, one may expect that a high
18,8 emotional intelligence would help them balance family interference with work.
In fact, they may be more capable of preventing work-family conflict from the
beginning due to their emotional astuteness incorporates the recognition of the
degree to which the family plays an emotional role for them and those
connected to them, the insight as to how these emotions should be managed,
796 and the ability to improve the decision-making process. The following
hypothesis is suggested:
H5. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
work-family conflict (family interference with work) of senior
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managers.
Emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior. Organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB) is an extra-role behavior that goes beyond formal
role requirements (Smith et al., 1983). Emotional intelligence may enhance
altruistic behavior as it enables employees to comprehend their co-workers’
feelings and to respond better than employees with low emotional intelligence
because of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods
(Abraham, 1999). Staw et al. (1994) suggested three explanations for the
engagement of an emotionally intelligent individual in altruistic behavior.
First, being in a good mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is rewarding
in the sense that it enables employees to also maintain this state of mind.
Second, people in good moods may be more socially interactive. Third, when
employees are more satisfied (having positive emotional reactions to the job)
they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behavior. The following
hypothesis is suggested:
H6. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
organizational citizenship behavior – altruism of senior managers.
Methodology
Respondents and data collection
The population of this study was senior managers employed as chief financial
officers in the local government authorities in Israel. A direct-mail
questionnaire was sent to 262 senior managers. The questionnaire was
mailed from and returned to a university address, using a self-addressed reply
envelope. Ninety-eight usable questionnaires were returned. The respondents’
average age was 46.6 years (S.D. 9.24); 11 were women, and 79.4 percent held at
least bachelor’s degree. Their average tenure in their present organization was
11.47 (S.D. 9.13). The average income of the respondents was 2.56 (S.D. 0.54)
(1 ¼ up to 10,000 New Israeli Shekel (NIS), 2 ¼ 10,001 to 20,000, and 3 ¼ 20,001
and above). Note that annual average value of US$ 1 and 1 Euro in 2001 was
4.205 NIS and 3.7644 NIS, respectively. The average size of the organizations
(measured by the number of permanent residents for which the organization is
responsible to provide services, see Carmeli, 2002) was 24,729 (S.D. 54,259.37).
Dependent variables
Work outcomes. Job performance and withdrawal intentions from the
organization were used to assess employee’s work outcomes:
(1) Job performance. This measure was evaluated by a scale developed by Emotional
Pearce and Porter (1986), and used by Black and Porter (1991), and intelligence
Hochwarter et al. (1999). This measure contains five items (overall
performance, ability to get along with others, completing tasks on time,
quality of performance, and achievement of work goals) that were
assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree, to
799
7 ¼ strongly agree). Although such difficulties as self-enhancement and
objectivity and reliability may be encountered, Mabe and West (1982)
showed that self-evaluation measures were more valid than pointed out
in prior research (Hochwarter et al. (1999). The Cronbach’s alpha for this
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Independent/moderator variable
Emotional intelligence. Over the years, considerable research effort resulted in
various instruments for measuring emotional intelligence (EQi of Bar-On, 1996;
Executive EQ of Cooper and Sawaf, 1997; EIQ Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999; Emotional
MSCEIT of Mayer et al., 2000; ECI of Boyatzis and Goleman, 1998). intelligence
In this study, emotional intelligence was measured with the self-report
measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. (1998) for several
reasons: First, this measure is based on the framework of emotional intelligence
developed by Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990 and later formulated (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997)[1]. Second, previous study found some limitations in early 801
self-report measures of emotional intelligence such as insufficient reliability
and connections with personality factors (Davies et al., 1998). Third, studies
that evaluated the measure of Schutte and her colleagues (1998) in both adult
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and adolescents population indicate that this measure seems to overcome the
observed difficulties in other measures of emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi et al.,
2000; Ciarrochi et al., 2001). Finally, in macro level studies, self report measure
of emotional intelligence which is brief, validated and based on a cohesive and
comprehensive model of emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990;
Mayer and Salovey, 1997) is very useful.
The measure used in this study consists of 33 items. Sample items are “I
know when to speak about my personal problems to others”, and “I am aware
of my emotions as I experience them” (appraisal and expression of emotion); “I
present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others”, and I have
control over my emotions” (regulation of emotion); “when I feel a change in
emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas”, and I use good moods to help
myself keep trying in the face of obstacles” (utilization). All items were ranged
from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for
this scale was 0.90.
Control variables
We control for:
(1) Organizational size. Measured by the number of permanent residents for
which the organization is responsible for provision of services (Carmeli,
2002);
(2) Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years the
respondent is employed in the current organization;
(3) Gross income. (1 ¼ up to 10,000 NIS, New Israeli Shekel; 2 ¼ 10,001 to
20,000 NIS; 3 ¼ 20,001 to 30,000 NIS; 4 ¼ 30,001 to 40,000 NIS; and
4 ¼ above 40,000 NIS);
(4) Respondents’ age.
Because the vast majority of the respondents were male, differences between
male and female respondents could not be established.
Data analysis
To assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes,
behavior, and outcomes, we performed a series of separate hierarchical
JMP regression analyses. Each model had two steps. The first step involved
18,8 entering the control variables and the second step involved entering the
independent variable.
To examine the interaction hypotheses, the variables were entered into the
regression equations in three steps. The control variables were entered in the
first step. In the second step, we entered the “main effects” (work-family
802 conflict and emotional intelligence). Finally, the work-family conflict X
emotional intelligence product term variable was entered in the third step. Both
variables were mean-centered as is suggested for variables that are to be
constituents of product terms (Aiken and West, 1991).
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Results
Table I reports the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients of
variables used in the analysis. Though several variables are related, Table I
indicates no severe problems of multicolinearity as none of the related variables
exceeded the value of 0.60. Furthermore, we performed separate hierarchical
regressions for the effect of emotional intelligence on each one of the dependent
variables. Table I also provides a preliminary support for the significant
relationships between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, work
behavior and work outcomes.
Table II presents the results of hierarchical regression. Emotional
intelligence was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction
(b ¼ 0.32, p , 0.01), supporting H1. This finding is consistent with the
argument according to which emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to
display higher overall satisfaction in the workplace.
Supporting H2a, we provide evidence that when senior managers have high
emotional intelligence they tend to develop high affective commitment
(emotional attachment) to the organization for which they work (b ¼ 0.23,
p , 0.05). H2b, on the other hand, was not supported as the relationship
between emotional intelligence and continuance commitment was not
significant (b ¼ 20.12, p ¼ ns). The beta coefficient, though not statistically
significant, was in the expected direction.
We found support for H3. Emotionally intelligent senior managers develop
high commitment toward their career (b ¼ 0.34, p , 0.001). However, contrary
to H4, emotional intelligence was statistically unrelated to job involvement. It
may be that the involvement of senior managers is more complex than we
assumed, and is affected by other important factors not examined here. Though
no prediction was made, we found that job involvement was significantly
related to tenure in the organization (b ¼ 0.20, p , 0.10) as well as to gross
income (b ¼ 0.25, p , 0.05).
The results support H5, stating that senior managers who have high
emotional intelligence are more likely to effectively control work-family conflict
(b ¼ 20.31, p , 0.01). Compared to low and middle-level position employees,
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Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
correlationsa
deviations, and
Means, standard
Table I.
803
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18,8
JMP
804
outcomes
Table II.
intelligence on work
influence of emotional
Results of hierarchical
Step 1
Organiza-
tional size 0.00 (0.01) 2 0.01 (0.93) 0.01 (0.07) 0.07 (0.73) 0.15 (1.47) 0.09 (0.83) 0.05 (0.43) 0.06 (0.56) 0.19 (1.93*)
Tenure in
organiza-
tional 2 0.09 (2 0.75) 2 0.10 (2 0.87) 2 0.09 (2 0.87) 2 0.03 (2 0.23) 0.20 (1.76*) 0.15 (1.24) 0.19 (1.58) 0.12 (1.06) 0.18 (1.62)
Income 0.16 (1.54) 0.03 (0.31) 0.18 (1.91*) 0.05 (0.45) 0.25 (2.43**) 0.11 (1.08) 2 0.16 (2 1.48) 0.13 (1.21) 2 0.16 (2 1.59)
Age 0.06 (0.58) 2 0.22 (2 1.94*) 0.08 (0.87) 0.27 (2.53**) 0.06 (0.57) 0.00 (2 0.04) 0.00 (0.00) 2 0.04 (2 0.36) 2 0.03 (2 0.29)
R2 0.038 0.068 0.055 0.082 0.193 0.064 0.051 0.058 0.093
Step 2
Emotional
intelligence 0.32 (3.08***) 2 0.20 (2 1.93*) 0.54 (6.03****) 0.34 (3.44****) 0.04 (0.45) 0.23 (2.21**) 2 0.12 (2 1.11) 0.32 (3.12***) 2 0.31 (23.20***)
DR2 0.09 0.039 0.286 0.113 0.002 0.050 0.014 0.098 0.096
F for DR2 9.49*** 3.71* 36.41**** 11.83**** 0.19 4.87** 1.23 9.70*** 9.91***
R2 for total
equation 0.135 0.107 0.341 0.195 0.195 0.114 0.065 0.155 0.189
** *** ****
Notes: * p # 0.10 p # 0.05, p # 0.01, p # 0.001
senior managers may encounter a higher level of job demands that result in Emotional
work-family conflict. The results indicate that senior managers who have high intelligence
emotional intelligence may better and more carefully handle the inherent
work-family conflict than those who have low emotional intelligence.
H6, which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will display
higher levels of altruistic behavior, was strongly supported (b ¼ 0.54, 805
p , 0.001). In addition, H7, which states that emotional intelligence will be
negatively related to withdrawal intentions from the organization, and H8,
which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will perform the job
better than senior managers with low emotional intelligence, were supported
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Step 1
Organizational size 0.03 0.04
Tenure in organization 0.14 0.02
Income 0.16 0.02
Age 2 0.05 0.058 0.058 0.20* 0.048 0.048
Step 2
Work-family conflict (WF) 2 0.05 20.09
Emotional intelligence (EI) 0.30*** 0.157 0.097*** 0.37**** 0.205 0.156**** Table III.
Results of the
Step 3 moderating role of
EI £ WF 0.03 0.158 0.001 0.21** 0.239 0.034** emotional intelligence
Notes: *p # 0.10 **p # 0.05, ***p # 0.01, ****p # 0.001 (EI)
JMP in Figure 1, the interaction of emotional intelligence with work-family conflict
18,8 affects both the strength and direction of this relationship. For senior managers
who are low on emotional intelligence there is a strong positive relationship
and for those who are high on emotional intelligence there is a moderate
negative relationship. That is, when senior managers with low emotional
intelligence experience high work-family conflict, they manage to maintain
806 high career commitment. When highly emotionally intelligent senior managers
experience high work-conflict, they reduce their career commitment to a more
reasonable level to deal with work-family conflict.
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Discussion
The major goal of this study was to examine the extent to which a critical
component of managerial skills – emotional intelligence – augments positive
work attitudes and the contextual and task performance of senior managers
employed in a public sector setting. This study advances the literature
pertaining to emotional intelligence by empirically demonstrating the
importance of emotional intelligence for developing positive work-related
attitudes and contextual and task performance.
These findings are especially of importance for organizations which
recognize the critical role the top management team plays in their success (see
Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). The
effectiveness of the top management team is a function, inter alia, of the
management skills (Whetten and Cameron, 2001) possessed by the senior
managers from which it is comprised. Skills of managing people are of unique
importance for the creation of effective management and leadership, and
emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence” (Salovey and Mayer,
1989-1990) may be the most critical component of this class of skills. Hence,
having senior executives with high emotional intelligence is a necessity for
attaining sustainable results.
This study went beyond the simple premise of the importance of emotional
intelligence to demonstrate the extent to which the latter augments favorable
attitudes and outcomes. The results indicate, for example, that emotionally
intelligent senior managers develop emotional attachment to their
Figure 1.
Interaction between
emotional intelligence
(EI) and work-family
conflict (WF) predicting
career commitment (CC)
organizations and are also more committed to their career. In addition, findings Emotional
also indicate that emotionally intelligent senior managers tend to be more intelligence
satisfied with their work. Retaining talented and knowledgeable senior
managers becomes a major concern for many organizations. Selecting senior
managers who have high emotional intelligence may have a positive impact on
the extent to which an organization succeeds in retaining its most critical 807
workforce. Research findings revealed that occupational commitment (Lee et al.,
2000) and organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) are
significantly related to withdrawal intentions, and that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment are by far the main predictors of turnover (Griffeth
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the organization since organizational citizenship behavior has the potential, for
example, to enhance co-worker and managerial productivity, freeing the
management from work-related problems so that it can deal with more
productive tasks, and enhancing the sustainability of the organization’s
performance. In addition, the finding that emotionally intelligent senior
managers perform better on the job provides clear evidence to the question
asked by Cherniss (2000) regarding “how important it (emotional intelligence)
is for effective performance at work”, and is consistent with Cavallo and
Brienza’s findings of a “strong relationship between superior performing
leaders and emotional competence”.
Note
809
1. When this study was conducted, the MSCEIT instrument was not available to the author.
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