Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Improving the strength of weak soil using polyurethane grouts: A review

Samaila Saleh ⇑, Nor Zurairahetty Mohd Yunus, Kamarudin Ahmad, Nazri Ali
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

Review on application of polyurethane grout for improving the properties of weak soils.

The paper also covered the chemistry of polyurethane components and its applications.

The methods of grouting and grouting materials were also explored.

Improving polyurethane by incorporating fillers and other additives are also covered.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The recent need to develop infrastructure, driven by global population growth is forcing societies to con-
Received 1 September 2018 struct on any soil type available within their vicinity including weak soils. However, due to the poor phys-
Received in revised form 7 January 2019 ical and engineering properties of weak soils, they are not suitable for construction purposes. Given many
Accepted 8 January 2019
ground improvement techniques that are presently employed to improve the properties of weak soils and
Available online 18 January 2019
to reduce the potential damages caused by them, this paper addresses this issue by conducting a litera-
ture review and collecting information on the application of polyurethane chemical grout for improving
Keywords:
the properties of weak soils. While, many researchers have investigated the application of polyurethane,
Weak soil
Polyurethane
its application and the methods of improving the properties of weak soils, including detailed information
Grout on the application of polyurethane on weak soils for improving its properties is limited. Accordingly, this
paper has examined the chemistry of each component of polyurethane and its application and explored
the methods of grouting, grouting materials, the advantages and disadvantages as well as the applications
of grout both in the field and in the laboratory. The review also discussed the possible means of improv-
ing polyurethane by incorporating reinforcing fillers, surfactant, catalyst and other additives. The review
concluded that improved polyurethane has the potential to improve weak soil types for infrastructure
development.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
2. Polyurethane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
2.1. Polyurethane components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
2.1.1. Isocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
2.1.2. Polyols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
2.1.3. Catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.1.4. Cross-linkers and chain extenders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.1.5. Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.1.6. Plasticisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.1.7. Fillers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
2.1.8. Pigment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
2.1.9. Flame retarders and smoke retarders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
2.2. Uses of polyurethanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: samailasaleh@graduate.utm.my (S. Saleh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.048
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752 739

3. Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1. Grouting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.2. Grouting materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
3.3. Application of grouts in ground improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
3.3.1. Cement grouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
3.3.2. Application of other chemicals for ground improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
3.3.3. Laboratory application of polyurethane (PU) in ground improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
3.3.4. Field application of polyurethane in ground improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
3.4. Improving PU properties for better application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

1. Introduction
Continual growth in the world’s population especially in devel-
oping countries together with advancements in technology have
all led towards the need to construct high rise buildings and other
infrastructure like roads and bridges in coastal areas, where the
soil type is usually weak, similar to marine clay. Building these
structures require suitable foundation soil. However, weak soils
are not suitable for such purposes given their low bearing capacity
and excessive settlement. Accordingly, soil improvement is neces-
sary before construction on such weak soil types can be under-
taken. To this end, Engineers in the academic and construction
industries are duty-bound to find the means of improving weak
soils, for use as foundation material through various methods of
ground improvement.
Marine clay is found among the weak soils in coastal areas. It is
a microcrystalline material that contains both clay minerals (like
Illite, Kaolinite and Montmorillonite) and non-clay minerals (like
feldspar and quartz) as well as some organic matter [1]. Table 1
displays the properties of marine clay reported in the findings by
[1–12]. The findings show that marine clay contains more than
95% of fine grain particles (<75 mm). Additionally, it has Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit and a Plasticity Index that varies between 58%
and 90%, 28% to 47% and 22% to 54% respectively. These figures also
indicate that this type of soil is predominantly fine soil with very
high plasticity.
Moreover, exposing marine clay to moisture allows it to absorb
large amounts of water, thereby increasing in volume that will
inevitably lead to swelling problems, and causing severe issues to
the shallow foundation. The results also show a CBR value of about
2.8% which is far below the minimum recommended value of 10%
for subgrade material [13]. Therefore, marine clay cannot be used
as a subgrade material in its natural condition without treatment.
The compaction test results also showed wide ranges of both max-
imum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC)
between 1210 kg/m3 to 1710 kg/m3 and 21% to 40% respectively.
The type of clay minerals and organic matter contained in marine
clay may be the main reason for the variation in OMC and MDD
values of the soils. The studies also indicate that marine clay with
low-value MDD of 1210 kg/m3 has a high OMC of 40% and vice
versa as reported in Table 1.
Similar research work conducted by other researchers like those
performed by [14–17], also confirm that marine clay is a fragile
soil. Consequently, various methods of ground improvement tech-
niques are employed to improve the properties of marine clay and
to reduce the detrimental effect they cause to structures [18].
Examples of ground improvement techniques that are mostly used
include jet grouting, chemical and permeation grouting,

Table 1
Properties of marine clay.

Properties [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]
Natural moisture content (%) – 56–59 – – – 87.5 – 70 – 66.5 –
Liquid limit (%) 58 64 85–88 58 58 90 61.2–107.6 88 107.6 70 72.9 78
Plastic Limit (%) 36 28 32–33 23 23 36 15.5–35.4 38 35.4 36.9 25.6 47
Plasticity Index (%) 22 36 53–55 35 35 54 40.5–72.2 – 72.2 31.1 47.2 31
Free Swell Index (%) – – – – 50 – – – 4.25 –
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 21 – – 21 23 29 – – – – 26.4 40
Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3) 1600 1680–1710 – 1600 1600 1450 – 1680–1710 – – 1460 1210
Specific Gravity 2.62 2.75 – – – 2.083 2.64–2.75 – 2.62 2.17 2.48 2.50
Clay fraction (%) – 55 – – – 67 – – – 41 –
Silt fraction (%) – 41 – – – 30 – – – 50 –
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa) – – – 23 23 17 – – – 19 30 –
Cohesion (kPa) – – – – – 8.5 – – – –
CBR (%) – – – – – 2.79 – – – 4.1 – –
Organic Matter Content (%) 4.2 – 1.36 1.41 – – – – – – – – –
Loss of ignition (%) – – – – – – 4.2–10 – 10.02 – – –
Liquidity index (%) – – – – – – – – – 0.89 – –
Shrinkage limit (%) – – – – – – – – – 18.4 – –
Activity – – – – – – – – – 0.81 – –
PH – – 7.06–7.3 – – – – – – 6.8 – –
Salinity (mg/m3) – – – – – – – – – 4100 – –
USCS classification – – – – – – – – – – CH MH
Sensitivity – – – – – – – 1.5–6 – – – –
Initial void ratio, e0 – – – – – – – 1.55–1.59 – – – –
Sulphate (%) – – 0.02–0.2 – – – – – – – –
Chloride (%) – – 0.05–1.8 – – – – – – – – –
Lime (%) – – 0.19–0.21 – – – – – – – – –
Cation exchange capacity (m. eq/100 g) – – 33–42 – – – – – – – – –
740 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752

compaction grouting, soil mixing, deep densification (vibro com- time, high strength and is chemically inert after hardening. There-
paction, deep dynamic compaction), stone columns, blast- fore, Polyurethane is proposed as the stabilising material and
induced compactions, preloading/surcharging, Geosynthetics and grouting as the means of applying the Polyurethane to the ground.
soil reinforcement, and cement/lime stabilisation amongst others. Even though much research has been conducted on polyurethane
Researchers have attempted to apply several methods to and its application in many areas of specialisation, information
improve the properties of marine clay, and other weak soils using on the use of polyurethane grout in the improvement of marine
lime [1,3,19,20] or cement [7–9,21–23]. However, the cost of clay soils is limited. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a com-
cement makes this method prohibitive. Furthermore, using cemen- prehensive review of the chemistry of the individual components
titious materials also requires a curing period that can last for of polyurethane and its application in geotechnical engineering
many weeks [24], therefore making construction very slow. Thus, particularly in grouting. The review will also address various grout-
using cement or lime may not be the best option especially for road ing techniques and materials, including the feasibility of applying
repairs/rehabilitation work in urban areas that require the road to these to improve marine clay.
be opened to traffic immediately.
Researchers have considered the possibility of using waste
2. Polyurethane
materials to improve weak soils at a minimal cost. Among many
of the waste materials that have been used, include banana fibre
Polyurethane (PU) is a polymer group with dual properties of
[6], rice husk ash [20], sawdust [19], carbide slag [25], locust bean
metals and rubber, i.e. toughness and elasticity respectively [37].
waste ash [26–29] ceramic waste [30] and ground granulated blast
PU is produced from the reaction between diisocyanate and polyol
furnace slag [31]. However, the results from the application of
to form urethane which is the repeating unit in PU [38]. Fig. 1
using waste materials showed small strength improvement and
shows the chemical reaction of PU synthesis. The history of the
required a curing period. The application of new approaches has
development of PU started as early as 1937 by a German Professor,
likewise been attempted such as using biomass [4,12], bio encap-
Prof Dr Otto Bayer, using diisocyanate and polyester diol (a product
sulation [32], geotextile [11] and chloride compounds [10],
of polycondensation reaction between diacid and an excess diol)
although each of these methods have their own limitations like
[37]. Since then, all PU produced are modifications of the first prod-
curing time for biomass material. Bio encapsulation may not be
uct. As early as the mid-1950s, PU was already in use as an elas-
efficient in marine clay soils, due to the tiny size of the soil parti-
tomer, coating, rigid foam and adhesive [39]. The recent
cles which will not favour the growth of some species of microor-
development of polyether polyol resulted in lower costs and flexi-
ganisms. Also, geosynthetics are not suitable, because if the defect
ble PU [40]. Currently, PU is among the most versatile, research
is detected after construction, it may require significant additional
material globally [40,41]. Nowadays, PU is extensively used glob-
work.
ally as a material in construction, medical, manufacturing, packag-
Another alternative is to use inorganic materials like Sodium
ing, textile, marine, domestic and in many more industries [37,40–
silicate [5,25,33,34] or organic chemical stabilisers like N-
46].
Methylolacrylamide, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Aminoplast,
The synthesis of PU requires that the isocyanate and polyol
Phenoplast, Lignosulfonate [35,36] and many others. However,
group must contain not less than two isocyanate and hydroxyl
their rheological properties have an environmental impact due to
functional groups [R-(N=C=O)n  2] and [R1-(OH)n  2] respec-
their toxicity and the local regulations governing their usage
tively [37,47]. The properties of PU depend mainly on the type of
restrict the use of this option. Nevertheless, Polyurethane has some
isocyanate, polyol and additives used in its synthesis process
desirable properties like low viscosity and density, short gelling
[48]. The additives commonly used in the synthesis of PU include

O C N C N C O Diisocyanate

H
+
H H
Polyol
H O C C O H

H H
Ethane-1,2-diol

O H H H O H H

* C N C N C O C C *
n n>=2
H H H
Polyurethane
Fig. 1. Reaction of Polyurethane synthesis.
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752
a catalyst, cross-linkers, fillers, blowing agents, surfactants, flame
retardants and pigment.
2.1. Polyurethane components
The elements that constitute polyurethane are isocyanates,
polyols, catalysts, surfactants, cross-linkers and chain extenders.
It may also contain some other additives like plasticisers, pigments,
fillers, flame retardants and smoke retardants [37]. Each of these
components plays a particular role during the synthesis of PU,
and its end product, as highlighted in the next section.
2.1.1. Isocyanates
The function of isocyanates in the synthesis of PU is to provide
the reactivity and to control its curing properties [49]. Iso-
cyanates are highly reactive organic chemicals with a low molecu-
lar weight, having a functional group (R-N=C=O). They react with a
compound containing alcohol (hydroxyl group) to produce polyur-
ethane polymers. Depending on the number of isocyanates (-NCO)
functional group present in the mixture, isocyanates could be di-
functional or hetero-functional when they contain two or many
isocyanates (-NCO), functional groups. Isocyanates can also be
either aromatic or aliphatic isocyanates. The aromatic isocyanates
are cyclic (ring-shaped), planar (flat) molecules with a ring of res-
onance bonds and they exhibit more stability than aliphatic iso-
cyanates compound. On the other hand, aliphatic isocyanates
have atoms that are not connected to form a ring but may consti-
tute carbon atoms that can be linked in a straight chain or
branched chain. Table 2 shows examples of various types of iso-
cyanates and their structures.
Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) and Toluene diiso-
cyanate (TDI) are the most common examples of isocyanates and
are the most active, unstable and less expansive isocyanates, suit-
able for the synthesis of flexible foams [38]. Aliphatic isocyanates
are more applicable for coating where transparency is desirable
whereas aromatic isocyanates become darker once exposed to light
[37]. The MDI isocyanates products require storage temperature
between 24 °C and 41 °C. For example, 125 M pure MDI is stored
as a liquid at 43 °C to 48 °C or as a solid at 18 °C or below. Expos-
ing MDI products to temperatures higher than 41 °C can cause
dimerization which is an increase in viscosity with concurrent
decreases in the percentage of NCO. Also, subjecting MDI to a tem-
perature above 140 °C will cause trimerise which is an exothermic
reaction that results in the formation of isocyanurates. The chem-
ical reaction will continue to furnish adequate heat to increase the
product temperature to 204 °C and create carbodiimides and car-
bon dioxide gas, which may result in an explosive rupture.
Despite the importance of isocyanates in the synthesis of PU, its
environmental issues and handling difficulties are attracting the
attention of researchers to investigate a means of minimising or
eliminating their use in the synthesis of PU [50,51].
2.1.2. Polyols
Polyols are compounds possessing two or more hydroxyl func-
tional groups that are available for organic reactions with iso-
cyanates to produce PU [52]. In other words, Polyol is
responsible for providing long flexible segments, to build elastic
polymers [53]. There are different Polyols groups based on the type
of monomer that makes them similar to polyester polyols, poly-
ether polyols, aromatic or aliphatic polyols. Alternatively, polyols
may be grouped based on their end use like high molecular weight
polyols and lower molecular weight polyols as described below.
The high molecular weight polyols usually contain between 2000
and 10,000 molecules and are used in the synthesis of flexible
PU, while the lower molecular weight polyols typically include less
than 2000 particles used in the production of rigid PU. Table 2
741
shows the structure of common types of polyols and Table 3 shows
a variation of the properties of PU due to different types of polyols.
a) Polyester polyols
The formation of Polyester polyols is by the polycondensation of
hydroxyl compounds and a multifunctional carboxylic acid [54].
The reaction is achieved either by using virgin raw material
directly through the process of polyesterification or from the
reclaimed material. Polyesterification reaction occurs for example
when diacid and glycols react as in the case of the reaction
between 1,4-butanediol and adipic acid. On the other hand, a
reclaimed raw material undergoes the process of either transester-
ification (glycolysis) of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
or distillation of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) with glycols, for
example, diethylene glycol to produce Polyester polyols. Polyester
polyols are more viscous and expensive than polyether polyols.
b) Polyether polyols
Polyether polyols are also called Polyglycols, having the general
formula HO[-(CH2)mO-]n-(CH2)m-OH. Moreover, the production of
Polyglycols can be from either epoxide and hydrogen-containing
compounds or the ring-opening polymerisation of epoxy monomer
due to their weak intermolecular attractive forces (low polarity)
[54,55]. Polyglycols are either viscous liquids or waxy solids
depending on the molecular weight, and hydroxyl content, except
polyoxymethylene, is a highly crystalline polymer. Examples of
Polyether polyols are poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol)
and poly(tetrahydrofuran). Poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(propy-
lene glycol) have a molecular weight less than 20,000 g/mol. The
ring-opening polymerisation of oxirane and methyloxirane is used
to produce Poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(propylene glycol) while
acid-catalysed polymerisation of tetrahydrofuran produces Poly
(tetrahydrofuran).
Polyglycols have excellent lubricity and solvency properties.
Polyglycols are also part of many functional fluids and are well-
known for enhancing the flexibility and toughness of polyesters
and urethanes when copolymerised. Polyglycols are used in a vari-
ety of products, including elastomers, adhesives, sealants and
epoxy flexibilisers [37,56]. Except for polyoxymethylene, unmodi-
fied aliphatic polyether (polyglycols) are unsuitable for engineer-
ing plastics due to their waxy nature. When used in engineering
plastics, polyglycols are usually copolymerised with other mono-
mers to produce polyurethane and polyester block copolymers,
including thermoplastic polyurethane and polyester elastomers.
Polyglycols significantly improve the flexibility and impact tough-
ness of these materials and are also useful as hydraulic fluids and
lubricants, as additives in cosmetics, and as binders in ceramic
and metallic powders.
Among the polyglycols, Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is likely the
most versatile glycol. PEG is soluble in methanol, ethanol, water,
acetonitrile, benzene, and dichloromethane and insoluble in hex-
ane and diethyl ether. PEG is commonly used in combination with
glycerin in skin creams, personal lubricants, and in toothpaste as a
dispersant and to bind water. PEG is also suitable for use as an anti-
foaming agent in food. Furthermore, PEG has lately received
increased interest for use as a biomedical polymer due to its bio
and blood compatibility in linear, grafted, and gel form [56,57].
PEG has no definitive interactions with biological materials, which
makes it one of the most useful macromolecules in biochemistry.
c) Aromatic polyols
Aromatic polyols are the type of polyols with low functionality
and viscosity as well as lower molecular weight and are inexpen-
742 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752

Table 2
Polyurethane components. Sources: [36,57,58]

CH3 CH3
O
CH2 H H H H H H H H CH2
HO OH
O O
C C C C C C C C C C C OH
C C
5 n

N N H H H H H H
2-hydroxyethyl ether

Toluene diisocyanate Polybutadiene diol

(TDI)

OH
5
HO
1,6-hexanediol
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752 743

Table 3
Variation of PU properties due to various types of polyols and cross-linking. Source:
[37]
Polyurethane properties Types of polyols
Foam polymer Long chain polyol and average cross-linking
Hard polymer Short chain polyol and long cross-linking
Stretchy polymer Long chain polyol and low cross-linking
Rigid and tough polymer The high amount of cross-linking
Soft and elastic polymer Long segment polyol
sive, highly flammable and thermally stable and are suitable for
the syntheses of rigid PU foams [58]. Aromatic Polyester Polyols
are synthesised either from transesterification reactions of
Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT) fabrication bottom residue with
diethylene glycol (DEG) or transesterification reactions of Poly-
ethylene Terephthalate (PET) waste with DEG.
d) Special polyols
Special polyols are the type of polyols having the ability to
withstand chemicals and environmental attacks and are useful in
the syntheses of sealants, elastomers and adhesive [37]. Examples
of Special polyols are polybutadiene polyol, polycarbonate polyols
and polysulphide polyols.
2.1.3. Catalysts
A catalyst speeds up the reaction process of the synthesis of
polyurethanes between the isocyanate and polyols and enables
the reaction to occur at a lower reaction temperature [40]. The
two most popular types of catalysts used in the synthesis of poly-
urethanes are the metal complex catalyst (like Bismuth, lead, zinc,
tin and mercury), Amine Compound catalyst like dimethylcyclo-
hexylamide (DMCHA), dimethylethanolamide (DMEM), 1,4-
diazabicyclo-2,2,2-octane (DABCO), and triethylenediamine
(TEDA) amongst others. Table 2 shows the structures of the said
amine catalyst compounds. The choice of the type of catalyst
depends on many factors like availability, cost and the environ-
mental effect.
(which are a soft segment that moves freely and are higher molec-
ular weight). Examples of Cross-linkers and chain extenders are
butanediol, cyclohexane dimethanol, ethylene glycol, hydro-
quinone, 2-hydroxyethyl ether (HQEE), and 1,6-hexanediol. Table 2
also shows the structures of the cross-linkers and chain extenders.
2.1.5. Surfactants
Surfactants serve as a blowing agent and aid in the formation of
foam through control of the bubbles and cell structure in PU. Sur-
factants also improve the PU’s foam and non-foam properties by
lowering the interfacial tension between liquids, liquids and gases
or liquids and solids [43,61]. Surfactants also act as agents for
foaming, dispersing, wetting, permeability enhancers, emulsifying
or detergents and so forth [62]. However, surfactants cause several
drawbacks by lowering the molecular weight of the polymer that
may result in delamination and corrosion. Surfactants are divided
into cationic, anionic, non-ionic and amphoteric surfactants as
given in Table 4.
Cationic surfactants are positively charged and are not useful as
detergents in cleansing systems. Nevertheless, they have better
corrosion resistance [63]. On the other hand, anionic surfactants
serve a negative charge on the hydrophilic portion, in the form of
carboxylate, phosphate, sulphate or sulfonate. Anionic surfactants
are notable as emulsion polymerisation, agricultural chemicals,
and personal care, and household products, industrial and institu-
tional cleaners. They also have other uses such as emulsifiers,
cleaners, wetting agents, foaming and frothing agents such as in
shampoos, car washes, carpet shampoos, hand dishwashing, latex
foaming, oil recovery and other industrial applications [64]. Non-
ionic surfactants are of a non-toxic type consisting of a hydrophilic
head group and a hydrophobic tail. Non-ionic surfactants carry no
charge, and are essential in the preparation of niosome [62,65,66].
Amphoteric surfactants are synthesised by the reaction of amines
with chloroacetic acid or salts of chloroacetic in aqueous solution
at a high temperature of about 115 to 180 °C until the chloroacetic
acid content is less than 10 ppm. Furthermore, amphoteric surfac-
tants are used typically for the preparation of toiletries like sham-
poos [67,68]. Table 5 shows the structures of the most commonly
used surfactant.

2.1.4. Cross-linkers and chain extenders 2.1.6. Plasticisers

Cross-linkers and chain extenders enhance the properties of PU
through structural modification and mechanical support to the PU
molecules [59,60]. Cross-linkers and chain extenders are com-
pounds with bifunctional and trifunctional linkers. Crosslinking
agents provide conjugation applications between the Isocyanate
(which is usually hard, stiff and the immobile segment) and Polyols
Plasticisers are non-reactive and low volatile substances used
during the synthesis of PU to reduce its hardness and to improve
the mechanical and thermal properties [69]. PU use plasticisers
as varnishes, film, paint, adhesives. Diethylene/propylene glycol
benzoate (Glyplast DEPG-SG), propylene glycol benzoate (Glyplast
DPPG-SG), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), diisodecyl phthalate

Table 4
Types of Surfactants.

Anionic Types. Cationic Type Nonionic Type Amphoteric Type

Carboxylates
Sulphonates
Petroleum sulphonates
Alkylbenzenesulphonates
Naphthalenesulphonates
Olefin sulphonates
Alkyl sulphates
Sulphates
Sulphated natural oils & fats.
Sulphated esters
Sulphated alkanolamides
Alkylphenols, ethoxylated &
sulphated.
Quaternary ammonium salts
Amines with amide linkages
Polyoxyethylene alkyl & alicyclic
amines
n,n,n’,n’ tetrakis substituted
ethylenediamine
2-alkyl 1-hydroxyethyl 2-
imidazolines.
Ethoxylated aliphatic alcohol N-coco-3-amino propionic acid/sodium salt
polyoxyethylene surfactants N-tallow-3-iminodipropionate, disodium salt
carboxylic esters N-carboxymethyl n dimethyl n-9 octadecenyl
ammonium hydroxide
Polyethylene glycol esters N-cocoamidethyl n hydroxyethyl glycine, sodium
salt
Anhydrosorbitol ester & it is ethoxylated
derivatives
Glycol esters of fatty acids
Carboxylic amides
Monoalkanolamine condensates
Polyoxyethylene fatty acid amides
744 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752
Table 5
Most Popular Surfactants. Source: [61,62]
Structure
(DIDP) and di-2-Ethylhexyl phthalate are some examples of
plasticisers.
2.1.7. Fillers
Fillers are materials used during the synthesis of PU to improve
its mechanical properties and to reduce its cost [60,70]. Fillers also
improve optical properties, surface characteristics, dimensional
stability, durability, rheology, and affect the chemical activity and
the biodegradability of PU. [70]. Fillers are of either reinforcing
or non-reinforcing types depending on whether they are used for
improving mechanical properties or for reducing costs, respec-
tively. Examples of reinforcing fillers are calcium silicate, whereas
non-reinforcing fillers are clay, limestone and calcium carbonate.
Other types of fillers also include barium sulphate, mica and tita-
nium dioxide, silicate of calcium and zinc. Barium filler is suitable
for medical applications due to its inert nature, mica is desirable
for its thermal resistance, while titanium dioxide is desirable due
to its natural colour [70].
The development of nanomaterials has shown that small quan-
tities (0.5% to 5%) of nanosized filler can be incorporated into PU
matrix to achieve much more superior PU than normal PU concern-
ing strength, durability and economy [48,60,71,72]. Studies con-
ducted by [60] on the synthesis of PU nano silica composite have
shown that composite material containing 2% nano silica has the
tolerant temperature up to 175 °C against 80 °C for regular PU,
the tensile strength improved from 10.5 MPa to 21.3 MPa and elon-
gation at break improved by 890%. Similar studies also reconfirmed
that the mechanical properties of the PU cellulose nanofibrils com-
posite material enhanced by more than 100% [71]. Notwithstand-
ing, PU montmorillonite nanocomposite material has better
thermal stability and mechanical properties [48]. Microcrystalline
cellulose bio-nano composite (CNC) has also been found to
enhance the mechanical properties of PU [72]. The addition of
0.5% of the CNC into the PU improved Young’s modulus, abrasion
resistance and glass transition temperature of the composite mate-
rial by 10%, 25% and 6 °C respectively.
The contributing factor responsible for the above mentioned
improved properties associated with PU and nanomaterials are
the unique properties of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are tiny
(nanoscale), with low density, having a very low coefficient of ther-
mal expansion and distinctive morphology. Notwithstanding,
nanomaterials also have high surface area, high specific strength,
high aspect ratio (length over diameter) and molecular bond
[70,72]. Dispersed nanoparticles in the PU matrix forms a covalent
bond between the PU and nanoparticles [73].
2.1.8. Pigment
Pigments are additives incorporated into PU where the colour of
the PU material is essential, for visual and aesthetic purposes.
Name
4-(5-Dodecyl) benzenesulfonate
It is one of the famous surfactants
Dodecylbenzenesulfonate
Among the most common surfactants
Sodium stearate
50% of commercial surfactants.
2.1.9. Flame retarders and smoke retarders
Flame retardants are substances used to minimise the flamma-
bility of the PU while smoke retarders are materials used to reduce
the volume of smoke generation during the burning of PU [52,63].
Flame retardants are also used to prevent ignition, flame spread
and prolong escape time [61] particularly when using PU in furni-
ture, automotive and aeroplane parts.
2.2. Uses of polyurethanes
Polyurethanes are a versatile material with several desirable
properties that offer many potential applications in numerous
industries including construction, manufacturing, packaging, tex-
tile, medical and so forth [40,49,74–76]. The desired qualities of
PU include but are not limited to its high strength to weight ratio,
high durability, chemical resistance, adhesive to different types of
substrates and ability to perform in vast temperature ranges. Gases
trapped in the porous structure of PU give it excellent thermal
insulation and low thermal conductivity of about 0.02 to 0.03 W/
mK and is appropriate material for building insulation, automotive
parts and in aerospace applications [53]. Other favourable quali-
ties, particularly for medical applications, include biocompatibility,
bio-stability and degradability. [42,63,77,78]. Therefore, PU is suit-
able for medical applications used in dialysis, cardiovascular sur-
gery, artificial heart components, and orthopaedic prostheses
[79]. PU is also considered to be ideal for the manufacture of vari-
ous drug substances, for festering and burn wounds, for secreting
and the drug delivery system, for treatment of severe burns, for
long-term safety and as an efficacy coating in gel silicon, for breast
implants [74].
3. Grouting
The process of injecting cementitious materials or chemicals
into the ground with the aim of improving the physical and engi-
neering properties of the soil is known as grouting [34,80]. For this
paper, emphasis will be on the application of polyurethane in
geotechnical engineering. The following section describes the
grouting methods and material and the application of polyur-
ethane in grouting.
3.1. Grouting methods
There are three popular grouting methods: Deep Mixing
Method (DMM), Injection Grouting Method (IGM) and Jet Grouting
Method (JGM) [36] as illustrated in Fig. 2. The DMM involves pen-
etrating the ground by injecting and mixing the stabilising agents
(cement, lime, PU, fly ash) using a rotating shaft, paddles or Jet. The
mixture will produce a column of treated soil with higher strength,
lower compressibility and lower hydraulic conductivity as a result
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752
Ground improvement
Grouting method
Injection Grouting Method
(IGM)
Deep Mixing Method (DMM)
It operate on continuous injecting
It uses rotating shaft, paddles or jet
fluid jet at high velocity and back
pressure between 28 – 42 MPa
Fig. 2. . Schematic diagram of grouting methods.
of a pozzolanic reaction between the binder and soil grains.
Whereas, the IGM involves injecting a jet of fluids (water, air and
grout) at high velocity and back pressure between 28 and
42 MPa to erode and mix the in-situ soft soil with the grout by
shearing the soil hydraulically. The mixture of binder and in-situ
soil form a column with improve strength and stiffness. The JGM,
on the other hand, is suitable for enlarging the drill hole by using
a rotating fluid jet that liquefies the in-situ soil with the grout
and excavates and replaces it through control withdrawal and
rotation of the drill string.
In practice, any of the grouting methods can be applied based
on the suitability of the ground condition and resources (material,
equipment and human) available for the project. However, in some
extreme situations, more than one method must be applied. For
example, in the project of constructing the Xiamen Island tunnel
to the Xiang’an district in China, the complexity of the situation
necessitated the grouting to be performed in five stages: backfilling
and permeation grouting, compaction grouting, primary fracture
grouting, secondary compaction grouting and secondary fracture
compaction grouting [81].
3.2. Grouting materials
There are two classes of grouting materials: chemical grouts
and cementation grouts [36]. Cement grouts are the composition
of water and suspended particulates derived from the grinding of
clinker. The size of the particulates defends the grinding effort per-
formed on the clinker. The average particulate size of Portland
cement grout is 15 mm, while micro fine cement is between 6
and 10 mm and ultrafine cement is 3 to 5 mm. Conversely, chemical
grout is similar to actual solution grouts which have no suspended
solids, even though it is a suspended solids grout, as the particu-
lates are incredibly tiny giving them high penetration ability
[82]. Chemical grout is injected into soil as a solution to fill the
voids in between the particles of soil up to 10 mm to 15 mm. Chem-
ical grouting work is based on the combination of sodium silicate
(Na2SiO3) and reagents like calcium chloride, organic esters,
sodium aluminate and bicarbonate to form a gel. Varying the
dosage and the types of the reagents control the initial viscosity
745
Other methods
like Soil Mixing, Deep Densification (vibro compaction,
deep dynamic compaction) Stone Columns, Blast-induced
Compaction, Preloading / Surcharging, Geosynthetics and
Soil Reinforcement, Cement / Lime Stabilisation
Jet Grouting Method (JGM)
It uses control withdrawal and
rotation of drill string
and gel time of the grout, as well as the strength of the grouted soil.
Examples of chemical grout include Sodium silicate, Silicate chlo-
ride, Acrylamide, N-Methylolacrylamide, Polyurethane, Epoxy
resin, Aminoplast, Phenoplast, and Lignosulfonate. In contrast,
cementation grout operates on the principles of the traditional sta-
bilisation method. In other words, it is either a cationic exchange
reaction or pozzolanic reaction or a combination of the two.
Cement, Lime, Fly ash and Bitumen are conventional agents used
in this type of grouting. When the cementation grout is mixed with
water, a chemical reaction called a pozzolanic reaction occurs
between the calcium hydroxide and siliceous or aluminous mate-
rial to form a cementation compound of calcium silica hydrate or
calcium silica aluminate hydrate [83]. Cationic exchange reaction
takes place when the soil exchanges its free exchangeable cations
to its locality [83]. Any of the above mentioning cementation reac-
tion in the grouted ground will result in reducing the swelling
potential, liquid limit and plasticity index. Workability, compatibil-
ity and strength will also improve [84]. Fig. 3 shows the schematic
diagram describing the classification of the grouting materials.
The penetration length of the grout is an essential factor that
determines the effectiveness of the grouting. The equations for cal-
culating the penetration length of the grout were initially proposed
by [85]. Moreover, the equations for the three different types of
conditions; a) one directional channel flow without considering
the gelling time, b) penetration length incorporating the gelling
time, and c) two-dimensional radial flow are given in Eqs. (1)–(3)
respectively:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Dpt
I¼b ð1Þ
6l0
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s  / 
1 e þ e/tD
ID ¼ t D  ln ð2Þ
/ e/ þ 1
2pDpb
3
dI
Q¼ ¼ pbI ð3Þ
2llnðI=cw Þ dt
where;
746 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752

Grouting materials

Cementations Grout Chemicals Grout

Better penetration to fill extremely small
voids between 10 – 15 nm diameter
Cement
Sodium silicate
Fly ash
Silicate chloride

Lime Acrylamide

N-Methylolacrylamide
Bitumen etc

Polyurethane

Epoxy rasin

Amino plast

Phenoplast

Lignosulfonate

Fig. 3. . Schematic diagram of Grouting material.

I = penetration length for Newtonian liquid with a constant decreasing bentonite fraction increased the weight ratio of water
viscosity, and bentonite as well as increased the concentration of sodium
ID = is the maximum possible achievable penetration in one pyrophosphate (SPP). This increased the penetration length of the
direction a grout can attain, bentonite grout. The proposed research is given in Eq. (4); expres-
Q = flow (pumping rate), sion of the penetration length of the bentonite grout. Furthermore,
m0 = viscosity of the liquid, [86] added that the penetration length of grout is also affected by
tG = gel induction time, the experimental and soil parameters like injection pressure, nor-
Dp = difference between grout injection pressure and water malised grain size and content of fine-grained size.
pressure, 2 3
mg = viscosity of the penetration grout, £2
6 ðP=1atmÞ £ 7 £ F c
b = hydraulic aperture of the fracture, h ¼ £1 4  £3 N 4 5eð 5 100Þ ð4Þ
I = penetration radial distance to the pumping well, ð1  nÞ lr: eq

w = radius of well,
dI
dt
= velocity of the grout front. where,

Accordingly, from Eqs. (1)–(3), the penetration length of the h – is the penetration length (cm),
grout is directly proportional to the viscosity of the grout. The pen- £1 – is a scaling constant (cm),
etration of the grout also occurs during the initial part of the gel- £2 , £3 and £4 – are dimensionless empirical constants for
ling time. Therefore, controlling the spread of grout depends on normalised pressure, viscosity and
three crucial factors namely; grout performance (pressure, Dp effective grain size respectively,
and time, t), characteristics of the grouting material (viscosity, m0 £5 – is an empirical constant for fines content, equal to ‘‘0”
or mg and gel induction time, tG) and the characteristics of the for FC  5% (dimensionless),
material to be grouted (fracture aperture, b). In order to improve P – is injection pressure (kPa),
marine clay with PU grout, additives are needed to enhance the n – is porosity of sand,
PU. For example, a surfactant and filler can be employed to respec- lr:eq – is relative equilibrium apparent viscosity
tively improve the penetration ability and mechanical properties of   ^
(lr:eq mPaA ^  s ¼ lgrouteq: ðmPaAsÞ
the PU. l ^
ðmPaAsÞ
water

Similar research by [86] on the experimental study of the pen- FC – is non-plastic fines content in granular soils (%), and
etration of bentonite grout through granular soils reported that a N* – is normalised effective grain size
(N  ¼ D10 ; sand ðmmÞ=d95 ; bentonite ðmmÞ)
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752 747

Table 6
Advantages and disadvantages of some common chemical grout. Source: [36]

Grouts Advantages Disadvantages

Ordinary cement Control leakage to a moderate level and has good Limited to pore size 0.3 to 50 mm, low penetration in fine-
strength grained soils
Micro cement Control leakage to a moderate level and has good Limited to pore size 0.1 to 1 mm, low penetration in fine-grained
strength soils
Sodium silicate Environmentally friendly Low mechanical properties
Polyurethane Low viscosity and thermal conductivity, light weight, Viscosity (300–2500 cPs), require PH greater than 7 (alkaline
excellent permeability and mechanical performance condition)
Acrylamide Good strength and short gel time, noble for many A highly toxic material, unsuitable for potable water application,
application and low viscosity low resistance to acidic conditions
Aminoplast Good under acidic condition, good strength Toxic and corrosive, difficult to handle in hot and acidic
conditions
Epoxy resin High tensile and compressive strength, low viscosity Highly toxic
Lignosulfonates Nontoxic (except if additive of sodium dichromate), Require PH greater than 6
low viscosity (3–8 cPs)
Phenoplast Low viscosity Highly toxic
N-Methylolacrylamide (NMA) Inert, non-toxic, low viscosity (1–2 cPs) Low stability under a constant head pressure of groundwater,
unsuitable under acidic condition and organic contamination

3.3. Application of grouts in ground improvement
The choice of a particular grouting method or grouting material
to be used for ground improvement depends upon many factors
like the purpose of grouting, type of soils, desired strength, toxicity
and rheology of the grouting material, and budgetary provisions
among other factors. Table 6 shows a comparison of the advan-
tages and disadvantages of the various grouting materials. For
example, if the purpose of grouting is to improve the strength of
the soil, materials like Cement, Epoxy resin, Acrylamide or Polyur-
ethane can be used providing that the grout can penetrate the soil.
When the grouting is applied for groundwater control like during
the constructions of tunnels, excavations or D-walls, Micro cement
or Polyurethane will be the best option.
Notwithstanding, soil type also has a critical impact on the
application of grout in ground improvement. For example, fine
grain soils (clay and silts) have minute pore sizes and do not permit
the penetration of some grouting materials, unlike sand that has
bigger pore sizes that permit penetration of the grout. The PH of
the soil is also critical since different chemicals have different per-
formances under different PH conditions. For example, Polyur-
ethane requires an alkaline PH while Aminoplast (Urea
formaldehyde) requires an acidic PH. However, the toxicity of the
grouting material may cause groundwater contamination. Local
regulations of some communities or countries have banned the
use of some chemicals due to their environmental impact.
3.3.1. Cement grouts
Cement is the most common construction material that has
been proven satisfactory for many applications. However, its appli-
cation in grouting has limitations, as cement can only control leak-
age to a moderate level. Cement also has low penetration ability in
fine-grained soils. Table 7 presents the findings of an investigation
into the effect of the water-cement ratio, temperature, superplasti-
ciser and cement fineness studied by [87–91] on various types of
cement. The findings of the researchers revealed that the water-
cement ratio affects the viscosity, bleeding (stability), setting time,
shrinkage, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and ultra-
sonic pulse velocity [88]. In another research study, it suggests that
increasing the water-cement ratio results in decreasing the appar-
ent and plastic viscosities and yield stress; however, it caused
longer setting time, increase in shrinkage and reduction of
mechanical properties [89]. Thus, the optimum water-cement ratio
for micro fine cement is between 1.0 and 1.5 [89]. The increase in
temperature also caused a decrease in the mechanical properties of
the hardened grout and setting time of fresh grout. A further find-
ing confirmed that cement fineness increases the viscosity and rate
of shrinkage. Conversely, cement fineness also has the benefit of
shortening the setting time, with better mechanical properties,
improved bleeding, and early strength development [89]. The
investigation on the effect of super plasticiser (SPP) also indicated
that SPP reduces viscosity and prolongs the setting time of the
micro-cement particularly when SPP is in excess. Prolonging the
setting time of the micro-cement causes over saturation and insta-
bility of the grout [89], therefore an optimum quantity of SPP is
1.4%.
All of the above findings are evidence confirming that cement is
an excellent stabilising material and suitable for grouting. How-
ever, cement has low penetration ability into fine-grained soils
and requires a curing period that will be undesirable in a situation
where the speed of construction is of vital importance. Cement also
has high density, which will add extra weight when used as grout-
ing material. Therefore, due to these flaws associated with cement,
researchers continue to look for other alternative grouting
materials.
3.3.2. Application of other chemicals for ground improvement
Studies of the possibility of stabilising some valuable ancient
buildings by [94] recorded the successful application of carbamide
resin using the grouting method. The treated soil showed an
increase in density, alkalinity and unconfined compressive
strength. However, there was a liberation of formaldehyde from
the crushed soil samples which was perceived through a sharp,
irritating smell and hurting the eyes. Although carbamide resin
was able to improve the soil strength up to 75% after a three month
curing period, however, the toxicity of the resin was beyond the
maximum allowable limit [94] as per Table 8.
The application of colloidal silica solution to protect a road
embankment from landslides using grouting reported an improve-
ment in cohesion by 3 to 4 times and 40% for the angle of internal
friction. The treated sample remained fixed after several rounds of
soaking and drying while the untreated loose soil crumbled
entirely after one cycle of soaking [95]. The improvement was
due to the high permeability of the colloidal silica solution to form
uniform soil mass with better strength and durability. This is dis-
similar to cement grout that has low penetration ability and cannot
be used to obtain continuous grouted zone.
3.3.3. Laboratory application of polyurethane (PU) in ground
improvement
The majority of information available in the literature revealed
that the application of PU for ground improvement is regarding
field applications. Nevertheless, some researchers reported the
748 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752

Table 7
Application of Cements grouts in ground improvements.

References Findings
[88] The water-cement ratio affects the viscosity, bleeding (stability), setting time, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Temperature affects the setting time of fresh grout and mechanical properties of the hardened grout. Use of superplasticiser is essential in micro-cement
grout otherwise the resulting viscosity could be very high.
The Slag blended grout requires much water.
[91] The strength of the cement grout cured at 8 °C is lower than that cured at 20 °C.
The unconfined compressive strength of grout with the lower water-cement ratio is higher than that with a higher water-cement ratio. As an example: it is
about 18 to 20 MPa for a water-cement ratio = 0.6 and about 1 to 6 MPa at a water-cement ratio = 1.2 after seven days curing.
Filtration stability at 8 °C and 20 °C is similar for all the grouts, which means it is not affected by temperature.
[89] Increase in water-cement ratio caused a decrease in apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity and yield stress; however, that caused undesirable properties of
longer setting time and a reduction of mechanical properties. An optimum water-cement ratio of 1.0–1.5 is adequate.
All the six cement grouts investigated behave as Bingham fluid. 1.4% of superplasticiser was used to correct the apparent viscosity effect. Increase in the
cement fineness caused problems; increases the viscosity value and shrinkage rate. Nevertheless, that has the benefit of shortening the setting time, better
mechanical properties, improved bleeding, and early strength development.Slag blended micro-cement requires more water than Portland base micro-
cement to achieve the same fluidity. The compressive strength, elastic modulus and sand consolidation of Portland base micro-cement is higher than that
of slag blended micro-cement.Higher micro-cement solid content leads to better filling sand voids, increased cementation ability between soils and grout.
The superplasticiser content should not be excessive to avoid instability, over saturation and longer setting time.
[90] The new sealing material for cross-measure coal mine methane has a water-cement ratio of 1:0.8, shrinkage of 17.1%, and unconfined compressive
strength up to 9.3 MPa.The new method requires the grouting to be repeated two or more times with the aid of using the grouting pump.
[92] The unconfined compressive strength result shows improvement up to 125%, The tangential and secant Modulus improved, and permeability reduces
from 1.3  10–6 to 1.5  10–6 cm/s.
[93] The result of the fluidity test shows variation in the three cement samples tested. Likewise, strength improvement from 7 to 28 days is 4.93%, 35.45% and
50.55% for the three samples of cement.

Table 8 tion applies to the foundation of buildings while the cyclic

Maximum allowable limits of formaldehyde. Source: [94]
loading condition is relevant to road pavements. The stress levels
Maximum allowable Land use and densities of PU were varied and then exposed to cyclic loading.
concentration (mg/m3) The results revealed that there were three failure stages associated
0.5 Industrial airspace with repeated loading of the rigid PU under compressive stresses
0.012 Residential airspace namely elastic, yielding and hardening failure stages as shown in
5 Agricultural, drinking and recreational
Table 10. The rigid PU grouts had elastic behaviour during the first
water supply
10 Fish breeding thirty cycles of loading. The elastic behaviour phase exhibits a lin-
ear relationship between the stress and strain of the grouted PU
and is the same for all densities and stress levels. After the elastic
phase, a wide variation in yielding stress happens based on the dif-
application of PU in the laboratory to reinforce soil [75,96,97]. Fur-
ferences in densities and stress levels of the PU. The PU with low-
thermore, the results of these studies show that PU improves the
density was found to have better performance compared to the PU
unconfined compressive strength [75,96], slake durability, resis-
with higher density. Furthermore, PU exposed to lower stress
tance against impact and abrasion, resistance against freezing
levels also performs better than those exposed to higher stress.
and thawing and consolidation pressure [75]. Moreover, PU
For example, PU with a density of 300 kg/m3 and a 0.7 stress level
reduces the unit volume weight, void ratio and compression index
attained more than 100,000 cycles of loading before attaining den-
[97], as summarised in Table 9. The result of the Light Falling
sification failure unlike 500 kg/m3 PU under the same 0.7 stress
Weight Deflection (LFWD) test also reconfirmed that soil treated
level which reached hardening failure after only 20,000 rounds of
with PU has rigid consistency [98]. However, it is not known yet
loadings. Similarly, for the same PU with a density of 300 kg/m3,
if PU may have a similar effect on clay and peat soils, as the previ-
increasing the stress level from 0.7 to 0.8 triggered a drop in yield-
ous test was carried out on coarse grained-soils.
ing failure from 100,000 cycles to 16,000 cycles.
The studies of the performance of rigid polyurethane grout sub-
As mentioned previously, the density of PU can be adjusted by
jected to monotonic compression loading were reported by [98].
regulating the formation of foam by controlling the bubbles and
Static and cyclic loading conditions were chosen to represent ser-
cell structure. Therefore, developing much lower density PU with
vice life loading conditions. The static compressive loading condi-
better performance under static and cyclic loading conditions is

Table 9
Laboratory application of polyurethane in ground improvements.

References Findings
[75] Polyurethane reinforced soil (PRS) is a lightweight material of a rock class strength. Notably, PRS is low strength rock material, with good slake durability,
resistant against impact and abrasion, with resistance against freezing and thawing but has low unit volume weight.
[96] Unconfined compressive strength increased for the 3 sand samples from 24.7 kPa to 317.1 kPa, 7.6 kPa to 133.7 kPa and 13.5 kPa to 121 kPa at 10% and
95% PU contents.
[97] PU treated subgrade experienced void ratio decreases from 0.635 to 0.435, compression index decreases from 0.023 to 0.009 and pre-consolidation
pressure increases from 52 to 56 kPa.
The Light Falling Weight Deflection (LFWD) test confirmed hard consistency.
[98] Stress-strain curves for monotonic compression loading consists of three stages:
1) Elastic stage with strain up to 5% and the strain developed during first 30 cycles.
2) Yielding stress stage has a 50% strain where a minimum strain develops after many cycles.3) Densification stage has a strain greater than 50%, with
rapid strain accumulation followed by fatigue damage at 5% strain.Fatigue threshold is high in rigid PU with low density (between 0.7 for 300 kg/m3
PU and 0.6 for 500 kg/m3 PU). Micro-level (SEM) observations revealed that fatigue failure resulted in the bulging of struts cells.
 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752 749

Table 10
Fatigue stages of the rigid polyurethane of different densities and Stress Levels. Source: [98]

PU Density (Kg/m3) Stress levels No of cycles caused elastic behaviour No of cycles caused yielding stage No of cycles caused hardening failure
300 0.7 0–30 30–100,000 –
300 0.8 0–30 30–16,000 16,000–30,000
300 0.9 0–30 30–1000 1000–2500
500 0.5 0–30 30–20,000 –
500 0.6 0–30 30–10,000 –
500 0.7 0–30 30–3000 3000–7800

possible by choosing a suitable surfactant. The research by [98]
gives a good representation of the real-life situation of the perfor-
mance of PU grout although the coverage was limited to a few
stress levels and densities. Further research using PU with different
densities under a wide range of stress levels will provide a much
better understanding of fatigue behaviours.
3.3.4. Field application of polyurethane in ground improvement
Table 9 presents case studies of successful applications of Poly-
urethane in geotechnical engineering for ground improvement in
soil nailing, pavement repair, micropiles and tunnelling projects.
In all the cases listed, the best method of application of the PU is
by grouting; due to its short gelling time [99]. After mixing the
two components of the PU, the reaction starts immediately, and
the foam needs to be delivered within a short period before hard-
ening. The PU grout improves the ground by decreasing the settle-
ment and serving as reinforcement.
All the various applications of PU mentioned earlier used differ-
ent methodologies to evaluate the improvement ranging from load
transfer efficiency before and after treatment, the pass to failure
under simulated aircraft traffic, pull-out test, settlement analysis,
Ambient vibration tests, horizontal impact load tests, analytical
model and statistical method, are summarised in Table 11. In all
the mentioned cases, the best method of application of the PU to
the ground is by grouting. Indeed, grouting the soils with PU
proved the significant improvement of the soil. However, informa-
tion on the long-term performance of soil treated with PU grout
and exposed to acidic PH is limited.
3.4. Improving PU properties for better application
From the materials reviewed so far, it is evident that the prop-
erties of PU depend on the types of material used in their prepara-
tion. PU can be improved to have better durability and toughness
like metal or to have elasticity like that of rubber [37]. Therefore,
what is vital is to understand the needs of the particular situation
under consideration and improve the PU to meet that condition.
For example, Table 12 shows the reports of enhancing different
properties of PU based on their specific needs. The sealing capabil-
ity to reduce leakage failure was improved for application in
methane drainage in a coal mine by incorporating fly ash into
the polyurethane [108]. Similarly, an Interpenetrate Polymer Net-
work (IPN) was used to develop excellent crack repair material.
The crack repair material constitutes about 20–40% of PU, Epoxy
acrylate, Methyl methacrylate, and agents for accelerating,
crosslinking and evocating [109]. This crack repair material has
good penetration ability, excellent mechanical properties and
chemical resistance as well as handling capability that makes the
crack repair material suitable for the repair of any concrete struc-
ture. However, it is unknown if the crack repair material can work
with soil in grouting.

Table 11
Field Application of Polyurethane in Ground Improvement.

Area of References Findings

Application
Soil Nailing [100] PU grout increases the nail to ground friction, decreases settlement of the ground before and after the ground reinforcement from
5.33 mm to 2.002 mm and from 4.71 mm to 1.818 mm respectively.
Micro Piles [101] Ambient vibration tests and horizontal impact load tests on the two micro piles revealed that high-pressure injections visibly modify the
dynamic response at small strain, influencing the fundamental frequencies of the system and the directional behaviour.
The results of the analytical model also validate the evaluation of the response of the soil-micropile system at small strain.
[102] Evaluation of the field behaviour of innovative micro piles made of reinforced polyurethane resin provided the description of the
construction of the micropile and the execution of field load tests.
Pavement [103] PU foam injected or poured met the requirements of the US Navy’s pass to failure (200 passes).
Injected PU foam is better in strength than poured PU foam, and repairs with PU foam are more expensive than using conventional
methods.
[104] Load transfer efficiency (LTE) before and after treatment are essential parameters in choosing the treatment location. LTE shows
statistically significant improvement for both high-density polyurethane (HDP) foam and cementitious stabilisation.
Faulting reduces by about 3 mm and 5 mm near crack and at the shoulder respectively for HDP foam injection. It also reduces to 1 mm
and 2 mm near crack and shoulder respectively for the cementitious grout section. Slab movements were higher than the allowable
1.3 mm as per the project specification particularly with HDP stabilisation; thus control is needed to control the vertical flow.
[105] Injecting PU into the pavement subgrade caused strength and stiffness, increase volume change reduces and bearing resistance
increases. Also the compressibility increases, and the void ratio decreases.
The uplift process can raise depressed concrete pavement to the desired level by monitoring the injection process.
Tunneling [106] Proposing a visual model of grout and investigating plugging of water and investigation of grouting in the water-rich faulted zone.
Presenting and discussing a high strength grout, high permeability nano silicon grout and high expansion polyurethane grouts. It also
covers the techniques and equipment for grouting.
[107] The overall quality of the rock mass shall be investigated at the initial stage of the project, without relying on the properties of the rock
outcrop as it may be different from that underground due to the presence of a fold or fault.
Care should be taken immediately after observing any sign of collapse like oversize muck, irregular torque and thrust, deviation of TBM,
increasing the amount of dung that leads to filling of the muck car before completion of stroke in double shield TBM.
Utilising good TBM operator during passing through the collapsing zones and moving the TBM gently with low RPM. Taking remedial
actions if the jamming of TBM occurs, immediately, by using consolidation grout for instability issues. At least 20 tons of PU grout should
always be made available in case of emergencies.
750 S. Saleh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 202 (2019) 738–752
Table 12
Improvements of polyurethane.
References Findings
[108] The sealing properties of the flexible gel material were
significantly superior to those of conventional sealing materials.
The new sealing method with flexible gel was used as the
grouting material for thin, and thick, slurries in sequence. A
slurry-replenishing device was used to ensure continuous
permeation under pressure.
[109] Interpenetrate polymer network (IPN) Technology was used to
create new crack repair material using PU, Epoxy acrylate,
Methyl methacrylate, agents for accelerating, crosslinking and
evocating.
The new material is efficient regarding mechanical, chemical
and handling characteristics for the repair of concrete cracks.
The PU used in the mixture improved the elasticity and
flexibility of the crack repair material. The optimum PU content
is between 20% and 40%.
[110] Introducing 2.5% of 3-chloroprpopyltrimethoxysilane (CTS) in
PU WG grouting material improved the compressive strength by
11.65 to 40.65%, fracture toughness by 9.68%, fracture energy by
21.33%, fracture strength by 6.60%, and flexural modulus by
15.85%. Therefore, making the PU WG a suitable grouting
material in a mining site.
[33] The resultant grouting material possesses a 3-dimensional
interpenetrating network structure, with excellent mechanical
properties (up to 13.4 MPa).
The FTIR and XRD test results indicated that the PU WG has an
amorphous organic phase (polyurethane) and crystalline
inorganic phase Polysilicic acid, Na2CO3 and NaHCO3. The new
material is thermally stable at 256 °C and has the potential
application in roads, bridges and underground engineering.
Furthermore, incorporating 2.5% of silane coupling agent also
known as 3-chloroprpopyltrimethoxysilane (CTS) improves poly-
urethane – water glass grouting (PU WG) material. The CTS
enhanced the distribution of WG into the PU matrix and increased
the crosslinking density of PU WG, and that resulted in having
intensely better mechanical properties [110]. The application of
the 3-dimensional interpenetrating network structure was also
used to produce PU WG grouting material with excellent mechan-
ical properties up to 13.4 MPa [33]. An amorphous organic phase of
polyurethane and the crystalline inorganic phase of polysilicic acid,
Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 were also observed using an FTIR and XRD
test in the PU WG material. In this case, the PU WG material was
thermally stable at 256 °C. These exceptional properties show the
high potential of PU WG material for use in roads, bridges and
underground engineering. Therefore, based on the above-
reported cases, it is an indication that PU can be modified to
achieve any desired conditions including application as a grouting
material in marine clay.
4. Conclusion
From the information gathered and the literature review under-
taken in this study, the following conclusions are presented:
a) Marine clay soils are among the soil types considered to be
problematic soils and are considered not suitable for con-
struction purposes given their insufficient bearing capacity
and excessive settlement. However, the increase in the need
to conduct construction on marine clay soil has opened-up
significant challenges to geotechnical engineers to find solu-
tions to resolve these problems. The application of polyur-
ethane grout is one of the possible options to resolve these
problems.
b) Polyurethanes (PUs) are one of the most important groups of
polymers that are produced as a result of the chemical
reaction between polyol, isocyanate and other additives.
Polyurethane has multipurpose properties such as being
lightweight, with excellent mechanical property, imperme-
ability, low viscosity and thermal conductivity. This wide
range of features provides polyurethane with many poten-
tial applications in engineering, manufacturing and medical
fields. Polyurethane can also be used in the grouting of mar-
ine clay to improve its properties.
c) Grouting is one of the ground improvement techniques used
in important applications for remedial works such as; build-
ings, bridges, pavements, hydraulic structures of roads and
more. Grouting is a quick and easy process requiring mini-
mal equipment. The grouting is carried out using either deep
mixing, injection or jet grouting methods with the materials
consisting of cement and chemicals. Cement grout is suitable
in coarse-grained soils due to its low penetration ability
while chemical grout is suitable for both fine-grained and
coarse-grained soils types.
d) Polyurethane is one of the leading chemical grouting mate-
rials with strong potential to be used in marine clay
improvement. Its low viscosity gives it higher penetration
ability, and its high strength to weight ratio provides it with
the ability to improve the soil without adding significant
overburdening pressure. Moreover, its ability to be modified
or enhanced with suitable reinforcing filler, surfactant, cata-
lyst increases the opportunity of having the desired result in
its application at optimum cost.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the support of the grants GUP Tier 1
2018 (Q.J130000.2522.19H57), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia. The first author also acknowledges the sup-
port provided by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
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