Economic Geology

Vol. 98, 2003, pp. 1063–1067

A Special Issue Devoted to Gold Deposits in Northern Nevada:

Part 2. Carlin-Type Deposits

Preface
ALBERT H. HOFSTRA,†
U.S. Geological Survey, MS-973, Federal Center, Box 25046, Denver, Colorado 80225

DAVID A. JOHN, AND TED G. THEODORE

U.S. Geological Survey, MS-901, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, California 94025

Introduction Despite the similar age, tectonic setting, alteration types,

This is the second of two special issues of Economic Geol-
ogy devoted to gold deposits in northern Nevada. Readers in-
terested in a general overview of these deposits, their eco-
nomic significance, their context within the tectonic evolution
of the region, and synoptic references on each gold deposit
type are directed to the preface of the first special issue (John
et al., 2003). Volume 98, issue 2, contains five papers that ad-
dress regional aspects important to the genesis of gold de-
posits in northern Nevada and five papers that present de-
tailed studies of epithermal deposits and districts. All of the
regional papers are pertinent to Carlin-type gold deposits, be-
cause they address the age of mineralization (Arehart et al.,
2003), origin and evolutionary history of the northwest-strik-
ing mineral belts that localize many deposits (Grauch et al.,
2003), nature of the middle and lower crust below these min-
eral belts (Howard, 2003), district- to deposit-scale stream
sediment and lithogeochemical anomalies (Theodore et al.,
2003), and stratigraphy and structure of a district located
along a northeast-striking lineament (Peters et al., 2003).
The nine papers in this second special issue focus on an
array of problems pertinent to genetic and exploration mod-
els for Carlin-type deposits in northern Nevada (Fig. 1).
These investigations sort out and characterize the sequence
of deformational, igneous, and hydrothermal events in mining
districts, constrain the age of mineralization, map paleother-
mal gradients, identify structures and lithologies that are
preferentially mineralized, ascertain processes of ore forma-
tion, determine sources of ore fluid components, and define
fluid flow paths.
A common theme among these papers is inheritance,
whereby older features in the mineral belts influence ore for-
mation in subsequent Carlin-type hydrothermal systems.
Three types of inheritance are inferred by one or more of
these investigations: (1) structural inheritance, where older
faults are reactivated during subsequent contractional and/or
extensional tectonic events producing permeable fracture sys-
tems that focused flow of ore fluids; (2) alteration inheritance,
where one or more preore alteration events produced reac-
tive host rocks that are preferentially mineralized; and (3)
geochemical inheritance, in which Au and other elements are
recycled from older mineralization into younger Carlin-type
deposits.
† Corresponding author: e-mail, ahofstra@usgs.gov
mineral parageneses, and geochemical signatures of the de-
posits studied, these papers do not lead to consensus regard-
ing genetic models for Carlin-type deposits. Rather, the sep-
arate investigations by different workers, utilizing both
similar and unlike approaches, result in markedly different
conclusions. Some of this disparity probably is due to real dif-
ferences in the origin of different districts; however, the op-
posing conclusions arrived at by investigations on neighboring
deposits in a single district are more problematic and most
likely are due to difficulties resulting from the superposition
of different types and ages of gold mineralization or to sub-
stantial variations in the hydrology and proportions of fluid
components derived from deep and shallow sources in each
deposit. Further work is needed to validate and understand
the significance of these differences.
Description of the Second Special Issue
Carlin-type deposits are the economically most important
type of gold deposit in northern Nevada and are estimated to
contain in excess of 5,000 metric tons (t) of gold (Hofstra and
Cline, 2000). The first four papers in this issue (Emsbo et al.,
2003; Heitt et al., 2003; Kesler et al., 2003; Chakurian et al.,
2003) describe deposits in the northern part of the Carlin
trend (inset, Fig. 1) which has gold production and reserves
in excess of 3,000 t. This is followed by a paper (Yigit et al.,
2003) on the Gold Bar district (50 t Au) in the Battle Moun-
tain-Eureka trend (1,500 t Au). The next two papers (Tosdal
et al., 2003; Fortuna et al., 2003) focus on deposits in the
Getchell trend (600 t Au production and reserves). They are
followed by a paper (Nutt and Hofstra, 2003) on the Alligator
Ridge district (45 t Au) which constitutes another gold trend.
The last paper (Emsbo and Hofstra, 2003) describes the ori-
gin and significance of paragenetically late sparry calcite and
barite present in many of these deposits. All of these papers
are outgrowths of collaborations between geologists at Bar-
rick Goldstrike Mines, Inc., Newmont Mining Corporation,
Placer Dome U.S., Inc., and students and faculty at the Col-
orado School of Mines, the University of British Columbia,
the University of Michigan, or the University of Nevada, Las
Vegas and Reno, and geologists at the U.S. Geological Survey.
A critical problem that has hampered past and ongoing ore
genesis investigations of Carlin-type deposits is the failure to
recognize and adequately cope with the superposition of ig-
neous and hydrothermal events of disparate types and ages in

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1064 HOFSTRA ET AL.

118° 117° 116° 115°

Northern Carlin trend

Jerritt
Getchell Canyon
trend Twin Creeks

Ca
Wells

rli
41°

nt
ren
Winnemucca

d
Elko
Battle Mountain Carlin

Ba
ttl
Me
ou
ta
in
Alligator
-
Eu
40° Ridge
re
Tonkin Springs
k
at
re
Gold Bar
nd

Nevada
Austin Eureka

Ely

0 25 50 Miles 100

39° 0 25 50 100 Kilometers

FIG. 1. Digital elevation model of northern Nevada showing locations of major mineral belts and districts, Carlin-type de-
posits (circles; Peters et al., 2003), other significant Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, or Cu deposits (crosses; Long et al., 2000), eastern limit
of the Roberts Mountains allochthon (bold white line; Crafford and Grauch, 2003), cities (small circles), and highways (black
lines). Inset (white box) shows the distribution of Carlin-type deposits in the northern Carlin trend (Thompson et al., 2002).
Labeled deposits and districts are discussed in this volume. Figure provided by D. Sweetkind, U.S. Geological Survey.

the major gold trends. Additional problems of both economic
and genetic importance are the origin of high-grade orebod-
ies and the source of ore fluid components within them. The
investigation by Emsbo et al. (2003) on Meikle and neighbor-
ing deposits (Betze-Post, Rodeo, Ren) in the northern Carlin
trend (Fig. 1) addresses these issues. In light of the results,
these authors identify problems with existing distal-mag-
matic, epizonal orogenic, and deep meteoric water convec-
tion models for the deposits. They synthesize isotopic dates
and crosscutting relationships between stratigraphy, intru-
sions, and diverse hydrothermal products with descriptions of
breccias, alteration types, mineral chemistry and parageneses,
lithogeochemistry, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope informa-
tion. They show that the northern Carlin trend was the site of
Devonian syngenetic hydrothermal activity, diagenesis, petro-
leum generation, three periods of intrusive igneous activity,
and five epigenetic hydrothermal events, many of which con-
tain gold. They also show that Carlin-type ore in Jurassic and
late Eocene intrusions in these deposits has very similar char-
acteristics and conclude all were affected by the same late
Eocene hydrothermal system. Next, they show that the high-
grade ore (25 g/t Au) at Meikle (220 t Au) was generated by
sulfidation of hydrothermal ferroan dolomite which formed in
the footwall alteration zone of a Devonian sedimentary ex-
halative hydrothermal system. Finally, they show that cooling
was not important during the main ore stage and conclude
that there was a large component of lateral fluid flow. Their
isotopic data preclude large inputs of magmatic or metamor-
phic fluids. Rather, they indicate that ore fluids consisted of
moderately exchanged meteoric water which obtained H2S
via interactions with sedimentary rocks at relatively high
water/rock ratios. Based on evidence that the Devonian sedi-
mentary eshalative system deposited significant gold in the
Popovich Formation nearby, Emsbo et al. propose that late
Eocene meteoric water evolved into an ore fluid by relatively
shallow circulation through sedimentary exhalative Au- and
S-enriched rocks.
Future exploration and mining in the northern Carlin trend
will be largely underground and focus on high-grade deposits.
Heitt et al. investigate Deep Star, a significant (54 t Au),

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 PREFACE
high-grade (34 g/t Au) deposit in the northern Carlin trend
(Fig. 1). The deposit is located on the south side of the Juras-
sic Goldstrike stock, along the north-northeast-striking Gen-
Post fault system, in calc-silicate rocks of the Devonian
Popovich Formation which are intruded by late Eocene rhy-
olite dikes. These authors synthesize district and deposit ge-
ology and present new structural analysis, descriptions of
breccias, alteration types, mineral parageneses, lithogeo-
chemistry, and stable isotope data. They note that the Post
fault existed prior to emplacement of the Goldstrike stock and
show that Deep Star and the rhyolite dikes are coeval and lo-
calized by dilatant faults and fractures developed at a releas-
ing bend along a larger fault during regional west-northwest
extension. They show that high-grade ore is best developed in
preore quartz-carbonate altered rocks. The deposit is en-
veloped by a complex multielement geochemical anomaly
and a larger three-dimensional Au anomaly, the latter of
which suggests that ore fluid movement was largely vertical,
emanating from the Post fault system. Their stable isotope
data suggest that a magmatic or metamorphic fluid mixed
with meteoric water.
The investigation by Kesler et al. builds on the framework
study by Ye et al. (2003) on the distal, largely strata-bound,
Screamer part of the enormous Betze-Post gold deposit
(1,500 t Au) in the northern Carlin trend (Fig. 1). Ye at al.
(2003) showed that ore at Screamer is largely restricted to the
Wispy member of the Devonian Popovich Formation and de-
termined that there is not a consistent relationship between
fracture density, alteration, and ore. Some gold ore is local-
ized by faults and exhibits alteration, mineralogy, and geo-
chemistry characteristic of most Carlin-type deposits. Other
gold ore is in visibly unaltered rocks. Kesler et al. evaluate the
relation between sulfidation and gold deposition at Screamer,
determine the source of sulfur in ore zones, and consider the
role of earlier gold-depositing events in its formation. Their
investigation utilizes a combination of stratigraphic correla-
tion, lithogeochemistry, sulfur isotope data (bulk rock and
mineral separates), point counts of arsenian pyrite, SEM
imaging of pyrite, and SIMS analyses of gold in different tex-
tural types of pyrite. They show that ore pyrite formed from
auriferous H2S-rich fluids primarily by mixing with a con-
trasting fluid containing iron and secondarily by sulfidation of
host-rock iron. They suggest that most of the reduced sulfur
in the deposit is magmatic in origin. They document minor
evidence for earlier gold-bearing hydrothermal events but
conclude that the amount of gold introduced by them was in-
significant.
The age of Carlin-type deposits, pathways of fluid move-
ment, and relation to magnetic anomalies and exposures of
intrusive igneous rocks in, or near, the major trends are criti-
cal to genetic models. Chakurian et al. investigate these issues
in the northern Carlin trend (Fig. 1) utilizing 40Ar/39Ar, ap-
atite fission track (AFT), and apatite U-Th (He) dating meth-
ods. Their 40Ar/39Ar results from altered (K micas) and min-
eralized Jurassic lamprophyre dikes provide evidence for
Jurassic (>152 Ma) and Tertiary (<50 Ma) hydrothermal ac-
tivity but do not yield the age of gold mineralization. Primary
AFT ages from Cretaceous and Jurassic intrusive rocks and
from Devonian sedimentary rocks yield Cretaceous to late
Eocene ages, document a north-south paleothermal gradient
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1065
along the northern Carlin trend, and provide evidence of pre-
ore vertical displacement along the Post fault that served to
localize several deposits. One secondary AFT age and two ap-
atite U-Th (He) ages provide evidence of a Miocene thermal
event associated with bimodal magmatism related to the
northern Nevada rift. The weighted mean late Eocene AFT
age for the Betze-Post and Carlin East deposits (Fig 1, inset)
agrees with independent constraints on the age of mineral-
ization described in these special issues (Arehart et al., 2003;
Emsbo et al., 2003; Heitt et al., 2003; and references therein).
Chakurian et al. conclude that the gold deposits and the re-
gional paleothermal gradient are products of fluid circulation
driven by emplacement of the late Eocene Welches Canyon
stock located about 12 km to the south and adjacent to the
Carlin trend.
In the first special issue, Grauch et al. (2003, and refer-
ences therein) suggested that the northwest-striking Battle
Mountain-Eureka trend is underlain by a crustal fault zone
which formed during Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic rifting.
The structural evolution of this trend, its surface manifesta-
tions, and the structural controls on gold deposits within it are
of critical importance to exploration. In this issue Yigit et al.
investigate the Gold Bar district in the central part of the Bat-
tle Mountain-Eureka trend. It contains about 50 t (1.6 Moz)
of gold in six deposits at two stratigraphic levels in the De-
vonian McColley Canyon and Denay Formations. Although
igneous intrusions are absent, the deposits locally are covered
by unaltered 24 Ma volcanic rocks. The alteration and litho-
geochemistry of the deposits are similar to those in major
Carlin-type districts (Yigit and Hofstra, 2002). Yigit et al.
(2003) utilize detailed geologic mapping and structural analy-
sis, at district and deposit scales, to elucidate the spatial and
temporal relations between igneous rocks, structures, and
gold deposits. They note that one of the ore-controlling nor-
mal faults extends 14 km northwest into the neighboring
Tonkin Springs district where it localized late Eocene intru-
sions and Carlin-type deposits. Hence, Carlin-type deposits in
the central part of the Battle Mountain-Eureka trend appear
to have formed in the late Eocene after the onset of exten-
sional faulting and calc-alkaline magmatism in the region, but
before volcanism ended. They conclude that exploration for
Carlin-type deposits in this part of the Battle Mountain-Eu-
reka trend should focus primarily on north-northwest- and
northeast-striking Tertiary normal faults and secondarily on
reactivated contractional structures of Paleozoic or Mesozoic
age.
Lithogeochemical studies of Carlin-type deposits show that
Pb is introduced in only very small amounts, reflecting the
low solubility of Pb in H2S-rich ore fluids (Hofstra and Cline,
2000). Thus, Pb isotope investigations of these deposits re-
quire diligence to distinguish hydrothermal contributions of
Pb from background variations. Tosdal et al. utilize conven-
tional bulk Pb isotope results from Mesozoic and Cenozoic ig-
neous rocks, Neoproterozoic through Devonian sedimentary
rocks, and hydrothermal pyrite, fluorite, orpiment, and real-
gar from three districts in conjunction with SHRIMP micro-
analyses of ore pyrite from two deposits in the Getchell trend
to evaluate the sources of Pb in Carlin-type deposits. They
demonstrate that the Pb isotope compositions of hydrother-
mal minerals correspond to two end-member Pb sources
1066 HOFSTRA ET AL.
which are unlike known magmatic sources in the region. One
end member is Neoproterozoic and Cambrian siliciclastic
rocks, and the other, Ordovician through Devonian siliciclas-
tic and carbonate rocks. Although they found it difficult to
clearly distinguish Pb introduced by hydrothermal fluids from
Pb liberated from host rocks during alteration, the results
from the Getchell trend suggest that Pb in ore-stage pyrite
and late ore-stage fluorite is derived from older siliclastic
rocks, whereas Pb in late ore-stage orpiment and realgar is
derived mainly from younger siliciclastic and carbonate rocks.
Results from deposits in the northern Carlin trend and Jerritt
Canyon district also lie along mixing lines between these end
members. Thus, the Pb isotope data of Tosdal et al.are con-
sistent with amagmatic models that involve fluid flow
through, and leaching of metals from, the older sedimentary
rocks in the region.
The identity and origin of the ferroan minerals sulfidized in
Carlin-type deposits vary (Hofstra and Cline, 2000) and have
not always been identified. The goal of the paper by Fortuna
et al., therefore, has been to determine the source and origin
of Fe in the principal sedimentary host rock (Ordovician
Comus Formation) of the large Twin Creeks deposit (ca. 300
t Au) in the Getchell trend (Fig. 1), where sulfidation has
been clearly shown to be an important ore depositional mech-
anism by previous investigations (Stenger et al., 1998; Simon
et al., 1999). In this study, Fortuna et al. employ a combina-
tion of field relationships among silty carbonate rocks and in-
terlayered mafic volcanic and intrusive rocks, previous
geochronology (Hall et al., 2000), lithogeochemical relation-
ships, and petrographic observations. They conclude that the
main source of Fe for sulfidation in the sedimentary host
rocks is ferroan dolomite that formed as Fe was released from
adjacent Fe-bearing igneous rocks during diagenesis and al-
teration associated with older hydrothermal events. Most im-
portant among these was Cretaceous sericitic alteration asso-
ciated with emplacement of the Osgood granodiorite stock or
its precursors. These events produced a more permeable and
reactive host that was preferentially mineralized by the late
Eocene Carlin-type hydrothermal system. The authors sug-
gest that sedimentary rocks interlayered with mafic igneous
rocks are attractive exploration targets in districts where gold
deposits form by sulfidation.
The Alligator Ridge district constitutes another gold trend
(Fig. 1), but it only contains about 45 t of gold in more than
30 small-tonnage, low-grade (1.6 g/t) orebodies hosted in De-
vonian and Mississippian sedimentary rocks. Unlike most of
the other districts, it is located east of the Roberts Mountains
thrust (Fig. 1) below Mississipian strata deposited in the re-
sulting foredeep. Nutt and Hofstra synthesize new district-
scale geologic mapping, geochronology, field relationships be-
tween ore, silicification and Eocene rocks, mineral
paragenesis, textures and compositions, lithogeochemistry,
stable isotope studies of jasperoid and carbonaceous ore, and
results from previous studies (Ilchik, 1990; Ilchik and Barton,
1997; Nutt et al., 2000). They show that the deposits formed
in the late Eocene, at shallow depths, from exchanged mete-
oric water which circulated to large depths along a north-
striking, reactivated, crustal fault zone that extends northward
into the nearby Ruby Mountains-East Humboldt Range
metamorphic core complex. Their preferred model is that
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deep circulation of meteoric water resulted from initial uplift
of the core complex with gravity-driven flow from north to
south along the crustal fault zone. South of the core complex,
ore fluids ascended along the fault system until they encoun-
tered impermeable shales, moved laterally through perme-
able strata toward erosional windows, and ascended into
Eocene fluvial and lacustrine sedimentary rocks. Most of the
gold precipitated from ore fluids by sulfidation of host-rock
Fe and mixing with local ground water in zones of lateral fluid
flow. Ore deposition was followed by emplacement of a few
small Eocene-Oligocene rhyolite to intermediate composition
dikes and flows. In comparison to most Carlin-type gold de-
posits, the Alligator Ridge deposits have lower Au/Ag ratios,
Au grades, and contained Au, more abundant jasperoid, and
textural evidence for deposition of an amorphous silica pre-
cursor in jasperoid. Nutt and Hofstra suggest that these dif-
ferences result from their shallow depth of formation.
A common feature in several Carlin-type districts is para-
genetically late sparry calcite and barite in open fractures and
vugs which have been attributed either to the waning stage of
Carlin-type systems or to younger events (Hofstra and Cline,
2000). The most spectacular example of this material yet en-
countered is in the Meikle deposit in the northern Carlin
trend (Fig. 1). There, enormous (ca. 10 cm) crystals of calcite
and barite, highly prized by mineral collectors, line cavernous
vugs and cement breccias in previously brecciated gold ore
and adjacent barren limestones. To elucidate the age, origin,
and significance of these features, Emsbo and Hofstra syn-
thesize field relationships, breccia descriptions, and petro-
graphic observations, together with U-Pb geochronology and
geochemical, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope data on cal-
cite and barite. They show that these features are Pliocene in
age and localized by fractures and breccias produced by ear-
lier events. They formed in a mixing zone between warm,
H2S- and Ba-rich, unexchanged meteoric water and descend-
ing relatively oxidized surface waters. Oxidation of H2S re-
sulted in the production of sulfuric acid, dissolution of car-
bonate, and precipitation of barite. Calcite precipitated as the
acidic fluids were neutralized by reactions with carbonate
rocks and/or by effervescence of CO2. Isotopic results indi-
cate that H2S was derived from local Paleozoic sedimentary
rocks. The low temperature of formation (<70%C) explains
why this event was unable to introduce or remobilize signifi-
cant gold. This Pliocene hydrothermal event demonstrates
the ease by which the Paleozoic rocks in northern Nevada are
able to generate H2S-rich fluids. Emsbo and Hofstra note that
several other gold deposit types in the region (Devonian sed-
imentary exhalative, Jurassic intrusion-related, Eocene Carlin
type, and Miocene low-sulfidation epithermal) also obtained
H2S from Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. They conclude that
the ability of the Paleozoic rocks to generate H2S, the domi-
nant Au-transporting ligand, during successive hydrothermal
events was a fundamental factor which contributed to forma-
tion of the northern Nevada gold province.
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