Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Echague, Isabela

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CE 111 – CALCULUS 1

1. Chapter 10: SOLUTIONS TO EQUATIONS

2. Overview/Introduction

- Newton’s Method
- Difficulties Present in Newton’s Method
- The First Approximation
- Solution of Equations

3. Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Master and apply Newton’s Method in finding the roots of any equation/s;

4. Learning Content/Topic

I. NEWTON’S METHOD

A problem of first importance in engineering, physics, and the other mathematical sciences
is to find, to any desired degree of approximation, the root or roots of an equation which
cannot be solved by elementary methods. This problem can be solved by Newton’s Method,
which we shall now develop.

Newton’s Method is essentially one for improving an approximation already obtained. With
skilled application, it can be made to yield a root to any desired degree of accuracy. It is
useful in obtaining approximations to imaginary roots, as well as real roots, of equations.
Only approximations to real roots are treated here.

Let the equation whose root is desired be

(1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
Consider the curve
(2) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

A root of equation (1) is the 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 of a

point at which the curve (2) crosses the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

Let the first approximation to the root be 𝑥 = 𝑥 , as

shown in Figure 1. The point 𝐵, where the ordinate
𝐴𝐵 intersects the curve has the coordinates 𝑥 =
𝑥 ,𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ). The tangent line at B will intersect the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at 𝐶, whose coordinate 𝑥, may be a better
approximation to the desired root than is 𝑥 . Figure 1

1 |Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 To find 𝑥 , knowing 𝑥 , note that 𝐵𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 , and = 𝑓′(𝑥 ). Thus,

𝑓(𝑥 )
= 𝑓 (𝑥 ),
𝑥 −𝑥

which yields

𝑓(𝑥 )
(3) 𝑥 = 𝑥 −
𝑓′(𝑥 )

If we have one approximation 𝑥 , to a root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, equation (3) gives us another

approximation, 𝑥 , to that root. From 𝑥 still another approximation, 𝑥 , is obtained in the
same way by using

𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥 =𝑥 −
𝑓′(𝑥 )

and the process can be repeated as many times as we wish.

In following the discussion, it is helpful to carry out the details for an equation whose solution
is known. The equation

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0

Has roots 𝑥 = 1 ± √2. Therefore, the parabola

𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 1

crosses 0x near 𝑥 = 2.4 and 𝑥 = −0.4. for this equation choose as the first approximation
𝑥 = 2.4, compute 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑓′(𝑥 ), and the second approximation 𝑥 by employing equation
(3).

( )
The term − in equation (3) may be called the correction; it is the difference between
( )
the successive approximations 𝑥 and 𝑥 . Newton’s Method is to iterate this process until
the correction has vanished to the number of decimal places required in the root.

II. DIFFICULTIES PRESENT IN NEWTON’S METHOD

In the basic formula

𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥 =𝑥 −
𝑓′(𝑥 )

of Newton’s Method, the correction term will usually

be large if its denominator 𝑓′(𝑥 ) is small. Since
𝑓 (𝑥) will vanish at a critical point of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), it is
highly desirable to avoid such a point in using
Newton’s Method. Figure 2 emphasizes that if 𝑥 is
unwisely chosen, then the slope of the tangent line
Figure 2

2 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 is small, and the next approximation 𝑥 is distressingly far from the desired root.

When two roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are close together, it can become a serious
problem to avoid the nearby critical point. when the root is a repeated root, both 𝑓(𝑥) and
( )
𝑓’(𝑥) vanish there, in theory, no difficulty arises because → 0 as 𝑥 approaches the
( )
desired root; in practice, considerable difficulty arises because we lose significant figures
rapidly in computing the small values of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓’(𝑥) near the root. The cure is usually
effected by solving 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 for a double root of the original equation, or 𝑓’′(𝑥) = 0 for a
triple root, etc.

III. THE FIRST APPROXIMATION

Three simple methods for obtaining a first approximation will now be explained.

FIRST METHOD. Plot points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) until the root is pinned in between two
values of 𝑥, one yielding a positive y, the other a negative 𝑦. Then approximate the root by
interpolation, call that approximation 𝑥 , and proceed with Newton’s Method.

SECOND METHOD. If the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

can be written, by transferring terms from one
side to the other, as 𝑔(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥), where 𝑔(𝑥)
and ℎ(𝑥) are simple functions, then plot 𝑦 =
𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥). The 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 of a
point of intersection of these curves is a root of
the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

Example. The equation 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0

can be written 𝑥 = sin 𝑥.

By Sketching 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 on Figure 3

the same figure (Figure 3), we obtain a
first rough approximation, 𝑥 = 0.9.

THIRD METHOD. If the equation is so simple that its component parts can be obtained
readily from a single table, then a first approximation may be obtained from that table by
inspection. For example, to start on the solution of the equation 𝑒 , we may well consult a
table of exponentials, and look down the appropriate columns until we find where 𝑒 and
𝑥 are about equal. Thus, we soon find that 𝑥 = 0.57 is a good first approximation.

In summary, any of the three methods may be employed or combinations of them can be
particularly useful. The first method has many advantages in that the more we know about
the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the more effective will be our use of Newton’s Method.

IV. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

Applying the technique described in this chapter, it should be kept in mind that any
approximation 𝑥 is considered exact, once chosen, and that 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑓′(𝑥 ) are
computed on that basis. If tables are used, the precision of the result is restrained by the
limited accuracy of the tables. The root can then be approximated more closely only by
computing the functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑓′(𝑥 ) to a greater degree of accuracy than that present
in the tables.

3 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 For a smooth curve, Newton’s Method yields the root as closely as desired; it “converges”
to the correct value of 𝑥. In practice, once we get fairly close to the root, the method
converges quite rapidly. Often two or three additional significant figures are picked up in a
single step.

Example.
(a) Find to four decimal places the smaller positive root of the equation

(1) 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 2 = 0
Here

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4
Put
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 2
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2; when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −1. A root lies
between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1, Fig. 4. The chord joining
(0,2) and (1,-1) crosses 0𝑥 at 𝑥 = ; but since 𝑦’’ = 6𝑥,
the curve is concave upward in this interval and will
cross 0𝑥 to the left of the chord; try 𝑥 = 0.5. By direct
substitution, we find

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0.125, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −3.25

So that

0.125
𝑥 = 0.5 − = 0.5 + 0.04
−3.25
𝑥 = 0.54
Figure 4
Next, we use 𝑥 in a similar manner to find

𝑓(𝑥 ) = −0.0025 , 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −3.13

And
−0.0025
𝑥 = 0.54 − = 0.54 − 0.0008
−3.13
𝑥 = 0.5392

Finally, from 𝑥 we obtain

−0.00003
𝑥 = 0.5392 − = 0.5392 − 0.00001
−3.13
𝑥 = 0.5392

So that the desired root, to four decimal places, is 𝑥 = 0.5392

The work is conveniently arranged in tabular form. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑦′ = 𝑓′(𝑥 ).

n 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦′ −𝑦 / 𝑦′
1 0.5 0.125 -3.25 0.04
2 0.54 -0.0025 -3.13 -0.0008

4 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 3 0.5392 -0.00003 -3.13 -0.00001

(b) Solve the equation cos 𝑥

A rough sketch (Fig. 5) of the curve 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 shows that they
intersect at only one point, somewhere near 𝑥 = 𝜋. Until we learn how to compute
the cosine function to any desired degree of accuracy, we are forced to use
trigonometric tables in this problem. The number of significant figures in our answer
is therefore dictated by the table used.

Let us turn to the table on page 571 (Differential

and Integral Calculus by Love & Rainville) and
hunt for the place where “radian” and “cosine”
are nearly equal. We thus obtain, as a first
approximation, 𝑥 = 0.74.

Put
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
Then
𝑓 (𝑥) = 1 + sin 𝑥
Figure 5
For 𝑥 = 0.74 we find that
cos 𝑥 = 0.73847
sin 𝑥 = 0.67429

Then 𝑓(𝑥 ) = +0.00153, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +1.67, so that

0.00153
𝑥 = 0.74 − = 0.74 − 0.001 = 0.739
1.67

We use interpolation in the table to obtain

cos 𝑥 = 0.73914
sin 𝑥 = 0.67355

Then
𝑓(𝑥 ) = −0.00014|
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1.67
Hence
−0.00014
𝑥 = 0.739 = = 0.739
1.67

Since we dare not interpolate to a hundredth of the interval in the table, the root
we sought is 𝑥 = 0.739 as accurately as it can be obtained without a more
extensive trigonometric table.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

EXERCISES
1. Find, to three decimal places, the cube root of 4. (Do not use a table of cube roots.
2. Find, to three decimal places, the cube root of 2.

5 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 3. Find, to two decimal places, the cube root of 98.
4. Find, to two decimal places, the positive root of 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0.
5. Find the other real root of the equation in Ex. 4.
6. Find, to two decimal places, the positive root of 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0.
7. Find the other roots of the equation of Ex. 6.
8. Find, to three decimal places, the real root of 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0.
9. Find the smaller positive root of 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0.
10. Find the numerically smallest root of 𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 23𝑥 + 14 = 0.
11. In Ex. 10, find the intermediate root.
12. Find, to two decimal places the maximum value of the function 𝑥 sin 𝑥 for 𝑥 between
0 and 𝜋.
13. Find to two decimal places, the coordinates of the point of intersection of the hyperbola
𝑥𝑦 = 1 and the catenary 𝑦 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 ).

14. If 𝑦 = 𝑥 , find the value of x to two decimal places when 𝑦 = 10.Hint: Consider the
common logarithm of y.
Each of the following equations has one irrational root. Find it to two decimal places
using Newton’s Method.
15. 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5 = 0
16. 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 10 = 0
17. 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 1
18. 𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 8
19. 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 5
20. 𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 17
Using Newton’s Method, find the smallest positive root of the following equation to
three decimal places.
21. cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0 24. 𝑥 + log 𝑥 = 2
22. 𝑒 − 2𝑥 = 0 25. 2 sin 2𝑥 − 1 = 1
23. 𝑒 − ln 𝑥 = 0 26. 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = 1
6. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Module, Messenger Rooms/ Google Classroom

Exercises and Problem Sets.
.
7. Assessment Task

Assessment Task will be a 30-point quiz covering the topics discussed in this module.
In addition, a long exam will be given at the end of the term

8. References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

This contains the list of references/readings which students can explore.

Love, C.E. Ph.D, Rainville E.D. Ph.D. Differential and Integral Calculus.

6 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations

 MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO., INC.

Peterson, T.S. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Ken Incorporated, Quezon City

7 | Calculus 1 – Module 10: Solutions to Equations