Contents

Q. 1. Study the pin-structure of cross-over cable?

Q. 2. Study the functioning of a Switch?
Q. 3. Study the functioning of a Router?
Q. 4. Install and Configure Window NT (2000 & 2003) server?
Q. 5. Study and implement the virtual network?
Q. 6. Study the physical media of connectivity?
Q. 7. Study the different LAN technologies?
Q. 8. Install and Configure the LAN Card?
Q. 9. Establishing LAN (Star Topology) for your LAB using
Hubs?
Q. 1. Study the pin-structure of cross-over cable?
This cable can be used to connect two computers together without a hub, or to
connect two hubs together (without using an uplink port). If you are connecting
two hubs together and one of them has an uplink port, use a straight cable. Most
hubs nowadays are autosensing.
In order to make Crossover Ethernet cable wire one RJ-45 connector using the T-
568A standard and the other RJ-45 connector using the T-568B standard.

An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing

devices together directly. Normal straight through cables were used to connect
from a host network interface controller (a computer or similar device) to a
network switch, hub or router. A cable with connections that "cross over" was used
to connect two devices of the same type: two hosts or two switches to each other.

Owing to the inclusion of Auto MDI-X capability, modern implementations of the

Ethernet over twisted pair standards no longer require the use of crossover cables.
The 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Ethernet standards use one wire pair for
transmission in each direction. This requires that the transmit pair of each device
be connected to the receive pair of the device on the other end. The 10BASE-T
standard was devised to be used with already existing twisted pair cable
installations with straight-through connections, and so it required a simple scheme
for plugging devices together.
When a terminal device is connected to a switch or hub, this crossover is done
internally in the switch or hub. A standard straight through cable is used for this
purpose where each pin of the connector on one end is connected to the
corresponding pin on the other connector.
One terminal may be connected directly to another without the use of a switch or
hub, but in that case the crossover must be done in the cabling. Since 10BASE-T
and 100BASE-TX use pairs 2 and 3, these two pairs must be swapped in the cable.
This is a crossover cable. A crossover cable may also be used to connect two hubs
or two switches on their upstream ports.
Because the only difference between the T568A and T568B pin/pair assignments
are that pairs 2 and 3 are swapped, a crossover cable may be envisioned as a cable
with one modular connector following T568A and the other T568B (see Jack
crossover wiring). Such a cable will work for 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX. Gigabit
Ethernet (and an early Ethernet variant, 100BASE-T4) use all four pairs and also
requires the other two pairs (1 and 4) also to be swapped.

Crossover cable pinouts:-

Certain equipment or installations, including those in which phone and/or power

are mixed with data in the same cable, may require that the "non-data" pairs 1 and
4 (pins 4, 5, 7 and 8) remain un-crossed.
Q. 2. Study the functioning of a Switch?
Switches that additionally process data at the network layer and above are often
referred to as layer 3 switches or multilayer switches. A network switch and
switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments.

Functions:-
The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area
networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed
switches. Small office /home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single
switch, or an all purpose converged device such as a gateway to access small
office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable internet. In most of these
cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the
particular physical broadband technology.

1. Future Growth:-
Switches comes in different sizes, features and function, choosing a switch to
match a particular network sometimes constitute a daunting task. Consider what
will happen if the HR or HQ department grows by five employees or more’ A solid
network plan includes the rate of personnel growth over the past five years to be
able to anticipate the future growth. With that in mind, you would want to purchase
a switch that can accommodate more than 24 ports, such as stackable or modular
switches that can scale.
2. Performance:-
When selecting a switch for the access, distribution, or core layer, consider the
ability of the switch to support the port density, forwarding rates, and bandwidth
aggregation requirements of your network.
3. Access layer switches:- 
Facilitate the connection of end node devices to the network e.g. PC, Modems, IP
phone, Printers etc. For this reason, they need to support features such as port
security, VLANs, Fast Ethernet/Gigabit Ethernet, PoE (power over Internet, and
link aggregation. Port security allows the switch to decide how many or what type
of devices are permitted to connect to the switch.  This is where most Cisco comes
in, they all support port layer security. Most renowned network administrator
knows this is the first line of defiance.
4. Distribution Layer switches:- 
Plays a very important role on the network. They collect the data from all the
access layer switches and forward it to the core layer switches. Traffic that is
generated at Layer 2 on a switched network needs to be managed, or segmented
into VLANs, Distribution layer switches provides the inter-VLAN routing
functions so that one VLAN can communicate with another on the network.
Distribution layer switches provides advanced security policies that can be applied
to network traffic using Access Control Lists (ACL). This type of security allows
the switch to prevent certain types of traffic and permit others. ACLs also allow
you to control, which network devices can communicate on the network.
5. Core layer switches:- 
These types of switches at the core layer of a topology, which is the high-speed
backbone of the network and requires switches that can handle very high
forwarding rates. The switch that operates in this area also needs to support link
aggregation (10GbE connections which is currently the fastest available Ethernet
connectivity.) to ensure adequate bandwidth coming into the core from the
distribution layer switches.

Switch Port Speed:-

Another characteristic one needs to put into consideration is port speed, which at
times depend on performance requirements. Choosing between fast Ethernet and
Gigabit Ethernet Switch Ports.
Switch Port Density:-
Port density is the number of ports available on a single switch. Fixed
configuration switches support up to 48 ports on a single device, with options for
up to four additional ports.
Q. 3. Study the functioning of a Router?
Routers communicate with each other to share information about available paths
and directly connected routes.
A Static route can be manually programmed to create a routing table. This means
that all data will follow the same route. This is also known as non-adaptive routing.
Each node on the WAN has a fixed routing table. All messages for a particular
destination must follow a predetermined path this is good for determining secure
routes.
If a node is faulty, added or removed the tables will have to be altered manually.
This method does not cope well with unplanned events such as breakdown or
congestion although it does use less router processor overhead.
Most routers are dynamic with the capability of being statically configured.
Dynamic routers automatically create dynamic routing tables based on the data that
is provided from other routers. Dynamic routing is designed to cope with
unplanned events. Routers respond to changes in the network status by
automatically updating the routing table.
The two major types of routers are:-
 Static:-Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and
configure the routing table and to specify each route.
 Dynamic:-Dynamic routers are designed to discover routes automatically
and therefore require a minimal amount of setting up and configuration.
More sophisticated than static routers, they examine information from other
routers and make packet-by-packet decisions about how to send data across
the network.
Q. 4. Install and Configure Window NT (2000 & 2003) server?
This installation guide makes the following assumptions:-

 You have a Windows 2000/2003/XP operating system installed and

operating normally on a computer in your network that meets the various
technical requirements listed later in this guide;
 You have physical access to the machine in question and are logged in as
Administrator, or at least as a member of the Administrators group with full
control of the machine;
 You can troubleshoot Windows 2000/2003/XP (ie native OS problems, not
problems related to LISTSERV) without assistance from this guide or from
L-Soft.

Support for LISTSERV Lite:-

 Fixes will be made available from time to time on our FTP server, and can
be downloaded at no charge.
 Technical assistance will be provided through a special mailing list,
LISTSERV-LITE@PEACH.EASE.LSOFT.COM. LISTSERV Light
administrators will be invited to subscribe to the list and share problems and
solutions. L-Soft support staff will monitor the list and answer the tougher
questions as time permits.
 L-Soft will accept bug reports from LISTSERV Light customers – even
those using the Free Edition. However, L-Soft may not be able to provide
individual answers. Furthermore, L-Soft does not guarantee that all problems
will be solved, or that they will be solved in any particular time frame.
 The L-Soft support helpdesk will not accept calls from LISTSERV Light
customers. All support inquiries must be directed to the LISTSERV-LITE
list, which is monitored by the support staff. Sometimes it may take a while
for the support staff to answer these questions, because requests from
LISTSERV Classic customers, who pay a yearly support fee, have a higher
priority. Technical assistance for older versions will continue to be available
for a reasonable period of time on the LISTSERV-LITE mailing list. Fixes
will only be provided for current versions.
 

Technical requirements for running under Windows NT/2000:-

There are three classes of technical requirements for running LISTSERV under
Windows 2000/2003/XP--hardware, software, and networking. 

Hardware requirements:-
 CPU Architecture:- LISTSERV will currently run under Windows
2000/2003/XP on Intel architectures, and will run under Windows
2000/2003/XP on AXP architectures, to the extent that the operating system
itself continues to be supported on AXP architectures. 
 Multiple Processors:- While LISTSERV itself will not use multiple
processors (LISTSERV is a single-threaded application), overall machine
performance may be enhanced by use of multiple processors if other
applications running simultaneously on the machine can take advantage of
them.
 Memory:- L-Soft recommends that a Windows 2000/2003/XP LISTSERV
machine start out with a minimum of 256M, as this will minimize paging
and can lead to a marked improvement in performance, particularly if the
web archive/administration interface (see below) is implemented. 
 Disk Space Needed:-LISTSERV itself takes up very little space (perhaps
4MB total for all of its default system files). When planning a LISTSERV
system you need to take into account how large your lists will be (100 bytes
per subscriber entry in a given list) and how much space you will need for
discussion list archives, which have the potential to grow quite large
depending on your traffic and number of lists. 
 Disk Architecture:- LISTSERV will run perfectly well for most sites on
inexpensive EIDE disks of the modern sort (ATA-33 or ATA-66). If
performance is an issue, it will be greatly enhanced by the use of fast SCSI
disks in a RAID array with write-back caching and a write-back battery
back-up. Write-through caching is not recommended. 
  Disk Format and Security:- L-Soft strongly recommends that
LISTSERV be installed on an NTFS-formatted partition.

Networking requirements:-
 TCP/IP connectivity, preferably 24/7, with enough bandwidth to handle your
workload.  Please note carefully that LISTSERV is not designed to dial up
and access POP mailboxes. The proper installation and operation of
LISTSERV is contingent on direct connection to the Internet in order for it
to receive and send SMTP mail.  If you do not understand this, L-
Soft strongly recommends that you get expert technical advice before
proceeding further, or consider using a hosting service instead of running
LISTSERV yourself (for instance
see http://www.lsoft.com/products/ease.asp for an overview of hosting
services offered by L-Soft).
 In conjunction with networking requirement #1, and as a fundamental
requirement of the SMTP mail protocol, LISTSERV requires a static IP
address which is mapped via a DNS A or MX record to a particular host
name (typically LISTSERV. Your domain, for example,
LISTSERV.EXAMPLE.COM). If you are planning to use the web
archive/administration interface with LISTSERV, an A record is required at
minimum (web browsers cannot connect to hosts that have only an MX
record).  Please note carefully that L-Soft does not support LISTSERV
servers running without DNS entries (i.e. we do not support servers
configured with bracketed IP addresses instead of FQDNs [fully-qualified
domain names, for example, LISTSERV.EXAMPLE.COM]).

Starting the installation:-

First, unzip the distribution kit into a temporary directory (e.g. C:\TEMP or C:\
SCRATCH).  DO NOT unzip the kit into the directory that you have identified in
point 4 of section 5, above!  After unzipping the kit , CD into the temporary
directory. Next, make sure that you are logged in either as the Administrator user
or as a member of the Administrators group.  You cannot install LISTSERV unless
you have administrative control of the computer.
Q.5. Study and implement the virtual network?
A virtual network is a computer network that consists, at least in part, of virtual
network links. A virtual network link is a link that does not consist of a physical
(wired or wireless) connection between two computing devices but is implemented
using methods of network virtualization.
The two most common forms of network virtualization are protocol-based virtual
networks, (such as VLANs, VPNs, and VPLSs) and virtual networks that are based
on virtual devices (such as the networks connecting virtual machines inside
hypervisor). In practice, both forms can be used in conjunction.
Virtual LANs (VLANs) are logical local area networks (LANs) based on physical
LANs. A VLAN can be created by partitioning a physical LAN into multiple
logical LANs using a VLAN ID. Alternatively, several physical LANs can
function as a single logical LAN. The partitioned network can be on a
single router, or multiple VLAN's can be on multiple routers just as multiple
physical LAN's would be. A VLAN can be on a VPN.
A virtual private network (VPN) consists of multiple remote end-points (typically
routers, VPN gateways of software clients) joined by some sort of tunnel over
another network, usually a third party network. Two such end points constitute a
'Point to Point Virtual Private Network' (or a PTP VPN). Connecting more than
two end points by putting in place a mesh of tunnels creates a 'Multipoint VPN'.
A VPLS (Virtual Private LAN Service) is a specific type of Multipoint VPN.
VPLS are divided into Transparent LAN Services (TLS) and Ethernet Virtual
Connection Services. A TLS sends what it receives, so it provides geographic
separation, but not VLAN sub netting. An EVCS adds a VLAN ID, so it provides
geographic separation and VLAN sub netting.
A common example of a virtual network that is based on virtual devices is the
network inside a hypervisor where traffic between virtual servers are routed using
virtual switches (v Switches) along with virtual routers and virtual firewalls for
network segmentation and data isolation. Such networks can use non-virtual
protocols such as Ethernet as well as virtualization protocols such as the VLAN
protocol IEEE 802.1Q.
A Virtual Wireless network is a collection of Wireless Access Points behaving as if
they were only one. They all appear to have the same MAC address and the same
channel, so the wireless client never needs to do handovers. Handovers are
disruptive to communication. Though the client might not note it much when web
browsing, he will definitely note it when streaming a video feed and handing over.
Q.6. Study the physical media of connectivity?
Physical media refers to the physical materials that are used to transmit
information in data communications. It is referred to as physical media because the
media is generally a physical object such as copper or glass. It can be touched and
felt, and has physical properties such as weight and color. [1] For a number of years,
copper and glass were the only media used in computer networking.

Types of Physical Media:-

Copper wire:-Copper wire is currently the most commonly used type of

physical media due to the abundance of copper in the world, as well as its ability to
conduct electricity. Copper is also one of the cheaper metals which make it more
feasible to use.

Most copper wires used in data communications today have eight strands of
copper, organized in unshielded twisted pairs, or UTP.[1] The wires are twisted
around one another because it reduces electrical interference from outside sources.
In addition to UTP, some wires use shielded twisted pairs (STP), which reduce
electrical interference even further. The way copper wires are twisted around one
another also has an effect on data rates. Category 3 cables (Cat3), has three to four
twists per foot and can support speeds of 10 M bit/s. Category 5 cable (Cat5) is
newer and has three to four twists per inch, which results in a maximum data rate
of 100 M bit/s. In addition, there are category 5e (Cat5e) cables which can support
speeds of up to 1,000 M bit/s, and more recently, category 6 cables (Cat6), which
support data rates of up to 10,000 bit/s (or 10 bit/s).

Optical:-Optical fiber is a thin and flexible piece of fiber made of glass or plastic.
Unlike copper wire, optical fiber is typically used for long-distance data
communications, being that it allows for data transmission over far distances and
can produce high transmission speeds. Optical fiber also does not require signal
repeaters, which ends up reducing maintenance costs, since signal repeaters are
known to fail often.

There are two major types of optical fiber in use today. Multimode fiber is
approximately 62.5 µm in diameter and utilizes LEDs to carry signals over a
maximum distance of about 2 kilometers.[1] Single mode fiber is approximately
10 µm in diameter and is capable of carrying signals over tens of miles.
Coaxial cables:-Coaxial cables have two different layers surrounding a copper
core. The inner most layer has an insulator. The next layer has a conducting shield.
These are both covered by a plastic jacket. Coaxial cables are used for microwaves,
televisions and computers.

Advantages:-

 Broadband system-coax has sufficient frequency range to support multiple

channels, allowing greater throughput.

 Greater channel capacity - each of the multiple channels offers substantial

capacity depending on the service location (6 MHz wide in North America,
8 MHz wide in Europe).

 Greater bandwidth - compared to twisted pairs, it has greater bandwidth for

each channel. This allows it to support a mixed range of services (voice,
data, video, multimedia).

 Lower error rates - the inner conductor serves as a Faraday shield that
protects the network from electronic noise.

Disadvantages:-

 The bus network on which coax is deployed is susceptible to congestion,

noise and security risks.

 Great noise - the return path has some noise problems, and the end
equipment requires added intelligence to take care of error control.

 High installation costs

 Susceptible to damage from lightning strikes - if lighting is conducted by a

coax, it could very easily fry the equipment at the end of it.
Q.7. Study the different LAN technologies?
LAN technologies these days are Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Token Ring and FDDI.
Some companies—usually larger ones—may use more than one type of technology
at a time, possibly because they’re evolving their equipment from one technology
to the other and they can’t spare any network “down time.” When this is the case, a
special device called a bridge or router must be used to help the two technologies
communicate with each other. This probably won’t affect your small business, but
it’s important to remember that two different LAN technologies cannot coexist
without special (and quite expensive) additional equipment.

Following is a brief description of each of the major LAN technologies.

Ethernet The most widely used LAN technology in use today is Ethernet, and it’s
the technology we recommend for Account Edge (unless you don’t mind the extra
expense of Fast Ethernet, described below). It strikes a good balance between
speed, price, ease of installation and supportability. Approximately 80 percent of
all LAN connections today use Ethernet. Ethernet networks run at a data rate of 10
million bits per second (10 Mbps). This means that when a computer transmits
information using Ethernet, it travels along that medium at 10 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet An extension of the popular Ethernet standard, Fast Ethernet

transports data at 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet takes advantage of many aspects of the
familiar Ethernet technology. Two types of Fast Ethernet are available: 100BASE-
TX, which uses cabling that’s similar to telephone wire, and 100BASE-FX, which
operates over multimode fiber-optic cabling. Not surprisingly, you pay for the 10-
fold increase in speed over Ethernet: Fast Ethernet is more expensive than
Ethernet. (However, if you’re able to afford Fast Ethernet, we recommend that you
purchase it for use with Account Edge.)

Token Ring Another major LAN technology in use today is Token Ring, which
can run at two different data rates, 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Only rarely used in
Macintosh networks, Token Ring gets its name from the manner in which the
network is set up (in a ring-like configuration) and from the way the network
passes information (using a special “packet” of information called a token) from
computer to computer. Token Ring networks are slightly more expensive and more
difficult to set up than Ethernet networks.
Q.8. Install and Configure the LAN Card?
A LAN card connects a computer to a network, whether local or foreign. LAN
cards typically connect to a computer's motherboard via a serial port. There are
other varieties that connect via a SATA, eSATA or USB port.

Almost all LAN cards that are released today have wireless radio capabilities built
into them. These are known as WLAN modules. They allow a computer to connect
to a network not only through an RJ-45 Ethernet cable but also via 802.11 wireless
network signals. The speed capabilities of each LAN vary by its own
specifications. Some LAN cards are able to do 10/100 mbps, while others are rated
10/100/1000, meaning that they are able to access up to a one gigabit network
speed.
Q.9. Establishing LAN (Star Topology) for your LAB using
Hubs?
In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the central device
called “hub” which may be a hub, a router or a switch. Unlike Bus topology
(discussed earlier), where nodes were connected to central cable, here all the
workstations are connected to central device with a point-to-point connection. So it
can be said that every computer is indirectly connected to every other node by the
help of “hub”. All the data on the star topology passes through the central device
before reaching the intended destination. Hub acts as a junction to connect
different nodes present in Star Network, and at the same time it manages and
controls whole of the network. Depending on which central device is used, “hub”
can act as repeater or signal booster. Central device can also communicate with
other hubs of different network. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet cable is
used to connect workstations to central node.
 Figure:- Star Topology Diagram

Advantages of Star Topology:-

(1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals
don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the
intended destination after passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links.
Performance of the network is dependent on the capacity of central hub.
(2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added
easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be
removed easily.
(3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
(4)Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time
its easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:-

(1)Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole
network goes down.
(2)The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost
of the network.
(3)Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology
is depended on capacity of central device.