Modal Verbs (English-Grammar-Verbs Book2)

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Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Table of Contents
Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Pre-test
Check your answers/pre-test
Modal verbs of deduction to speculate on present states
Exercise one
Check your answers/exercise one
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Exercise two
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Modals of deduction must/can’t
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Check your answers/exercise two rs
Exercise three
Check your answers/exercise three
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Exercise four
Check your answers/exercise four
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Exercise five
Check your answers/exercise five
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Progressive modals
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Exercise six/progressive modals

Check your answers/exercise six
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Modal verbs of deduction for future intentions

Perfect modals when referring to past assumptions
Exercise seven
Check your answers/exercise seven
Further instances of predicted degrees of possibility
Must/may/might/could + present perfect continuous
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Can/could/be able to
Exercise eight
Check your answers/exercise eight
Be able to versus manage to
Exercise nine
Check your answers/exercise nine
Can/could and may for permission
Can versus allowed to for permission
Can and could for requests, offers, suggestions and recommendations
Exercise ten
Check your answers/exercise ten
Must/obligation
Answers
Exercise eleven
Check your answers/exercise eleven
Should/ought to
Should versus have to
Exercise twelve
Check your answers/exercise twelve
Shouldn’t versus don’t have to/doesn’t have to
Exercise thirteen
Check your answers/exercise thirteen
Exercise fourteen
Check your answers/exercise fourteen
Exercise fifteen
Check your answers/exercise fifteen
Exercise sixteen
Check your answers/exercise sixteen
Should versus must versus have to
Check your answers/exercise seventeen
Check your answers exercise sixteen
Should and ought to for past advice/recommendations
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Modals test
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Exercise seventeen
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Should + progressive forms
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Should + present perfect continuous structure
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Exercise eighteen
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The should progress test

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Exercise eighteen
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Check your answers/exercise eighteen

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Should versus be supposed to versus be meant to

When ‘should’ no longer overlaps with ‘be supposed to’ and ‘be meant to’
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Had better versus should and ought to

Shall versus will
Will and would
Ambiguity
Exercise nineteen
Check your answers/exercise nineteen
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Introduction
The book begins with a pre-test with a link which takes you to the
answers. After the pre-test the modal auxiliary verbs begin from the
simpler ones and progress on to more difficult ones. There are clear
explanations on how to use them followed by exercises with easily
accessible answers.
What are modal auxiliary verbs?
Modal auxiliary verbs have long been a nightmare for anyone learning
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English as a second language. This particular aspect of the English
language is probably the one in which learners find the most complicated.
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Without context the lexical meaning of modal auxiliary verbs becomes
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extremely vague.
With their parallelisms and overlapping meanings they become a messy
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business. At times the negative takes a shift in meaning causing more
confusion than ever.
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Modal auxiliary verbs are used to express varying degrees of certainty,

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uncertainty, probability, improbability, possibility, impossibility,

expectation, lack of expectation, and so forth.
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These tricky aspects of the English language are used with great frequency
by native speakers. Very often non native learners of English are unable to
grasp their subtleties due to their range of meanings.
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In this book you will find out how to use each modal.
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What are the facts about modal auxiliary verbs?

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They are defective as they have no infinitive and no future.

They can never be combined with one another.
They express the mood of the speaker.
They modify the meaning of verbs. In fact the word modal indicates
to modify.
The verb they modify is in the ‘bare infinitive’ (the infinitive without
to) when used in the present tense.
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Modals do not inflect. They do not change according to the subject so
there is no ‘s’ in third person singular; they are the same in all
persons.
The verb they modify does not change according to the subject.
Example
v He cans come.
v He can comes.
v He can come.
To make modals negative, we put the particle not between the modal
auxiliary verb and the verb it modifies.
Example
He will not come.

He might not come.
He would not like to live in the city.
When forming questions we invert the modal auxiliary verb with the
subject.
He would like /would he like to live in the city?
We use each modal based on the accuracy of our knowledge.
The primary modal auxiliary verbs in English are as follows
Can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, and must
The book also explores the usage of modal equivalents such as have to, be
supposed to, be meant to, be able to, be unable to, be allowed to, be
supposed to and be meant to, which share the characteristics of modal
auxiliary verbs.
Think carefully about the differences in meanings in the following sentences then check your
answers in the final section of the book under ambiguity.
a) You can stay at my house when you come to London.
b) You could stay at my house when you come to London.
a) Could you translate this?
b) Were you able to translate this?
The phone’s ringing. Who can it be at this time?
a) It will be Irene.
b) It must be Irene.
c) It should be Irene,
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e) It might/may be Irene.
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f) It could be Irene.
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Think carefully about the different meanings that each of the following two sentences convey
according to context and stressed words.
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a) You might have told me you were going to be late.
b) You could have said so.
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Now think carefully about the difference in meaning between the following two sentences.
a) Please, leave me alone for a moment. I must think carefully about what
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to do next.
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b) She must think you’re crazy after what you did last night.
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PRE-TEST
1. We think you ____________________ to know that your wife has been
seen with another man.
a) should
b) might
c) ought
d) will
2. Give me one good reason why we ____________________ believe him
after all the lies he has told us.
a) will
b) should
c) may
d) are supposed
3. Mobile merger talks ____________________ as soon as April,
suggested the CEO on a phone call with analysts last week.
a) would begin
b) could begin
c) are supposed begin
d) probably begin
4. He decided to do everything he ____________________ to stop the
news from going to press.
a) will
b) might
c) could
d) would
5. He said he ____________________ wait to go on holiday. He was so
tired after having worked night and day for the past six months.
a) couldn’t
b) might not
c) couldn’t have
d) won’t have
6. A transit van security guard stole the money he was
_____________________. At the court hearing, he openly admitted to
being the thief and was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment and ordered
to repay the money he had stolen.
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a) was supposed to be guard
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b) was meant to be guarding
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c) should be guarding
d) must have guarded
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7. The puppy we got from the dog pound ____________________ a
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sheepdog but it turned out to be nothing like one.

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a) was supposed to be
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b) might have been

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c) was meant be
d) must be
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8. There’s nobody waiting at the train station. We

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____________________ the train. What time’s the next one?

a) should have missed
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b) must have missed

c) will have missed
d) would have missed
9. We ____________________ paying so many taxes if we had hired a
good accountant.
a) would avoid
b) could avoided
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c) could have avoided
d) should have avoided
10. I wish I _________________________ his face when you told him he
had won the jackpot.
a) would have seen
b) might have seen
c) could have seen
d) could see
11. You ____________________ think Mark __________________
learned his lesson by now. I really don’t think he ever will.
a) can/would
b) would/would have
c) could/would have
d) could /could have
12. The actor revealed that he ____________________ at the opportunity
to play the leading role. It has always been his dream.
a) would jump
b) can jump
c) might jump
d) couldn’t jump
13. He previously said he __________________ the meeting but then at
the last moment he changed his mind and didn’t come.
a) would attend
b) wouldn’t attend
c) won’t attend
d) can’t attend
14. Whenever we went to the beach as children, my parents
_______________________ my brother, sister and I an ice-cream.
a) would buy
b) should buy
c) may buy
d) would have bought
15. You ____________________ told her. It was supposed to be a
surprise.
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a) couldn’t have
b) wouldn’t have
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c) shouldn’t have
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d) won’t have rs
16. Instead of wasting hours in front of that computer screen, you
____________________ something more concrete with your time, said
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Johnny’s mother.
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a) should to do
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b) would do
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c) ought do
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d) ought to do
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17. I’m sorry I lost your phone number otherwise I __________________

you to let you know I wasn’t going to come.
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a) would phone
b) should phone
c) would have phoned
d) shall have phoned
18. Where on earth can Mary be? She ____________________ here
twenty minutes ago.
a) should be
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b) ought have been
c) was supposed to be
d) might have been
19. If I hadn’t wasted so much time when I was at school, I
__________________ in such a low paid job.
a) would work
b) shouldn’t be working
c) couldn’t be working
d) wouldn’t be working
20. “Why did you cross that busy road when I told you not to,” said little
Rory’s mother. “You ____________________ run over.”
a) could have got
b) would have got
c) should have got
d) will have got
21. We ____________________ to the airport earlier then we
______________________ our flight.
a) would have gone/shouldn’t have missed
b) should have went/wouldn’t miss
c) should have gone/wouldn’t have missed
d) might have gone/couldn’t have missed
22. You ____________________ the meat from the butcher’s. This stuff
you got from the supermarket is low quality. I don’t want to eat it.
a) would have got
b) should have got
c) may have got
d) shall have got
23. It’s been snowing for days now. If I were you I
____________________ travel in these awful weather conditions.
a) would
b) shouldn’t
c) wouldn’t
d) won’t
24. It’s expected that we will get the keys to our new home by Friday. We
____________________ the keys to our new home by Friday.
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a) should have got
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b) should be getting
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c) will be getting rs
d) would be getting
25. We really _______________________ now. It’s beginning to get late.
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a) should be going
b) would be going
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c) will be going
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d) could be going
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26. If it hadn’t been for that courageous fireman pulling me out of the fire,
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I _______________________ alive today.

a) shouldn’t be
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b) won’t be
c) wouldn’t be
d) couldn’t be
27. If I hadn’t missed my flight I ____________________ my new
boyfriend.
a) should never have met
b) would never meet
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c) would never have met
d) could never have met
28. There are three possible answers to the following question. Which ones
are they?
If you go to the supermarket today, ____________________ you get me
some groceries?
a) would
b) will
c) could
d) may
29. I ____________________ tennis with Robert this afternoon but I don’t
think I will. I feel a bit feverish.
a) could play
b) ought to play
c) should be playing
d) might be playing
30. He ____________________ the e-mail by now. I think I’ll phone him
and find out what he thinks of the proposal.
a) will have received
b) should receive
c) may have received
d) can’t have received
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/PRE-TEST
1. We think you ought to know that your wife has been seen with another man.
There is a ‘to’ before ‘know’. Ought is the only one that can be used for this reason.
2. Give me one good reason why we should believe him after all the lies he has told us.
The use of should = why you expect us to believe him.
3. Mobile merger talks could begin as soon as April, suggested the CEO on a phone call with
analysts last week.
The correct answer is – could begin = possibility
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Would begin = hypothetically so we need an if clause.
Are supposed to begin – we need to after be supposed – are supposed to begin
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Will probably begin we need to use will with probably for future predictions
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4. He decided to do everything he could to stop the news from going to press.
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The correct answer is could = he decided to do everything possible.
5. He said he couldn’t wait to go on holiday. He was so tired after having worked night and day for
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the past six months.

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In direct speech we say: I can’t wait, which = to wait anxiously with pleasure. In reported speech,
can becomes could.
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6. A transit van security guard stole the money he was supposed to be guarding. At the court
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hearing, he openly admitted to being the thief and was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment and
ordered to repay the money he had stolen.
Be supposed to = duty or expectation

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It was his duty to guard in that moment.

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7. The puppy we got from the dog pound supposed to be a sheepdog but it turned out to be nothing
like one.
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It was expected to be
8. There’s nobody waiting at the train station. We must have missed the train. What time’s the next
one?
Must + perfect form = strong reason to believe

9. We could have avoided paying so many taxes if we had hired a good accountant.
We had this possibility in the past/a missed opportunity
10. I wish I could have seen his face when you told him he had won the jackpot.
I wish I had had the opportunity to see his face
11. You would think Mark would have learned his lesson by now. I really don’t think he ever will.
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Would for what we imagine to be the case/hypothetical
12. The actor revealed that he would jump at the opportunity to play the leading role. It has always
been his dream.
Hypothetical would
13. He previously said he would attend the meeting but then at the last moment he changed his mind
and didn’t come.
Will becomes would in reported speech.
Direct speech: I will attend the meeting. (A promise or a future fact)
Reported speech: He said he would .....
14. Whenever we went to the beach as children, my parents would buy my brother, sister and I an
ice-cream.
Would for typical characteristic past behaviour

15. You shouldn’t have told her. It was supposed to be a surprise.
You shouldn’t have told her = why did you tell her?
16. Instead of wasting hours in front of that computer screen, you ought to do something more
concrete with your time, said Johnny’s mother.
Ought to do = you should do but with more of a tone of authority

17. I’m sorry I lost your phone number otherwise I would have phoned you to let you know I wasn’t
going to come.
Hypothetical would + perfect tense for something that didn’t happen in the past and that is too late
to change.
18. Where on earth can Mary be? She was supposed to be here twenty minutes ago.
This means it was expected of her/it doubles in meaning to mild obligation
19. If I hadn’t wasted so much time when I was at school, I wouldn’t be working in such a low paid
job.
Mixed conditional: The condition is in the past and the result of the condition is ongoing in the
present. (Hypothetical would)
20.” Why did you cross that busy road when I told you not to,” said little Rory’s mother. “You
could have got run over.”
The past passive condition: Could have got run over = there was this possibility.
21. We should have gone to the airport earlier then we wouldn’t have missed our flight.
This = why didn’t we go to the airport. We wouldn’t have missed = hypothetically.
22. You should have got_ the meat from the butcher’s. This stuff you got from the supermarket is
low quality. I don’t want to eat it.
You should have got = why didn’t you get? This is my past advice
23. It’s been snowing for days now. If I were you I wouldn’t travel in these awful weather
conditions.
The second conditional – they hypothetical would = I don’t think it is a good idea.
24. It’s expected that we will get the keys to our new home by Friday. We should be getting the keys
to our new home by Friday.
We should be getting = future expectation.
25. We really should be going now. It’s beginning to get late. (It’s better for us to go now/for us this
is a good idea)
26. If it hadn’t been for that courageous fireman pulling me out of the fire, I wouldn’t be alive
today.
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This is the mixed conditional. The third conditional which is introduced by the if clause to indicate
something that happened or didn’t happen in the past – with the result of the condition having a
present result. This is a cross between the third conditional and the second. The fireman pulled me
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out of the fire in the past and I am alive now.
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27. If I hadn’t missed my flight I would never have met my new boyfriend.
The third conditional – I missed my flight and I met my new boyfriend because of that.
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28. There are three possible answers to the following question. Which ones are they?
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If you go to the supermarket today, would/will/could you get me some groceries?

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Would/will/could are all used for making requests. May is not.
29. I should be playing tennis with Robert this afternoon but I don’t think I will. I feel a bit feverish.
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This is expected of me
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30. He will have received e-mail by now. I think I’ll phone him and find out what he thinks of the
proposal.
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I predict that this is concluded before now.

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MODAL VERBS OF DEDUCTION TO
SPECULATE ON PRESENT STATES
We use the modal verb must + the bare infinitive of the verb to show that
we are pretty certain about something. We presume something to be highly
likely.
In the same way we use the present simple for present facts (and habits),
we use must for present assumptions.
Look at the following picture. What can we deduce about what the math teacher wrote on the
blackboard?
The teacher must be crazy

Read the deductions the following students made when they walked into the classroom
Alberto: “She must be crazy.”

Sandra: “She can’t be normal.”
Checking understanding
Question: Do we know for sure she is crazy?
Answer: No we don’t. But based on what she wrote on the blackboard we
have strong reason to believe so.
Question: Do we know for sure that she is not normal?
Answer: No we don’t. But we have strong reason to believe that she is not
normal. What she wrote on the blackboard is not normal for a math
teacher.
Common errors
She mustn’t be normal.
She can’t be normal.
When must is used to express deduction, its negative form is not mustn’t
(must not) but can’t (cannot)
Must in the negative must not/mustn’t means prohibition – e.g. you mustn’t
walk on the grass. (Notice in the botanic gardens) At a later stage in the
book we will take a look at this other aspect of must.
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More examples of modal auxiliary verbs for deduction
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Chinese or not Chinese ... that is the question!

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Situation one
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Person A: “A removal van drew up outside the building and unloaded

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many Chinese objects. There were Chinese rugs, Chinese furniture, in fact
Chinese everything. Everything was taken into the house next door so our
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new neighbours must be Chinese.”

Person B: “Did you see the new neighbours? Did they look Chinese?”
Person A: “No. I didn’t see them but they must be Chinese. I heard them
speaking as they were entering their new home and it sounded like they
were speaking Chinese.”
Also in the above example, we have strong reason to believe they are
Chinese. We deduce the fact by the evidence set before us. Must be =
almost certain – we are convinced that this is the case.
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It must be the postman
Situation two
Person A: “Who’s that ringing the doorbell?”
Person B: “It must be the postman. It’s 10 o’clock and that’s the time he
always comes at.
Question: “Is it the postman at the door?”
Answer: “We don’t know but we strongly believe it is - due to the fact that
every morning at 10 o’clock the postman rings the doorbell.”
Common errors
He must be the postman.

Many students want to know why we use the subject pronoun ‘it’ as seen
in the example ‘it must be the postman’. This is because ‘it’ refers to the
‘ringing’. It must be the postman (ringing the doorbell). The same applies
when stating who you are when making a phone call. ‘Who’s speaking?
It’s John (speaking) – the subject pronoun is in third person singular
because it refers to the action of ‘speaking’ as opposed to making
reference to the caller.
We can use ‘he’ must be the postman but in a different setting.
Example
“Who’s that man?” “He must be the new postman.” (Here we refer to the
man and not the action)
Situation three
Johnny is working in three jobs at the moment. He must be very tired. He
only has time to sleep for about four hours every night.
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Question: “Is Johnny very tired?”
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Answer: “We don’t know but we strongly believe he is tired due to the fact
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that he has three jobs.”
Situation four
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Jane and Jack have bought another big top of the range car. They must
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have a lot of money.

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Question: “Do they have a lot of money?”

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Answer: “We don’t know but we strongly believe this to be the case
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because they buy expensive cars.”

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When we know for sure that they have a lot of money, we use the present
simple tense for present facts - they have a lot of money’.
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That's another top of the range car they’ve bought
MAY/MIGHT/COULD
Might/may/could carry a lesser possibility than must. With must the
possibility is about 90% whereas might/may indicate about a 50/50
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possibility. Could is slightly less at about 40% but most of the time the
three of them are used interchangeably.
Let’s compare must with might/may /could
The phone’s ringing. It might be/may be/could be my aunt Sally.
The phone’s ringing. It must be my Aunt Sally. She said she’d ring this
afternoon. (Higher degree of possibility as she said she would phone)
Remember, the degree of possibility always depends on how the speaker sees the situation.
Situation five
Dan hasn’t arrived in the office yet. His colleagues are wondering where
he is.
Colleague one: “It’s ten past nine. Where can Dan be?”
Colleague two: “He might be stuck in a traffic jam.”
Colleague one: “He must have the flu. He was shivering yesterday
afternoon if you remember well.”
He must have the flu
Colleague two: “Or he might not be able to find a parking space. After
nine o’clock it is literally impossible. This is the same as maybe he can’t
find a parking space.
Here we deduce that there is a 50/50 possibility that Dan is in a traffic jam
or that he has the flu or that he has difficulty in finding a place to park his
car.
As you can see from the above example, the negative of might and also
may is might not and may not.
We do not contract the negative forms of might and may - might not and
may not.
He mightn’t be able to find a parking space.
He mayn’t be able to find a parking space.
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We cannot use the modal auxiliary verb could in the negative when
deducing in the present tense
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Example
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He could not find a parking space. This implies he was unable to find a
parking space, so be careful. It speaks about a past situation that did not
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happen. It means ‘he was unable to find a parking space’.
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When deducing, could is only used in the affirmative – in present

assumptions. If you want to express a present possibility in the negative,
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always use might not or may not. When referring to impossibilities in the
past, as you will see in another section of the book, we can use couldn’t.
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EXERCISE ONE
Now do the following exercise. Complete the gaps with must/might/can’t.

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1. “Where’s dad?” “He ________ be in the garage fixing his car but I’m
not sure.”
2. That ________ be David’s mum over there in David’s garden. She’s his
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*spitting image.
3. That ________ be David’s mum over there in the garden. It ________
be his sister. She only looks about thirty and David is twenty five.
4. Jack’s wife gave birth to twins yesterday so they ________ be very
happy.
5. “Matilda told me that Jack left his wife.” “That ________ be true. They
love each other very much. I don’t believe it. It’s just gossip.”
6. “The phone’s ringing. Who can it be?” “I don’t know but it ________
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be my mum.”
7. Mauro has been studying English for over ten years. His brother
Sandro only started to study English last year. Mauro ________ speak
English much better than his brother.
8. You never know! Sandro ________ be able to speak English better than
Mauro. If you remember, he spent six months in London last year.
*Spitting image = identical in appearance – used only for people and not
objects.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE ONE

1. “Where’s dad?” “He might be in the garage fixing his car but I’m not sure.”
2. That must be David’s mum over there in David’s garden. She’s his spitting image.
3. That can’t be David’s mum over there in the garden. It must be his sister. She only looks about
thirty and David is twenty five.
4. Jack’s wife gave birth to twins yesterday so they must be very happy.
5. “Matilda told me that Jack left his wife.” “That can’t be true. They love each other very much. I
don’t believe it. It’s just gossip.”
6. “The phone’s ringing. Who can it be?” “I don’t know but it might be my mum.”
7. Mauro has been studying English for over ten years. His brother Sandro only started to study
English last year. Mauro must be able to speak English much better than his brother.
8. You never know! Sandro might be able to speak English better than Mauro. If you remember, he
spent six months in London last year.
EXERCISE TWO
MODALS OF DEDUCTION MUST/CAN’T

Fill the gaps below with must or can’t + one of the following infinitives.
Be-buy-have-like-think
1. “Who’s that boy walking down our neighbours’ garden path.?”
“It ______________________________ their grandson. They said they
had a teenage grandson and that boy looks about seventeen.”
2. Dad’s still asleep. Don’t wake him up. He
______________________________ tired. He worked for over twelve
hours yesterday.
3. “Why do you think my girlfriend doesn’t want to see me anymore?”
“She ______________________________ you’re boring because all you
do is talk about yourself.”
4. “Sarah blushes every time she sees my brother.” “She
______________________________ him a lot. Maybe she’s in love.”
5. “I love the way Nancy dresses. Her clothes are beautiful but I never
seem to see them in any of the shops in our town.” “She does a lot of
internet shopping so she ______________________________ them
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online.”
6. I thought you said Tony was Jenny’s brother. He
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______________________________. Jenny doesn’t have a brother but
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she does have a sister.
7. Julie always gets top marks in all her
rs exams. She
______________________________ a very clever girl.
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8. “I can’t find my glasses anywhere. Has anybody seen them anywhere?”

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“They ______________________________ in the house somewhere. You

haven’t been anywhere today.”
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9. “Moira ______________________________ a lot of money. I saw her

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shopping in that really expensive boutique.” “Oh didn’t you know? She
has a new top notch job that pays her not double what she was getting paid
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before but triple.”

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10. Fred ______________________________ a dog. I saw him in the pet

shop buying a collar and a lead.
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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE TWO

1. “Who’s that boy walking down our neighbours’ garden path.?” “It must be their grandson. They
said they had a teenage grandson and that boy looks about seventeen.”
2. Dad’s still asleep. Don’t wake him up. He must be tired. He worked for over twelve hours
yesterday.
3. “Why do you think my girlfriend doesn’t want to see me anymore?” “She must think you’re
boring because all you do is talk about yourself.” (I strongly believe this to be the case)
4. “Sarah blushes every time she sees my brother.” “She must like him a lot. Maybe she’s in love.”
5. “I love the way Nancy dresses. Her clothes are beautiful but I never seem to see them in any of
the shops in our town.” “She does a lot of internet shopping so she must buy them online.”
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6. I thought you said Tony was Jenny’s brother. He can’t be. Jenny doesn’t have a brother but she
does have a sister.
7. Julie always gets top marks in all her exams. She must be a very clever girl.
8. “I can’t find my glasses anywhere. Has anybody seen them anywhere?” “They must be in the
house somewhere. You haven’t been anywhere today.”
9. “Moira must have a lot of money. I saw her shopping in that really expensive boutique.” “Oh
didn’t you know? She has a new top notch job that pays her not double what she was getting paid
before but triple.”
10. Fred must have a dog. I saw him in the pet shop buying a collar and a lead.
EXERCISE THREE
Now look at the following picture of a boy and girl. A teacher is asking the
students their opinion about whether or not they are brother and sister. Fill
in the gaps with must be / might be / can’t be.
Teacher: “Do you think they are brother and sister?”

Jack: “Yes, definitely. They ________ because they’ve got the same shape
of face and the same shape of eyes. They’ve also got the same smile.
Teacher: “And what about you Mary? Do you think they are brother and
sister?”
Mary: “No they ________. He’s got red hair and blue eyes and she’s got
dark brown hair and green eyes. They don’t look one bit like each other.
It’s impossible, in my opinion, that they are brother and sister.”
Teacher: “And you Sally. What do you think?”
Sally: “Possibly. I think they ________ twins. They are the same height
and if they were brother and sister, they would be different ages so they
would also be different heights.”
Teacher: “Do you think they are twins Paul?”
Paul: “No. They ________. They’re completely different from one
another. Twins normally look alike and they don’t.
Teacher: “Do you think they are twins Janet?”
Janet: “They ________ . It’s hard to tell. Maybe she looks like their
mother, if they are twins, and he looks like his father or vice versa.”
Teacher: “Joanne! What do you think?”
Joanne: “I don’t really know but they ________ friends. That’s a
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possibility.”
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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE THREE
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Teacher: “Do you think they are brother and sister?”
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Jack: “Yes, definitely. They must be because they’ve got the same shape of face and the same shape
of eyes. They’ve also got the same smile.”
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Teacher: “And what about you Mary? Do you think they are brother and sister?”
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Mary: “No they can’t be. He’s got red hair and blue eyes and she’s got dark brown hair and green
eyes. They don’t look one bit like each other. It’s impossible, in my opinion, that they are brother
and sister.”
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Teacher: “And you Sally. What do you think?”

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Sally: “Possibly. I’m sure they must be twins. They are the same height and if they were brother
and sister, they would be different ages so they would also be different heights.”
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Teacher: “Do you think they are twins Paul?”

LT
Paul: “No. They can’t be. They’re completely different from one another. Twins normally look alike
and they don’t.
IE
Teacher: “Do you think they are twins Janet?”
Janet: They must be. It’s hard to tell. Maybe she looks like their mother, if they are twins, and he
looks like his father or vice versa.
Teacher: “Joanne! What do you think?”
Joanne: “I don’t really know but they might be friends. That’s a possibility.”
In the above examples, might be can be replaced with could be without altering the meaning.
EXERCISE FOUR
Now take a look at the following picture
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Fill in the gaps with must be / might be / can’t be
Person A: “What season do you think it is in the picture?”
Person B: “It ________ summer. They’re all wearing summer clothes.”
Person A: “Yes of course. It ________ winter. Nobody dresses like that
when it’s cold outside.”
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE FOUR

Person A: “What season do you think it is in the picture?”
Person B: “It must be summer. They’re all wearing summer clothes.”
Person A: “Yes of course. It can’t be winter. Nobody dresses like that when it’s cold outside.”
EXERCISE FIVE
Modals in the progressive
We also use must + bare infinitive + gerund to express strong certainty

about something we believe to be in progress right now at the moment of
speaking or something in progress in this period. This is the present
continuous form of must.
We can use all the modals in the progressive form according to degree of
certainty. We use them to indicate actions we believe to be in progress
now, or in this period or what we believe to be future arrangements.
Fill in the gaps with must be / might be /can’t be + gerund. (In progress
now)
Person A: “Where do you think the children are going?”
Person B: “They ________ to school because they are all carrying school
bags.”
Person A: “They ________ to school. It’s four o’clock in the afternoon.
They ________ home.”
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE FIVE

Person A: “Where do you think the children are going?”
Person B: “They must be going to school because they are all carrying school bags.”
Person A: “They can’t be going to school. It’s four o’clock in the afternoon. They must be going
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home.”
PROGRESSIVE MODALS
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“The boss has arrived soaking wet. It must be raining outside.”
In the above example, the fact that the boss is soaking wet (very very wet)
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leads us to believe that there is a strong possibility that it is raining in this
moment. It is almost certain. If we are 100 per cent sure then we use the
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present continuous – it is raining outside.

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S
LT
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It must be raining outside
Person A: “Have you noticed how irritated the boss has been lately?”
Person B: “Yes I have. He’s always so stressed looking and he *gets so
snappy when you ask him anything.”
Person A: “He must be working too much. He stays in the office
sometimes until midnight.”
*To get snappy = to become very annoyed and speak badly to people.
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The boss must be working too much
The fact that the boss is so stressed and often stays in the office until
midnight, leads us to this assumption.
Person A: “Mark isn’t answering his phone.”
Person B: “He It must be sleeping. He did night shift at the hospital and
finished at 8 am this morning. It’s 9 o’ clock now.”
In the above example, based on the knowledge at hand, we have strong
reason to believe that Mark is sleeping right now due to the fact that he
worked all night.
Mark can’t be sleeping. I saw him a few minutes ago as I was crossing the
road. ( Remember that the opposite of must be is can’t be when expressing
a very high degree of unlikelihood)
Note to remember
May is more formal than might.
Modal auxiliary verbs of deduction are also used with adjectives and nouns or adjectives + nouns
as seen in one of the previous examples, “she can’t be his mother”.
The following example uses an adjective. Must + bare infinitive +

adjective. ‘Exhausted’ is the extreme adjective of ‘tired’. We can say ‘very
tired’ but never ‘very exhausted’. However, with the extreme adjectives
we can use ‘really’, ‘absolutely’ and ‘extremely’ to reinforce the meaning
– thereby giving the meaning more emphasis.
The boss must be exhausted. When I went to speak to him last night he
was slumped over his desk *fast asleep.” Again, this is the present tense of
something we believe to be true. When we are 100 per cent sure, then we
say – he is exhausted (A present fact)
*Fast asleep = in a very deep sleep.
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An exhausted boss
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EXERCISE SIX/PROGRESSIVE MODALS
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Fill the gaps in the following exercise with must/might/may can’t + be +
gerund of the verbs in brackets. Sometimes the negative is required.
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1. My son gave up on his studies to be a lawyer. What a pity! If he hadn’t
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he ____________________ in his father’s legal studio instead of sitting

about doing nothing all day long. (Work)
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2. Mary completely ignored me when I saw her this morning. I wonder

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what I’ve done wrong this time. She ____________________ to me.

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(Talk)
3. We’ve been invited to my cousin’s wedding in Australia but we can’t
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really afford to go.

LT
On the telephone: We ____________________ to the wedding after all but

we’ll let you know as soon as we decide. (Come)
IE
4. It is possible that we will expand our business in the near future. We

____________________ our business in the near future. (Expand)
5. Sally thinks she won’t make it to the party on Saturday. Sally
____________________ to the party on Saturday. (Go)
6. Paul thinks it is highly unlikely that Jane is coming to work today. It’s
now 9.30 and she’s normally in the office before 9. Yesterday she
complained about having a bad headache. Jane ____________________ to
work today. (Come)
7. Shirley isn’t answering her phone. It’s 7.30 in the morning. It is
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possible that she is having breakfast. She
_____________________________ breakfast. (Have)
8. Quick! Call an ambulance. Grandpa isn’t breathing properly. He
____________________ a heart attack for all we know.(Have) - We think
there is the possibility that Grandpa is having a heart attack at the present
moment.
9. The postman ____________________ today. It’s already 1o’clock and
there are still no signs of him. Maybe he’s ill. (Come) - It seems very
unlikely that the postman will *show face today.
*Show face = appear/make an appearance
10. I don’t know if I will be in the office tomorrow morning but I’ll let you
know by 5.30pm. I ____________________ to the dentist’s. It all depends
on whether or not I can get an appointment. I’ve phoned the dentist and he
said he’ll try and fit me in somewhere. (Go) - There is the possibility that
the speaker is going to the dentist tomorrow.
11. John has put on about three kilos since he opened the new restaurant.
He ____________________ too much. (Eat) - We have strong reason to
believe that in this period he is eating too much. The evidence is the three
kilos in weight that he has put on.
12. Mary’s just been on the phone: She’s now in the Bahamas. That’s the
third holiday she’s had in the space of six months. She
____________________ all the money she inherited from her Uncle Sam.
(Spend) - We firmly believe that Mary is spending all her inheritance due
to the fact of the costly holidays she keeps having.
13. “The boss nearly *bit my head off when I walked in to his office.”
“Don’t worry! He ____________________ a bad day. Remember, it’s
Monday and he’s normally in a bad mood on Mondays.” (Have)
14. “Where’s dad? Has he gone out?” “I saw him leaving the bathroom
with a bucket of soapy water and a sponge so he
______________________ his car. He said he wanted to wash it today.”
(Wash)
15. “Look at the size of that woman’s belly.” “She
____________________ a baby. She looks about eight months’ pregnant.”
(Have)
*To bite someone’s head off = to reply to them very angrily
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE SIX

1. My son gave up on his studies to be a lawyer. What a pity! If he hadn’t, he might be working in
his father’s legal studio instead of sitting about doing nothing all day long. (Work)
2. Mary completely ignored me when I saw her this morning. I wonder what I’ve done wrong this
time. She can’t be talking to me. (Talk)
3. We’ve been invited to my cousin’s wedding in Australia but we can’t really afford to go.
On the telephone: We might not be coming to the wedding after all but we’ll let you know as soon
as we decide. (Come)
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4. It is possible that we will expand our business in the near future. We may be expanding our
business in the near future. (Expand) May is more adapt than might in this example due to the
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business context.
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5. Sally thinks she won’t make it to the party on Saturday. Sally might not be going to the party on
Saturday. (Go)
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6. Paul thinks it is highly unlikely that Jane is coming to work today. It’s now 9.30 and she’s
normally in the office before 9. Yesterday she complained about having a bad headache. Jane might
not be coming to work today. (Come)
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7. Shirley isn’t answering her phone. It’s 7.30 in the morning. It is possible that she is having
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breakfast. She might be having breakfast.”(This is a possibility)
8. Quick! Call an ambulance. Grandpa isn’t breathing properly. He might be having a heart attack
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for all we know.

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9. The postman can’t be coming today. It’s already 1o’clock and there are still no signs of him.
Maybe he’s ill.
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10. I don’t know if I will be in the office tomorrow morning but I’ll let you know by 5.30pm. I might
be going to the dentist’s. It all depends on whether or not I can get an appointment. I’ve phoned the
LT
dentist and he said he’ll try and fit me in somewhere.
11. John has put on about three kilos since he opened the new restaurant. He must be eating too
much. (We have strong reason to believe that in this period he is eating too much. The evidence is
IE
the three kilos in weight that he has put on)
12. Mary’s just been on the phone: She’s now in the Bahamas. That’s the third holiday she’s had in
the space of six months. She must be spending all the money she inherited from her Uncle Sam. (We
firmly believe that Mary is spending all her inheritance due to the fact of the costly holidays she
keeps having)
13. “The boss nearly *bit my head off when I walked in to his office.” “Don’t worry! He must be
having a bad day. Remember it’s Monday and he’s normally in a bad mood on Mondays.”
14. “Where’s dad? Has he gone out?” “I saw him leaving the bathroom with a bucket of soapy
water and a sponge so he must be washing his car. He said he wanted to wash it today.” (Wash)
15. “Look at the size of that woman’s belly.” “She must be having a baby. She looks about eight
months’ pregnant.” (Have)
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In the above examples, we can replace might (in the affirmative but not in the negative) with
could, without any change to the meaning.
MODAL VERBS OF DEDUCTION FOR FUTURE
INTENTIONS
We use must + be going to + bare infinitive – to speculate about actions in
progress now or actions we think are likely to happen in the future.
Just like we use the construction be going to + bare infinitive to express
future intentions, we add must when we have strong reason to believe that
something is a future intention.
Compare
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She is going to watch a film tonight. (A future intention)
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She must be going to watch a film tonight. (We have strong reason to
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believe that this is her intention for tonight) Maybe we see her looking at
the *‘what’s on the box’ page of the newspaper.
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*What’s on the box? = a British colloquialism which means ‘what’s on the
TV?’
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Person A: “I saw Sheila and Andy in the estate agency yesterday.”

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Person B: “Oh really! They must be going to buy a house.” (I strongly

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believe that their intention is to buy a house)

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Person A: “They can’t be going to buy a house. They’ve got no money.

Neither of them has a job.” (The opposite of must be going to – I strongly
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believe that this is unlikely)

LT
They might be/may be going to buy a house. (Maybe this is their intention)
They could be going to buy a house. (This is one possibility we think they
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intend to do – very similar in terms of possibility to ‘they might be going

to buy a house’).
The modal auxiliary must be going to + bare infinitive is also used to
speculate about something we believe to be in progress right now as we
speak.
Person A: “Is that Jill and James heading towards the bakery?”
Person B: “Yes it is. They must be going to buy a birthday cake for their
son. Jill told me that the new bakery makes lovely cakes.”
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PERFECT MODALS WHEN REFERRING TO
PAST ASSUMPTIONS
By adding the perfect form, as opposed to the bare infinitive, to modal
auxiliary verbs of deduction we express predicted degrees of possibility in
the past. As always, grammatically speaking, the term perfect refers to
something concluded before the present moment. Just like the present
perfect simple, we add the auxiliary verb have or in third person has, + the
past participle of the verb to the modal in question. They are not really
perfect modals but are named so due to their present perfect construction.
It must be cold outside (now) as everyone is walking around wearing
gloves and scarves.
Now let’s see what happens when we remove the bare infinitive be and
replace it with the perfect form, that is the auxiliary verb have + the past
participle of the verb, in this case the past participle of be.
It must have been cold outside. We have now changed the meaning to “the
before now”. We now add a past time expression (something we cannot
do with the present perfect simple, e.g. he has been here this morning) to
state exactly when.
It must have been cold outside this morning because when I looked out the
window, everyone was walking around wearing gloves and scarves. We
assume it was cold this morning due to the fact that everyone was wearing
gloves and scarves.
The negatives “Can’t have” and “couldn’t have” are used interchangeably
when referring to past deduction.
Let’s take another look at the blackboard
The situation: It is now the next day. The students are casting their minds
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back to yesterday. Read the assumptions in the past that the students are
recalling to their memories now.
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Alberto: “The teacher can’t/couldn’t have written that.” (I find it
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impossible to believe that she wrote this)
Sandra: “Someone else must have written it as a joke.” (I’m sure someone
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else wrote it)
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Paolo: “The teacher might have been distracted when she wrote it.
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(Perhaps the teacher was distracted when she wrote it)

Maria: “She could have been tired when she wrote it. (In my opinion there
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is a possibility that she was tired when she wrote it, therefore wasn’t
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concentrating)
EXERCISE SEVEN
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LT
Fill the gaps in the exercise that follows with one of the modals of deduction which refer to the
past – the before now
Can’t/must/might /may/could/might not

IE
Remember to use may/may not in more formal contexts

1. Person A: “I saw your brother yesterday when I was driving along the
Main Street.”
Person B: “You ________ have seen him. He’s in China at the
moment.”
2. Person A: “Jennifer’s family are all unemployed but they seem to have
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a lot of money to spend. At the moment they are building an extension to
the back of their house. Fred saw them eating in that expensive restaurant
in Mulberry Road a few days ago.”
Person B: “They _______ have won the lottery.” (The speaker thinks
this is a possibility and not a certainty)
Person A: “They _______ have won the lottery. Jennifer told me that
they are completely against gambling.” (The speaker sees this as
impossibility)
3. Sammy passed all his exams. He ________ have studied really hard
because normally he fails them all.
4. Person A: “I met Jill this morning and she walked right past me without
saying hello.”
Person B: “She ________ have seen you. She would never have walked
past you without saying hello. That’s completely against her friendly
nature.” (Person B believes that it is highly unlikely that Jill saw the
speaker this morning)
5. Your husband ________ have been really happy when he was told he
was going to be promoted.
6. How was it possible for him to get top marks in the English exam when
he never studies? He ________ have cheated.
7. Mike was fined for speeding. He was also disqualified from driving for
six months and got six points on his license. A police spokesman said. “He
________ have caused a serious accident, but luckily he didn’t.”
8. Breaking News
Many people ________ have lost their lives after a boat full of immigrants
capsized off the Mediterranean coast a few minutes ago. Police *frogmen
have been called in to search the rocky coastline. Stay tuned for updates.
*In British English, a frogman is a police officer who is part of an
underwater rescue team. Frogmen are highly trained in scuba diving.
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A police frogman at work during a rescue operation
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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE SEVEN rs
1. Person A: “I saw your brother yesterday when I was driving along the Main Street.”
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Person B: “You can’t have seen him. He’s in China at the moment.” (It is impossible that you
saw him yesterday)
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2. Person A: “Jennifer’s family are all unemployed but they seem to have a lot of money to spend.
At the moment they are building an extension to the back of their house. Fred saw them eating in
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that expensive restaurant in Mulberry Road a few days ago.”

M
Person B: “They might have won the lottery.” (The speaker thinks this is a possibility and not a
certainty)
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Person A: “They can’t have won the lottery. Jennifer told me that they are completely against
gambling.” (The speaker sees this as impossibility)
LT
3. Sammy passed all his exams. He must have studied really hard because normally he fails them
all. (I’m certain he studied really hard)
IE
4. Person A: “I met Jill this morning and she walked right past me without saying hello.”
Person B: “She can’t have seen you. She would never have walked past you without saying
hello. That’s completely against her friendly nature.” (I’m certain she didn’t see you)
5. Your husband must have been really happy when he was told he was going to be promoted. (I’m
sure he was very happy)
6. How was it possible for him to get top marks in the English exam when he never studies? He
must have cheated. (I’m sure he cheated)
7. Mike was fined for speeding. He was also disqualified from driving for six months and got six
points on his license. A police spokesman said. “He could have caused a serious accident, but
luckily he didn’t.”
IELTSMatters.com
8. Breaking News
Many people may have lost their lives after a boat full of immigrants capsized off the
Mediterranean coast a few minutes ago. Police frogmen have been called in to search the rocky
coastline. Stay tuned for updates. (A past possibility – may is used as it is a formal news broadcast
on the radio or TV or in the newspaper)
FURTHER INSTANCES OF PREDICTED DEGREES OF

POSSIBILITY
We can also use modals of deduction to refer to predicted degrees of
possibility referring to not only before the moment of speaking but also at
the moment of speaking. Will/must/should + the perfect form are used to
express higher degrees of possibility. May/might are used for a 50/50
degree of possibility and could refers to a slightly lesser possibility than
may/might although very often may/might /could are used interchangeably.
The following examples are in order of the degree of certainty. The first
being the highest degree of certainty. Will have arrived/must have
arrived/should have arrived, all indicate a high degree of certainty.
Examples
She will have arrived by now. (We assume she has already arrived)
She must have arrived by now. (We are certain she has arrived)
With should
She should have arrived by now. It’s 9.30 and she said the flight was
going to land at 9.15. (We expect this to be true based on the knowledge
we have at hand)
She may/might have arrived by now. (We think there is a 50 per cent
possibility)
She could have been by now. (We think there is a possibility that she
arrived before the moment of speaking)
It is important to use ‘by now’ with should have + past participle,

otherwise the meaning changes.
Example of a change in meaning
She should have taken an aspirin this morning if she had such a bad
headache. (My personal opinion)
Did she take an aspirin?
No she didn’t.
Was it a bad idea not to take an aspirin?
Yes it was.
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Will have + past participle is the only one out of the perfect modal verbs
of deduction that can refer to the future. This is because will is a future
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modal auxiliary verb. This aspect is grammatically known as the future
perfect. It has double function as it is used for what we predict/expect to
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be concluded before this moment and also for what we predict/expect to be
concluded at a future moment or for a future fact concluded at a future
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moment.
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More examples
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She’ll have eaten by now. (A prediction we believe was concluded before

this moment)
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She’ll have been in London for six years by October. (A future fact
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concluded at a moment in the future)

S
LT
IE
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MUST/MAY/MIGHT/COULD + PRESENT
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Must, may, might and could + have been + gerund, are used to speculate
about something we believe was in progress until very recently.
John’s face was bright red when I saw him this morning.
1. He must have been running. (We have strong reason to believe that the
action of running was in progress until just before the speaker saw him)
2. He might have been running. (It is possible that he was running until a
short time before the speaker saw him)
3. He could have been running. (Maybe he was running until not long
before he was seen – almost the same degree of possibility as example
number two)
If we know for sure that he was running until recently we use the present
perfect continuous – he has been running.
Remember we can use may in the same way as might but on a more formal
level.
In the negatives can’t have been + gerund and couldn’t have been +
gerund have the same meaning (It is highly unlikely/an improbable
situation)
He can’t/couldn’t have been running. He broke his foot last week. (It is
highly unlikely he was running)
Remember that we do not contract might not and may not
He might not have been running /he may not have been running (we think
it is possible that he wasn’t running)
QUESTION FORMS
Must he have been running? (Never used)
Could he have been running? (Yes) (Do you think there is the
possibility that he was running?)
Might he have been running? (Rarely used but similar to the previous
example with ‘could’)
May he have been running? (Never used/this is an unnatural utterance)
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CAN/COULD/BE ABLE TO
In this part of the book we will look at can/could and be able to when used
to express ability and when ability overlaps with other aspects.
The past tense of can, when referring to ability, is could.
Can and could are multi-functional. Be able to is not.
Can and could are also used to make polite requests and to ask for
permission (and for presumptions - as seen in the first section of the book).
Could is also used for hypothetical situations in the conditional, that is, it
indicates possibility.
Could, when used incorrectly, leads to ambiguity.
CAN AND COULD VERSUS BE ABLE TO WHEN EXPRESSING

ABILITY
Can is used in the present tense to express factual abilities, and could is the
past tense of can when expressing abilities in the past. As always, we use
them to modify the verb, in its bare infinitive form (the infinitive without
the ‘to’)
I can play the piano really well. (A general ability that is always true) = I
know how to play the piano.
I could read by the time I was five. (A general past ability) = I knew how
to read by the age of five.
ABILITY IN ALL TENSES

Since can is not a verb, but a modal auxiliary verb, it has no infinitive,
therefore it is replaced with be able to + the bare infinitive when
expressing ability in all tenses. Be able to is used with a category of verbs
which require that any other verb which follows them takes the infinitive.
Be able to is also used when the gerund form (being able to) is required
after certain verbs and also when the subject is a verb. It is also used with
modal auxiliary verbs which require the use of a verb in its infinitive form
- without the to. Always remember that you need to use be able to when it
is not possible to use can. Be able to is also used after adjectives.
Examples of verbs which take the infinitive when followed by another
verb
I hope to be able to speak English well by the end of the year.
You *have to be able to speak English very well if you want to work in
our company.
Need to is used similarly to *have to but implies a slightly politer form of
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obligation.
As a teenager, I used to be able to party all weekend. Now I’m too tired
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for all that.
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(Verbs which come after used to take the infinitive without the ‘to’. There
already is a to attached to used to. *Used to and have to both follow the
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same pattern)
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You need to be able to speak English well if you want to work in our
company.
tt
I would like to be able to write well in English. (This is a present desire

a
that I have)
M
I want to be able to improve my listening skills for the CAE. (This is the
same as the previous example. The only difference is that would like is
S
more polite than want)

LT
Verbs which take the gerund when followed by other verbs

I like being able to get up whenever I want. (Like is commonly used with
IE
the gerund along with other verbs of ‘feeling’)

Sometimes be able to takes a shift in meaning when it overlaps between
choice and opportunity as seen in the above example and also with the
other verbs of feeling as follows.
OTHER VERBS OF FEELING

I love being able to ...
I enjoy being able to ...
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I dislike being able to ...
I can’t stand being able to ...
I hate being able to ...
Other verbs which take the gerund

Since we moved to a block of flats, I miss being able to potter about in my
garden at weekends. (I miss the fact that I can no longer spend weekends
pottering about in my garden)
The verb miss takes the gerund when used with another verb.
I *remember being able to read when I was only five years old. (The verb
remember takes the gerund when used with other verbs)
*The verb remember can also be used with the infinitive but takes on a
different meaning.
Example
I remember going (I know I went). I remembered to go. (I didn’t forget to
go)
He admitted not being able to program computers but only after he was
hired for the job as computer programmer. (He admitted to the fact that he
did not have this ability)
Adjectives + be able to = to have the possibility/opportunity
It’s an honour to be able to help you. (To have this opportunity)

I’m so glad to be able to meet you at last. (To have this opportunity)
I’m happy to be able to assist you.
In the negative – not comes between the adjective and to be able to.
It’s terrible not to be able to do anything about the problem.
It was awful not to be able to go out today.
After prepositions
After prepositions - verbs take the gerund
I grew up being able to eat whatever I wanted without putting on any
weight. Now I just have to look at food and the weight piles on.
I have always had a problem with being able to remember people’s names.
He’s concerned about not being able to do the things he used to do before
he lost the use of his right hand.
I am used to being able to do what I want.
He was used to being able to do what he wanted when he lived with his
parents. Now that he’s married, has had to get used to not being able to
m
live the lifestyle of a single man.
o
Verb as the subject
.c
When the subject is a verb we use the gerund with all verbs - not only with
rs
be able to.
Being able to speak several languages opens the door to many possibilities.
e
(Used as the subject)

tt
We had so much freedom as children. Being able to play outdoors all the
a
time was brilliant. Nowadays children spend most of their time indoors in
front of the computer. (Used as a subject)
M
Are you suffering from ‘forgetfulness’? Not being able to remember things
S
is a common problem nowadays due to us all having too much to think

about. (Used as the subject)
LT
CAN VERSUS BE ABLE TO WHEN EXPRESSING THE FUTURE

IE
When talking or writing about future ability in English, we only use will be
able to. We never use can for an ability that is possible to exist in the
future.
Future facts and predictions
I will be able to + the bare infinitive - remember that “I will can” is
wrong.
I can program a computer by the end of the course. (This is wrong)
I will be able to program computers by the end of my course. (A future
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fact or prediction depending on aspect, that is, how the speaker perceives
the situation as he/she makes the utterance)
When I finish the advanced level English class I will be able to speak like
a native speaker. (You predict this to be the case)
When I finish the advanced level English class I can speak like a native
speaker. (This is wrong)
WHEN TO USE CAN AND WILL BE ABLE TO
INTERCHANGEABLY FOR THE FUTURE
Can or will be able to are used interchangeably when talking about either
future arrangements or future decisions. Be able to, however, is used more
formally.
Examples
I can attend the class next week.
I will be able to attend the class next week.
BE ABLE TO FOR ONE SPECIFIC OCCASION

Be able to replaces can and could when making reference to one occasion
only, (in all tenses), whereas can refers to abilities that are always true and
could refers to abilities that were always true over a period of time in the
past.
Paul can run very fast. (An actual fact)
Paul could run like the wind when he was a boy. (A past fact which lasted
over a period of time)
Paul was able to finish the race in record time. (Making reference to a
specific occasion)
Paul has broken his leg so he won’t be able to run in the marathon next
month. (Making reference to a specific future occasion)
UNNATURAL UTTERANCES
When she was young she was able to swim for hours without getting tired.
(An unnatural utterance – when she was young indicates over a period
of time and not a specific occasion)
When she was young she could swim for hours without getting tired. (A
past ability which extended over a period of time)
The police were able to track down the *getaway car the robbers had used
after robbing a bank. (This refers to on that specific occasion)
*A getaway car = a fast car that robbers use to ‘get away’ from the scene
of a crime they have committed – that is, to escape.
The police could track down the getaway car the robbers had used after
robbing a bank.
m
*The use of could in the above sentence has a shift in meaning and
therefore cannot be used to mean a one-time accomplishment/a single
occasion. It introduces the result of a condition.
o
.c
Example
(The result of the condition)The police could track down the getaway car
rs
the robbers had used after robbing the bank, (Condition) if they had the
registration number. (A possibility but only on the condition that they had
e
the registration number. They don’t have the registration number so it is

tt
not possible for them to track it down)

*I could rescue the drowning boy by jumping into the river and dragging
a
him out.
M
*The use of could in the above sentence has a shift in meaning and
therefore cannot be used as a past ability. It introduces the result of a
S
condition.
LT
Example
Indicating possibility
IE
(Condition) If I were able to swim (The result of the condition) I could

rescue the drowning boy by jumping into the river and dragging him out,
but I can’t swim so it is not possible for me to rescue the drowning boy)
In the above example, we can also say: if I could swim, (hypothetical
ability) I could rescue the drowning boy. (Hypothetical possibility)
I was able to rescue the drowning boy by jumping into the river and
dragging him out. (A one-time accomplishment in the past – this happened
only on one specific occasion and not over a period of time)
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She was able to survive the fire by jumping from the hotel balcony. (A
single occasion)
She could survive the fire.
Once again, the above example cannot be used as it is not a past ability. It
introduces the result of a conditional phrase and is a hanging sentence, that
is, an incomplete sentence. The listener is expecting more information.
The ‘if’ clause is missing.
She could survive the fire if she weren’t so afraid to jump = she is afraid to
jump therefore it is unlikely that she will survive the fire.
I was able to finish the marathon in record time. (A single occasion)
I could finish the marathon in record time. Again, this utterance
introduces the result of a condition.
(Condition) If I trained more, (The result of the condition) I could finish
the marathon in record time. (This is a possibility I have but only on
condition that I train more)
However, it must be noted that, could, in its negative form is used in the
same way as wasn’t/weren’t able to and indicates a non-achievement or
an inability to do something. We need to state ‘why’ this was not achieved
(especially when using could) in order to make the meaning clear.
The negative of ‘could’ (couldn’t), can replace be able to when we state

why it was not possible to do something. If we do not state why, then it
becomes ambiguous.
Sheila wasn’t able to finish the marathon because she fell and hurt her
knee.
Sheila couldn’t finish the marathon because she fell and hurt her knee.
(In this example we state why therefore avoiding ambiguity)
In both cases in the above examples, Sheila was prevented from
accomplishing something (the completion of the marathon). There was an
obstacle that stopped her. (The fact that she fell and hurt her knee – again
be able to is used in more formal contexts)
We weren’t able to connect to the internet because the server was down.
We weren’t able to connect to the internet due to the server being down.
We couldn’t connect to the internet due to the server being down.
We couldn’t connect to the internet because the server was down.
In the above examples, we were prevented from accomplishing something
(connecting to the server – the fact that the server was down was the
m
obstacle - be able to is used in more formal contexts, especially in formal
written English)
o
.c
BE ABLE TO WITH THE PERFECT TENSES
She hasn’t been able to *get through to Johnny all morning. It seems his
rs
mobile phone is unreachable. (From the past extending up until now)
e
*Get through to = reach by telephone

tt
She hasn’t been able to stop crying since her husband left her.
a
We still haven’t been able to think of a solution to the problem.

M
I haven’t been able to reach my mother on her mobile phone. I hope

nothing has happened.
S
I would love to be able to speak another language. (Modal auxiliary verb)

LT
IE
As always the English language has exceptions to the general rules. Some
verbs which require an infinitive cannot be used with be able to.
Examples
I decided to be able to
BE ABLE TO WITH OTHER MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
We also use be able to after other modal auxiliary verbs (with the
exception of can given the fact that can and be able to are both used to
express ability)
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She can be able to finish the project tomorrow.
We should can finish the project by tomorrow.
We should be able to finish the project by tomorrow. (We expect to
accomplish this before tomorrow ends)
I may be able to give you a lift to the airport if the mechanic fixes my car
in time. (There is a possibility on condition that ... )
You might be able to (The same as the previous example but remember,
might is less formal and used more in the spoken language)
You must be able to drive a lorry if you want to become a long distance
lorry driver. (It is strongly required that you have this ability)
Avoiding ambiguity
We sometimes we use be able to in place of can to avoid ambiguity.

Examples
Since the elderly and infirm are not able to come to us, we go to them.
Since the elderly and infirm cannot come to us, we go to them. (This
sentence can have double meaning. It could mean; they do not have the
ability because they are frail people or it could mean that they do not have
permission, therefore, be able to is the better option).
She is a shy girl. She is not able to make friends very easily. Be able to is
the better choice due to the fact that can’t could lead to ambiguity. (She
can’t make friends = she has no permission from a person in authority or
she lacks this ability).
The same applies to the past tense
When she was young she couldn’t make friends. (An example of
ambiguity) It could imply that she did not have the permission from her
parents.
When she was young she wasn’t able to make friends. (Here the meaning
is clear)
When she was young she couldn’t make friends because she was very shy.
(Here the meaning is clear because we added ‘why’ she couldn’t make
friends).
EXERCISE EIGHT
Fill the gaps below with a form of can/could/be able to

1. He would like to ____________________ buy a house by the time he is
thirty years old.
2. Although he is only eighteen months old, he ____________________
speak like a five year old. He certainly is a bright baby. In fact some
people would say he’s a genius.
3. I enjoy ____________________ (sleep) until mid-day on Sundays.
m
4. I can’t stand ____________________ (not/spend) money now that I
don’t have a job.
o
5. You need ____________________ (drive) long distance lorries if you
.c
wish to be considered for the job. rs
6. Since I started my new job and I have to get up very early in the
morning, I hate ____________________ (not/get up) whenever I like.
e
7. My father had his cataracts removed from both eyes just before
tt
Christmas. This is what he said after the operation.

“____________________ see clearly again is the best Christmas present I
a
have ever had.”

M
8. After rebooting his computer several times, he

____________________ get it to work again.
S
9. Jane knew she would never ____________________ convince her

LT
husband to move house. He loved the house where they lived. He had
grown up there.
IE
10. Although Sally had never studied, she____________________ find a

very good job with an excellent salary.
11. ____________________ talk openly about your problems removes
part of the burden of carrying them around with you.
12. We’ve been trying to get through to the switchboard all morning but
we still haven’t ____________________.
13. We ____________________ speak English quite well if we spend at
least six months in England.
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14. We ____________________ speak English quite well if we spent at
least six months in England.
15. We ____________________ speak English by now if we hadn’t
dropped out of the course after the first two lessons. I truly regret what we
did.
16. ____________________ sleep is a condition known as insomnia.
17. Scientists have said that we are one step closer to
____________________ regrow a lost tooth.
18. In spite of not ____________________ read until the age of twelve,
Sheila went on to achieve an A in English literature. She gives credit to her
support teacher who *was with her all the way.
*To be with someone all the way = to give your continuous support over a
period of time.
19. After getting several of her teeth extracted, she
____________________eat for a week.
20. I was late for work this morning because I ____________________
find my keys.
21. Mary ____________________ drive until she was nearly forty years
old.
22. My mother ____________________ speak English very well although
she’s started to study it again. Hopefully by the end of the course she’ll
____________________ speak it a lot better.
23. My brother hasn’t ____________________ find a job yet even though
he’s sent his C.V. to numerous companies.
24. I ____________________ walk until I was nearly three years old.
25. We ____________________ sleep at night because of the noise our
neighbours make.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE EIGHT

1. He would like to be able to buy a house by the time he is thirty years old. (After ‘would like’ we
use ‘be able to’ as we need an infinitive)
2. Although he is only eighteen months old, he can speak like a five year old. He certainly is a
bright baby. In fact some people would say he’s a genius. (A present ability)
3. I enjoy being able to sleep until mid-day on Sundays. (The verb ‘enjoy’ takes the gerund)
4. I can’t stand not being able to spend money now that I don’t have a job. (‘Can’t stand’ takes the
gerund)
5. You need to be able to drive long distance lorries if you wish to be considered for the job. (The
verb ‘need’ requires an infinitive when followed by another verb)
6. Since I started my new job and I have to get up very early in the morning, I hate not being able to
get up whenever I like. (Hate + gerund)
7. My father had his cataracts removed from both eyes just before Christmas. This is what he said
after the operation. “Being able to see clearly again is the best Christmas present I have ever had.”
(The subject is a verb)
m
8. After rebooting his computer several times, he was able to get it to work again. (Something that
happened on one specific occasion)
9. Jane knew she would never be able to convince her husband to move house. He loved the house
o
where they lived. He had grown up there. (‘Would’ is a modal auxiliary verb, hence the use of the
infinitive)
.c
10. Although Sally had never studied, she was able to find a very good job with an excellent salary.
rs
(Refers to a specific occasion and not something that was ongoing)
11. Being able to talk openly about your problems removes part of the burden of carrying them
around with you. (The subject is a verb)
e
12. We’ve been trying to get through to the switchboard all morning but we still haven’t been able
tt
to. (The present perfect requires an infinitive)

13. We will be able to speak English quite well if we spend at least six months in England. (First
a
conditional, used for a future possibility)

M
14. We would be able to speak English quite well if we spent at least six months in England.
(Second conditional, used for hypothetical situations)
S
15. We would have been able to speak English by now if we hadn’t dropped out of the course after
the first two lessons. I truly regret what we did. (Third conditional, regret about what did not
LT
happen in the past)

16. Not being able to sleep is a condition known as insomnia. (The subject is a verb hence the
gerund)
IE
17. Scientists have said that we are one step closer to being able to re-grow a lost tooth. (Use of the
gerund due to there being a preceding preposition ‘to’)
18. In spite of not being able to read until the age of twelve, Sheila went on to achieve an A in
English literature. She gives credit to her support teacher who *was with her all the way. (In spite
of uses the preposition ‘of’, hence the gerund)
*To be with someone all the way = to give your continuous support over a period of time.
19. After getting several of her teeth extracted, she couldn’t/wasn’t able to eat for a week. (Both are
possible. She couldn’t eat for a week/she wasn’t able to eat for a week. The use of couldn’t is
possible in this example because we state ‘why’)
20. I was late for work this morning because I couldn’t find my keys. (Past inability)
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21. Mary couldn’t drive until she was nearly forty years old. (‘Couldn’t’ used for inability over a
period of time)
22. My mother couldn’t speak English very well although she’s started to study it again. Hopefully
by the end of the course she’ll be able to speak it a lot better. (‘Couldn’t’ used for inability/be able
to due to the preceding auxiliary ‘will’)
23. My brother hasn’t been able to find a job yet even though he’s sent his C.V. to numerous
companies. (‘Be able to’ after the perfect tenses)
24. I couldn’t walk until I was nearly three years old. (Past inability)
25. We can’t sleep at night because of the noise our neighbours make. (Present inability)
BE ABLE TO VERSUS MANAGE TO
Manage to do something = to eventually find a way of doing or achieving
something in spite of initial difficulties. When using manage to do
something, it implies that a certain degree of effort was involved. Be able
to in contrast = lack the ability. Sometimes both of them overlap in
meaning depending on aspect.
When we use the negative of manage to do something, it usually indicates
that there is some kind of obstacle that prevents you from doing what you
intended to do.
m
Examples
o
In the present tense affirmative
.c
I manage to save a little bit of money each week by buying things on
special offer.
rs
In the present tense negative
e
It is more natural in the negative to use ‘never’ as opposed to ‘don’t or doesn’t’.

tt
*Try as I might, I never manage to do all the ironing. Time is my worst

enemy. I never have enough of it.
a
M
*Try as I might = no matter how much I try.

In the past tense
S
I managed to pass the test by the skin of my teeth. I really thought I would
LT
fail it.
I wanted to watch all my old videos again and luckily after searching the
IE
internet I managed to find a reasonably priced old video recorder. (It

wasn’t easy to find one at first but I succeeded in finding one in the end)
I managed to fix the door handle after several attempts. I’m not as good as
I’d like to be at D.I.Y. (Do it yourself)
At the very last moment I managed to jump onto the train just before the
doors closed. (My effort to get on the train was successful)
In the negative
Despite staying up until 3 o’ clock in the morning, I didn’t manage to
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finish all the homework the teacher had given me. (I made the effort but in
vain)
Compare with be able to
I wasn’t able to finish all the homework. (I lacked the ability)

I didn’t manage to watch the film on T.V last night. I had too much work
to finish. (The fact that I had too much work was the obstacle which
prevented me from doing what I initially intended to do)
More examples
After scouring the shops all day, we eventually managed to find a suitable
present for my mother’s birthday. It was not easy as she already has
everything she needs. (We found a present despite some initial difficulty)
After falling and breaking her hip, my elderly mother managed to get to
the phone and call an ambulance. (Despite difficulties, that is, the broken
hip)
Even though she had paid for a six-month subscription to the gym, she
only managed to go about three times. (She possibly did not find the time
to go or maybe it was lack of effort that obstructed her)
In the present continuous
I’m managing to avoid eating chocolate but it’s difficult. (In this period of
my life I’m avoiding eating chocolate but with difficulty)
I’m not managing to pay my bills. I’ll have to find a second job. (In this
period of time I have difficulty in paying my bills despite the fact that I am
making the effort to do so)
Be able to versus Manage to
Although Maureen has always boasted about her husband’s plumbing
skills, he wasn’t able to install my new boiler. (On that single occasion he
did not have the ability)
Maureen’s husband had so many other jobs to do that he didn’t manage to
install my new boiler in time for the arrival of the guests. Needless to say,
it was cold showers for everyone. (Time was the obstacle in this case and
not lack of ability)
We weren’t able to speak to each other on the plane journey because none
of our seats were together.
We couldn’t speak to each other on the plane journey because none of our
seats were together.
The two previous examples mean the same but be able to is more formal.
As always, the use of ‘couldn’t’ is possible due to the fact that we state
‘why’.
After searching for months for a cottage by the sea, Jim and Sally
managed to find one within their price bracket. (Their attempt to find a
m
cottage was a success)
Now let’s compare the following three sets of sentences. We can use either
o
manage to or be able to but there is a shift in meaning.
.c
1. rs
I didn’t manage to take any photos when I was on holiday in London. (In
this example, it would imply that I did not have the time or something else
e
prevented me from doing it, but it is usually lack of time)

tt
I wasn’t able to take any photos when I was on holiday in London. (In this
example, it would imply that I did not have the ability. Maybe I did not
a
know how to use my camera)

M
2.
S
The team didn’t manage to score a goal when they played in the cup final.
(This implies that they ran out of time)
LT
The team weren’t able to score a goal when they played in the cup final.
(The team lacked the ability on that occasion)
IE
3.
I arrived home too late and didn’t manage to see my favourite TV
programme. (Time prevented me/it was the obstacle)
I left my glasses in the office and so I wasn’t able to watch my favourite
TV programme. The TV screen was just a blur. (I did not have the ability
due to not being able to see clearly)
Look at one of the requirements to immigrate to Australia
IELTSMatters.com
First of all you have to be able to speak the English language really well.
(This is one of the abilities you must possess) In fact you must have a
score of at least six on all four components of the IELTS examination.
I managed to get through to the switchboard after trying for over an hour
(I was successful in my attempts)
I didn’t manage to get through to the switchboard (I attempted but was
unsuccessful)
EXERCISE NINE
Fill the gaps with “manage to” or “be able to” paying attention to the
tenses.
1. After weeks of nagging, he finally ____________________ convince
his father to buy him a new car.
2. I didn’t ____________________ collect my jacket from the dry
cleaners. I ran but when I got there it had already closed.
3. My brother ____________________ pay off his car in two years by
doing as much overtime as he could possibly get.
4. I’m getting eight of my teeth extracted next week so I won’t
____________________ eat solids until my gums heal up.
5. He hopes that he will ____________________ come with us on holiday.
6. After saving hard for over five years, they finally
____________________ put down a deposit on a house.
7. How do you ____________________ keep your house so clean when
you work from morning until night?
8. They ____________________ find their way back home despite the
heavy fog.
9. She ____________________ send a message to her husband a split
second before the battery on her mobile phone went dead.
10. How do you ___________________ stay so slim when you eat like a
horse?
11. It has been predicted that by 2045 machines ____________________
do all the work that humans do.
12. Do you think we ___________________ find someone to look after
the dog when we go on holiday?
I3. I’m sure that if we work harder to find good solutions to our problems,
we___________________ save the company from bankruptcy.
14. We ___________________ continue with our search for the missing
man if the snow stops.
15. The lawyer is confident that we will be able to win the case.
16. It has been predicted that computers will get more powerful and
m
____________________ perform more and more intelligent tasks.
17. The cooker doesn’t work so until I buy a new one, I
o
____________________ cook. We’ll have to make do with sandwiches.
.c
18. We ____________________ get a drink in the pub because we arrived
at closing time. rs
19. Did you ____________________ get any special offers today at the
e
sales?
tt
20. I’ve no idea how Sally ____________________stay so cheerful after

the series of traumatic events she has had in her life. I really admire her.
a
21. A police raid at the home of suspected drug dealers *paid off as the
M
police ____________________ break down the door just in time before

the criminals disposed of incriminating evidence.
S
*Pay off = have a successful outcome

LT
22. We finally ____________________ organise a school reunion after

thirty years by searching the web for our old school friends.
IE
23. After struggling with video game addiction, my son finally

____________________ break free by *going cold turkey. Nowadays,
thankfully, he ___________________ get up in the morning and do other
things without heading to the pc.
*Go cold turkey = to stop something immediately and not gradually,
usually an addiction, and do not think about it anymore.
24. The dying man ____________________ name his killer as he took his
last breath.
IELTSMatters.com
25. After weeks of negotiations, we finally ____________________ reach
an agreement.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE NINE

1. After weeks of nagging, he finally managed to convince his father to buy him a new car.
2. I didn’t manage to collect my jacket from the dry cleaners. I ran but when I got there it had
already closed.
3. My brother managed to pay off his car in two years by doing as much overtime as he could
possibly get (Despite difficulties).
4. I’m getting eight of my teeth extracted next week so I won’t be able to eat solids until my gums
heal up.
5. He hopes that he will be able to come on holiday with us. (We can also say ‘he hopes he can
come on holiday with us’)
6. After saving hard for over five years, they finally managed to put down a deposit on a house.
(Despite difficulties)
7. How do you manage to keep your house so clean when you work from morning until night?
8. They managed to find their way back home despite the heavy fog.
9. She managed to send a message to her husband a split second before the battery on her mobile
phone went dead.
10. How do you manage to stay so slim when you eat like a horse?
11. It has been predicted that by 2045 machines will be able to do all the work that humans do.
12. Do you think we will be able to find someone to look after the dog when we go on holiday?
I3. I’m sure that if we work harder to find good solutions to our problems, we’ll be able to save the
company from bankruptcy.
14. We’ll be able to continue with our search for the missing man if the snow stops.
15. The lawyer is confident that we will be able to win the case.
16. It has been predicted that computers will get more powerful and be able to perform more and
more intelligent tasks.
17. The cooker doesn’t work so until I buy a new one, I won’t be able to cook. We’ll have to make
do with sandwiches.
18. We didn’t manage to get a drink in the pub because we arrived at closing time.
19. Did you manage to get any special offers today at the sales?
20. I’ve no idea how Sally manages to stay so cheerful after the series of traumatic events she has
had in her life. I really admire her.
21. A police raid at the home of suspected drug dealers *paid off as the police managed to break
down the door just in time before the criminals disposed of incriminating evidence.
*Pay off = have a successful outcome
22. We finally managed to organise a school reunion after thirty years by searching the web for our
old school friends.
23. After struggling with video game addiction, my son finally managed to break free by *going
cold turkey. Nowadays, thankfully, he is able to get up in the morning and do other things without
heading to the pc.
*Go cold turkey = to stop something immediately and not gradually, usually an addiction, and do
not think about it anymore.
24. The dying man managed to utter the name of his killer as he took his last breath.
25. After weeks of negotiations, we finally managed to reach an agreement.
m
Overlapping meanings
Sometimes the meanings of “manage to” and “be able to” overlap when
o
there is a subtle difference in meaning. This depends on aspect, that is,
.c
how speaker sees the situation. This is what makes them tricky for non
native speakers rs
Here are some examples when both can be used
e
My key broke in the lock but I managed to get into the house through the
bedroom window, which fortunately I had left open by accident. (I found a
tt
way)
a
My key broke in the lock but I was able to get into the house through the
M
bedroom window, which fortunately I had left open by accident. (I had the
ability to enter the window)
S
In the above example, “could” cannot be used. Had the example been in
the negative then the use of “could” in its negative form is another option.
LT
Example
IE
I couldn’t get in through the bedroom window.

Another example of overlapping
Both of the following examples are possible depending on aspect and

context.
I didn’t manage to call the plumber today because I was stuck in a meeting
for hours. (I didn’t find a way)
I wasn’t able to call the plumber today because I had no credit left on my
mobile phone. (Inability due to lack of credit)
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We can use “unable” in the negative, in formal written English.
CAN/COULD AND MAY FOR PERMISSION
Can, could and may are used when asking for permission but might is not.
May is the politest; could is second in line and can comes in last.
We only use may in first person singular and third person plural when
asking for permission.
m
Example
May I open the window please?
o
May we open the window please?
.c
May you/he/she/they open the window? rs
However, when giving permission or directives, we can also use may in all persons except for first
person singular for obvious reasons.
e
You may go now.

tt
You may be seated. (This is used in very formal English, such as in

a
church, in a court of law or at a conference).

M
Others uses of the above directive take a shift in meaning to possibility. That is why context is of
extreme importance.
S
Example
LT
You may be seated next to John’s brother at the wedding (there is the
possibility that your seat will be next to John’s brother)
IE
May can also be used to express a fact.

I may be poor but I am happy = Even though I am poor, I am happy.
May is also used to express your best wishes to people.
May you have a happy and prosperous 2017 ( A new year’s wish)
May you have a great birthday. (A birthday wish on a birthday greeting’s
card)
May you live a long and happy life together. (Wedding wishes to the bride
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and groom)
Can and could, unlike may, are used in all persons.
When asking for permission in the future, may and can and could remain
unchanged.
CAN VERSUS ALLOWED TO FOR PERMISSION
Asking for permission to do something
Can I make a telephone call?

Could I make a telephone call?
I can go out in the evening. (I have the permission from my parents – this
is always true, not just on a single occasion)
I am allowed go out in the evening (This is the same as the above example
– I have the permission from my parents)
I can go to the party next Saturday. (Future permission)
Careful!
I could go to the party last Saturday. Can does not become could for past
permission in the affirmative.
However, in the negative, couldn’t, is possible for lack of permission.
I couldn’t go to the party last week. (Ambiguous without context) To make
the meaning clearer it is better to say: “I wasn’t allowed to go to the party
last week,” or “My mother wouldn’t let me go to the party last week.”
However, we understand if the speaker refers to lack of permission if a context is given.
Example
I couldn’t go to the party last week because my mother wouldn’t let me.
(She did not give me the permission to go)
For a single past action use be allowed to
I was allowed to go to the party last Saturday. (My parents gave me their
permission on that occasion)
CAN AND COULD FOR REQUESTS, OFFERS,
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
We use can in less formal situations when making requests and could in
more formal situations. Could is a politer version of can.
Examples
Can you help me move the sofa please? (Making a request)
Could you ask Mr Jones to call me back please? (Making a more formal
request)
m
We can/could meet outside the cinema if you like? (A suggestion –
o
indicating this is a possibility)
.c
Person A: “Tomorrow’s a holiday so what would you like to do?”
Person B: “We could go to the museum tomorrow if you like. I read on
rs
internet that entry is free just for tomorrow.” (A
suggestion/recommendation)
e
Can I help you with that heavy bag? (Offering assistance)

tt
EXERCISE TEN
a
M
What is the meaning of ‘could’ in the following examples?

Which of the following meanings belongs to each example?
S
AP for permission
LT
D for deduction
I for inability
IE
MS for making a suggestion

O for offer
PR for polite requests
1. At the airport: Passenger to assistant: Could I have a window seat
please?
2. “What nationality is Sandra?” “She could be Italian. She’s got that
Mediterranean look.”
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3. Could you please put out your cigarette? You can’t smoke in here. It’s a
no-smoking zone.
4. I couldn’t speak English until I was forty years old. I sorely regret not
learning sooner. But as the saying goes, it’s better late than never.
5. Could I have a look at that newspaper please?
6. She couldn’t come to the party because she was laid up in bed with the
flu. What a pity! She would have loved it.
7. We’re going to the park. You could come too if you’re free.
8. Eating a lot of fatty foods could raise your levels of cholesterol.
9. Could you come this way please? Mr Adams will be with you in a
moment.
10. I could be late in getting home tonight but I’ll let you know for sure
later on this afternoon.
11. Person A: “Could she be John’s sister? What do you think? She looks
awfully like him.”
Person B: “She could be. Who knows?”
12. We could dine out tonight if you like?
13. We could meet at 7p.m.
14. Could we see the menu please?
15. I couldn’t see the road ahead of me because of the thick fog.
16. We could ask dad and see what he says.
17. The dentist could see you tomorrow at 11 a.m. That’s the only
available appointment until next week I’m afraid.
18. I could see mum through the window as she struggled to open the
garden gate.
19. Secretary to boss: “Could I take the day off tomorrow? I need to take
my daughter to the doctor’s.”
20. On the phone to the bank: Good morning. How could I help you?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE TEN
1. At the airport: Passenger to assistant: Could I have a window seat please? PR (Polite request)
2. “What nationality is Sandra?” “She could be Italian. She’s got that Mediterranean look.” D
(Deduction/it’s a possibility)
3. Could you please put out your cigarette? You can’t smoke in here. It’s a no-smoking zone. PR
(Polite request)
4. I couldn’t speak English until I was forty years old. I sorely regret not learning sooner. But as
the saying goes, it’s better late than never. I (Inability)
5. Could I have a look at that newspaper please? AP (Asking for permission)
m
6. She couldn’t come to the party because she was laid up in bed with the flu. What a pity! She
would have loved it. I (Inability)
o
7. We’re going to the park. You could come too if you’re free. P (Possibility)
.c
8. Eating a lot of fatty foods could raise your levels of cholesterol. P (Possibility)
9. Could you come this way please? Mr Adams will be with you in a moment. PR (Polite request)
rs
10. I could be late in getting home tonight but I’ll let you know for sure later on this afternoon. P
e
(Possibility)
tt
11. Person A: “Could she be John’s sister? What do you think? She looks awfully like him.” P
(Possibility)
a
Person B: “She could be. Who knows?” P (Possibility)

M
12. We could dine out tonight if you like? MS (Making a suggestion)
13. We could meet at 7p.m. MS (Making a suggestion)

S
LT
14. Could we see the menu please? PR (Polite request)
15. I couldn’t see the road ahead of me because of the thick fog. I (Inability)
IE
16. We could ask dad and see what he says. MS (Making a suggestion)
17. The dentist could see you tomorrow at 11 a.m. That’s the only available appointment until
next week I’m afraid. P (Possibility)
18. I could see mum through the window as she struggled to open the garden gate. A (Ability in
the past)
19. Secretary to boss: “Could I take the day off tomorrow? I need to take my daughter to the
doctor’s.” AP (Asking for permission)
20. On the phone to the bank: Good morning. How could I help you? O (Offering assistance/help)
Now think about which of the above examples of could sound natural when replaced with can then
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check your answers below.
Answers
1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 17, 19 and 20
12, 13 and 16 (making a suggestion) sound more natural with could
although it is not uncommon to hear the use of can when making
suggestions.
Could is the better choice in 19 and 20 as it is a politer form of can.
MUST/OBLIGATION
In the first section of the book we looked at must when referring to
deduction.
We also use must for strong obligation or prohibition enforced by law.
We can see examples of prohibition on signs and public notices.
Look at the notices below and note the use of must for prohibition, then
look at the other ways to express the same concept.
m
o
.c
rs
e
tt
a
M
S
LT
1.
On the plane
IE
Passengers are reminded that they must switch off all mobile phones during
departure and landing.
You must not switch on your mobile phone during departure and landing.
In less formal language we can also use the following
You cannot switch on your mobile phone when the plane is taking off and
landing. (It is strictly forbidden)
You are not allowed to switch on your mobile phone while the plane is
taking off and landing. (It is not permitted)
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Since we use formal language on signs then there are no contracted forms
2.
Notice at the entrance to a museum
No photographs allowed/it is forbidden to take photographs.
Fill in the gaps with must/must not/allowed or not allowed
1. You _________ take photographs.
2. You ________ to take photographs.
3.
Notice in a restaurant
No alcohol will be served to persons under the age of 18. The management
reserves the right not to serve alcohol to persons under the age of 18.
Fill in the gaps below with either must or must not
1. You _________ serve alcohol to anyone younger than the age of 18.
2. You ________ make sure that no alcohol is served to anyone under the
age of 18.
4.
Notice at the entrance to the football stadium.
It is forbidden to enter the stadium with glass bottles in your possession.
Entry to the stadium will be refused to any persons in possession of glass
bottles.
1. You ________ enter the stadium with glass bottles.
2. You ________ refrain from carrying bottles into the stadium.
ANSWERS
2.
Notice at the entrance to a museum
No photographs allowed/it is forbidden to take photographs.
Fill in the gaps with must/must not/allowed or not allowed
1. You must not take photographs.
2. You are not allowed to take photographs.

3.
Notice in a restaurant
No alcohol will be served to persons under the age of 18. The management reserves the right not to
serve alcohol to persons under the age of 18.

1. You must not serve alcohol to anyone younger than the age of 18.
m
2. You must make sure that no alcohol is served to anyone under the age of 18.
o
4.
Notice at the entrance to the football stadium.
.c
It is forbidden to enter the stadium with glass bottles in your possession. Entry to the stadium will
rs
be refused to any persons in possession of glass bottles.
e
1. You must not enter the stadium with glass bottles.

tt
2. You must refrain from carrying bottles into the stadium.
Examples of must when referring to strong obligation from the speaker to

a
himself/herself or to someone else they have authority over.

M
Examples
S
I must eat something as I haven’t eaten since last night. (A strong

LT
requirement/obligation from the speaker to himself or herself)

I must remember to take the meat out of the freezer before I go to work
otherwise there’ll be nothing to eat tonight. (Again a strong requirement
IE
from the speaker)

External obligation
Have to is used when expressing external obligation. Have to is a semi
modal in that its function is to express obligation although it takes the form
of a normal verb.
How do we use must in the past tense when referring to obligation?
Must, does not have a past tense. When using must to refer to strong
obligation or personal obligation imposed by the speaker, we borrow the
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past tense of have to.
Examples
I had to eat something as I hadn’t eaten since the night before last.
The doctor said I had to eat more or I would destroy my health.
How do we express must in the future when referring to strong obligation?
When using must for obligation we can leave must as it is for the future, or
borrow the future of have to. Have to often lends itself to must due to the
fact that must depends on it for other forms.
Examples
I must put aside some funds to pay for my tax bill that is due in a few
months’ time. (This is compulsory for the speaker)
I will have to put aside some funds to pay for my tax bill that is due in a
few months’ time. (Neutral obligation)
“You will have to start eating more or you will destroy your health,” said
the doctor to Jenny.
I’m going to have to put aside some funds to pay for my tax bill that is due
in a few months’ time.
Must is only used for the near future. It is not used for the distant future
such as in two years or ten years from now.
Remember that have to and must (for obligation), have very subtle
differences in the affirmative so often they are used interchangeably,
unless we are speaking about external rules, then have to is the better
choice.
I have to wear a uniform to work. (External rule beyond my control)
I have to be at work by 9 o’clock. (External rule from my boss)
In the negative have to and must (don’t have to and mustn’t) can never be
used interchangeably.
Example of the negative forms
1. You mustn’t smoke on the plane.
2. I don’t have to smoke on the plane.
1. Strong obligation.
2. This is unnecessary. It means you can smoke on the plane if you want
/there is no problem if you do so. They have opposite meanings in their
negative forms.
Since must does not have a gerund form, we once again “borrow” have to.
m
Having to get up early every day is making me very tired. (When the
o
subject is a verb we the gerund)
.c
We use have to with adverbs of frequency
I always have to remind my son to switch off the lights before leaving the
rs
house.
You often have to wait ages for the number 913 bus.
e
tt
Have got to is a more urgent version of have to but it is mainly used in the
spoken language.
a
Example
M
I’ve got to go or I’ll miss my train. (There is a tone of urgency in the

speaker’s voice)
S
LT
Have got to is used only in the present tense

IE
I had got to go yesterday.

Had to is the past tense of must, have to, and have got to
EXERCISE ELEVEN
Complete the gaps with must /mustn’t/have to/don’t have to/has to/doesn’t
have to/had to/didn’t have to
1. Today’s a public holiday so we ____________ work.
2. There was no need to buy bread today. We still had some left over from
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yesterday. We ____________ buy bread today.
3. This is a no-smoking zone. You ____________ smoke here.
4. It wasn’t necessary for me to cook lunch for Beverly today. She ate at
school. I ____________ cook lunch for her today.
5. “On no account should you cross that busy road,” said the mother to her
young daughter. You ____________ cross that busy road,” said the mother
to her young daughter.
6. My brother ____________ work a lot of overtime to pay his mortgage.
7. It is forbidden to park your car on a double yellow line. You
____________ park your car on a double yellow line.
8. “You ____________ speak with your mouth full,” said mum. “It’s the
height of bad manners.”
9. “Don’t open the door to strangers,” said the father to his son.” You
____________ open the door to strangers,” said the father to his son.
10. Jane ____________ work. She inherited a lot of money when her
grandfather died so she is free to do what she wants all day every day.
11. I ____________ get three buses today to get to Mandy’s house. Next
time I will get the train. It goes directly to Mandy’s area.
12. I’m going to ____________ buy a new washing machine. Since the
last one broke down I’ve ____________ wash everything by hand. It’s
wearing me out.
13. I ____________ call a taxi after all. My brother ended up giving me a
lift to the airport.
14. I ____________ remember to call my mother this evening. I keep
forgetting.
15. He missed his flight and ____________ pay for another one.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE ELEVEN
1. Today’s a public holiday so we don’t have to work. (There is no need

for us to work)
2. There was no need to buy bread today. We still had some left over from
yesterday. We didn’t have to buy bread today. (There was no need)
3. This is a no-smoking zone. You mustn’t smoke here. (Rules and
regulations)
4. It wasn’t necessary for me to cook lunch for my daughter today. She ate
at school. I didn’t have to cook lunch for her today. (There was no
necessity to cook lunch)
5. “On no account should you cross that busy road,” said the mother to
her young daughter. You mustn’t cross that busy road,” said the mother to
her young daughter. (Strong obligation from the speaker/authority from
m
the speaker)
6. My brother has to work a lot of overtime to pay his mortgage. (He is
o
obliged to work)
.c
7. It is forbidden to park your car on a double yellow line. You mustn’t
rs
park your car on a double yellow line. (A rule/the law says so)
8. “You mustn’t speak with your mouth full,” said mum. “It’s the height of
e
bad manners.” (Authority from the speaker/obligation)

tt
9. “Don’t open the door to strangers,” said the father to his son.” You
mustn’t open the door to strangers,” said the father to his son.
a
(Authority/obligation from the speaker)

M
10. Jane doesn’t have to work. She inherited a lot of money when her
grandfather died so she is free to do what she wants all day every day. (It
S
is not necessary for Jane to work)

LT
11. I had to get three buses today to get to Mandy’s house. Next time I will
get the train. It goes directly to Mandy’s area. (External obligation beyond
IE
the speaker’s control)

12. I’m going to have to buy a new washing machine. Since the last one
broke down I’ve had to wash everything by hand. It’s wearing me out.
(Obligation beyond the speaker’s control)
13. I didn’t have to call a taxi after all. My brother ended up giving me a
lift to the airport. (There was no need for me to call a taxi)
14. I must remember to call my mother this evening. I keep forgetting.
(Obligation from the speaker to himself/herself)
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15. He missed his flight and had to pay for another one. (Obligation
beyond the speaker’s control)
SHOULD/OUGHT TO
Should and ought to when giving advice
The most common use of should is to give advice and personal opinions,
that is, when we believe it is or it isn’t a good idea to do something.
Similarly we can use ought to, which carries a little bit more weight –
there is a slight tone of authority with ought to.
Should cannot be contracted
m
Example
She’d study more. (This example reads as the contracted form of would,
o
so if by mistake, you contract should, it becomes would)
.c
She should study more. rs
In the negative, the not particle is contracted.
e
She shouldn’t go out so much.

tt
Examples
a
Whenever you have the opportunity, you should practise your writing and
M
speaking skills if you want to get a good mark in the IELTS exam.
You should take an aspirin if you have such a bad headache. (My
S
advice/opinion – I suggest you take an aspirin)

LT
You should study more. (My personal opinion/my recommendation to you)

You shouldn’t work so hard. You’ll wear yourself out. (This is what I
IE
think – in my opinion it is not a good idea that you work so hard)

What should I wear to the interview? (Asking for advice)
“What should I do?” I’ve failed my driving test again.” “You should re-sit
it.”
When you go to London you should buy a weekly bus pass. It will save
you a lot of money if you are going to be travelling around by bus every
day. (I recommend you do this)
Should I take an umbrella? It looks like it’s going to rain. (I’m asking for
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your opinion/advice)
Jane is lazy. She stays at home all day and does nothing to find a job.
Jane’s mother: “You ought to look for a job. You can’t just sit around the
house all day doing nothing.” (There is a slight tone of authority from
Jane’s mother)
The structure of ought to and should differs. There is a to after ought to.
Ought to + bare infinitive – you ought to look for a job.
Should + bare infinitive – you should look for a job.
The negative of should is shouldn’t (should not) whereas the negative of

ought to (ought not to) is rarely used. It is more common to use shouldn’t
for advice on what not to do. We never use the contracted form of ought
not to.
Oughtn’t to
When asking questions it is more common to use should
Should I take an umbrella?

Ought I to take an umbrella? This form is never used. It is archaic
English which belongs to last century.
Should has several shifts of meaning in English
Expectation
She should be at home. Why don’t you phone her? (I expect her to be at
home)
“Where’s Jenny? I thought she was coming round for lunch?” “She
shouldn’t be long. She said she’d be here by 1.” (It is expected that Jenny
will arrive very soon)
We do not use should in its negative form when making recommendations.
Example
She shouldn’t be at home.
This changes the meaning from recommendation to prohibition or it implies something was done
by mistake.
m
If we ask a question in the negative, the meaning of should shifts to
expectation. It no longer means advice or recommendation.
o
Shouldn’t you be at home? (I expected you to be at home. When we use
.c
the negative interrogative, we use a surprised tone of voice)
rs
Examples of should to imply that something was done by mistake or when
it denotes prohibition
e
You shouldn’t be in the boss’s office. He’ll be very angry when he finds
tt
out. (This is prohibited)

a
You shouldn’t be at work today, said the boss. Today’s a holiday. (This
implies that it was not expected of me to go to work. I made a mistake by
M
going to the office)

S
Should for mild obligation

LT
Example
IE
Homeowners should take out an insurance policy to protect themselves

against fire, flood and break–ins.
In the above sentence, homeowners (people who own a house) are not
obliged to take out an insurance policy. They are not required by law, but
it is a good idea to do so. Mild obligation = you have a duty to do
something - it is a good idea/a wise decision.
Should is also used for likelihood/probability – what we expect to be the

case
IELTSMatters.com
The phone’s ringing. That should be Jill. (It is very likely to be Jill)
Person A: “Have you seen my mobile phone? I can’t find it anywhere.”
Person B: “It should be in the kitchen. That’s where you normally leave
it.” (Person B expects the mobile phone to be in the kitchen/it’s probably
in the kitchen)
We also use should for likelihood/probability in the future

They should be the match tomorrow.
Doctor to patient: You should feel better after taking this medicine.
Should is also used for polite requests and mild obligation

Sometimes must can sound a bit harsh so we use should as a lighter form
of must.
Hotel rules
What guests are required to do
Payment should be settled at the Front Desk upon check-in. (There is a
duty/obligation to settle payment when you check-in).
Guests should provide valid identification upon check-in.
Guests should refrain from playing loud music late at night.
SHOULD VERSUS HAVE TO
EXERCISE TWELVE
Have to or should–obligation versus my opinion, my advice or my

suggestions
Fill the gaps in the following exercise with have to or should.
1. You ____________________ take plenty of sun cream with you when
m
you go to a hot country.
2. You ____________________ have a visa to enter Australia.
o
3. You ____________________ sunbathe either early morning or late
.c
afternoon to avoid the sun’s harmful rays. rs
4. I ____________________ be at work by 9 am.
5. I ____________________ write many letters in my new job.
e
tt
6. You ____________________ cut back on chocolate if you want to lose

weight. You eat too much of it.
a
7. I bought a new house and now I____________________ pay the

M
mortgage for thirty years.

8. “You’ll ____________________ study more if you want to pass your
S
exams”, said the teacher to the student.

LT
9. Mary’s always tired. She ____________________ rest more.

10. You ____________________ get to the airport a couple of hours early
IE
if you want to have time to spend in the duty free shop.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE TWELVE

1. You should take plenty of sun cream with you when you go to a hot country. (My
advice/opinion/this is a wise thing to do but it is not compulsory)
2. You have to have a visa to enter Australia. (External obligation)
3. You should sunbathe either early morning or late afternoon to avoid the sun’s harmful rays. (My
4. I have to be at work by 9 am. (External obligation)
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5. I have to write many letters in my new job. (External obligation)
6. You should cut back on chocolate if you want to lose weight. You eat too much of it. (My
7. I bought a new house and now I have to pay the mortgage for thirty years. (External obligation
imposed by the bank)
8. “You’ll have to study more if you want to pass your exams”, said the teacher to the student.
(External obligation imposed by the teacher)
9. Mary’s always tired. She should rest more. (My advice/opinion/this is a wise thing to do but it is
not compulsory)
10. You should get to the airport a couple of hours early if you want to have time to spend in the
duty free shop. (My advice/opinion/this is a wise thing to do but it is not compulsory)
SHOULDN’T VERSUS DON’T HAVE
TO/DOESN’T HAVE TO
EXERCISE THIRTEEN
Fill the following gaps with don’t have/doesn’t have to or shouldn’t.

Remember that the negative of have to implies ‘no necessity’.
1. You ____________________ smoke so much. It’s bad for your health.
m
2. I ____________________ do the dishes anymore. My husband bought
me a new dishwasher.
o
3. He lives with his parents so he ____________________ pay rent or
.c
bills. That’s why he’s always got plenty of money.
4. You ____________________ hang around with negative people. You
rs
end up absorbing their negativity.
e
5. I ____________________ work since I inherited my grandfather’s

fortune. I can now laze around all day doing nothing.
tt
6. I ____________________ do any housework. My mother does

a
everything. She prefers it that way.

M
7. You ____________________ trust everyone you meet. Some people

are wolves in sheep’s clothing.
S
8. If you tell the truth in life, you ____________________ remember

LT
anything.
9. You ____________________ intentionally do wrong to others. Life is
IE
like a boomerang. Everything comes back ten-fold.

10. He ____________________ be suspended from the club. He’s done
nothing wrong.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE THIRTEEN

1. You shouldn’t smoke so much. It’s bad for your health. (My advice)
2. I don’t have to do the dishes anymore. My husband bought me a new dishwasher. (There is no
need for me to do the dishes anymore)
3. He lives with his parents so he doesn’t have to pay rent or bills. That’s why he’s always got
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plenty of money. (It is not necessary for him to pay rent or bills/he is free from this obligation)
4. You shouldn’t hang around with negative people. You end up absorbing their negativity. (My
opinion/advice)
5. I don’t have to work since I inherited my grandfather’s fortune. I can now laze around all day
doing nothing. (It is not necessary for me to work)
6. I don’t have to do any housework. My mother does everything. She prefers it that way. (There is
no need for me to do the housework/it is not necessary that I do the housework)
7. You shouldn’t trust everyone you meet. Some people turn out to be wolves in sheep’s clothing.
(My advice/opinion)
8. If you tell the truth in life, you don’t have to remember anything. (There is no need to remember
anything)
9. You shouldn’t intentionally do wrong to others. Life is like a boomerang. Everything comes back
ten-fold. (My advice/opinion)
10. He shouldn’t be suspended from the club. He’s done nothing wrong. (My advice/opinion)
EXERCISE FOURTEEN
Look at the following list that Jenny made to remind herself what to take
with her on holiday to the Bahamas.
Now fill in the gaps in the exercise that follows with should/ shouldn’t /has
to/will have to/won’t have to
1. She ____________ take her passport.
2. She ____________ take her flight ticket.
3. She ____________ remember to take suntan lotion.
4. She ____________ take a bikini with her if she wants to sunbathe or go
swimming.
5. She ____________ make sure she takes money with her.
6. She ____________ take some casual clothes such as t-shirts and shorts.
7. I think she ____________ take some smart clothes as well in case she
____________ go out in the evening.
8. Maybe she ____________ take a sun hat to protect herself from the sun.
m
9. She ____________ take sunglasses to protect her eyes from the sun’s
o
glares.
.c
10. She ____________ take sandals.
11. She ____________ take trainers in case she wants to go walking.
rs
12. She ____________ forget to take her camera.
e
13. She ____________ take an umbrella in case it rains.

tt
14. She ____________ take winter boots if she is going in the summer.
a
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE FOURTEEN

M
1. She will have to take her passport. (External future obligation beyond Jane’s control)
S
2. She will have to take her flight ticket. (External obligation)

LT
3. She should remember to take suntan lotion. (My advice/it is not compulsory)
4. She should take a bikini with her if she wants to sunbathe or go swimming. (Advice)
IE
5. She should make sure she takes money with her. (It is advisable to take money but not
compulsory)
6. She should take some casual clothes such as t-shirts and shorts. (Advice)
7. I think she should take some smart clothes as well in case she has to go out in the evening.
(Advice/external obligation, maybe she will be invited to a place where it is compulsory to wear
smart clothes)
8. Maybe she should take a sun hat to protect herself from the sun. (Advice, she is not obliged to
take a sun hat)
9. She should take sunglasses to protect her eyes from the sun’s glares. (My advice)
10. She should take sandals. (Advice)
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11. She should take trainers in case she wants to go walking. (Advice)
12. She shouldn’t forget to take her camera. (Advice/it’s a bad idea not to take the camera)
13. She should take an umbrella in case it rains.

14. She won’t have to take winter boots if she is going in the summer. (There is no necessity to take
boots in the summer-remember, the negative of ‘have to’ implies ‘no necessity)
EXERCISE FIFTEEN
Jane is now back from her holiday in the Bahamas. She forgot to take some of the items she put
on her list.
Use the infinitive verb (in brackets) in its past participle form along with
should have/shouldn’t have. Number one has been done for you as an
example.
1. Jane got sunburnt because she forgot to take suntan lotion. Now we can
give our opinion on what we think was a wise thing to do or not to do
You ____________ suntan lotion Jane then you wouldn’t have got
sunburnt. (Take)
Answer to number one
You should have taken suntan lotion Jane then you wouldn’t have got
sunburnt.
2. She didn’t take enough money with her so she couldn’t buy suntan
lotion in the Bahamas due to the extortionately marked up tourist prices.
You say: It was a very bad idea not to take more money with you. You
____________________ taken more money with you.
3. Her sunglasses were of poor quality so the sun had a bad effect on her
eyes. She is now suffering from terrible headaches.
You say: You ____________ better quality sunglasses before you left for
the Bahamas. (Buy)
4. It rained very heavily for two days in the Bahamas. Jane didn’t take an
umbrella.
You say to Jane: You ____________ an umbrella then you wouldn’t have
*got soaked. (Take)
*Get soaked = to become very wet.
5. Jane took her winter boots with her but really there was no need. It was
too hot to wear them the whole time she was there.
You say: You ____________ your winter boots. (Take)
6. Jane sunbathed at lunch time when the sun was too hot. She’s now
suffering from sunstroke.
You say: You ____________ at lunch time. (Sunbathe)
7. Jane almost missed her flight back home because she called a taxi too
m
late. It was a race against time for the taxi driver to get her to the airport.
o
You say: You ____________ the taxi sooner. (Call)
.c
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE FIFTEEN
rs
2. She didn’t take enough money with her so she couldn’t buy suntan lotion in the Bahamas due to
the extortionately marked up tourist prices.
e
You say: It was a very bad idea not to take more money with you. You should have taken more
money with you. (My opinion/advice of what was a good idea to do in past)
tt
3. Her sunglasses were of poor quality so the sun had a bad effect on her eyes. She is now suffering
from terrible headaches.
a
You say: You should have bought better quality sunglasses before you left for the Bahamas.
M
4. It rained very heavily for two days in the Bahamas. Jane didn’t take an umbrella.
S
You say to Jane: You should have taken an umbrella then you wouldn’t have *got soaked.
*Get soaked = to become very wet.
LT
5. Jane took her winter boots with her but really there was no need. It was too hot to wear them the
whole time she was there.
IE
You say: You should have taken your winter boots.
6. Jane sunbathed at lunch time when the sun was too hot. She’s now suffering from sunstroke.
You say: You shouldn’t have sunbathed at lunch time.
7. Jane almost missed her flight back home because she called a taxi too late. It was a race against
time for the taxi driver to get her to the airport.
You say: You should have called the taxi sooner.
EXERCISE SIXTEEN
Present and past
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Fill the gaps below with should/shouldn’t + bare infinitive or
should/shouldn’t have + past particle. Use between one and four other
words in your answers.
1. It is not a good idea to argue with people. It just leaves you stressed and
drained of all energy.
You ______________________________ people.
2. I don’t think it was very nice of you to tell Jenny she was fat.
You ______________________________ Jenny she was fat.
3. I had terrible toothache all day yesterday.
You ______________________________ to the dental hospital.
4. He always speaks to me badly.
You ______________________________ just ignore him. He’s not a very
pleasant person.
5. John was fired for stealing the money.
It serves him right. He ______________________________ the money.
6. We didn’t listen to our parents when they told us the dangers of hitch-
hiking. We were nearly killed by the madman who gave us a lift.
We were stupid. We ______________________________ them.
7. I don’t know why you continue working in that factory when you are
overworked and underpaid.
You ______________________________ for another job.
8. Dad is not talking to me after I “borrowed” his car. I thought he would
never find out.
You ______________________________ without his permission.
9. Mark doesn’t know I don’t want to see him again.
You ______________________________ tell him.
10. The doctor advised Bill to give up smoking.
“You ______________________________,”said the doctor to Bill.
11. It was rather careless of you to forget to shut the window before going
out.
You ______________________________ to shut the window.
12. I was stranded on the motorway last night after my car broke down.
Why didn’t you call me?
You ______________________________ me.
13. it’s not safe to wander about the streets late at night.
You ______________________________ about the streets late at night.
m
14. I saw a burglar breaking into the house next door.
o
You ______________________________ the police.
.c
15. I can’t speak English but I would like to.
rs
You ______________________________ in a language course.
e
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE SIXTEEN

tt
1. It is not a good idea to argue with people. It just leaves you stressed and
drained of all energy. You shouldn’t argue with people.
a
2. I don’t think it was very nice of you to tell Jenny she was fat. You
M
shouldn’t have told Jenny she was fat.

S
3. I had terrible toothache all day yesterday. You should have gone to the
dental hospital.
LT
4. He always speaks to me badly. You should just ignore him. He’s not a
very pleasant person.
IE
5. John was fired for stealing the money. It serves him right. He shouldn’t
have stolen the money.
6. We didn’t listen to our parents when they told us the dangers of hitch-
hiking. We were nearly killed by the madman who gave us a lift. We were
stupid. We should have listened to them.
7. I don’t know why you continue working in that factory when you are
overworked and underpaid. You should look for another job.
8. Dad is not talking to me after I “borrowed” his car. I thought he would
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never find out. You shouldn’t have taken it without his permission.
9. Mark doesn’t know I don’t want to see him again. You should tell him.
10. The doctor advised Bill to give up smoking. “You should give up
smoking ,” said the doctor to Bill.
11. It was rather careless of you to forget to shut the window before going
out. You should have remembered/shouldn’t have forgotten to shut the
window.
12. I was stranded on the motorway last night after my car broke down.
Why didn’t you call me? You should have called me.
13. it’s not safe to wander about the streets late at night. You shouldn’t
wander about the streets late at night.
14. I saw a burglar breaking into the house next door. You should have
called the police.
15. I can’t speak English but I would like to. You should enrol in a
language course.
SHOULD VERSUS MUST VERSUS HAVE TO
Remember that must as well as expressing strong obligation imposed by
the law, is also used as a reminder from the speaker to him/herself that it is
necessary to do something – obligation the speaker self-imposes. Have to
is a semi modal therefore it can combine with other verbs. Remember have
to is used for external obligation, general obligation and strong
requirement.
Example number one – strong obligation imposed by the law
m
Road sign on the motorway
o
Drivers must slow down at the junction.
.c
Example number two – a reminder from the speaker to him/herself to do
rs
something
e
I must remember to buy some milk on the way home from work tonight.
(A reminder from the speaker to him/herself)
tt
I must wash my hair when I get home. (Obligation/reminder from the

a
speaker to him/herself)
M
Have to expresses obligation/requirements/rules and regulations imposed

by external factors
S
Example
LT
I have to clock in every morning at 9 am (Company rules and

regulations/the company I work for requires that I do this)
IE
We have to do a lot of homework every day. (Rules and regulation set by

the teacher/we are required to do our homework every day)
Should is a gentler form of obligation when compared with must and have
to.
In the hotel
Guests should vacate their rooms by 10 am on the day of departure. (This
is a requirement/an obligation set by the hotel)
We can also use must but sometimes it sounds too harsh especially when
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used with customers or clients who pay you for a service.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE SEVENTEEN
Fill the gaps in the following exercise with must, should, have to or had to
The use of should in this exercise is for polite obligation and not for
advice.
1. I think we ____________________ leave early tomorrow in case there
is a lot of traffic.
2. My boss says I ____________________ do overtime for the next month
or so.
3. I ____________________ remember to take in the washing before I go
out as it looks like it’s going to rain.
4. Hurry up! We ___________________ be at the airport an hour before
check-in.
5. When I was at school we ____________________ study Latin as we
were told it was the best preparation for learning any language.
6. Before the internet came into being we ____________________ go to
the local library and do our research from real books.
7. Before mobile phones were invented, we ____________________ meet
people in real life to organise things. It was too expensive to talk at length
on the home phone. There were no all-inclusive package deals then.
8. Managers ____________________ review customer complaints and
their outcomes.
9. The vet says I ____________________ give the tablets to the dog twice
a day for a week.
10. Office manager speaking to his team: Everyone within the team
____________________ actively participate during meetings.
11. Being part of the rugby team is a big commitment. If you have a job, it
____________________ not interfere with practices or meetings.
12. We’ll ____________________ *come up with the money before the
end of the month or the bank will repossess our house.
*Come up with = to find a way
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS EXERCISE SIXTEEN

1. I think we should leave early tomorrow in case there is a lot of traffic.
2. My boss says I have to do overtime for the next month or so.
3. I must remember to take in the washing before I go out as it looks like it’s going to rain.
4. Hurry up! We have to be at the airport an hour before check-in.
5. When I was at school we had to study Latin as we were told it was the best preparation for
learning any language.
m
6. Before the internet came into being we had to go to the local library and do our research from
real books.
o
7. Before mobile phones were invented, we had to meet people in real life to organise things. It was
too expensive to talk at length on the home phone. There were no all-inclusive package deals then.
.c
8. Managers should review customer complaints and their outcomes. (Company advice)
rs
9. The vet says I have to give the tablets to the dog twice a day for a week. (External obligation)
10. Office manager speaking to his team: Everyone within the team should actively participate
e
during meetings. (This is an example where must/have to can be too harsh.)

tt
11. Being part of the rugby team is a big commitment. If you have a job, it should not interfere with
practices or meetings. (This is softer than must/have to)
a
12. We’ll have to *come up with the money before the end of the month or the bank will repossess
M
our house.
Must + have to
S
We can also use must + have to when we make logical interpretations.

LT
Example
IE
Johnny must have to work really hard to pay the huge mortgage he took
out to buy that large country house.
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SHOULD AND OUGHT TO FOR PAST
ADVICE/RECOMMENDATIONS
We use the perfect form to express past advice/recommendations, that is,
auxiliary verb have + the past participle of the verb.
Let’s compare present advice with advice in the past
1.
Paul is ill now.
You say: You should see the doctor. (Why don’t you see the doctor?)
2.
Paul was ill yesterday.
You say: You should have seen the doctor. (Why didn’t you see the
doctor?)
Did Paul see the doctor yesterday?
No he didn’t.
Was it a good idea for Paul to see the doctor yesterday?
Yes it was.
1.
Janet never studies. She spends all her time out with friends.
You say: You should study more if you want to get good marks in your
exams.
Janet’s mother says: You ought to study more. (A tone of authority)
2.
Janet didn’t study and she failed all her exams.
You say: You should have studied. You shouldn’t have spent all your time
out with friends.
Jane’s mother says: You ought to have studied more.
1.
It’s raining outside. You should take an umbrella.
2.
You didn’t listen to my advice. You went out without taking your
umbrella. You should have taken an umbrella.
Should for what we expect to be the case or when there is a mild obligation
m
or duty to do something
o
1.
.c
Jane is not at home. (This is strange. We expect Jane to be at home).
Jane should be at home.
rs
2.
e
Jane was not at home this morning when I called round to see her. (How
tt
strange! She’s always at home at that time).

a
She should have been at home at that time. (I expected her to be at home.
This example overlaps in meaning with mild obligation)
M
S
Should present and past to imply that something was done by mistake or to
denote prohibition
LT
Examples
IE
1.
You shouldn’t be in the boss’s office. He’ll be very angry when he finds
out. (This is prohibited/it’s wrong that you are in the boss’s office)
You shouldn’t be at work today, said the boss. Today’s a holiday. (This
implies that it was not expected of me to go to work. I made a mistake by
going to the office)
2.
You shouldn’t have been in the boss’s office yesterday.
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You shouldn’t have been at work yesterday.
MODALS TEST
EXERCISE SEVENTEEN
Test your knowledge on modal verbs with reference to the past
Fill the gaps with one of the following modals and the appropriate verb
form of the verbs in brackets. Sometimes you will need the negative.
WOULD/MUST/SHOULD/MIGHT
m
1. It’s possible that Paul was very happy yesterday because he won £800
on a £1 scratch card at the weekend. Paul ____________________ very
happy because he won £800 on a £1 scratch card at the weekend. (Be)
o
2. Frances missed the flight to Amsterdam because she woke up too late.
.c
You say: It was such a silly idea to go to the party last night when you
rs
knew fine well that you were to be up by 5a.m this morning to catch your
flight to Amsterdam. You ___________________ to the party. (Go)
e
3. I’m so glad you told me about the bus strike today. My neighbour gave
tt
me a lift to work in his car. I ____________________ if you hadn’t told

me and I _____________________ late for work. (Know/be)
a
4. The weather was fantastic on Sunday. It’s a pity we didn’t take

M
advantage of it. Why didn’t we go on a picnic? We

____________________ on a picnic. (Go)
S
5. I think Joan got married last year but I can’t say for sure. Joan
LT
____________________ married last year. (Get)

6. I’m so grateful you helped me. Without your help I
IE
____________________. (Succeed)
7. “Where’s Linda?” “I’m not sure but she ____________________
home.” (Be)
8. John was supposed to be here at 1p.m and it’s almost 2 o’ clock. He
_____________________ here at 1p.m. (Be)
9. The police suspect that our next door neighbour was involved in the
bank robbery. Our next door neighbour ____________________ in the
bank robbery. (Involve)
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10. I truly regret marrying Jim. He’s a violent man. Why didn’t I listen to
my mother? She always said he was a bad apple. I
____________________ to my mother. (Listen)
11. We left the house too late and ended up missing the train. We
____________________ the house earlier. (Leave)
12. It was a very bad idea to leave your job before finding another one.
You __________________________ your job. (Leave)
13. “How many people went on the expedition?” “Seven. Oh hang on a
second. It ____________________ eight or even nine.” (Be)
14. You lent Michael a lot of money. He didn’t pay you back. It was a bad
idea for you to lend him the money. You ____________________ Michael
the money. (Lend)
15. I’ve no idea why you switched on the central heating. It’s roasting
outside. It’s about 30 degrees. You ____________________ the central
heating. (Switch on)

1. It’s possible that Paul was very happy yesterday because he won £800 on a £1 scratch card at
the weekend. Paul might have been very happy because he won £800 on a £1 scratch card at the
weekend.
2. Frances missed the flight to Amsterdam because she woke up too late. It was such a silly idea to
go to the party last night when you knew fine well that you were to be up by 5a.m this morning to
catch your flight to Amsterdam. You shouldn’t have gone to the party.
3. I’m so glad you told me about the bus strike today. My neighbour gave me a lift to work in his
car. I wouldn’t have known if you hadn’t told me and I wouldn’t have been late for work.
4. The weather was fantastic on Sunday. It’s a pity we didn’t take advantage of it. Why didn’t we go
on a picnic? We should have gone on a picnic.
5. I think Joan got married last year but I can’t say for sure. Joan might have got married last year.
6. I’m so grateful you helped me. Without your help I wouldn’t have succeeded. (We use would in
this example as the past tense of will. It expresses, 100 % certainty)
7. “Where’s Linda?” “I’m not sure but she might have gone home.”
8. John was supposed to be here at 1p.m and it’s almost 2 o’ clock. He should have been here at
1p.m.
9. The police suspect that our next door neighbour was involved in the bank robbery. Our next door
neighbour might have been involved in the bank robbery.
10. I truly regret marrying Jim. He’s a violent man. Why didn’t I listen to my mother? She always
said he was a bad apple. I should have listened to my mother.
11. We left the house too late and ended up missing the train. We should have left the house earlier.
12. It was a very bad idea to leave your job before finding another one. You shouldn’t have left your
job.
13. “How many people went on the expedition?” “Seven. Oh hang on a second. It might have been
eight or even nine.”
14. You lent Michael a lot of money. He didn’t pay you back. It was a bad idea for you to lend him
the money. You shouldn’t have lent Michael the money.
15. I’ve no idea why you switched on the central heating. It’s roasting outside. It’s about 30
degrees. You shouldn’t have switched on the central heating.
m
o
In the above exercises, we can replace might with may or could without
.c
any change to the meaning.
rs
e
tt
a
M
S
LT
IE
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SHOULD + PROGRESSIVE FORMS
In this chapter we will look at how to use should in the continuous form.
We use should + be + gerund to express actions expected to be in progress
at the moment of speaking or in this period, or in the future - when used
with a future time expression. This is the present continuous form of
should.
As well as for advice, personal opinions and recommendations, we also
use should to express duty and/or expectation. Sometimes expectation and
duty overlap in meaning according to context. Duty implies obligation
although when we use should the obligation is mild, that is, not strong.
Example
Sally’s at home. She should be at work. (It is her duty to be at work but
instead she is at home/it is expected that she is at work)
Sally’s talking on the phone to a friend. She should be working.
(Duty/expectation)
It is expected, and in this case obligatory, that Sally is working now but
instead she is not. She is talking on the phone to a friend.
Examples
Present continuous
Fred is playing computer games (in progress now).
Should + be + gerund
He shouldn’t be playing computer games. He should be studying for his
English exam. (The studying for the English exam is expected of him now.
It is his duty to study now if he wants to pass the exam). He is doing one
thing when it is his duty to do another.
Present continuous
We’re planning to expand our business. (In this period)
Should + be + gerund
You should be trying to find bigger premises if that’s the case. (In this
period should for advice)
Meaning check questions
Are we trying to find bigger premises?
No we aren’t.
Is it advisable that we find bigger premises?
m
Yes it is if you want to expand.
I should be going to London tomorrow but I can’t go. I’ve come down
o
with a bad dose of the flu.
.c
Meaning check questions rs
Is it expected that I go to London tomorrow?
Yes it is.
e
tt
Am I going to London tomorrow?

No I’m not.
a
M
Another example
S
The situation
LT
Susan’s going to a party tomorrow night. She has a three year old son who
is sick.
IE
You say to Susan: You shouldn’t be going to a party when your three year
old son is sick.
Meaning check questions
Is Susan going to a party tomorrow night?
Yes she is.
Is it her duty not to go and instead stay at home with her sick child?
Yes it is.
IELTSMatters.com
(The above example has an overlap between my personal opinion and
Susan’s duty as a mother to stay at home with her sick child)
SHOULD + PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
STRUCTURE
We use should + have + been + gerund to express expectation, duty or
advice from the speaker for something expected to be in progress before
the moment of speaking. In the negative it implies either it was wrong to
be doing something or it was not expected. It all depends on the context.
Fill the gaps in the following exercise with should have been + gerund or
shouldn’t have been + gerund.
m
Remember that with the progressive tenses, we can only use action verbs.
State verbs seldom take the progressive form.
o
EXERCISE EIGHTEEN
.c
Now do the following exercise. Fill in the gaps with either the negative or
rs
the affirmative using the verbs in brackets. Look at the example before you
begin.
e
Example
tt
The teacher wasn’t very happy with me today because I was talking in
a
class.
M
You shouldn’t have been talking in class. (My personal opinion to you/I
believe it was wrong that you were talking in class)
S
1. Johnny was sleeping yesterday instead of working.

LT
He ____________ (work) yesterday. He ____________ (sleep).

IE
2. Mr Rogers was stopped by the road police yesterday because he was

talking on his mobile phone whilst driving.
He ____________ (talk) on his mobile. He ____________ (concentrate)
on the road ahead of him.
3. Michael was given a warning from his boss because he was uploading
photos to face book during working hours.
Michael ____________ (upload) photos to Facebook. He ____________
(work).
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4. The teacher was very annoyed today with young Fred. He was playing
games on his mobile phone when he ____________________ (listen) to
the Geography lesson. It’s no wonder he fails all his exams.
5. James spent over three hours dancing at the disco last night. Now he’s
in agony. He had a plaster cast removed from his foot three days ago after
he fractured his leg whilst playing rugby. His mother says: “You
____________________ (dance) in the first place when you knew fine
well that the doctor told you to be extremely careful for the next couple of
months.”
6. Mrs Smith refuses to talk to her neighbour Mrs Jones. Mrs Smith was
told by another neighbour that Mrs Jones was gossiping about her
yesterday. Mrs Jones is now really upset.
You say to Mrs Jones: It’s your own fault she isn’t taking to you. You
____________________ (gossip) about her in the first place.
7. The recruiter told me to meet her at reception at 3p.m. When I arrived
she wasn’t there. She ____________________ (wait) at reception.
8. The boy was badly injured because he wasn’t wearing a helmet when
he crashed his bike into a tree. He ____________________ (wear) a
helmet.
9. Young Tom was climbing trees with his friends yesterday when he fell
from one of the trees and did himself an injury. His mother says to him:
You ___________________ trees when you know how dangerous it is.
(Climb)
10. The boys nearly drowned because they were swimming in the sea
during high tide. They were almost swept away by a huge tidal wave.
Luckily the lifeguard spotted them and was able to rescue them just in
time. They ____________________ when there were high tides. (Swim)

1. Johnny was sleeping yesterday instead of working.
He should have been working yesterday. He shouldn’t have been sleeping.

2. Mr Rogers was stopped by the road police yesterday because he was talking on his mobile phone
whilst driving.
He shouldn’t have been talking on his mobile. He should have been concentrating on the road
ahead of him.
3. Michael was given a warning from his boss because he was uploading photos to face book
during working hours.
Michael shouldn’t have been uploading photos to Facebook. He should have been working.
4. The teacher was very annoyed today with young Fred. He was playing games on his mobile
phone when he should have been listening to the Geography lesson. It’s no wonder he fails all his
exams.
5. James spent over three hours dancing at the disco last night. Now he’s in agony. He had a
plaster cast removed from his foot three days ago after he fractured his leg whilst playing rugby.
His mother says: “You shouldn’t have been dancing in the first place when you knew fine well that
the doctor told you to be extremely careful for the next couple of months.”
6. Mrs Smith refuses to talk to her neighbour Mrs Jones. Mrs Smith was told by another neighbour
m
that Mrs Jones was gossiping about her yesterday. Mrs Jones is now really upset. You say to Mrs
Jones: It’s your own fault she isn’t taking to you. You shouldn’t have been gossiping about her in
the first place.
o
7. The recruiter told me to meet her at reception at 3p.m. When I arrived she wasn’t there. She
.c
should have been waiting at reception.
8. The boy was badly injured because he wasn’t wearing a helmet when he crashed his bike into a
rs
tree. He should have been wearing a helmet.
9. Young Tom was climbing trees with his friends yesterday when he fell from one of the tree and
e
did himself an injury. His mother says to him: You shouldn’t have been climbing trees when you
know how dangerous it is.
tt
10. The boys nearly drowned because they were swimming in the sea during high tide. They were
almost swept away by a huge tidal wave. Luckily the lifeguard spotted them and was able to rescue
a
them just in time. They shouldn’t have been swimming when there were high tides.
M
S
LT
IE
IELTSMatters.com
THE SHOULD PROGRESS TEST
EXERCISE EIGHTEEN
Match a line in A with a line in B

A
1. I’ve got terrible toothache.
2. What are you doing in the office today?
3. I really should phone Johnny.
4. I missed the bus this morning.
5. I should have been singing in the school concert yesterday ....
6. You are requested to give three weeks’ notice....
7. Shouldn’t you be at school today?
8. You should be studying.
9. I shouldn’t worry about it.
10. He shouldn’t have stolen the money.
11. You shouldn’t be playing football.
12. You shouldn’t have any problems in getting the job.
13. You shouldn’t be driving ....
14. He shouldn’t have won.
15. He should have been here at 8pm.
16. You shouldn’t have told him.
17. Where’s dad?
18. Shouldn’t you be in at work?
B
A. I haven’t heard from him in ages.
B. You have got all the necessary skills.
C. without a license.
D. with a sprained ankle
E. You should have left the house earlier.
F. Switch off that TV.
G. Should you decide to terminate your employment with the company.
H. Yes but I don’t feel very well.
m
I. The situation will resolve itself.
o
J. Now he cannot be trusted.
.c
K. You shouldn’t be working. Today’s a holiday.
L. I wonder where he can be.
rs
M. You should make a dental appointment.
e
N. We all know that he cheated.

tt
O. But I lost my voice.

a
P. Now he will never speak to me again.

M
Q. He should be working in the garage at the moment.

S
R. No. It’s my day off today.

LT
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE EIGHTEEN

1. (M) “I’ve got terrible toothache.” “You should make a dental appointment.” (My advice to you)
IE
2. (K) What are you doing in the office today? You shouldn’t be working. Today’s a holiday. (In
this moment it is not expected of you to be working)
3. (A) I really should phone Johnny. I haven’t heard from him in ages. (I feel I have a duty to
phone him/my advice to myself)
4. (E) “I missed the bus this morning.” “You should have left the house earlier.” (You didn’t leave
the house earlier so in my opinion it was a good idea for you to leave earlier so as not to miss the
bus)
5. (O) I should have been singing in the school concert yesterday, but I lost my voice. (It was
expected that I was singing in the school concert yesterday but I didn’t)
6. (G) You are requested to give three weeks’ notice should you decide to terminate your
IELTSMatters.com
employment with the company. (See below)
In the above example, should is used in place of if in a conditional sentence. It is a politer and more
formal version of if.
Compare: You are requested to give three weeks’ notice if you decide to terminate your
employment with the company.
7. (H) “Shouldn’t you be at school today?” “Yes but I don’t feel well.” (Isn’t it your duty to be at
school today? Aren’t you expected to be at school today?)
8. (F) You should be studying. Switch off that TV. (It is your duty to be studying in this moment.
Instead you are watching the TV)
9. (I) I shouldn’t worry about it. The situation will resolve itself. (similar to would in the
conditional – if I were you I shouldn’t/wouldn’t worry about it)
10. (J) He shouldn’t have stolen the money. Now he cannot be trusted. (It was a bad idea for him to
steal the money and now as a consequence he cannot be trusted)
11. (D) You shouldn’t be playing football with a sprained ankle. (It is not a good idea for you to be
playing football in this moment because of your sprained ankle)
12. (B) You shouldn’t have any problems in getting the job. You have got all the necessary skills.
(In my opinion there will be no problems for you to be hired for the job)
13. (C) You shouldn’t be driving without a license. (It is a bad idea for you to be driving in this
moment if you do not have a license/you are obliged not to drive)
14. (N) He shouldn’t have won. We all know that he cheated. (He wasn’t expected to win. He only
won because he cheated)
15. (L) He should have been here at 8pm. I wonder where he can be. (We expected him to be here
at 8 pm and he hasn’t arrived yet).
16. (P) You shouldn’t have told him. Now he will never speak to me again. (In my opinion it was a
bad idea to tell him)
17. (Q) “Where’s dad?” “He should be working in the garage at the moment.” (The person
replying expects that dad is working in the garage in this moment).
18. (R). “Shouldn’t you be at work?” “No. It’s my day off today.” (It is expected that the person is
at work today)
SHOULD VERSUS BE SUPPOSED TO VERSUS
BE MEANT TO
Should + bare infinitive, be supposed to + bare infinitive and be meant to +
bare infinitive
To be supposed to lends itself to should when different forms are required.
There are many parallelisms and subtle shifts in meaning which tend to all
overlap when expressing surprise, expectation, requirement or mild
obligation.
m
When expectation overlaps with mild obligation
o
.c
Situation one – present tense
Jack: “Dad’s at home.”
rs
Jill: “Is he? Isn’t he supposed to be at work?”
e
“Isn’t he meant to be at work?”

tt
“Shouldn’t he be at work?”
a
M
Present tense – expectation

(Is this to be expected?)
S
Is a dog’s nose supposed to be wet?

LT
Is a dog’s nose meant to be wet?

IE
Should a dog’s nose be wet?
Present tense – overlapping with external requirement/weak obligation/

firm expectations
I’m supposed to be at the dentist’s right now but I’m too afraid to go.
I’m meant to be at the dentist’s right now but I’m too afraid to go.
I should be at the dentist’s right now but I’m too afraid to go.
IELTSMatters.com
The negative = it is not recommended/it is not advisable to do something
You aren’t supposed to swim after eating.
You aren’t meant to swim after eating.
You shouldn’t swim after eating. (It is advisable not to do this)
The negative of be supposed to and be meant to also take a shift in
meaning when they take on a similar meaning to ‘not be allowed to’, lack
of permission or prohibition. However, should does not take this meaning.
Example of prohibition
You aren’t supposed to drive without wearing a seatbelt.
You aren’t meant to drive without wearing a seatbelt.
The meaning in the following example reverts back to
recommendation/advice/it is unwise to do this.
You shouldn’t drive without wearing a seatbelt.
Present tense – negative indicating advisability

You aren’t supposed to brush your teeth with a wet toothbrush. (It is
advisable not to do this)
You aren’t meant to brush your teeth with a wet toothbrush. (It is
advisable not to do this)
You shouldn’t brush your teeth with a wet toothbrush. It is advisable to
apply toothpaste onto a dry toothbrush. (It is advisable not to do this)
Be supposed to also implies doubts about something.

She is supposed to be meeting me this afternoon. (There is a slight tone of
doubt in the speaker’s voice) It is expected of her to meet me.
The new office is supposed to be opening in June. (Again, there is a slight
tone of doubt in the speaker’s voice. It is expected that the new office will
open in June but it is not 100 per cent certain)
WHEN ‘SHOULD’ NO LONGER OVERLAPS WITH ‘BE SUPPOSED
TO’ AND ‘BE MEANT TO’
We do not use should in its past tense when referring to something that was pre-arranged
We were supposed to go to the beach today but the car broke down so we
didn’t go. (This was our plan/intention but due to circumstances beyond
our control we did not go)
We were meant to go to the beach today but the car broke down so we
didn’t go. (This was our intention/plan)
We should have gone to the beach this morning but the car broke down.
m
This sounds awkward.
o
We should have gone cycling but the weather was bad. Awkward
sounding as the meaning reverts back to past advice therefore the clause
.c
‘but the weather was bad’ cannot be used.
rs
More examples
e
My boyfriend was supposed to be meeting me at 11.

tt
My boyfriend was meant to be meeting me at 11.

a
My boyfriend should have been meeting me at 11.

M
I’m supposed to be going to the cinema on Friday.

I’m meant to be going to the cinema on Friday.
S
LT
I should be going to the cinema on Friday.

Other ways to express an arrangement that did not take place
IE
Was/were going to + bare infinitive
We were going to go to the beach this morning but the car broke down. (It
was our intention to go to the beach but we didn’t go because the car broke
down)
The past progressive form

We can also use ‘should’, ‘be supposed to’ and ‘meant to’ with a gerund to
indicate the continuous tense meaning a requirement or expectation in
progress at the moment of speaking.
IELTSMatters.com
Mary went to her mother’s house to help her clean out the cupboard. She’s
sitting on the armchair doing nothing.
Mary’s mother: You’re supposed to be helping me. (Expectation
overlapping with mild obligation) You’re meant to be helping me. (Mild
obligation) You should be helping me. (Mild obligation/expectation)
We can also use them in the past tense
She should have been working this morning.

She was supposed to be working this morning.
She was meant to be working this morning.
All three mean it was expected of her but she wasn’t working this morning.
Be meant to/be supposed to for an intended purpose
Father to son: Is that a paper plane you’ve made?

Son to father: No it isn’t. Does it look like one?
Father to son: Yes it does.
Son to father: It’s meant to be/it’s supposed to be a boat.
Be supposed to and be meant to are also used when reporting a claim made by a third person but
should is not
Garlic is supposed to be good for the circulation of the blood. (This has
been said to be the case)
Garlic is meant to be good for the circulation of the blood.
Garlic should be good for the circulation of the blood.
HAD BETTER VERSUS SHOULD AND OUGHT TO
We can use had better + bare infinitive (the infinitive without the to) in
place of should and ought to. Had better, however, expresses more
urgency and at times a threat).
Although, had better, has a past tense construction, it does not refer to the
past. We use it for the present or the future. We usually always contract
had better but in formal writing we don’t.
Examples
We should go now or we’ll miss the last train home.
We ought to go now or we’ll miss the last train home. (There’s a more
urgent tone than what there is with should)
We’d better go now or we’ll miss the last train home. (More urgency than
ought to)
You’d better tell the truth said the police officer to Johnny when he was
being questioned at the police station. (A threatening tone)
SHALL VERSUS WILL
m
Shall and will are both used to make a suggestion or an offer. Shall is only
o
used in first and second person singular.
.c
Example
Offer
rs
Person A: “It’s very hot in here.”
e
Person B: “Shall I open the window? /Will I open the window?”

tt
Suggestion
a
It’s getting late. Shall/will we go now?

M
Shall is also used in formal English as an alternative to must when writing

contracts or similar documents. It is used as a polite form of obligation
S
when must can sound too authorative.

LT
IE
IELTSMatters.com
WILL AND WOULD
As well as for future facts, promises, offers, spontaneous decisions etc.,
will is used to indicate repetitive behaviour. It is a good idea to become
familiar with this other use of will as it is frequently used in the English
language.
We use will to indicate typical behaviour in present facts
We use would when expressing typical behaviour in the past.
Examples
She will leave the door open every time she goes out. (It is typical of her –
this behaviour is repetitive so it doesn’t surprise me)
Person A: John drank all the milk and left none for us.
Person B: Oh he will (drink all the milk). (There is no need to repeat the
phrase drink all the milk as we already know by what person A just said).
Person B is familiar with this typical behaviour of John so when he says
“he will,”- what he means is that the fact does not surprise him in the least
as it is part of John’s nature to do so).
When we use will for typical behaviour, it is always stressed.
We do not use will when something happens on one occasion only.

She left the door open when she went out. (Only that time)
We use would for characteristic behaviour in the past.
I remember when I was young dad would always buy us a chocolate bar on
Friday evenings. (This was characteristic of dad every Friday evening/the
fact that he bought us chocolate on Friday evenings was recurrent)
When we were young my grandfather would take us to the beach every
Sunday. (Recurrently/typical behaviour)
We do not use would when something happened on one occasion only in
the past.
We use would to express the future in the past
Example
When she arrived in Rome, she wasn’t to know that she would live there
for another thirty years. (The future in the past)
Will and would are also used for polite requests. They are similar in
meaning to may, can and could for expressing polite requests.
Can
Can you look after my plants when I go on holiday?
Could
m
Could you look after my two cats for the weekend?
o
Will
.c
Will you help me cook tonight? rs
Would
Would you keep your eye on my bag while I go to the ladies’ room please?
e
tt
Would you help me with this heavy bag? (A polite request)

Would you be so kind as to help me with this heavy bag? (An extremely
a
polite request)
M
Would is also used to express desires but its main use is to express
hypothetical situations
S
He’d like to buy a new car. (A desire)

LT
She’d like to be rich. (A desire)

IE
Would is used in unreal situations.

The second conditional
If I had the money I would buy a car. (Would expresses 100% certainty (in
unreal situations) if I had the money)
(I don’t have the money so I can’t buy a car).
We can also use could or might
If I had the money I could buy a car. (Could expresses possibility, an
option if I had the money)
IELTSMatters.com
If I had the money I might buy a car. (Might expresses a 50/50 possibility)
Third conditional
Let’s compare would with could and should when they denote missed
opportunities/things that did not happen in the past. They normally carry a
tone of regret from the speaker.
If I had had the money I would have bought a car. (Would have + past
participle expresses 100% sure, on condition I had had the money)
The use of would + have + past participle implies that I wanted to buy the
car but something prevented me from doing so. The fact that I did not have
the money was an obstacle.
I could have become a doctor if I had studied more. (I had this possibility
but I didn’t take advantage of it, again there is a tone of regret in the
speaker’s voice)
I should have become a doctor (Why didn’t I become a doctor? I regret
this)
More examples
Why didn’t you tell us? We would have helped you. (We didn’t help you
because you didn’t tell us)
We could have helped you. (We didn’t help you but we had the
possibility/choice to help you)
We should have helped you. (We didn’t help you but it was our
duty/responsibility to help you)
Would is the past tense of will
For refusal/unwillingness
The present (will)
She won’t do her homework. (She refuses)
The past
She wouldn’t do her homework last night. (She refused)
It will be cloudy tomorrow (A future prediction)
The weather forecast said it would be cloudy tomorrow. (Reported speech)
I was told it would be cloudy tomorrow. (Reported speech/passive)
With reporting verbs, would is the past tense of will
Direct speech: I will phone you later. (A future fact) Reported speech: She
said she would phone me later.
Direct speech: I will be flying to London tomorrow between 11 and 12 so
don’t phone me then. (Something in progress at a moment in the future)
Reported speech: She said she would be flying to London tomorrow
between 11 and 12.
m
Direct speech: I promise I will help you. (A promise) Reported speech:
She promised she would help me.
o
Direct speech: I will probably be late. (A prediction) Reported speech: She
.c
said she would probably be late.
Direct speech: The Prime minister will make his speech soon. (Will also
rs
expresses a future fact) Reported speech: He said he would make his
speech soon.
e
In reported speech, will becomes would and can becomes could but the
tt
other modal auxiliary verbs remain the same.

a
AMBIGUITY
M
The following sentences have different meanings depending on context.

The tone of voice of the speaker changes in each utterance.
S
LT
You might have told me you were going to be late. (Why didn’t you tell
me?)
There is a tone of irritation in the speaker’s voice when uttering the above
IE
You might have told me you were going to be late. (Maybe you told me. I
don’t remember) Stress on might
You could have said so. The stress on could have said so = why didn’t you
say so?
You could have said so. The stress on only could = maybe you said so. I
don’t remember.
a) You can stay at my house when you come to London. (An invitation)
IELTSMatters.com
b) You could stay at my house when you come to London. (This is one
possibility)
a) Could you translate this? (Making a request)
b) Were you able to translate this? (This implies, ‘did you have the
ability?’)
The following examples are in order of certainty. A, B, and C, express
high probability)
The phone’s ringing. Who can it be at this time?
a) It will be Irene. (A prediction based on knowledge)
b) It must be Irene. (This is inevitable)
c) It should be Irene. (Expectation)
e) It might/may be Irene. (Possibility)
f) It could be Irene (Possibility)
The following sentence has different meanings according to context and in the spoken language
the meaning changes according to the tone of the voice of the speaker.
a) Please, leave me alone for a moment. I must think carefully about what
to do next. (It is a necessity for me to think carefully)
b) She must think you’re crazy after what you did last night. (I deduce
this/I firmly believe it to be so)
EXERCISE NINETEEN
Choose the best answer from the multiple choice exercises that follow.
1. We predict that Jane was working yesterday morning.
Where was Jane yesterday morning? She ____________________
working.
a) would have been
b) could have been
c) should have been
d) can’t have been
2. We predict that John was sleeping yesterday when you rang the
doorbell. That is why he probably didn’t answer the door.
John ____________________ sleeping.
a) could have been
b) might have been
c) ought to have been
d) would have been
m
3. Three of the options below (a – d) denote high probability in the past?
o
Which three are they?
John didn’t answer the phone yesterday morning. He is usually always
.c
sleeping at 8 in the morning. rs
a) He will have been sleeping
b) He would have been sleeping
e
tt
c) He could have been sleeping

d) He must have been sleeping
a
M
4. Three of the following options below (a-d) denote possibility in the past.
Which three are they?
S
Perhaps Mary was working when you called. Maybe that is why she didn’t
LT
answer the telephone. She ____________________ working.

a) may have been
IE
b) might have been

c) could have been
d) must have been
5. Janet was not working yesterday. Instead she was updating her personal
blog. Her supervisor caught her. What did the supervisor say to Jane? You
__________________ but instead you are updating your blog. Come with
me to my office immediately.
IELTSMatters.com
a) should be working
b) must be working
c) can’t be working
d) could be working
6. Your friend spends all her money on clothes. She never has any money
to pay her bills. You say: “If I were you I ____________________ take
control of my spending habits.”
a) should
b) could
c) would
d) will
7. You find yourself in trouble. Your brother offers to help. He says: I

____________________ help you if you like.
There are two possible answers. What are they?
a) could
b) would
c) should
d) will
8. I wish I had bought that house on the corner when it was selling at such
a bargain price. I ____________________ that house.
a) would have bought
b) should have bought
c) could have bought
d) will have bought
9. You found out that your friend was in your city for the weekend. She
stayed in a hotel. Afterwards when you speak to her, you say:
Why didn’t you tell me you were going to be in London for the weekend?
You ____________________ stayed at my house.
a) could have
b) would have
c) will have
d) may have
m
o
10. Someone ate all the cakes. Based on how familiar you are with your
brother Jim’s liking for sweet foods, you reach the following conclusion. It
.c
___________________________ been Jim.
Two of the following are correct. Which two are they?
rs
a) would have
e
b) will have
tt
c) could have
a
d) should have
M
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE NINETEEN

S
1. We predict that Jane was working yesterday morning. Where was Jane yesterday morning? She
LT
would have been working.

2. We predict that John was sleeping yesterday when you rang the doorbell. That is why he
probably didn’t answer the door. John would have been sleeping.
IE
3. John didn’t answer the phone yesterday morning. He is usually always sleeping at 8 in the
morning.
He will/would/must have been sleeping.

(All of the above predict high degrees of probability based on the speaker’s familiarity with John)
4. Perhaps Mary was working when you called. Maybe that is why she didn’t answer the telephone.
She may/could/might have been working.
5. Janet was not working yesterday. Instead she was updating her personal blog. Her supervisor
caught her. What did the supervisor say to Jane? You should have been working but instead you are
updating your blog. Come with me to my office immediately. (It was Janet’s duty to be working)
6. Your friend spends all her money on clothes. She never has any money to pay her bills. You say:
IELTSMatters.com
“If I were you I would take control of my spending habits.”
7. You find yourself in trouble. Your brother offers to help. He says: I could/will help you if you like.
(Could = this is an option/will = this is a fact)
8. I wish I had bought that house on the corner when it was selling at such a bargain price. I should
have bought that house. (This is the better choice as it indicates ‘why didn’t I buy it)
9. You found out that your friend was in your city for the weekend. She stayed in a hotel. Afterwards
when you speak to her, you say:
Why didn’t you tell me you were going to be in London for the weekend? You could have stayed at
my house.
10. Someone ate all the cakes. Based on how familiar you are with your brother Jim’s liking for
sweet foods, you reach the following conclusion. It will/would have been Jim.
The end
_________________________
m
o
.c
rs
e
tt
a
M
S
LT
IE
IELTSMatters.com

Modal Verbs (English-Grammar-Verbs Book2)

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m

Exercise six/progressive modals

Modal verbs of deduction for future intentions

Check your answers/exercise seventeen

The should progress test

Check your answers/exercise eighteen

Should versus be supposed to versus be meant to

Had better versus should and ought to

Modal auxiliary verbs are used to express varying degrees of certainty,

uncertainty, probability, improbability, possibility, impossibility,

What are the facts about modal auxiliary verbs?

They are defective as they have no infinitive and no future.

He will not come.

Can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, and must

a) You can stay at my house when you come to London.

sheepdog but it turned out to be nothing like one.

b) might have been

8. There’s nobody waiting at the train station. We

____________________ the train. What time’s the next one?

b) must have missed

17. I’m sorry I lost your phone number otherwise I __________________

I _______________________ alive today.

The use of should = why you expect us to believe him.

Are supposed to begin – we need to after be supposed – are supposed to begin

the past six months.

Be supposed to = duty or expectation

It was his duty to guard in that moment.

Must + perfect form = strong reason to believe

We had this possibility in the past/a missed opportunity

Will becomes would in reported speech.

Direct speech: I will attend the meeting. (A promise or a future fact)

Reported speech: He said he would .....

Would for typical characteristic past behaviour

Ought to do = you should do but with more of a tone of authority

This means it was expected of her/it doubles in meaning to mild obligation

We should be getting = future expectation.

If you go to the supermarket today, would/will/could you get me some groceries?

Would/will/could are all used for making requests. May is not.

I predict that this is concluded before now.

The teacher must be crazy

Alberto: “She must be crazy.”

Chinese or not Chinese ... that is the question!

Person A: “A removal van drew up outside the building and unloaded

new neighbours must be Chinese.”

He must be the postman.

have a lot of money.

Question: “Do they have a lot of money?”

because they buy expensive cars.”

That's another top of the range car they’ve bought

He must have the flu

When deducing, could is only used in the affirmative – in present

Now do the following exercise. Complete the gaps with must/might/can’t.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE ONE

MODALS OF DEDUCTION MUST/CAN’T

8. “I can’t find my glasses anywhere. Has anybody seen them anywhere?”

“They ______________________________ in the house somewhere. You

9. “Moira ______________________________ a lot of money. I saw her

before but triple.”

10. Fred ______________________________ a dog. I saw him in the pet

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS/EXERCISE TWO

Teacher: “Do you think they are brother and sister?”

Teacher: “And you Sally. What do you think?”

Teacher: “Do you think they are twins Paul?”